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Women's Empowerment in the Post-1994 Rwanda. the Case View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by South East Academic Libraries System (SEALS) I WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN THE POST-1994 RWANDA. THE CASE STUDY OF MAYAGA REGION BY CELESTIN HATEGEKIMANA Thesis submitted for the fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in development studies in the Faculty of Business and Economic Sciences, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) April 2011 Promoter / Supervisor: Dr Janet Cherry II ABSTRACT This research looks at the process of women’s empowerment in post- 1994 Rwanda, with special focus on twelve cooperatives working in Mayaga region and the way these cooperatives empower women, their households and the community at large. Traditional Rwandan society has been always bound by patriarchy which has not valued the reproductive roles of women as economically productive in their households and the society as a whole. On the one hand, this understanding was reversed in the post-1994 Rwanda by the commitment of the government to gender equality at the highest level of political leadership through progressive policies and legislation. On the other hand, in Mayaga region, cooperatives brought about socio-economic development and changed relationships of gender and power in a patriarchal post-conflict society. The findings from cooperatives in Mayaga region show that to prevent women from reaching their full potential is economic folly. If women are empowered, they can generate important development outcomes such as improved health, education, income levels and conflict resolution. The findings further indicate how women’s empowerment is determined by the livelihood strategies women adopt themselves to respond to their vulnerability, and by the ways in which they express their agency in making a living in a sustainable way, with the available community assets that they have access to (financial, social, human, natural and physical). This research highlights that the accessibility of the community assets used by women in Mayaga region and in Rwanda as a whole is also determined by policies, institutions and processes that are able to influence their livelihoods positively. III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply indebted to numerous individuals for their part in bringing to reality this PhD research. It is not possible to thank by name everybody who contributed to the accomplishment of this thesis, but a special note of appreciation should go to some individuals. My heartfelt gratitude to the Anglican Church of Canada generally and specifically Mrs Jill Cruse Ruse, Mrs Calvez Claudia and Dr Andrea Mann. To Robert Kayinamura, Gilbert Rubuyenge, Bosco Ruyenzi, Jean Damascene Uwilingiyimana, Rev. Fidele Ndayisaba, Karema Godfrey, Nshonga Mediatrice, Yvette Muyirukazi - thanks for your love and support. My very profound gratitude goes to my supervisor Dr Janet Cherry who not only supervised this work, but she also, and most importantly, provided me with an invaluable atmosphere that enabled me to work confidently and successfully. I will never forget her effective advice. Dr Janet, I will always remember your encouraging guidance and intellectual capacity, which will surely always guide me in my further academic endeavours. I am grateful for your very careful and critical reading of the manuscript, as well as your invaluable comments, suggestions and encouragement. I gratefully acknowledge the moral support from the staff of the department of development studies. To Prof. Richard Haines, Amanda Van der Berg, Dr Theresa Connor, Dr Kevin Goddard, Prof Mazibuko, and Prof. Lloyd..... your encouraging words will remain in my memory. Last, but not least, I would like to express my very special and profound gratitude to my family and particularly my wife, Claudette Nyiranshuti and my children: Carine Umuhoza Rutaha, Christian Mpuhwe Jabo, Raissa Umwali Sangwa. Dear family, you always missed me when I was concentrating on my research, but you have been so patient, but surely not in vain. I deeply thank you for your invaluable love and encouragement. My heartfelt thanks to cooperatives members in Mayaga region who participated in this study and the local authorities who facilitated my meetings during the interviews. Finally, my profound gratitude goes to all of you, including those whose names are not mentioned here and who contributed to the accomplishment of this doctoral thesis in one way or another. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1.1 Background of the Study………………………………………………………………......1 1.2 The Problem Statement……………………………………………………………………6 1.3 Motivation and Relevance of the Research………………………………………………..9 1.4 Research Questions............................................................................................................11 1.5 Research Aim and Objectives……………………………………………………………12 1.6 Research Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………..12 1.7 Outline of the study………………………………………………………………………13 CHAPTER TWO: Theoretical and methodological framework 2.1 Theoretical framework: Gender relations, and gender and development………………..15 2.1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….....15 2.1.2 Overview of gender and feminist theory………………………………………………16 2.1.2.1 Definition of gender……………………………………………………………....16 2.1.2.2 Overview of global gender issues...........................................................................19 2.1.2.3 Factors that fuel gender discrimination…………………………………………..22 i. Patriarchal systems…………………………………………………………......22 ii.The factor of culture…………………………………………………………….24 iii.The factor of religious beliefs…………………………………………………28 2.1.2.4 Feminist theory…………………………………………………………………..30 i.Liberal feminism………………………………………………………………..31 ii.Marxist feminism...........................................................................................32 iii.Radical feminism………………………………………………………………33 V iv.African feminism...............................................................................................34 2.1.3 Development theory........................................................................................................37 2.1.3.1 The classical meaning of development…………………………………………….39 2.1.3.2 Development as freedom…………………………………………………………...41 2.1.4 Feminism and Development: Theoretical Perspectives……………………………….44 2.1.4.1 Women In Development (WID).................................................................................45 2.1.4.2 Gender and Development (GAD)…………………………………………………..47 2.1.4.3 Women and Development (WAD)………………………………………………….49 2.1.5 Reflections on women’s empowerment……………………………………………......51 2.1.5.1 Definition of empowerment………………………………………………………..52 2.1.5.2 Agency as a component of Empowerment…………………………………………66 2.1.5.3 Conceptualizing women’s empowerment…………………………………………58 2.1.6 Millennium Development Goal 3 (MDG 3)……………………………………………60 2.2 Methodological framework for analysis…………………………………………………66 2.2.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF)....................................................................68 2.2.1.2 Definition of SLF.....................................................................................................68 2.2.2.3 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (vulnerability context and assets portfolios………………………………………………………………………....71 i.Vulnerability Context…………………………………………………………………..71 ii. Assets portfolios………………………………………………………………………..74 iii.Policies, institutions, and processes……………………………………………………77 iv.Livelihood strategies.......................................................................................................78 v.Livelihood outcomes…………………………………………………………………....78 2.2.2.4 Sustainable livelihoods applied to women’s empowerment…………………………78 2.2.2.5 The strengths and weaknesses of SLF……………………………………………….80 VI i.Strengths………………………………………………………………………………...80 ii.Some weaknesses………………………………………………………………………81 2.2.2.6 Asset Based Community Development (ABCD)……………………………………83 2.2.2.7 Dialogical action……………………………………………………………………..85 2.2.3Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………88 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………91 3.2 The context of the research………………………………………………………………91 3.3 Data Collection..................................................................................................................92 3.4 Focus Group Survey…………………………………………………………………......96 3.5 Ethical considerations……………………………………………………………………97 3.6 Triangulation……………………………………………………………………………102 3.7 The case study of Mayaga region……………………………………………………….103 3.8 Research delimitation…………………………………………………………………...104 3. 9 Limitations of the Study…………………………………………………………….....106 3.10Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...107 CHAPTER FOUR: THE CONTEXT OF THE POST-1994 RWANDA 4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..109 4.2 Description of Rwanda and Mayaga region……………………………………………110 4.3 Demography and economic situation of the Southern province in the post- 1994……………………………………………………………………………………..114 4.3.1 The mining and industry in the Southern province.......................................................119 4.3.2 Privatisation of the state industries and enterprises.......................................................120 4.4 The challenges faced by the post-1994 Rwanda and approach of solution……….......123 4.4.1 General challenges………………………………………………………………....123 4.4.2 Environmental situation in the Southern province………………………………..124 4.4.3 Challenges related to public health…………………………………………………128 VII 4.4.4 Problem of polygamy and the impact of
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