Hariyo Ban Program CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE BIODIVERSITY important AREAS AND LINKAGES

Hariyo Ban Program CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE BIODIVERSITY important AREAS AND LINKAGES © WWF 2013 All rights reserved Any reproduction of this publication in full or in part must mention the title and credit WWF.

Published by WWF Nepal, Hariyo Ban Program This publication is also available in www.wwfnepal.org/publications

PO Box: 7660 Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal T: +977 1 4434820, F: +977 1 4438458 [email protected] or [email protected] www.wwfnepal.org/hariyobanprogram

Authors This report was prepared by the Kathmandu Forestry College, Koteswor, Kathmandu. The assessment team was led by Uday Raj Sharma.

ISBN: 978-9937-8154-7-5

Cover photo credits Snow leopard - naturepl.com/Francois Savigny/WWF Great Indian hornbill - David Lawson/WWF-UK Red panda - Gerald S. Cubitt/WWF-Canon Gangetic dolphin - François Xavier Pelletier/WWF-Canon Greater one-horned rhino - Michel Gunther/WWF-Canon A community forest in Kamdi corridor and Blackbuck - WWF Nepal, Hariyo Ban Program/Pallavi Dhakal

Disclaimer This report is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the responsibility of Kathmandu Forestry College (KAFCOL) and do not necessarily reflect the views of WWF, USAID or the United States Government.

Publication Services Design and Layout: Digiscan Pre-press Pvt. Ltd.

Other publications in this series Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape: Rapid Assessment Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape: Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation

Hariyo Ban Program publication number: Report 012

Foreword

The Government of Nepal has identified landscape level planning and conservation as a broad strategy to conserve biodiversity and improve livelihoods of local communities dependent on natural resources. It has therefore recognized two landscapes in Nepal, Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) in 2000 and Sacred Himalayan Landscape (SHL) in 2006, to help establish east-west connectivity that is crucial for biodiversity conservation. WWF Nepal is an active partner of the Government of Nepal and works closely with conservation agencies and local communities in both the landscapes to conserve the rich biological diversity of Nepal.

Recognizing the need to develop a north-south linkage that is vital to provide a safe passage of river and forest corridors for wildlife, migratory birds and aquatic animals, the Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) was envisioned. CHAL is not a new concept. It is based on the Chitwan-Annapurna Linkage for which WWF Nepal had produced a report, ‘Biodiversity Assessment and Conservation Planning’, in 2000.

Since 2011, through the Hariyo Ban Program funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), WWF Nepal together with the consortium partners – CARE Nepal, FECOFUN and NTNC – has started working in CHAL to empower local communities in safeguarding Nepal’s living heritage and adapting to climate change through conservation and livelihood approaches.

The three CHAL reports – A Rapid Assessment, Biodiversity Important Areas and Linkages, and Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation – provide important insights in understanding this important landscape in terms of its rich biodiversity, eco-regions, community and threats to further help develop pathways to build the landscape as a leading example in functional connectivity across multiple ecological communities.

I would like to thank the Government of Nepal for their support and invaluable feedback throughout various stages of this study. I also thank USAID for funding this study under the Hariyo Ban Program, and the Hariyo Ban consortium partners.

Anil Manandhar Country Representative WWF Nepal

IV CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Preface

The Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) supports over 4.5 million people of diverse ethnicities, cultures and religions, many of whom are dependent on forest resources and ecosystem services for their livelihoods and wellbeing. The CHAL is one of two priority working areas for the USAID funded Hariyo Ban program. This remarkable geographic area encompasses an altitudinal range of over 8000m. Comprising the Gandaki River basin in Nepal, the CHAL spans a diverse topography which runs from the trans-himalayan rain-shadow on the Tibet border and part of the Himalaya range in the north, down through the mid-hills and Churia range, to the fertile plains of the Terai in the south bordering with India. This landscape has high biodiversity value and contains seven major sub-river basins: Trishuli, Marsyangdi, Seti, Kali Gandaki, Budi Gandaki, Rapti and Narayani.

Environmental degradation and high poverty rates create a potent mix of threats to both people and biodiversity in the CHAL. These threats are aggravated by limited understanding of the impacts of climate variability and climate change on the people and biodiversity in the CHAL.

In the growing context of increasing temperature and environmental change, the CHAL will play a crucial role in long-term biodiversity conservation and building resilience to climate change in Nepal. The three CHAL reports – A Rapid Assessment, Biodiversity Areas and Linkages, and Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation – are expected to provide an in-depth understanding of the landscape, its biodiversity and threats to help build people’s resilience to climate change and conserve biodiversity. USAID intends these reports to form the foundation for long-term conservation and development in the CHAL.

USAID Nepal would like to thank the Government of Nepal for their valuable support and suggestions in developing this study. We also acknowledge the untiring efforts of WWF Nepal, CARE Nepal, FECOFUN and NTNC team along with USAID’s Mr. Netra Sharma (Sapkota) to shape, review and enrich this document. While this report and the other related studies will be used intensively by the Hariyo Ban Program as a basis for USAID’s future work in the landscape, the information within is intended for use by a much wider audience - e.g., the Government of Nepal, civil society, private sector and donors working in the CHAL area - for the ultimate benefit of the people and biodiversity of Nepal.

Ms. Tahalia Barrett Acting Director Social, Environmental and Economic Development (SEED) Office USAID Nepal

V CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Acknowledgments

I would like to express our great appreciation to the Kathmandu Forestry College team for undertaking the study which was authored by Dr. Uday R. Sharma.

Several organizations and individuals made significant contributions to the study. This work would not have been possible without the support of the Government of Nepal. We would like to thank senior officials in the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MoFSC) and its various departments for their valuable contributions. Special thanks go to Dr. Rajan Pokharel, Regional Director, Western Regional Directorate of Forests, for his excellent support and coordination with government line agencies. Comments and suggestions provided by Krishna Acharya, Chief, Planning Division, MoFSC, and Dr. Maheshwar Dhakal, Ecologist, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation were very helpful in enriching the reports.

Special thanks also go to the heads of several district level government line agencies, particularly District Forest Offices, District Soil Conservation Offices, District Livestock Offices, District Women Development Offices, and District Development Offices. I would also like to thank individual experts and representatives of various NGOs and civil society who generously provided their valuable time to enhance this report with their insights and suggestions. Representatives from FECOFUN district chapters and Community Forest User Groups made significant contributions during the consultations. Thank you to Purna Kunwar, Dev Raj Gautam, Ganga Neupane, Raj Kumar Gurung and their respective teams in the Hariyo Ban consortium partners for their active participation in the study and support to the consultation meetings.

I highly appreciate the inputs of Hariyo Ban central level team members, in particular Sandesh Hamal, Dr. Shant Raj Jnawali, Dr. Sunil Regmi, Keshav Khanal and Shikha Shrestha for their critical inputs, review and suggestions at various stages of the study. Pallavi Dhakal managed the complex production process. Jayendra R. Koirala, Prabita Shrestha and Salina Shrestha provided administrative and contractual support.

Thank you also to Dr. Ghana Shyam Gurung, Conservation Program Director, WWF Nepal for providing valuable inputs, and to Gokarna J. Thapa for his untiring efforts in GIS analysis and mapping.

Finally, this report would not have been possible without the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). I would like to give heartfelt thanks to Netra Sharma Sapkota, USAID Agreement Officer’s Representative (Project Manager) for the Hariyo Ban Program, for his helpful engagement at various times during the study, and suggestions for the final document.

Judy Oglethorpe Chief of Party Hariyo Ban Program

VI CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Table of Contents

Acronyms and Abbreviations ix

Executive Summary xi

1. Introduction 1 2. Brief Methodology 3 3. Highlights of Biodiversity in CHAL 4 4. Wetlands of CHAL 8 5. Threatened and Endemic Species 10 6. Corridors 13 7. Biodiversity Areas in CHAL 17 8. Biodiversity Conservation Issues in CHAL 23 9. Climate Refugia and Adaptation to Climate Change 27 10. Recommendations 28

References 29 Annex A: Checklist for Biodiversity and Corridors 32

VII CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES table of contents

List of Tables 3.1 Distribution of Flowering Plants in Different Physiographic Zones in the Central Region of Nepal 7 5.1 Protected Plants of Nepal 10 5.2 CITES Listed Plants found in Nepal 11 5.3 Protected Wildlife of Nepal 12 5.4 Nepalese Species in the Appendices of CITES 12 8.1 Summary of Conservation Issues Identified in the CHAL Area 23

List of Figures 1.1 Location of the Study Area 1 6.1 Naturally Existing Corridors in CHAL Area 14 6.2 Proposed North-South and East-West Corridors in CHAL Area 15 7.1 Major Hotspots in CHAL Area 17 7.2 Major Biological Corridors and Hotspots in CHAL Area 22

VIII CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACA Annapurna Conservation Area BA Biodiversity Area BPP Biodiversity Profiles Project BZ Buffer Zone CA Conservation Area CAMP Conservation Assessment and Management CBAPO Community Based Anti-Poaching Operation CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CF Community Forest CHAL Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CNP Chitwan National Park DDC District Development Committee DFO District Forest Office/Officer DFSCC District Forest Sector Coordination Committee DNPWC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation DoF Department of Forests EIA Environmental Impact Assessment GHL Greater Himalayan Landscape GIS Geographic Information System GoN Government of Nepal HB Hariyo Ban IAPS Invasive Alien Plant Species IBA Important Bird Area ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development IEE Initial Environmental Examination IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LNP Langtang National Park MAP Medicinal and Aromatic Plant MCA Manaslu Conservation Area MIST Management Information System Tool MoE Ministry of Environment MoFSC Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation MW Megawatt NAPA National Adaptation Plan of Action NGO Non-governmental Organization NP National Park NTCC National Tiger Conservation Committee NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product NTNC National Trust for Nature Conservation PA Protected Area PWR Parsa Wildlife Reserve REDD Reducing Emissions through Deforestation and Forest Degradation SAWEN South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network SHL Sacred Himalayan Landscape SNNP Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park TAL Terai Arc Landscape TAR Tibet Autonomous Region UK United Kingdom USA United States of America VDC Village Development Committee WCCB Wildlife Crime Control Bureau

IX CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES X CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Executive Summary

The Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) in ungulate density, high numbers of carnivore central Nepal is known for its biodiversity. The species, and a growing population of tiger and landscape is drained by eight major rivers (Kali rhino. Chitwan National Park and Barandabhar Gandaki, Seti, Madi, Marsyangdi, Daraundi, Budi Forest and Wetlands are recognized as Important Gandaki, Trishuli, Rapti) and their tributaries of Bird Areas of the country. The Beeshazari Lake is the broader Gandaki River system. It includes the also a Ramsar site. (ii) The midhills have Schima- whole of the Kali Gandaki River Basin in Nepal, Castanopsis forests, which are denuded near encompassing all or part of 19 districts that fall settlements or encroached for agriculture. This within CHAL, with all or part of six protected zone has a recorded high number of flowering areas represented in this landscape. The proposed plants. Diversity of orchids is high, especially in landscape is 32,068 km2 – 11.4 percent in the the Panchase Hills. Shivapuri Nagarjun National Siwaliks, 37.8 percent in the midhills, and 50.8 Park also represents the unique biodiversity of the percent in the mountains. CHAL is a portion midhills. The forest provides suitable habitat for of a larger landscape, the Greater Himalayan laughing thrushes, barbets and bulbuls, and for Landscape, conceived in 1999. leopard, clouded leopard and a number of small mammals. (iii) The mountains are represented Of the 17 priority “Conservation Landscapes” by the Annapurna Conservation Area, Manaslu identified at that time, this Greater Himalayan Conservation Area and Langtang National Park, Landscape, covering a vast area of 69,200 square which harbor unique biodiversity of northern km, was intended to provide adequate space for Nepal, including a stable population of snow large vertebrates and facilitate ecological processes leopard and its prey species. The Annapurna dependent on altitudinal connectivity. WWF Nepal Conservation Area (ACA) lists 102 mammals, 39 in 2000 explored potential linkages following the reptiles and 23 amphibians. ACA is recognized existing major river systems and their tributaries. as an Important Bird Area of Nepal. (iv) Being The terrestrial connectivity using the existing situated at the divide of the Eastern and Western forests, including the community forests, was Himalaya, the Kali Gandaki gorge is a recognized not explored in that study. The protected areas corridor for birds to migrate. (v) A list of ponds established in Nepal so far have no north-south and water bodies has been described, but is not landscape linkages. The proposed corridors and an exhaustive list and further study would be biodiversity areas recognized under this study are required to understand the wetland ecosystems of based on the information generated through cluster CHAL. The Goisankunda-Naukunda Lake System, level and community level meetings coupled with a Ramsar site, through its 16 interconnected lakes experts’ prior experience in those areas and careful provides critical habitat for rare and endemic analysis of Geographic Information System (GIS) plants and animal found in the highlands of maps. The information, however, is not exhaustive Langtang National Park. (vi) Protected plants and needs field verification. and wildlife, CITES listed plants and animals, and endemic plants and animals found in CHAL have Highlights of biodiversity in CHAL have been also been described. summarized for the Siwaliks, midhills and mountains as follows: (i) The Siwaliks zone has The potential four north-south corridors and three unique grasslands and riverine forests, high east-west corridors proposed by the study are:

XI CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES e x ecuti v e summar y

North-South Corridors: (vi) diversion of rivers or construction of dams; Barandabhar Forest – Gaighat – Seti River Valley – (vii) crop and livestock depredation by wildlife, Panchase – Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA); and human injuries or casualties; (viii) conversion Barandabhar Forest – Gaighat – Set River Valley – of forest/forest land for non-forestry uses; (ix) Madi River Valley – ACA; inadequate awareness and motivation to protect Buffer Zone forests of Chitwan National Park in biodiversity, and (x) weak institutional capacity. Nawalparasi – Churia Range – Mahabharat Range – Panchase – ACA, and Many of the identified biodiversity areas, especially Manhari, Parsa Wildlife Reserve – Namtar – those falling in the corridors, function as climate Simbhanjyang – Shivapuri Nagarjung National refugia. The protected areas have altitudinal Park – Langtang National Park. variations, creating opportunity for climate refugia. Increased temperatures over recent decades have East-West Corridors: made possible upward movements of vegetation; Rasuwa – Gorkha – Dhading along Ganesh Himal encroachment of invasive species; spread of new base camp (200 m counter line); diseases and pests; increased incidence of dryness Dhorpatan – ACA (taking 2,000 m contour line); and fires; changed grass composition in the and rangelands; and loss of local crop varieties. Upward ACA – Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA) migration of species would affect the composition Bhimtan Block (taking 2,000 m contour line). of plant communities and vulnerable species may decrease in abundence if environmental factors In terms of priority, the corridor, Barandabhar- such as soil and moisture become limiting factors. Gaighat-Seti River Valley-Panchase-ACA has been The effects of climate change will tend to aggravate given the highest priority. The study recommends the complex mountain poverty situation, which is 23 biodiversity areas for focused conservation. affected by the fragility of ecosystems, remoteness, The information on some of the biodiversity areas poor accessibility and marginalization of mountain proposed are sketchy, for which further field work communities from the mainstream. Community would be required. based forest management systems are recognized as opportunities for implementing adaptation The top ten conservation issues described and and mitigation measures to address the adverse discussed in the report are (i) degradation impacts of climate change in CHAL, as elsewhere of wildlife habitat due to deforestation and in Nepal. degradation of wetland and rangeland; (ii) poaching and trade of wildlife including protected Recommendations are made to create a sound species due to absence/inadequate effective policy and legislative environment for conserving control mechanism; (iii) illegal harvest of forest corridors and biodiversity areas, to establish resources, especially Non-Timber Forest Products a system for documentation of the status and (NTFPs); (iv) adverse effects due to alien invasive management of biodiversity, and to address plant species; (v) forest fires, floods and landslides; several current management related issues.

XII CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Introduction 1

The Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) in Reserve (PWR) and its Buffer Zone, Shivapuri central Nepal is known for its rich biodiversity. Nagarjung National Park (SNNP), Annapurna The landscape is drained by eight major rivers Conservation Area (ACA), Manaslu Conservation (Kali Gandaki, Seti, Madi, Marsyangdi, Daraundi, Area (MCA), and a portion of Langtang National Budi Gandaki, Trishuli, Rapti) and their tributaries Park (LNP) and its Buffer Zone. of the broader Gandaki River system (Fig 1). The coverage of CHAL has been described to include The Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape (CHAL) the whole of the Kali Gandaki River Basin in Nepal, is a portion of a larger landscape, the Greater encompassing all or part of 19 districts with all or Himalayan Landscape; the latter, conceived during part of six protected areas. The districts represented a workshop organized for developing a biodiversity in CHAL are Mustang, Manang, Gorkha, Rasuwa, vision in Nepal in December 1999 (see WWF and Nuwakot, Dhading, Lamjung, Tanahu, Chitwan, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Nawalparasi, Syanja, Kaski, Parbat, Baglung, Development (ICIMOD) 2001). Of the 17 priority Myagdi, Gulmi, Arghkhachi, Makwanpur, and “Conservation Landscapes” identified by the team, Palpa. Chitwan and Nawalparasi Districts overlap this Greater Himalayan Landscape of a vast area of both Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and CHAL. The 69,200 square km was intended to provide adequate protected areas are Chitwan National Park (CNP) space for large vertebrates and facilitate ecological and its Buffer Zone, a portion of Parsa Wildlife processes dependent on altitudinal connectivity.

Figure 1.1 Location of the Study Area

1 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES introduction

The Eastern Himalayan Ecoregion, which consists which would require more attention for conservation of diverse forest ecosystems of alpine, temperate and integration at the landscape level. and subtropical forests, includes three ecoregions belonging to the WWF’s Global 200 Ecoregions: Also, an issue for discussion could be whether CHAL the Eastern Himalayan Alpine Meadows, the should justifiably concern itself with the linkages Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf and Conifer Forests, between Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) and and Terai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands. The Chitwan National Park, or a larger landscape of 19 Eastern Himalaya, which extends eastwards from districts, as has been proposed by the Hariyo Ban the gorge of the Kali Gandaki River to Myanmar, Program. Similarly, what would be the model to hosts part of the global biodiversity “hotspot” – the protect CHAL? Should it be similar to the model Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot and harbors diverse adopted in TAL, where the government agencies, ecosystems, species and genetic resources of global especially the Department of National Parks and significance (Mittermeier et al. 2004). There is also Wildlife Conservation, and the Department of Forests a high level of endemism (Myers et al. 2000). undertake the functions of biodiversity conservation and associated livelihood related activities in The Greater Himalayan Landscape extends south to coordination with district level government line the Chitwan-Parsa-Valmiki protected areas of Nepal agencies including District Forest Offices (DFOs), and India, and comprises Terai grasslands, riverine District Development Committees (DDCs) and forests and subtropical forests, predominated by Protected Areas (PAs) at the district/PA level, and in sal (Shorea robusta). The Chitwan National Park coordination with user groups, user group network, harbors an exceptionally diverse wildlife population. and Buffer Zone Council at grassroots level? Or, It provides stable populations of tiger, leopard and should the area be declared as a conservation area, as their prey species and also includes rhinoceros and opined by Wikramanayake et al. (1998). Some of the several other species of mammals, and harbors more questions raised here are clearly beyond the scope of than 540 species of birds (Baral and Upadhyaya the current work, but this rapid assessment provides 2006). On the northern side of the landscape are insights on the way forward. Qomolongma Nature Preserve in Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China and Sagarmatha and In any case, earlier works (Basnet et al. 2000 Langtang National Parks, Annapurna Conservation and WWF and ICIMOD 2001) and current Area, Manaslu Conservation Area, and Shivapuri understandings have amply justified the need for the Nagarjun National Park. connectivity and linkages: (i) altitudinal connectivity is considered beneficial for maintaining the ecological The linkages between the north and south in CHAL integrity of the larger landscape; (ii) over 400 species and its ecologically unique ecoregions have been of birds undertake seasonal migration from the studied by Basnet et al. (2000). The area falls in the lower forest areas to the higher elevation habitats; watersheds of the Kali Gandaki, Marsyangdi, Modi, connectivity would assure their vital seasonal activity; Seti, Madi, Trishuli, Rapti and Narayani Rivers. (iii) the connectivity permits the migration of flora The potential linkages identified were by following and fauna, or to accommodate adaptation to changes the existing major river systems including their in climate; (iv) even maintaining fragmented forest tributaries. The terrestrial connectivities using the patches as “stepping stones” for birds and possibly existing forests, including community forests, were other species is a better strategy than loss of those not explored in that study. It should be noted that forests; and (v) some floral endemism hotspots the protected areas established in Nepal have no are outside the PAs and need equal efforts for their north-south landscape linkages. The buffer zones conservation. created around the national parks and reserves have increased the size of park/reserve and have also This study has identified and mapped (using GIS) provided suitable habitats for plants and animals biodiversity rich areas and potential areas for for local movements and also to some extent provide biodiversity conservation in CHAL, with particular options for adaptation to climate change. Creation focus on areas that lie outside the PAs. It has of corridors connecting two or more protected also identified existing and potential biological areas can also provide suitable habitat for plant and corridors (including forest and freshwater) that animal and options for adaptation to climate change. could effectively serve as north-south linkages and Furthermore, corridors would act as climate refugia potential climate change refugia. In addition, the where species could move to avoid temperature rise study has broadly assessed the current status of and other environmental constraints. More work of biodiversity, major management issues and threats, this type is required to identify the local biodiversity and recommends major activities and approaches rich areas and climate refugia in the landscape, required for addressing the issues.

2 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Brief Methodology 2

A detailed methodology has been described in community level meetings lasted usually for about a separate report. This paper summarizes the 2-3 hours. There was a checklist of questions for mechanisms used to generate primary information these meetings (Annex A); questions were asked for this work. to seek first hand experience. These meetings were held to determine if the proposed linkage(s) Two teams comprising biodiversity or forestry are suitable for recommendation; to explore experts visited several field sites representing all unique biodiversity sites that can be identified 19 districts of CHAL. Cluster level meetings were as biodiversity areas in the landscape, and to organized to understand the view points of district determine if the chosen linkages are functional based government agencies, Non-governmental and if there is adequate local and agency support Organizations (NGOs), civil society and experts. for their proposal. In essence, the proposed The two teams split after the first joint, larger corridors and biodiversity areas are recognized meeting in Pokhara, in which all key Hariyo Ban based on the information generated through these professional staff participated. The eastern team meetings coupled with experts’ prior experience in participated in two all-day cluster-level meetings those areas and careful analysis of GIS maps. organized in Besisahar, Lamjung and Bidur, Nuwakot, and 10 community level meetings. The There was limited travel within the proposed western team participated in two similar cluster corridors and biodiversity areas. Where possible, level meetings organized in Beni, Myagdi district the team tried to visually evaluate their condition and Palpa district. There were seven community and enquire on-site about the issues and challenges level meetings organized for the western team. The for biodiversity conservation.

3 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Highlights of 3 Biodiversity in CHAL

It’s unique geographical position and altitudinal The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has identified and climatic variations make CHAL rich in floral Chitwan’s grasslands as being part of one of the and faunal diversity. important ecoregions for biologically outstanding grasslands (Olson and Dinerstein 1998). Named as Terai-Duar savannas and grasslands, it extends 3.1 Siwaliks from Dehradun, India, across Nepal’s Terai zone to the Duar grasslands of Bhutan. This type of Including a few small patches of Terai areas in the grassland is today no more than two percent of the districts of Nawalparasi and Chitwan, which fall alluvial grasslands of Indo-Gangetic Plains, and within the landscape, the Siwaliks range comprises one of the best examples of this can be seen in CNP 11.4 percent of the total 32,068 km2 CHAL area. (Dinerstein 2003).

An older technical report compiled by the Biodiversity This grassland and the adjoining riverine forest Profile Project (BPP 1995a) for the Terai and Siwaliks ecosystem support two of the last remaining zone, shows that this physiographic zone contains populations of rhinoceros and tiger. There are healthy species and ecosystems of global significance. The populations of several species of deer, and at least 17 grasslands of Chitwan are considered as being species of carnivores are found in the park (Sunquist biologically outstanding and are among the last 1981). A total of 56 species of mammals is recorded remaining patches in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. in the park (DNPWC 2001), and the crude biomass The riverine grasslands and grassland-forest estimate for ungulates in Chitwan has been reported mosaics support extremely high ungulate biomass. as high as 28,076 kg/sq km, which is comparable Saccharum spontaneum is the dominant tall grass to figures in East Africa (Seidensticker 1976). The that emerges from the silt deposited after floods high productivity of riverine forest ecosystem has retreat. This grass is the most nutritious of all grasses provided this opportunity. Rhinoceros comprise and provides the major food for ungulates and much of this biomass. Other species include sambar domestic stock, including the domestic elephants. In (Cervus unicolor), chital (Axis axis), hog deer (Axis Chitwan, grasslands comprise about 20 percent of porcinus), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjack), the park. In moist areas, Saccharum, Narenga and and wild boar (Sus scrofa). In the Siwaliks and Themeda species form tall grass communities. In their foothills, gaur (Bos gaurus) are found in good old agricultural sites, Imperata cylindrica, a short number. The continuous belt of forest from Parsa grass, occurs in almost pure stands. The diversity of Wildlife Reserve to the east, and Valmikinagar grassland can be appreciated by the fact that over Wildlife Sanctuary in India to the south, has 40 species of grasses have been identified from the provided good habitat for healthy populations Sauraha area alone (Laurie 1978). The grasslands in of tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera recent times are increasingly invaded by scrub and pardus). The tiger density is high compared to other forests (Department of National Parks and Wildlife areas of Asia (Sunquist et al. 1999). Conservation (DNPWC), 2006). On the other hand, resettlement of Padampur Village Development The tiger census conducted in 1995-1996 in CNP Committee (VDC), which used to be a large enclave showed the tiger population of Chitwan as 48-49 settlement in CNP, has increased new grasslands in breeding animals (DNPWC 1999); the tiger census the park. in 2005 reported 50-60 adult breeding individuals

4 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES H i g hli g hts of B iodi v ersit y in C H A L

(DNPWC 2006); the census of 2008/2009 in CNP tiger, rhinoceros, gaur, gharial and Gangetic put the number at 91 and four adult breeding dolphin; (iii) being an outstanding and beautiful animals in Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR) (DNPWC ecosystem of the Churia Valley; and (iv) enjoying 2012); and the 2010 census showed CNP to the highest level of protection provided by the have 125 and PWR to have four breeding adults, Government of Nepal (Sharma 1991). (DNPWC 2012). These figures show a growing tiger population in CNP and surrounding forests. The Siwaliks physiographic zone provides In addition, CNP has a transient population of wild enormous ecological services. The stretch of the elephant (Elephas maximus) that visit the park Churia hills (often called the Siwaliks) falling within from the east from time to time. Parsa Wildlife Reserve and Chitwan National Park has continued to remain as wilderness area. The vegetation of the lowlands of CHAL is Until the 1950s, the Churia area was sparsely dominated by sal forests (Shorea robusta). In populated. But, with increased pressure on the CNP sal forests comprise about 70 percent of the plains and better access, the land opened new park and are considered climax forest. Sal forests opportunities for poor settlers. The deforestation occur in almost pure stands in many situations and over harvesting of natural resources, and also in association with other trees, including unsustainable agriculture and currently growing Terminalia spp., Dillenia pentagyana, Syzyigium trend of excavating riverbeds and hillsides for cumini, Lagerstroemia parviflora, and Phyllantus stones and boulders have accelerated soil erosion, emblica. The understory consists of tall grasses or adversely affecting the environmental condition sparse growth of scrub. Riverine forest occurs along of Churia. The Churia hills outside of CNP and rivers, oxbow lakes and on islands in the rivers. PWR, especially in Makwanpur and Nawalparasi These deciduous forests are found in two distinct Districts, need special attention to prevent further associations based on the stage of succession, the degradation (Sharma 2012). Stabalizing the slopes association of Acacia catechu and Dalbergia sissoo of the Churia would prevent soil erosion, recharge in the earlier stage, and the association of Bombax ground water for the plains, and prevent natural ceiba and Trewia nudiflora in the later stage. disasters in terms of flash floods and deposition of soil and debris on fields. Well protected Churia Chitwan National Park is recognized as an forests are the best wilderness areas in Nepal, being Important Bird Area (IBA) of Nepal and harbors a home to a complex vegetation mix including several total of 540 bird species (Baral and Inskipp 2005, endemic species (BPP 1955b, Bhuju, 2000). Bhuju Baral and Upadhyay 2006). The high diversity of (2000) found in a sample study a tremendous birds is attributed to the diverse habitat types which floral diversity of over 265 vascular plant species, consist of forests, grasslands and wetlands. The including rare species such as Dalbergia latifolia park is the stopover for many long-range migratory and one endemic species, Ormosia glauca. birds. Inskipp (1989) lists 55 breeding bird species in Chitwan, 36 of which have been classified as Adjacent to CNP to the north, Barandabhar Forest endangered or vulnerable. Chitwan is particularly is a narrow strip (1.8-7 km) joining CNP with the important for several grassland species, including foothills of the Mahabharat Range. The area south Bengal Florican, Grey-crowned Prinia and Slender- of the East-West Highway is part of the Buffer Zone billed Babbler, and also for Lesser Adjutant. of CNP, whereas the area north of the highway is declared a protection forest. There are 47 species of reptiles and nine species of amphibians reported in the park (DNPWC 2001). The Barandabhar Forest and other forests in the Edds (1989) has recorded 120 species of fish in the foothills of the Mahabharat near Jutpani exhibit Kali Gandaki/Narayani River. Fish are important similar floristic and faunal composition to the food for gharial, mugger (Crocodylus palustris), typical lowland sal forest found in CNP. Sal is the otter (Lutra perspicillata), turtle, and fish-eating dominant species together with other co-dominant birds. tree species such as Terminalia; its second layer of tree comprises Careya arborea, Semecarpus Chitwan National Park is recognized as a World anacardium and Dillenia pentagyana. Good forest Heritage Site for Nature for (i) being the last protected against over-grazing has a rich shrub remaining stronghold of natural areas of high layer of various species. The forest in Barandabhar biological diversity protected from human is interspersed with grasslands and wetlands. The interference; (ii) including habitats of endangered Beeshazari Tal, a Ramsar site, in the Barandabhar

5 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES H i g hli g hts of B iodi v ersit y in C H A L

forest provides the best wetland habitats in this can be found in the same forest as their altitudinal area. distribution is not sharply differentiated (DoF 2002). This altitudinal zone is under intense use The foothills of the Mahabharat Hills including for terraced agriculture and human settlement, the Barandabhar Forest are the best habitats for often referred to as one of the world’s agricultural large carnivores, including tiger and leopard and wonders. As a result the Schima-Castanopsis large ungulates including rhinoceros and deer. forests are denuded near settlements or Other wildlife includes sloth bear, primates and encroached for agriculture. Community forest rodents. Several migratory and resident birds find management, in recent times, has helped to these areas suitable habitat. The site is recognized restore some of the denuded forests in some areas. as an Important Bird Area of Nepal, where several BPP (1995a) has compiled a list of flowering plants globally threatened species reside or pass through; in Central Nepal across different physiographic they include the Great Hornbill, Pallas’s Fish zones and has recorded high numbers of flowering Eagle, several other eagles, vultures and storks. plants in the midhills. Schima-Castanopsis is well It is home to about 282 bird species including the known for hosting laughing thrushes, barbets and Lesser Adjutant, Great Hornbill, Grey-headed Fish bulbuls, among other birds. The forest provides Eagle and Darter (Baral and Inskipp 2005). This suitable habitat for leopard, clouded leopard and site serves as an important corridor for migrating a number of small mammals. birds and other wildlife. Alnus nepalensis (found between 500 and The tropical sal forest extends only up to 300 m in 2,700 m) forms dense forest along moist sites, elevation. The forests of riverine khair – sissoo especially in ravines, river banks and areas of occurring close to sal forest along the floodplains in fresh landslides. The species is liked by villagers Terai and Dun Valleys extends up to 500 m. Acacia for timber and fuel wood because it occurs in catechu and Dalbergia sissoo form pure or inter- waste lands such as ravines and does not require mixed stands and provide good habitat for wildlife much effort to grow. On the higher reaches of of lowland plains. CHAL has a predominance of hill CHAL, above 2,000 m extending up to 2,500 m, sal forest, which occurs between 300 and 1,000 m. lower temperate oak forest appears. Dense oak Sal is associated with other tree species including forests with hanging moss are seen on the hill tops Terminalia, Anogeissus and Lagerstroemia. On and provide valuable fodder and fuelwood inputs dry slopes, the forest is not very rich in species, but in to villagers. Quercus langinosa, Q. incana and river gorges and ravines the number of tree species, Q. lamellose in association with Rhododendron shrubs and epiphytes increases substantially. arboream and a number of lauraceous plants Orchids are abundant in ravine areas and wild occur in this type of forest. Among birds, sibia, mangoes and bananas together with species such blackbirds and laughing thrushes are typical. An as Cycas pectinata, Gnetum montanumm, and earlier study (Basnet et al. 2000) has concluded Cyathea spinolosa occur in unique combination that the Madi River Valley, of all the river valleys, (Department of Forests (DoF), 2002). carries a high plant diversity in terms of species and high tree density in terms of ratio between tree density and basal area. The Madi Valley, similarly, 3.2 Midhills has been found to have a high altitudinal gradient and habitat diversity and is less disturbed and The midhills occupy 37.8 percent of CHAL and have provides large midhill forest blocks. a sub-tropical to temperate monsoonal climate and are characterized by intensive farming on hillside Midhills mammals include Chinese pangolin terraces. The forest of Schima-Castanopsis is an (Manis pentadactyla), rhesus macaque (Macacca important forest in the Mahabharat Hills between mullata), jackal (Canis aureus), barking deer 1,000 and 2,000 m. Schima wallichii is distributed (Muntiacus muntjak), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), over all of central Nepal, east of the Kali Gandaki Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus), River. Schima wallichii occurs in association with hanuman languor (Presbytes entellus), jungle Castanopsis indica at lower elevation (1000-2,000 cat (Felis chaus), common leopard (Panthera m) and with Castanopsis tribuloides at higher pardus), Himalayan goral (Naemorhedus goral) elevations (1,500-2,000 m); at times both species and serow (Capricornis sumantraensis).

6 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES H i g hli g hts of B iodi v ersit y in C H A L

3.3 Mountains

The mountains of CHAL are characterized by It provides an ideal site for research to understand high steep slopes, deep gorges and cold temperate the effects of barriers on the distribution of species climates. They harbor luxuriant natural conifer and other associated factors. forests in some locations. Areas located above 4,000 m above sea level comprise sub-alpine and Manaslu CA and Langtang NP harbor similar alpine climates and associated vegetation types. biodiversity of the northern Nepal. Shivapuri Summer grazing pastures are common and high Nagarjun NP represents the unique biodiversity of altitude plant species adapted to extremes of cold the midhills of Nepal. and desiccation are found in higher elevations. Mountains comprise 50.8 percent of CHAL area. Dobremez (1996, cited in HMGN/MoFSC 2002) has described an altitudinal distribution of flora Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) dominates of central Nepal. The eleven ecological levels from the landscape in this category. Two distinct lower tropical level (below 500 m) to highest climatic regions (rainfall, 3000 mm; <500 mm) level (above 5,000 m) are represented in CHAL. fall within a span of 120km and altitudes of 1,000- The BPP (1995a) has shown the distribution of 8,000 m. The ACA initiated in 1986 as a pilot flowering plants (Table 3.1), which shows high project in an area of 200 sq. km was expanded, due numbers of flowering plants in the midhills. to tremendous interest among local communities, Diversity of orchids is high, especially seen in the to an area of 7,629 sq. km covering 57 VDCS in Panchase Hills, where Kaski, Parbat and Syangja five districts (Bajracharya 1995, National Trust District boundaries meet (DoF 2012c). for Nature Conservation (NTNC) 2008). The ACA is the largest protected area in Nepal. Gazetted in Similarly, 283 Bryophytes and 97 Pteridophytes 1992, it is managed on the concept of Integrated are recorded from Central Nepal. BPP (1995a) lists Conservation and Development (ICDP). The a further twelve gymnosperms in CNP and ACA. northern range of the landscape harbors viable Other flora include lichens and fungi; algae are populations of argali (Ovis ammon), blue sheep little known in CHAL. (Psudois nayur) and Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus). The range of blue sheep extends south Because of the high floral and ecosystem to Annapurna and Manaslu. The upper elevations diversity, CHAL also has equally high faunal include habitats of snow leopard (Uncia uncia), diversity. Mammals are distributed in Nepal’s and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), three physiographic zones as 56 species in the while serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) and goral Terai-Siwaliks (DNPWC 2001), 32 species in the (Nemorhaedus goral) ranges extend further south. midhills, and 30 species in the highlands (Suwal The Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus) and lynx (Felis and Verheuugt 1995). More recent tabulation by lynx) are other predators found in these ranges. altitude by Baral and Shah (2008) has reported 79 mammals below 1,000 m, 52 between 1,000 and ACA is recognized as an Important Bird Area 3,000 m, and 20 above 3,000 m. A separate listing of Nepal and a total of 486 birds have been of mammals for CHAL is not available. reported there (Baral and Inskipp 2005). The ACA Management Plan lists 102 mammals, 39 reptiles and 23 amphibians. Being situated at the Table 3.1 Distribution of Flowering Plants in Different divide of the Eastern and Western Himalaya, the Physiographic Zones in the Central Region of Nepal Kali Gandaki gorge is a recognized corridor for migrating birds. The Kali Gandaki River originates Zone No. of Plants in Nepal near Tibet, flows southward through the High Himalaya (Nival) 181 Mustang Basin, crosses the Himalayas in a gorge, High Mountain (Alpine and sub-alpine) 1.602 and descends to the lowlands of Nepal. The total Midhills (Temperate and sub-tropical) 2,727 length in the Nepalese territory is about 300km. Silwalik and Terai 1,420 Compared to other rivers, the Kali Valley is the Total 5,930 deepest gorge, at 5,486m. The gorge provides a natural east-west barrier for plants and animals. Source: (Biodiversity Profiles Project 1995a)

7 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES 4 Wetlands of CHAL

There are numerous natural lakes and man made the peak period of migration, between December ponds and reservoirs in the Gandaki Basin. Pokhara and February (MoFSC 2002). Although surveys of Valley contains nine lakes, namely Fewa (443 ha), wetlands of the country in all three physiographic Begnas (373 ha), Rupa (115 ha), Khaste (13.57 ha), zones have been conducted, it is still an area with Dipang (8.9 ha), Gunde (4.98 ha), Neurani (2.8 insufficient information. A detailed inventory ha), Maidi (1.17 ha) and Nandi. The cluster of lakes of wetlands carried out in Terai (International that lies in the Gosaikunda-Naukunda Lake area, Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) - Tilicho in Manang, and Beeshazari Tal in Chitwan Nepal 1996) has reported 32 wetland sites in the are important lakes in CHAL. Box 4.1 lists some lowlands of CHAL: nine in Nawalparasi and 23 in ponds and water bodies reported during the field Chitwan District. However, a recent study on the trip. This is not an exhaustive list and further wetlands of CNP and its Buffer Zone has shown study would be required to understand wetland 44 wetlands in these areas alone (J. B. Karki, Pers. ecosystems in CHAL. Com, 17 July 2012) (Box 4.2). In higher areas, the Goisankunda–Naukunda Lake system (4,054– Wetland ecosystems are recognized as an 4,609 m asl) spread across 54 ha through its 16 important category of ecosystems that have rich interconnected lakes, providing critical habitat for biological diversity and are known to support a number of rare and endemic plants and animals more than 200,000 waterfowl in Nepal during (Karki et al. 2005).

Box 4.1 Natural Lakes Reported from the Gandaki Basin

Nuwakot: Suryakund, Sagarkund, Baldehital Rasuwa: Gosainkund, Bhairavkund, Surajkund, Saraswotikund, Parbatikund, Ganeshkund, Jalesworkund Gorkha: Kalchhuman (1.5 km long), Narad Kund, Dudhpokhari, Bhulbhulekhar, Birendra Chhosong, Pushkar Tirtha, Ranipokhari, Manepani Lamjung: Dudhpokhari, Mamepokhari, Ilampokhari, Barhapokhari Kaski: Fewa, Begnas, Rupa, Khaste, Dipang, Gunde, Neurani, Maidi, Nandi lakes and Shanti Kund Mustang: Damodar Kund, Dhumba Tal, Titi Tal, Sekong Tal Baglung: Gajako Dah (Damek), Rudratal, Bobang, Nildah (Bhakunde) Nawalparasi: Small lakes above Daunne Arghakhanchi: Thadadah, Senglengdah, Gahachaurdah, Paneradah Palpa: Satyabati Tal, Suke, Nandan, Sitakund Syangja: Andhaandhi Dah, Chhangchhangdi Manang: Tilicho Lake, Gangapurna Lake, Mringchho Lake, Ngyamcho, Ponkar, Himlung Lake, Kecho Lake Chitwan: Satrahazar Tal, Beeshazari Tal, Sattaishazar Tal, Atthaishazar Tal, Mundatal, Devital, Lamital, Tamorghaila Tal, Kasaratal, Nandbahuju Tal, Anjuratal, Manjuratal, Gaduwatal, Anjanatal, Parshuram Kund, Baikuntha Kund

8 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES W etlands of C H A L

Box 4.2 Wetlands of Chitwan National Park and its Buffer Zone

In National Park: 1. Gaidakhasa Ghol East of Gaidakhasa 2. Temple Tiger Ghol in front of former Temple Tiger Hotel 3. Jamuna Ghol Bandarjhula Island 4. Mardi Ghol Bandharjhula Island 5. Devi Tal South of Khoriyamuhan 6. Lamo Tal East of Khoriyamuhan 7. Munda Tal South-east of Baghmara 8. Singe Tal South of Baghmara 9. Nanda Bhauju Tal North-west of Bhimle 10. Suksuke Tal South of Bhimle 11. Budhi Rapti Ghol East of Bhimle 12. Thotari Tal West of Bankatta 13. Kamal Tal East of Sukhibhar 14. Sera Tal West of Dhruba 15. Thapaliya Tal South-west of Kasara 16. Niure Ghol Kasara 17. Tamor Tal South of Kasara 18. Lami Tal West of Ghatgai 19. Simara Ghol Near Botesimara 20. Sapnawoti Ghol East of Bankatta 21. Laguna Tal West of Jarneli 22. Gaur Machan Ghol Near Gaur Machan 23. Dumariya Ghol North-west of Dumariya 24. Majur Tal West of Charahara Khola 25. Nandan Tal South of Bhawanipur 26. Jayamangala Ghol Padampur west 27. Marchauli Ghol Padampur 28. Garud/Patna Tal Padampur 29. Python Tal West of Bhimpur 30. Chaparchuli Ghol Near Chaparchulli Post 31. Ghol near former Chitwan Jungle Lodge 32. Liglige Ghol West of Sunachuri 33. Icharni Ghol complex Icharni.

In Buffer Zone: 34. Lamichaur Ghol complex Lamichaur 35. Beeshazari Tal complex Barandabhar 36. Chepang Tal Tikauli 37. Tikauli Tal Tikauli 38. Bob Tal Barandabhar 39. Kumrose Tal Kumrose BCF 40. Musahar Tal Baghmara BCF 41. Kuchkuche Ghol Kuchkuche BCF 42. Kumal Tal Milijuli BCF 43. Belsahar Tal Belsahar BCF 44. Sitamai Tal Near Sitamai Ghat.

Source: Chitwan National Park Buffer Zone (CNP BZ) Management Plan (2012-2016), under preparation

9 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Threatened and 5 Endemic Species

5.1 Flora

The Government of Nepal has yet to produce a list assessed the conservation and management status of threatened and endangered plants for Nepal. of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Nepal using It, however, imposes bans from time to time on IUCN guidelines and produced a list of 51 plants collecting plant resources from the wild and export under various threat categories (Bhattarai et al. of plant materials in the raw form and imposes 2002). Nine more species have been added to the felling bans for selected tree species by publishing list by Sharma et al. (2004). notifications in the Nepal Gazette. The list of these plants can be considered as being the protected Fourteen plants of Nepal, occuring in CHAL, have plant list of Nepal (Table 5.1). These plants occur been listed in the Annexes of CITES (Table 5.2). Of in CHAL. the 14 CITES listed species, Dioscorea deltoidea, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rauvolfia serpentine, The Conservation Assessment and Management Taxus wallichiana and some species of the family Workshop (CAMP), held in Pokhara in 2000 Orchidaceae are important medicinal plants.

Table 5.1 Protected Plants of Nepal

Scientific Name Local name I Banned for collection, transportation and trade Dactylorrhiza hatagirea Panchaunle Root bark of Juglans regia Okhar ko bokra Picrorhiza scrophulariflora Kutki II. Banned from export outside the country in raw form Nardostachys grandiflora Jatamansi Rawalfia serpentine Sarpagandha Sinnamomum glaucescens Sugandhokokila Valeriana jatamansi Sugandhawaal Lichen species Jhyaau Abies spectabilis Taalispatra Taxus wallichiana Lauth salla Cordyceps sinensis Yarshagomba III Banned for felling, transporation and export Shorea robusta Sal Dalbergia latifolia Satisal Pterocarpus marsupium Bijaysal Juglans regia Okhar Source: Department of Forests, Government of Nepal

10 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES T hreatened and E ndemic S pecies

Table 5.2. CITES Listed Plants found in Nepal

Plant Name Nepali Name Appendix 1. Sausurea lappa* Kuth I 2. Ceropegia pubescens Mirke laharo II 3. Cythea spinosa Rukh unyu II 4. Cycas pectinata Jokar, Jaggar, Kalbal II 5. Diascorea deltoidea Bhyakur II 6. Orchidaceae family Sunakhari II 7 Picrorhiza kurroa Kutki II 8. Podophyllum hexandrum Laghupatra II 9. Rauvolfia serpentine Sarpagandha II 10. Taxas wallichiana Lauth salla II 11. Gnetum montanum Bhote lahara III 12. Meconopsis regia Kyashar III 13. Podocarpus neriifolius Gunsi III 14. Talauma hodgsonii Magnolia III 15. Tetracentron sinense Jharokote III *This is an exotic species to Nepal. Source: CITES: http://www.cites.org

Endemic flowering plants of Nepal are described Only one bird species is considered as endemic. in three volumes published by the Department The Spiny Babbler Turdoides nipalensis is found of Plant Resources, Government of Nepal between 915 and 1,830 m in winter and 1,500- (Rajbhandari and Adhikari 2009, Rajbhandari and 2,135 m in summer (Grimet et al. 2003). CHAL Dhungana 2010, and Rajbhandari and Dhungana provides ideal habitat for this bird. 2011). The total number of plants listed so far is 282, of which 69 percent grow in Central Nepal, of One rodent species, the Himalayan field mouse which CHAL is a part. Most of the endemic plants Apodemus gurkha is endemic to Nepal. It occurs are found in higher elevations above 2,000 m; in central Nepal between 2,200 and 3,600 m the highest recorded was at 5,500 m. More work in coniferous forest; several districts of CHAL, is required to complete this picture, specially the from Gorkha to Mustang, provide habitat for this non-flowering plants. endemic mammal (Suwal and Verheugt 1995). Further, Baral and Shah (2008) have reported Csorba’s mouse-eared bat (Myotis csorbai) as an 5.2 Fauna endemic bat found in the midhills, including those of CHAL. The National Parks and Wildlife Act lists 39 wildlife species as protected, and many of these species are Biodiversity information for CHAL is sporadically listed in the CITES Annexes as well as in the IUCN spread over much literature. More detailed threat categories (Table 5.3). Of these animals research by a team comprising experts in various black buck, wild water buffalo and swamp deer are disciplines of biodiversity would be required to not reported to be found in the CHAL area. catalogue the available information, verify species presence in CHAL, and explain their status. Such Aryal (2009) has analyzed and listed the Nepalese information would be valuable to a large audience; species falling in the Appendices of CITES. Table therefore, it should be disseminated through a 5.4 summarizes his listing for animals; almost all web-based portal. of these listed species are represented in CHAL.

11 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES T hreatened and E ndemic S pecies

Table 5.3 Protected Wildlife of Nepal

Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Threat cat. CITES Appen 1 Ailurus fulgens Red panda Endangered I 2 Antilope cervicapra Black buck Near threatened III 3 Bos gaurus Gaur Vulnerable I 4 Bos mutus Wild yak Vulnerable I 5 Bubalus arnee Wild water buffalo Endangered III 6 Canis lupus Tibetan wolf Least concern I 7 Caprolagus hispidus Hispid hare Endangered I 8 Cervus duvauceli Swamp deer Vulnerable I 9 Elephas maximus Asiatic elephant Endangered I 10 Felis lynx Himalayan lynx Near threatened II 11 Hyaena hyaena Striped hyena Near threatened III 12 Macaca assamensis Assamese monkey Vulnerable II 13 Manis crassicaudata Indian pangolin Near threatened II 14 Manis pentadactyla Chinese pangolin Near threatened II 15 Moschus chrisogaster Musk deer Near threatened I 16 Ovis ammon Great Tibetan Sheep Vulnerable I 17 Panthera tigris Bengal tiger Endangered I 18 Uncia uncia Snow leopard Endangered I 19 Pantholops hodgsoni Tibetan antelope Endangered I 20 Pardofelis nebulosa Clouded leopard Vulnerable I 21 Platanista gangetica Gangetic dolphin Endangered I 22 Prionailurus bengalensis Leopard cat Least concern I 23 Prionodon pardicolor Spotted linsang Least concern I 24 Rhinoceros unicornis Asian one horned rhinoceros Endangered I 25 Sus salvanius Pygmy hog Critically endangered I 26 Tetraceros quadricornis Four-horned antelope Vulnerable III 27 Ursus arctos Brown bear Least concern I 28 Buceros bicornis Giant Hornbill I 29 Catreus wallichii Cheer Pheasant Endangered I 30 Ciconia ciconia White Stork 31 Ciconia nigra Black Stork III 32 Eupodotis bengalensis Bengal Florican Endangered I 33 Grus grus (G. antigone) Common Crane II 34 Lophophorus impejanus Impeyan Pheasant I 35 Sypheotides indica Lesser Florican Endangered II 36 Tragopan satyra Crimson-horned Pheasant III 37 Gavialis gangeticus Gharial Endangered I 38 Python molurus Asiatic rock python Vulnerable I 39 Varanus flavescens Golden monitor lizard I

Sources: HMGN (2002) and Aryal (2009)

Table 5.4. Nepalese Species in the Appendices of CITES

Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Total Wild mammals 29 15 3 47 Birds 18 91 1 110 Reptiles 8 10 - 18 Amphibians - 1 - 1 Butterfly - 3 - 3 Total 55 120 4 179 Source: Aryal (2009)

12 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Corridors 6

Corridors connect two or more protected areas, Makwanpur-Chandragiri-Shivapuri-Langtang providing suitable habitat for plants and animals to corridor. Wikramanayake et al. (1998) also move through. Nepal has considerable experience recommended the Chitwan Annapurna linkage in creating and working in the Terai Arc Landscape area as “biodiversity conservation areas.” They (TAL), which spans the lowlands of Nepal and India. further proposed that as large blocks of most More and more countries are adopting policies to ecoregions remain outside the boundaries of undertake conservation at landscape level using existing protected areas, declaration of new corridors to link biodiversity important areas. protected areas or realignments of boundaries of Bhutan has adopted the Biological Conservation existing protected areas should be considered. For Complex Plan (MoA 2004), which provides the example, Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands, necessary blueprint for integrated management of although well represented in lowland protected PAs and connecting biological corridors. Corridors areas of Nepal, have several large blocks of habitat vary in land use composition, width, human use, remaining unprotected to the west of Chitwan and ownership patterns. There is no one uniform National Park. design, but attempts are made to select sites that are still forested, have suitable habitat structures The experts’ group delineated the “Greater and functional ecological processes. The corridors Himalayan Landscape” (GHL) which incorporated tend to reduce the effects of island biogeography several protected areas of Nepal in the Eastern and provide opportunities to species to migrate Himalaya including Chitwan National Park, Parsa to avoid harmful effects of climate change and Wildlife Reserve, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, other adverse environmental factors. The width of Langtang National Park, Sagarmatha National corridor should be as wide as possible but not less Park, Makalu Barun National Park, Manaslu than 0.5-3.0 km. Where land uses in the corridors Conservation Area and Annapurna Conservation are particularly unfavorable, legal and economic Area. But later the GHL idea was reformulated incentives can help land owners to voluntarily shift and the Government of Nepal (MoFSC 2006) their practices to nature-friendly uses. adopted the Sacred Himalayan Landscape (SHL) 2 of 39,021km , of which about 73.5 percent falls In 1999, identification of “Priority Landscapes” in Nepal and rest in India and Bhutan. The SHL was conducted by experts in a workshop held extends east of Langtang National Park (including in Kathmandu (WWF and ICIMOD 2001). all its area) and connects to the proposed The work of the biological assessment and gap Kangchenjunga Landscape and overlaps its area analysis of the Himalaya by Wikramanayake et in India (Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills) and Bhutan al. (1998) provided much needed background Toorsa Strict Nature Reserve (Sharma 2010). The for this proposition. The subsequent outputs SHL represents significant areas of two globally included approximate areas, now called TAL and important ecoregions: the Eastern Himalayan CHAL, which were recommended as requiring Alpine Meadow and the Eastern Himalayan focused conservation work. Five river valleys were Broadleaf and Conifer Forests. It should be noted considered as potential south-north corridors: that the SHL does not link with TAL; so that the (i) Chitwan-Langtang corridor; (ii) Chitwan- opportunity of conservation on a river basin basis Manaslu corridor; (iii) Chitwan-Narayani-Kali- is not possible through SHL and TAL alone, thus Annapurna linkages; (iv) Chitwan-Narayani- not fulfilling the vision of the GHL. CHAL provides Marsyangdi-Annapurna linkages, and (v) Parsa- the critical linkages north-south, including the

13 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES C orridors

important areas of the midhills of Nepal. This 200-2,200 m. Several important rivers, Trishuli, linkage is highly important for climate adaptation Marsyangdi, Madi, Seti and Kali Gandaki flow as well as for freshwater conservation. through these areas. Although not explicit about their recommendation, the team seems to have It is learnt that the Government of Nepal (GoN), been proposing this landscape for the CHAL. MoFSC, has decided to expand the SHL westward to include the majority of the area covered by The naturally existing corridors are shown in CHAL. When the GoN’s Sacred Himalayan Figure 6.1. It should be noted that north-south Landscape strategy is revised in a few years, it is connectivity through forest possibly existed envisaged that the CHAL strategy will be merged prior to the major settlements in the midhills, in a new strategy for the expanded landscape. This but documentation of this aspect is not readily measure would bring connectivity of one more available. globally important ecoregion, the Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands and create linkages with The field work and number of interactions at eight protected areas of Nepal alone. CHAL and cluster and community level shows that there SHL are contiguous with a large protected area are seven naturally existing corridors having a of the Tibet Autonomous Region - Qomolongma number of bottlenecks. The earlier approach of Nature Preserve; and they together have using river basins for connectivity has one major continuity with the Kangchenjunga Landscape drawback. The connectivity becomes dependent in India and Bhutan and would subsequently on a very narrow segment of the river valley at the connect to Bhutan’s Biological Conservation lower end of CHAL, which makes it very critical Complex (MoA 2004). and vulnerable.

Basnet et al. (2000) studied six districts, The study team has proposed four north-south Kaski, Lamjung, Gorkha, Tanahu, Chitwan and corridors and three east-west corridors, which Nawalparasi, covering a total area of 11,230 km2. is not entirely based on a river valley system but This landscape extends from the lowland plains includes terrestrial segments, wholly or in part. to upland mountains with an altitudinal range of Also they are proposed based on their current

Figure 6.1 Naturally Existing Corridors in CHAL Area

14 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES C orridors

Figure 6.2 Proposed North-South and East-West Corridors in CHAL Area

conditions and the ongoing efforts and desire of Two more planned: Kali Gandaki-2 (660MW) and local communities and the GoN to conserve these Beni Kali Gandaki (50MW) components of the landscape (Figure 6.2). The Cultivated fields and settlements in places. analyses of GIS maps show their potentialities, but ground-truthing must be carried out for further 6.1.2 Seti River Valley verification. Bottlenecks: One hydro power plant in the Fewa Lake, Pokhara The proposed corridors are based largely on (1 MW). secondary information (including GIS) on the Storage type hydropower plant planned for the existence of forest, waterways and freshwater Upper Seti (122 MW). biodiversity, and rare/endangered/endemic Settlements and cultivated fields in places. wildlife and plant species. The proposed corridors have relatively low levels of human disturbance, 6.1.3 Madi River Valley while likelihood to generate local support for their Bottlenecks: conservation and management is relatively high. Four hydro power plants under construction: Madi 1 (20MW) Madi 2 (7 MW) 6.1 Naturally Existing Corridors Upper Madi (19.2 MW) Super Madi (7.1 MW) 6.1.1 Kali Gandaki River Valley One hydropower plant planned: Madi Bhorletar (9MW). Bottlenecks: Cultivated fields and settlements in places. Kali Gandaki-1 [144 Megawatt (MW)]: The largest hydropower project in operation. 6.1.4 Marsyangdi River Valley At least three hydropower projects under Bottlenecks: construction: Marsyangdi Hydropower plant in operation (69 MW) Kali Gandaki Kowan (100 MW) Three hydropower plants under construction: Kali Gandaki Gorge (100 MW) Upper Marsyangdi 1 (50 MW) Raghughat (30 MW) Upper Marsyangdi 2 (125 MW)

15 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES C orridors

Three new hydro power plants are planned: 6.2 Potential Corridors Proposed Marsyangdi 3 (42 MW) Marsyangdi Besi (50 MW) North-South Corridors: Upper Marsyangdi 1 (100 MW.) Barandabhar Forest – Gaighat – Seti River Valley Cultivated fields and settlements in places. – Panchase – Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) Barandabhar Forest – Gaighat – Seti River Valley 6.1.5 Trishuli River Valley – Madi River Valley – ACA Bottlenecks: Buffer Zone (BZ) Forest of CNP in Nawalparasi – One hydro plant under operation (24 MW) Churia Range – Mahabharat Range – Panchase – ACA. Four hydro power plants under construction: Manhari, Parsa Wildlife Reserve – Namtar Upper Trishuli, storage type (128 MW) – Simbhanjyang – Shivapuri Nagarjung NP – Upper Trishuli 3a (61 MW) Langtang NP Upper Trishuli 3b (44 MW) Devghat Cascade (10.2 MW). East-West Corridors: Six hydropower plants planned for the future: Rasuwa – Gorkha – Dhading along Ganesh Himal Seti-Trishuli (142 MW) basecamp (2,000 m counter line) Trishuli Nadi (20.1 MW Dhorpatan – ACA (taking 2,000 m contour line) Trishuli Galchhi (10 MW) ACA – MCA Bhimtan Block (taking 2,000 m Bhotekoshi Trishuli (75 MW) contour line) Upper Trishuli 1 (75 MW) Langtang khole storage (218 MW). All four north-south corridors are important for Several tributaries are also dammed or are planned connectivity in CHAL. In terms of priority, it seems, for power generation. the corridor, Barandabhar-Gaighat-Seti River Cultivated fields and settlements in places. Valley-Panchase-ACA should be given the highest priority. Panchase and Barandabhar Forests 6.1.6 Daraundi River Valley are very unique in many ways, thus a corridor No major bottlenecks except a few cultivated fields. connecting through these important biodiversity areas should be given higher priority. Among the 6.1.7 Budi Gandaki River Valley east-west corridors, the Rasuwa-Gorkha-Dhading Storage type hydro power plant is under areas along Ganesh Himal should be given higher construction (600 MW). priority as the access to these sites is increasing Cultivated fields and settlements at places. and timely conservation work would be important.

16 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES

Biodiversity Areas in CHAL 7

Several biodiversity areas were reported in the sketchy; this is because of the limited time available landscape. Some of them are well established and for the work, during which it was not possible to are already under protected regimes while others visit the sites or interview the local residents. Such need further exploration. The list, however, is not BAs require further field work. exhaustive and District Forest Offices and park authorities should be entrusted to locate more such 7.1 Chitwan National Park areas and be requested to suggest mechanisms to protect them. The team recommends 23 n A World Heritage Site for nature. biodiversity areas for focused conservation n Last remaining relatively undisturbed Churia (Figures 7.1 and 7.2). It should be noted that Valley. biodiversity areas, listed below, are largely based n Several endangered species including tiger, on the findings from the interaction meetings, rhinoceros, gaur, Gangetic dolphin and gharial seconded by the opinion of the experts consulted are found in the park. It has stable populations in the field and in Kathmandu. The descriptions of of tiger and rhinoceros (DNPWC 2001). some of the Biodiversity Areas (BAs) proposed are n Identified as an Important Bird Area of Nepal.

Figure 7.1: Major Hotspots in CHAL Area

17 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES B iodi v ersit y A reas in C H A L

7.2 Chitwan Grasslands and Riverine n If the stretch of the Narayani River from Ecosystem Gaighat to Gunjanagar (the place where the river enters the CNP) could be protected n Highly productive ecosystem supporting from over fishing, industrial pollution, other ungulate biomass comparable to East Africa pollution and disturbances, it could help (Siedensticker 1976). restore the gharial population of CNP. n Presence of several threatened and vulnerable n Places of high religious significance. grassland bird species, including Bengal Florican, Grey-crowned Prinia and Slender- billed Babbler. 7.5 Kali Gandaki Gorge n Represents one of the last surviving outstanding grasslands of the Indo-Gangetic n Distinct ecological barrier for plants and Plains. In moist areas, Saccharum, Narenga animals, it divides the Eastern Himalaya from and Themeda species form the legendary tall the West. grass communities. n Important bird flyway. More than 40 species n Represents Terai-Duar Savanna and of bird migrate, including Demoiselle Crane. Grasslands, one of the Global 200 Ecoregions n Important corridor for south-north n As grasslands are being converted into connectivity and provides opportunity on scrublands and forests, the status of this research, especially on species segregation and ecosystem should be regularly monitored distribution patterns. through inventory and GIS mapping. n Despite several bottlenecks because of the dams for hydro power, stretches of the valley still can provide stepping stones for migratory 7.3 Barandabhar Forest and Wetlands birds.

n Critical connecting corridor to CNP to the Mahabharat Hills in the north. 7.6 Panchase Hill n Divided east-west by the highway; the area south of the highway is part of the CNP Buffer n For it’s biodiversity value, the Department Zone which includes a man-made wetland, of Forests has declared Panchase Hill as a Beeshazari Tal. The lake is a popular birding Protected Forest under the Forest Act. It area and about 282 bird species including the covers an area of 5775.73 ha (280 10’ 55’’-280 15’ Lesser Adjutant, Great Hornbill, Grey-headed 56’’ North, 830 48’ 03’’-830 49’ 53’’ East) (DoF Fish Eagle and Darter are dependent upon this 2012c). forest and wetland. n Represents unique midhill ecosystems of n The area north of the highway has been Nepal of which more than two thirds is declared by the Government as a Protected covered by forests and a good portion falls Forest for its unique biodiversity (DoF 2012a). under highland pastures. Midhill ecosystems It includes several wetlands. are under-represented in Nepal’s protected n Identified as an Important Bird Area of Nepal area system. (Baral and Inskipp 2005). n Among 386 species of orchid reported in Nepal, 113 are reported from Panchase (DoF 2012c). Of which Panisea panchaseensis and 7.4 Gaighat-Devaghat-Chitwan Eria pokharensis are endemic to the area Stretch of Waterways and (Rajbhandari and Dhungana 2010; Subedi et Surrounding Valleys al. 2011). Besides, the area is rich in medicinal and aromatic plants. n The confluences of Seti and Trishuli, and Kali n Of the total forest in the declared Protected Gandaki and Trishuli (further down) and Forest area, 79 percent is managed by 144 associated river valleys in three districts (Chitwan, CFUGs and only 21 percent is managed directly Nawalparsi and Tanahu) provide a valuable by the government. corridor for aquatic species and other wildlife. n Panchase is seen as an ideal place to undertake n Undisturbed riverbeds provide good basking watershed conservation work based on the sites for gharial. sub-watershed conservation and management model. The DoF intends to test the concept

18 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES B iodi v ersit y A reas in C H A L

of PES in this area and prepare local people n It serves as the water tower for the area. to undertake Reducing Emissions through n High religious and historic significance. Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) n Needs further study. related projects (DoF 2012c). n A number of NGOs and government agencies of three districts (Kaski, Parbat and Syangja) 7.9 Rani Ban, Kaski are taking initiatives to protect this area for its biodiversity value and touristic potential. n GoN declared, in 2011, an area of 164.76 ha of forest in Pokhara, Kaski to create a World Peace Biodiversity Garden (Dhungana et al. 7.7 Madane Forest, Gulmi 2012). The Garden will be the starting point for the trail to Panchase Hill. n n GoN has declared this forest as a Protected The proposed garden aims to conserve the Forest for its biodiversity value DoF 2012b. biodiversity found in the area. It adjoins Fewa n Located at the confluence of three district Lake on its northern face, providing good boundaries, Gulmi, Pyuthan and Baglung, it habitats for plants and birds. Also, it is a noted covers an area of 13,761 ha. Of this area 38.6 area for orchids. percent is covered by forest, 52.6 percent by agriculture and settlements, and the remaining 8.8 percent by open space, grasslands and 7.9 Annapurna Conservation Area wetlands. n n The area forms the headwaters of several Some of the world’s highest snow peaks that rivers flowing in the three districts. tower over 8,000m and the world’s deepest n A sizeable forest is managed as community valley – the Kali Gandaki River. forests; 47 CFUGs manage nearly 1,903 ha of n Two distinct climatic regions (rainfall, 3,000 forest. mm; <500 mm) within a span of 12 km and n The altitude varies from 975 to 2,657 m. Trees altitude of 1,000-8,000 m including Schima sp, Castanopsis, pines, and n Inhabited by several rare and endangered oaks are the main species. Twenty four species species of mammals such as snow leopard, of mammals including the Himalayan black musk deer, argali and Tibetan wolf. bear, barking deer and leopard are reported n Being the transition zone between the Eastern from the area. Three species of pheasants are and Western Himalaya, the faunal richness also reported. is high. n n Represents unique midhills ecosystems of Nepal Several endemic plants recorded from higher and with the forests in the adjoining districts, areas of the conservation area. Provides habitat Baglung and Pyuthan, the area can be managed for one endemic bird and one endemic mammal. as a corridor to Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. n Unique and successfully functioning model Such connectivity can help endangered species of integrated conservation and development. such as red panda and musk deer. Over 100,000 people reside within ACA from n The forest is good for medicinal and various ethnic and religious backgrounds aromatic plants such as Swertia, Morchella, (NTNC 2008). Cinnamomum glaucescens, and orchids, and also for commercially important non-timber forest products such as Daphne species. 7.10 Pipar, Upper Setikhola Valley, ACA n This Protected Forest is managed with a five year management plan starting in 2011, under n Exceptionally rich area for pheasants, where all government budget. of Nepal’s six species of Himalayan pheasants are found. n Also rich for other bird species. 7.8 Resunga Forest, Gulmi n Globally threatened endangered Egyptian Vulture is also recorded. n n The Department of Forests recognizes this Three restricted range species: Hoary–throated forest as having high biodiversity value, and it Barwing, White-throated Tit and Spiny Babbler will soon be recognized as a Protected Forest (which is endemic to Nepal) are also recorded (DoF interaction meeting). from the site (Thakuri and Poudyal 2011).

19 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES B iodi v ersit y A reas in C H A L

7.11 Madi River Valley, ACA 7.14 Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf and Conifer Forest n Carries high plant diversity. n High altitudinal gradient and habitat diversity. n Needs further study. n Relatively less disturbed. n This Global 200 Ecoregion, found in CHAL, n Provides a large mid-hill forest blocks. can be identified in the field and monitored n Needs further study. for land cover to understand key landscape patterns and their changes. n Can provide ideal site(s) for research to 7.12 Daraundi River Valley, ACA understand the effects of climate change.

n One of the few wild rivers not dammed n It originates from Manage; its headwater, 7.15 Eastern Himalayan Alpine Barpak, is a unique highland in the area Meadow outside MCA. n People representing Gorkha and local n Needs further study. communities living on the banks of the river n This Global 200 Ecoregion, found in CHAL, strongly believe the river and Barpak should can be identified in the field and monitored be identified as a biodiversity hotspot. for land cover to understand key landscape n Needs further study. patterns and their changes. n Can provide ideal site(s) for research to understand the effects of climate change. 7.13 Manaslu Conservation Area

n Gazetted in 1998 by GoN, the CA covers as an 7.16 Bhimtang Forest, an Area area of 1,663 km2 that includes seven VDCs of between ACA and MCA Gorkha District (between 280 20’ and 280 45’ latitude and 840 29’ - 850 11’ longitude) (NTNC n Needs further study. 2011). n Potential migratory route for snow leopard to n It adjoins the protected area of TAR (China) move between MCA and ACA. providing an opportunity for trans-boundary n East-west corridor. conservation. n The CA has more than half of its area as barren land, the available forests and grasslands 7.17 Ganesh Himal Base Camp harbor a large number of endemic plants: 22 species reported by Manaslu CA Management n Between Langtang NP and MCA: an area of Plan (draft) (NTNC 2011). In addition, Larix north-eastern part of Gorkha, northern part of himalaya, a conifer endemic to central Nepal Dhading and north-west part of Rasuwa. and Tibet has its westernmost limit in MCA. n Potential migratory route for snow leopard to n The CA is rich in high-altitude medicinal and move between Langtang and ACA. aromatic plants. n Needs further study. n Thirty eight species of mammals are reported, including endangered, threatened or vulnerable species, such as snow leopard, lynx, 7.18 Langtang National Park Assamese monkey and musk deer. It supports (western part) good populations of blue sheep, Himalayan tahr, serow and goral. n The park area includes the upper catchments n The number of birds reported from MCA is of two major river systems. The one to the west 201, which includes endangered, threatened drains into the Trishuli River. and globally threatened species. Himalayan n The 1,710 km2 park has an altitudinal range pheasants are also reported. of about 1,000 m to the alpine areas with its peak, Langtang Lirung (7,242 m).

20 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES B iodi v ersit y A reas in C H A L

n Several endangered species of wild animals are southern side. It provides prime habitat for found in Langtang: red panda, snow leopard, several species of wildlife such as tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, musk deer, Tibetan wolf and leopard cat and wild dog (Sah et al. 1999). Assamese monkey, in addition to many birds. n On the northern boundary of PWR, falling in n Several wetlands such as the RAMSAR Makwanpur District and thus forming a part of listed Gosaikunda Lake add the cultural and CHAL, there are grasslands and riverine forests biodiversity significance to the area. along the Rapti River, where rhinos are found. n LNP is also equally rich in endemic plants. n Ramauli and Pratapur villages are being Plants such as Rhododendron cowanianum, R. resettled from PWR to the area north of the lowndesii, at least four species of Meconopsis highway at the request of the residents. After (M. dwojii, M. regia, M. tylorii, and M. the resettlement, the place will develop into sharmae), Begonia flagellaris, Impatiens good grassland attracting many herbivores scullyi, Wendlandia appendiculata, and more and big cats. are recorded from the park (DNPWC 2011c). n The 499 km2 reserve harbors a resident n LNP is connected to Qomolongma Nature poulation of wild elephant (Elephas maximus) Preserve of TAR in China, Manaslu CA comprising more than 20 individuals. through Ganesh Himal range, and Shivapuri n A good population of Giant Hornbill, a protected Nagarjung NP through stretches of community species of bird, is found in the reserve. managed forests. Being the westernmost park on Sacred Himalayan Landscape, it joins SHL with CHAL. 7.21 Simbhanjyang Forest, Makwanpur District

7.19 Shivapuri Nagarjun National n Good diversity of orchids (> 80 species) Park (part falling in Nuwakot District) n Connecting forest to Chandragiri to the north and Namtar, the headwater of Manahari River, n Represents midhills ecosystem acting as to the south. The latter connects to the forests transition between subtropical and temperate in the Chitwan Valley. climates. Midhills are under-represented in n Needs further study. protected area system. n Vegetation consists of natural forest types including pine, oak and rhododendron. 7.22 Nuwakot Durbar Forest, n Mammals found in the park include Himalayan Nuwakot District black bear, leopard, jungle cat and rhesus monkey. Park harbors a poulation of Assamese n Typical new-growth hill sal forest. monkey, a protected wildlife species. n In river gorges and ravines other tree species, n Park is home to about 311 species of birds, shrubs and epiphytes provide a unique mix including nine threatened species; 102 of vegetation, providing home to several bird species of butterflies with a number of rare species. and endangered species, and 129 species of n Orchids are plentiful in moist areas. mushroom (DNPWC 2012). n Four community forests, covering over n The watershed draining to the north of the 300 ha, have been protected enthusiastically Park falls under Nuwakot District, forming the by CFUGs for over 15 years, recovering from part of CHAL. a much denuded state when they were handed over to them. n Being close to Bidur Municipality, visitors are 7.20 Parsa Wildlife Reserve (part likely to increase, particularly as these forests falling in Makwanpur District) surround a historical monument. n Increasingly becoming ideal climate refugia n Ecologically, Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR) for animals found in the floodplains of Tandi is the eastern extension of Chitwan National and Trishuli Rivers. Park. Its floral and faunal composition is n Falls on the proposed corridor linking similar except that PWR is much drier on its Shivapuri Nagarjun NP to Langtang NP.

21 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES B iodi v ersit y A reas in C H A L

Figure 7.2: Major Biological Corridors and Hotspots in CHAL Area

7.23 Biodiversity Important Areas Proposed by Local Communities Needing Further Verification

n Dhundur, Tanahu, Vanumati VDC, Kaski district, 60 ha. n Dhonda Khola Sonatar Forest, Kaski District. n Rani Ban, protected by several CFUGs including Chuchekhola CF, Makwanpur. An important area for Salak, a protected wildlife species. n Damodar Kunda Valley, within ACA. n Didha Pokhari of Manage.

22 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Biodiversity Conservation Issues in CHAL 8

Based on interactions with villagers, protected Midhill forests are mostly managed by the areas officials, officials of District Forest Offices communities, while a large chunk of the forest is and Soil Conservation Offices, NGO officials still under the direct control of the government and local government officials, the biodiversity and largely remains unmanaged. The community conservation issues in the CHAL landscape have forests are managed with the over-riding purpose been summarized (Table 8.1). It should be noted of providing timber and firewood to their users. that the figures given in the table represent the The forests are cleared of undergrowth shrubs severity of any particular issue, ranking on the and grasses each year as a silvicultural operation scale of 0-5, 0 meaning absence of the issue, to maximize the yield of the wood, especially whereas 5 means the highest severity of that issue. during the period when the forests are still The CHAL has been divided into Chitwan National young. As reported in the field, the awareness Park and its Buffer Zone (CNP), Midhill forests, and motivation to manage these forests to protect and Mountain Protected Areas. biodiversity is simply not there. There is no clarity of the ownership of wildlife species found in the The summary of the top ten conservation issues, community forests, which de-motivates users to reported by the respondents, shows clearly that focus on conserving wildlife in their community most of the conservation issues are not adequately forests. Also, managing forests to optimize the addressed in the midhill forests compared to the yields of NTFPs and wood is only at its infancy. protected areas to the north and south. As the Therefore, CHAL’s primary intervention in the proposed corridors fall mostly in the midhills midhill forests should be to manage resources for area, it becomes very important to understand multiple benefits. these issues and be able to address them through effective management and governance.

Table 8.1. Summary of Conservation Issues Identified in the CHAL Area

Conservation Issues CNP Midhill Mountain Forests PAs Degradation of wildlife habitat due to deforestation, degradation of wetland or rangeland, 1 4 3 encroachment Poaching and trade of wildlife including protected species due to absence of/inadequate 1 4 2 controlling mechanism Illegal harvest of forest resources, especially NTFPs 1 4 3 Adverse effects due to alien invasive plant species 5 3 3 Forest fires, floods and landslides 2 2 3 Diversion of river or construction of dams 0 4 1 Crop and livestock depredation by wildlife; human injuries or casualties 4 3 3 Diversion of forest/forest land for non-forestry uses 1 4 1 Inadequate awareness and motivation to protect biodiversity 1 4 2 Weak institutional capacity 2 4 4 Average 1.8 3.6 2.5 Source: Based on field interactions with villagers, NGO officials and district government officials.

23 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES B iodi v ersit y C onser v ation I ssues in C H A L

Illegal harvest of non-timber forest products is in lowlands and high rangelands, if the conflict is prevalent in all geographic zones (Table 8.1). NTFPs not addressed properly it may lead to increased provide medicine and food to the local people and also retaliatory killings of wild animals. The provision help them make additional income with lack of clear of limited amounts of relief to the victims of policy to harvest resources from the wild (including wildlife (DNPWC 2011b) is a welcome step by PAs), the issue requires to be resolved to benefit the government; it must be popularized and the primary collectors while not compromising backed with adequate budget and an institutional the abundance and continuity of the species. The mechanism to promptly compensate for loss. As villagers at several community and cluster meetings an indirect mechanism, livestock insurance can said that banning collection and export of NTFPs also be introduced as has been successfully done from the conservation areas, as is being practiced in the Kanchanjunga Conservation Area. now, cannot deter their illegal collection and trade. At the policy level, the government has made a good Effective control of poaching is another attempt to promote sustainable harvest of NTFP conservation issue requiring high commitment resources from the wild (Sharma et al. 2004), but of PA and Community Forest (CF) managers. its implementation has not been satisfactory. The The control of poaching in CNP in recent times policy also promotes commercial planting of selected has been largely due to three major initiatives: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in private and (i) Community Based Anti-Poaching Operations community lands so that collectors do not depend (CBAPOs) formed in each User Committee and entirely on natural sources. Given the fact that so mobilized effectively by the park warden; (ii) much private land remains vacant due to mass- effective patrolling by Nepal Army based inside the migration of youths from the villages in search of park; they are encouraged to do better through the work outside the country, planting of selected MAPs implementation of the Management Information in large areas by involving commercial growers with System Tool (MIST). MIST is a GPS based tool provision for quality and quantity assurance for the that helps supervisors to evaluate the effectiveness buyers has great potential to generate huge income of the prevailing patrolling design; and (iii) able for land owners and traders. leadership of the park warden to motivate its staff and undertake skilled programs. Entry points to Hydropower development in the key connecting TAR from ACA and MCA have been recognized rivers and streams in CHAL can be seen as a serious as trade routes for illegal shipment of valuable threat to freshwater biodiversity conservation. wildlife trophies and medicinal herbs. In this Dams can ruin the visual appeal of the area context, other PAs need to be as effective as CNP and adversely affect any potential for tourism. in controlling poaching and curbing illegal trade Also, people dependent on local fish and other of wildlife parts, having their trade-nexus rooted freshwater resources for their food supply as well in the international arena. For areas controlled by as livelihoods will greatly suffer. With inadequate the Department of Forests, the DFOs should be policy to make these dams more biodiversity- encouraged to provide similar outputs involving friendly, the threat to biodiversity is likely to rise. District Forest Sector Coordination Committees Nepal’s policy of restrictive use of waterways (DFSCCs) and law enforcement agencies. One of flowing within the protected areas (DNPWC 2011a) the poorly documented illegal poaching events is for power generation will probably stall harmful fishing in rivers using electric current generated development within the protected areas; but it by batteries. This activity also needs to be closely seems doubtful if MoFSC will continue to stand for monitored and controlled by seeking the support of its own policy for long, given the pressures to open communities and local law enforcement agencies. up PA areas for hydropower. Some of the invasive alien plants1 recorded in the Crop and livestock depredation is a serious CHAL area have already threatened native species conservation issue for all protected areas in and habitats by competing for critical resources. CHAL and also in the midhill forests. Especially For the purpose of CHAL, it seems, action on Alien

1 Alien Invasive Species is defined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as, “An alien species which threatens ecosystems, habitats or species” (Article 2). This definition is considered rather broad and several working definitions have been developed: A working definition by IUCN (2000, cited in Shine et al. 2000) is more relevant for the purpose of CHAL, “Invasive species means an alien species which becomes established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, is an agent of change, and threatens native biological diversity.” Another suitable working definition put forward by the Global Invasive Species Programme (2012) is, “IAS are organisms that have been moved from their native habitat to a new location when they cause significant harm to the environment, economic systems and/or human health.” For Government of Nepal, Focal point of CBD is yet to adopt a working definition (Resham Dangi, personal communications).

24 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES B iodi v ersit y C onser v ation I ssues in C H A L

Invasive Plant Species (IAPSs) should be limited Lantana camara (synonym: L. aculeate) to plants that have been introduced by humans Locally called ban phanda, the plant is found in either purposely or by accident and that have different habitats that range from 75 to 1,700 m. It is become a serious threat to the environment. Some seen dominating scrublands, fallow lands and forest of the IAPSs recorded in the CHAL area has already margins. Many native plants are reported to have threatened native species and habitats by competing been displaced due to the invasion of this plant. for critical resources. They have succeeded in growing and spreading rapidly, displacing native Mikania micrantha (synonym: M. scandens, M. plant communities. It seems the GoN, especially cordata) the Department of Plant Resources, should work Locally known as lahare banmara, this is a climber closely with international organizations such as and spreads appallingly fast, blocking sunlight for CBD, IUCN and WWF to develop an Invasive Plant the host plant and eventually killing other plants Atlas for identification, early detection, prevention or stunting their growth. Its shoots were reported and management of invasive plants, similar to US to grow so fast it is also called minute-a-mile plant. Park Service (University of Georgia and NPS 2010). Mikania invasion has been a serious problem in The CHAL project should be involved in providing the forests and grasslands of Chitwan. It has necessary assistance. prevented the growth of palatable plants and in effect seems to have displaced many ungulates Invasive alien plant species have been assessed for from their preferred areas. Nepal (Tiwari et al. 2005). Of the 21 plant species identified by the team, the following species are of Free grazing by domestic stock, considered as a major concern to CHAL, particularly considering threat to biodiversity until few decades ago, has not their harmful behavior in natural areas: been reported as a serious threat in the interaction meetings. It is largely because youths leave villages Ageratina adenophora (synonym: Eupatorium for extended periods of time; as a result, the lands adenophorum, E. gladulosum) are fallow for years and the livestock is reduced to Locally called kalo banmara, the plant grows a minimum of a stall-fed buffalo or cow. There are profusely in disturbed forest, forest margins and still large numbers of goats, but they seem to have fallow land at altitudes of 500-2,400 m. The plant plenty of areas to graze. However, for transhumance was invasive more than 40 years ago, and has grazing of sheep, it was reported in Lamjung that been seen in Langtang for the past decade. It has climate change effects are visible in rangelands and displaced native ground growth. in the sheep-herding patterns there. The number of sheep in recent times has gone up from about Chromolaena odorata (synonym: Eupatorium 9,000 to about 15,000. The transhumance grazing odoratum) has come into conflict with community forests, the Locally called aule banmara or seto banmara, the user groups of which will not allow sheep grazing in plant grows in sunny, open and well drained areas. their forests. The growth of grass in the rangeland is It occupies forest floors that are disturbed. Once affected by the erratic moisture availability. It was established, it is difficult to remove manually. It reported that rangelands inside and outside of ACA displaces grasses in particular. and MCA are overgrazed and there is a shortage of water holes for animals. The issue of rangeland Eichhornia crassipes (synonym: Pontederia management is serious, warranting attention. crassipes) Locally called jal kumbhi, this is a very fast Similarly, firewood collection for household use growing plant that covers the water surface of the does not seem as intense as before. Residents wetlands and reduces light and air to submerged interviewed said they prefer a mix of energy options, organisms. Local people remove water hyacinth using limited firewood, LPG gas and biogas. This from wetlands manually to open up water surface change of energy options seems to have reduced areas for improving fish stocks or for fishing. The the collection of firewood from forests. The change wetlands of Chitwan National Park and Beeshazari became necessary as CFs put occasional bans on the Lake of the Barandabhar Forest have a serious collection of firewood, and also since youths are not invasion of this plant species and each year the around to undertake this arduous task. It was felt Park tries to manually remove it. This plant is also that if an alternative energy program is carefully seen invading Fewa Lake and other nearby lakes in designed and implemented in suitable altitudes Kaski District of CHAL. many villagers would be willing to own biogas

25 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES B iodi v ersit y C onser v ation I ssues in C H A L

plants, especially of 6 cu m capacity. Each plant, if (IEE)/Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), connected with toilet waste, it was reported, can run forest land can be allowed for non-forestry uses. on the dung of only two or three cattle or buffalo. In recent times, this provision of the Act has been liberally used and has been a cause for concern to Another important issue that was only sparingly conservationists. In the past, several hydroelectric reported in the interaction meetings was the issue dams, transmission lines, irrigation canals, roads of slash and burn agriculture. This could have been and settlements (e.g. New Padampur settlement in because of the composition of the respondents and Barandabhar Forest) in CHAL have been approved inability for the team members to visit other sites. by the government to use forest lands. Currently, This practice, seemingly harmful to biodiversity the proposed transmission lines that would pass conservation as it is practiced now, could be an through Barandabhar Corridor could have a big issue for consideration for the Hariyo Ban Program impact on wildlife and their movements. to follow in a number of districts, including Nawalparasi, Tanahu, Palpa and Gorkha. Weak institutional capacity is considered as the most prominent conservation issue. This Diversion of forest or PA land for non-forestry uses is reflected in inadequacy of staff, equipment has been identified as an important conservation and infrastructure such as staff quarters, office issue. The spirit of the Forest Act or National buildings and roads. It is also a reflection of lack Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act is to disallow of regular training opportunities for the field any request for projects that intends to reduce the based staffs of PAs and midhill forests, NGOs, forest land coverage. But, the Forest Act, Article community-based organizations, and anti- 68, provides opportunity to divert forest land for poaching units. Inadequate funding to manage nationally important projects, when there is no PAs and inadequate access to research-based alternative but to use the forest land. In such cases, information for PA management are also the part after proper Initial Environmental Examination of the conservation issue under this category.

26 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Climate Refugia and Adaptation to Climate Change 9

It seems, in response to anthropogenic climate changed grass composition in the rangelands, and warming, upward migration of species is imminent loss of local crop varieties (Ministry of Environment for the species that are found in foothills. Other (MoE) 2012, NVST 2009). Upward migration species especially in the highlands may be in of species would affect the composition of plant danger as they may have nowhere to move to. Even communities and vulnerable species may decrease then such species may find favorable microhabitats in abundance as environmental factors such as soil due to ruggedness of the terrain. In this context and moisture become limiting factors. For animals climate refugia become critical to sustain species the new areas may not have adequate food or cover. and ecosystems from the adverse effects of climate change. Climate refugia are the areas “that are Community-based forest management systems, less affected by climate change than other areas as including community forests, pro-poor leasehold sources for recovery or as destinations for climate- forests, BZ community forests, sub-watershed sensitive migrants...” (Spehn 2011: 43). management user communities, and forests conserved through conservation area management committees Although a separate listing of climate refugia could provide opportunities for implementing adaptation not be made due to time and logistic constraints in and mitigation measures to address the adverse the field, many of the identified Biodiversity Areas, impacts of climate change in CHAL, as elsewhere especially those falling in the corridor, can be in Nepal. These measures are equally important considered as climate refugia. The protected areas to reduce poverty and provide new opportunities have altitudinal variations within themselves, for livelihoods. The National Adaptation Program creating climate refugia. For example, in Chitwan of Action (NAPA) of Nepal (MoE 2010) rightly National Park the hills within the park and recommends putting more focus on sustainable Barandabhar Forest to the north can act as climate forest management, and improved governance and refugia. In ACA, the altitudinal variation of 1,000- capacity at the local level, including improved access 8,000 m and deep valleys and gorges provide a and equitable benefit sharing, among other things, number of areas for climate refugia. as the measures to deal with the impacts of climate change on forests and biodiversity. The effects of In general, it seems, in-depth field studies would climate change will tend to aggravate the complex be required to understand the effects of climate mountain poverty situation, which is affected by the change on biodiversity in CHAL. The projected fragility of ecosystems, remoteness, poor accessibility 20C of average global temperature rise by 2050 and marginalization of mountain communities from could mean more than 30C rise in temperature the mainstream. Further, it is complicated by lack in the mountains, higher for taller mountains. of equity in terms of access to basic facilities, lack of This would change the complex ecological web employment opportunities and proneness to natural in the mountains resulting in changes in weather disaster (ICIMOD 2010). In this context of climate patterns, hydrological processes, and water change, potential livelihood options, especially for availability for drinking and for irrigation. Some marginalized communities, should be explored and observations reported in literature in the context implemented in CHAL. Some opportunities that can of Nepal are equally applicable to the CHAL area: be further explored include utilization of abandoned increased temperatures over decades has meant agriculture land, production and marketing of upward movements of vegetation, encroachment mountain niche products, and promotion of of invasive species, spread of new diseases and community-based tourism. These issues are discussed pests, increased incidence of dryness and fires, in more detail by other experts in the main report.

27 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES 10 Recommendations

10.1 Policy and Legislative 10.3 Management Environment n The rapidly deteriorating conditions of Churia The conservation of biodiversity at the landscape Hills in Makwanpur and Nawalparasi districts level is given high priority by the government: should be addressed. as a result, three important landscape level n Three District Forest Offices should be conservation initiatives are under implementation supported to implement the Protected Forest or at the last stage of planning: Terai Arc Management Plans and revise the plans to Landscape, Sacred Himalayan Landscape and make them more oriented for protecting the Kailash Sacred Himalayan Landscape. The species and ecosystems at the landscape level. Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape would fill an n Protected Areas, especially those situated important gap and would provide the landscape on the northern parts of the country, should with north-south connectivity. The government consider realigning their boundaries to include should formulate specific policy for identified more/new areas with high biodiversity value. biological corridors in the country. The Ministry n DFOs and PA agencies should collaborate of Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC), which with the Haryio Ban Program to identify has currently proposed draft bills for amendment locally occurring biodiversity areas of national of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation importance. The expertise of the Department of Act and Forest Act, should consider including this Forest Research and Survey could be valuable. aspect of biodiversity conservation in its draft bills. n Conservation issues, especially management With the policy and legislative environment in and governance related issues should be place, it would be easy to provide specific attention properly addressed, giving priority to the to the declared corridors and biodiversity areas in midhill forest areas. Issues include curbing CHAL. illegal harvest of forest resources, promoting biodiversity-friendly hydropower projects, In the meantime, MoFSC should work with addressing human-wildlife conflicts, community and NGO partners to protect these controlling poaching and illegal trade of sites for landscape level conservation by declaring wildlife and their parts, and controlling rapid the potential corridors and biodiversity areas for spread of identified invasive alien species. more focused conservation. n Institutional capacity of government agencies, grassroots NGOs, and community based organizations should be increased. This 10.2 Documentation includes providing field-based training, providing opportunities for higher education, Data available in the Himalayan region is sporadic. making available necessary equipment, Documentation of biodiversity in CHAL is and providing access for electronic essential to improve the understanding of status, communications (e.g. internet). conservation and management issues, including the effects of climate change on biodiversity.

28 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES References

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Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC). 2012. Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park. http://www.dnpwc.gov.np/national-parks-shivapuri.asp. Accessed on 21/05/2012. Also brochure of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park. ‚ Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC). 2012. Nepal s Tiger Population has Remained Stable. http://www.dnpwc.gov.np/current_news. Accessed on 30/06/2012 Dhungana, S. K., B. Raya, B. P. Niraula, and S. Bhattarai. 2012. World Peace Biodiversity Garden, Pokhara, Kaski. A report submitted to the Department of Plant Resources, Nepal. DPR, Kathmandu, Nepal. Dinerstein, E. 2003. The Return of the Unicorns: The Natural History and Conservation of the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros. Columbia Univ. Press, New York, USA. Dobremez, J. F. 1996. Foreword. Pages: i-iii. In: Jha, P. K, Ghimire, G.P.S., Karmacharya, S. B., Baral, S. R. and Lacoul, P. (eds.) Environment and Biodiversity: In the Context of South Asia. Ecological Society, Kathmandu, Nepal. Edds, D. 1989. Multivariate analysis of fish assemblage composition and environmental correlates in a Himalayan river – Nepal’s Kali Gandaki/Narayani. Ph.D. diss., Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, USA. Global Invasive Species Program. 2012. http://www.gisp.org. Accessed on 12 April 2012. Inskipp, C. 1989. Nepal’s Forest Birds: Their Status and Conservation. ICBP Monograph No. 4. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). 2010. Understanding Mountian Poverty. Exploring the Specificities of Poverty in the Mountain Areas of the Greater Himalayan Region. Information sheet No. 3/2010. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal. IUCN-Nepal. 1996. An Inventory of Nepal’s Wetlands. IUCN-Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. Karki, J. B., M. Siwakoti and N. S. Pradhan. 2005. Biodiversity Resources of High Altitude Wetlands in Nepal. Pages: 67-86. In: B. B. Bhandari ed. High Altitude Wetlands of Nepal. Forum for Ecosystem Management, Kathmandu, Nepal. Laurie, W. A. 1978. The ecology of the greater one-horned rhinoceros. Ph.D. diss., Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK. Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Forestry Services, Royal Government of Bhutan (MoA). 2004. Bhutan Biological Conservation Complex Living in Harmony with the Nature, A Landscape Conservation Plan: A way Forward. MoA, Thimpu, Bhutan. Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal (MoE). 2010. National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to Climate Change. MoE, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal (MoE). 2012. Mountain Environment and Climate Change in Nepal: National Report prepared for the International Conference of Mountain Countries on Climate Change, 5-6 April 2012. MoA, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal (MoFSC). 2006. Sacred Himalayan Landscape – Nepal Strategic Plan (2006-2016) Broad Strategy Document. MoFSC, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal (MoFSC). 2002. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy. MoFSC, Kathmandu, Nepal. Mittermeier, R. A., P. R. Giles, M. Hoffman, J. Pilgrim, T. Brooks, C. G. Mittermeier, J. Lamoreaux, and G. A. B. Da Fonseca (eds.). 2004. Hotspots Revisited. Earth‘s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. CEMEX/Agrupacion Sierra Madre, Mexico City, Mexico. Myers, N., R. A. Mittermeier, C. G. Mittermeier, G. A. B.Da Fonseca, and J. Kent. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403(24): 853-858. National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC). 2008. Management Plan of Annapurna Conservation Area (2009-2012). NTNC, Kathmandu, Nepal. National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC). 2011. Management Plan of Manaslu Conservation Area (2011-2015), Draft. NTNC, Kathmandu, Nepal. Nepal Climate Change Vulnerability Study Team (NCVST). 2009. Vulnerability Through the Eyes of Vulnerable: Climate Change Induced Uncertainities and Nepal’s Development Predicaments. Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal. Olson, D. M. and E. Dinerstein. 1998. The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth’s most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions. Conservation Biology 12:502-15.

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Rajbhandari, K. and S. K. Dhungana. 2010. Endemic Flowering Plants of Nepal Part II. Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathamandu, Nepal. Rajbhandari, K.R. and Adhikari, M.K. 2009. Endemic Flowering Plants of Nepal Part 1. Department of Plants Resources Bulletin-Special Publication No. 1, Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal R. Grimmett, C. Inskipp, and T. Inskipp and H. S. Baral. 2003. Birds of Nepal. Nepali Edition. Helm Field Guide, Prakash Books, New Delhi. Sah, J. P., R. L. Singh, R. D. Tiwari, and R. P. Chaudhary. 1999. Biodiversity in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Nepal: Status, Significance and Conservation. Tigerpaper 26(3): 5-12. Seidensticker, J. 1976. Ungulate Populations in Chitwan Valley, Nepal. Biological Conservation 10:183- 210. Sharma, U. R. 1991. Park–People Interactions in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Ph.D. diss., University of Arizona, Tucson, USA Sharma, U. R. 2010. Kangchenjunga Landscape: Opportunities for Transboundary Sharing of Knowledge and Skills. In: Pages 1-6, Biodiversity Conservation Efforts in Nepal, 15th Special Issue. DNPWC, Kathmandu, Nepal. Sharma, U. R. 2012. For a President’s Churiya Dream to Come True. http://www.spotlightnepal.com/ sln/Profile.aspx?ArticleID=3218&IssueID=45. Sharma, U. R., K. J. Malla, and R. Uprety. 2004. Conservation and Management Efforts of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Nepal. Banko Jankari 14(2): 3-11. Shine, C., N. Willimas and L. Gundling. 2000. A Guide to Designing Legal and Institutional Frameworks on Alien Invasive Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Spehn, E. 2011. Mountain Biodiversity Effects of Climate Change and How to Manage Them. Sustainable Mountain Development 60: 40-43. Subedi, A., R. P. Chaudhary, J. J. Vermeulen, and B. Gravendeel. 2011. Panisea panchseensis sp. Nov, (Orchidaceae) from Central Nepal. Nordic Journal of Botany 29: 361-365. Sunquist, M. E. 1981. The Social Organization of Tigers (Panthera tigris) in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, no. 336. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C., USA. Sunquist, M. E., U. R. Karnath, and F. Sunquist. 1999. Ecology behaviour, and resilience of the tiger and its conservation needs. Pages: 5-19 In: J. Seidensticker, S. Christie, and P. Jackson (eds.) Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-Dominated Landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Suwal, R. N. & Verheugt, W. J. M. (1995): Enumeration of the mammals of Nepal. Biodiversity Profiles Project Technical Publication No. 6. – Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Kathmandu. Thakuri, J. J. And L. P. Poudyal. 2011. Birds of Pipar in Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Danphe 20(3): 1-8. Tiwari, S., B. Adhikari, M. Siwakoti, and K. Subedi. 2005. An Inventory and Assessment of Invasive Alien Plant Species of Nepal. IUCN, Kathmandu, Nepal. University of Georgia and National Park Service. 2010. http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/index.html. Accessed on 12 April 2012. Wikramanayake, E., E. Dinerstein, T. Allnutt, C. Loucks, and W. Wettengel. 1998. A Biodiversity Assessment and Gap Analysis of the Himalayas. Conservation Science Program, WWF-US, Washington DC, USA. WWF and ICIMOD. 2001. Ecoregion-Based Conservation in the Eastern Himalaya. Identifying Important Areas for Biodiversity Conservation. WWF Nepal Program, Kathmandu, Nepal.

31 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES Annex A Check List for Biodiversity and Corridors

What are the biodiversity hotspots in your district ?

Questions to ask at district level meetings n Location n Approximate area n Key biodiversity found n District level initiations to protect them n Assess the awareness and perception about the need for biodiversity conservation in their areas and their willingness to support such activities. Assess with the help of gender specialist, different awareness of men and women, persons with disability and other socially disadvantaged groups on need for biodiversity conservation

Questions for community level meetings n Inputs on the conditions of forests/waterways in the identified potential corridors and existing ones. [Relevant for both levels of meetings] n Invasive alien species in natural areas n Take stock reported n Controlling methods adopted n Forest Encroachment [Relevant for both level meetings] n In the government-managed forest in the district n In the community forests in the district n Initiations taken to evict them or other mechanisms to manage them n Grazing of livestock [Relevant for both level meetings] n Grazing practices: totally stall-fed, partially stall-fed, free-ranging, seasonal migration n Types of stock n Increase/decrease of dominant types of stock over the past years n Poaching of wild animals [Relevant for both level meetings] n Which wild animals/birds killed? n Killed for self-consumption of meat or for sale in the market n Killed for valuable trophies n Number of cases of poachers tried and jailed/fined in the district n Any reported case of wildlife trophy movement from south to north, or vice versa n Identify threats to biodiversity: To be assessed based on the interactions with the community members, villagers, and local agency officials. [ Relevant for both level meetings] n Human wildlife conflict [Questions to community level meetings] n Major species of livestock depredated by wildlife n Major crops reported to have been lost to wildlife n Who are the most affected in community by the wildlife conflict? n Local harassment: attacks, injuries, deaths and property damage n Retaliatory killing of depredating wildlife

32 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES A nne x A

n Local measures taken to protect their crops and livestock against depredation n Any livestock insurance practices prevailing? n How compensation, if any, is claimed from the government? n Any special program targeted to key species in implementation from the government?

Questions for district level meetings n Any wildlife crime control bureau formed under DFO/Park Warden? n Any of the following support the crime control activities in your district/park: National Tiger Conservation Committee (NTCC), Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB), South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN)? If yes, elaborate. n Inquire about any measures against forest fires, landslides and high flood incidents in the district in last and current years. [Relevant for both level meetings] n How fires are put out and other incidents are mitigated? Who bears the costs of such operations? [Relevant for both level meetings] n What are the indigenous varieties of beans, cereals, fruits, vegetables, oilseeds used? Is their use same as before or is it gradually being replaced by new/improved varieties? n Forest management practices [Relevant for both level meetings] n Community forests: number, total area in the district, problems reported n Government-managed forests: activities and problems n Leasehold forests: number, area in the district, problems reported n Religious forests: number, area in the district, problems reported n Private forests n Protected forests

33 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES

The Hariyo Ban Program is named after the famous Nepali saying ‘Hariyo Ban Nepal ko Dhan’ (Healthy green forests are the wealth of Nepal). It is a USAID funded initiative that aims to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and threats to biodiversity in Nepal. This will be accomplished by working with the government, communities, civil society and private sector. In particular, the Hariyo Ban Program works to empower Nepal’s local communities in safeguarding the country’s living heritage and adapting to climate change through sound conservation and livelihood approaches. Thus the Program emphasizes the links between people and forests and is designed to benefit nature and people in Nepal. At the heart of Hariyo Ban lie three interwoven components – biodiversity conservation, payments for ecosystem services including REDD+ and climate change adaptation. These are supported by livelihoods, governance, and gender and social inclusion as cross-cutting themes. A consortium of four non-governmental organizations is implementing the Hariyo Ban Program with WWF Nepal leading the consortium alongside CARE Nepal, FECOFUN and NTNC.

WWF Nepal PO Box: 7660, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal T: +977 1 443820, F: +977 1 4438458 Email: [email protected], [email protected] Website: www.wwfnepal.org/hariyobanprogram 36 CHITWAN-ANNAPURNA LANDSCAPE: BIODIVERSITY AREAS AND LINKAGES