Effects of Marketing Carbon on Socio-Cultural Values of Thicket

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The relevance of socio-cultural values of ecosystem services to restoration planning and implementation in the Baviaanskloof

Kim Janssen

October 2008

The relevance of socio-cultural values of ecosystem services to restoration planning and implementation in the Baviaanskloof

Kim Janssen

Supervisors:

Dr. Dolf de Groot, Environmental Systems Analysis group, Wageningen UR PO Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands Email: [email protected]

Matthew Zylstra, Dieter van den Broek, Bas Verschuuren (EarthCollective) Email: [email protected] [email protected]

Master thesis project assigned by

Subtropical Thicket Restoration Programme - STRP, South Africa.

Co-funded and supported by

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry - DWAF and

Gamtoos Irrigation Board - GIB, South Africa.

In collaboration with

Rhodes Restoration Research Group - R3G, South Africa and

Facilitated by

PRESENCE - Participatory Restoration of Ecosystem Services & Natural Capital (Eastern Cape) platform and

EarthCollective.

Summary

The South African subtropical thicket biome belongs to the UNESCO Cape Floristic Region World Heritage Site and is recently included in the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot. Heavy overgrazing by goats has, however, caused severe degradation of a large part of the biome. Nowadays, only some 5.000 km² of the estimated 47.000 km² of original thicket cover remains in a pristine state. Both the Subtropical Thicket Restoration Programme (STRP) and the willingness of various stakeholders to take action recognise the importance of thicket. STRP tests the feasibility of using Portulacaria afra and other thicket species to sequester ][l\ih oh^_l nb_ Cf_[h D_p_fijg_hn M_]b[hcmg i` nb_ Cfcg[n_ Cihp_hncih’m Ksini Plini]il.

STRP collaborates with the PRESENCE (Participatory Restoration of Ecosystem SErvices & Natural Capital in the Eastern Cape) project, which is coordinated by EarthCollective, to address key scientific issues in ecosystem restoration in the western Baviaanskloof. The study for this thesis is a major contribution to this project and uses the concept of ecosystem services in an integrated assessment of opportunities for conservation and sustainable development. The objectives of this thesis are to perform a socio-cultural valuation of the thicket ecosystem for primary stakeholders and a preliminary social impact assessment of the STRP project. Research questions include: 1. What socio-cultural values are identified by the inhabitants and landowners in the Baviaanskloof? 2. What is the perceived wellbeing of inhabitants and landowners in the Baviaanskloof from the perspective of the socio-cultural dimension? 3. What are the possible impacts of the implementation of carbon marketing on the socio-cultural values and (perceived) wellbeing of the inhabitants and landowners? Relevant theoretical concepts using integrated assessment frameworks of ecosystem services and the millennium _]imsmn_g [mm_mmg_hn’m ‚]ihmncno_hnm i` q_ff\_cha‛ [l_ _p[fo[n_^ [h^ ^_`ch_^. Tbcm nb_mcm defch_[n_m ‘mi]ci- ]ofnol[f cgj[]nm’ [m ‚the ways in which people live, work, play, relate to one another, organise to meet their needs, cope as members of society, as well as the norms, values, and beliefs of those people that guide and rationalise their cognition of themselves and their society‛. A^^cncih[ffs, ‘p[fo_’ cm chn_ljl_n_^ b_l_ \inb [m nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ [h^ nb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m. Tb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ p[fo_ cm om_^ ni ch^c][n_ mn[e_bif^_lm’ iqh perspectives on their socio-cultural situation and their quality of wellbeing. Primary data collection methods in this study include semi-structured and qualitative interviews, focus group sessions, observation, desk research and several participatory research tools. Socio-cultural valuation, participatory rural appraisal (PRA; including the Pebble Distribution Method or PDM), social impact assessment (SIA), participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) and stakeholder analysis are used to analyse the data.

The results show a broad range of socio-cultural values for both farmer and coloured communities in the western Baviaanskloof. The most important ones are:  Binb ]iggohcnc_m [jj_[l ni g[chn[ch mnliha ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ [h^ ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_ p[fo_m; ip_l 63% i` the farmers and over 95% of the coloured inhabitants have lived in the Baviaanskloof valley most of their fcp_m, [h^ g[hs _p_h nb_cl qbif_ fcp_m. Tb_ cmif[n_^ fi][ncih b[m ]l_[n_^ [ ]b[l[]n_lcmnc] ‚mg[ff ]iggohcns ih cnm iqh‛ ni qbc]b l_mc^_hnm `__f [nn[]b_^;  All communities refer to the importance of the suitability of thicket to support livestock and wild animals: all farmers and one coloured community keep livestock for commercial purposes and own consumption (a cultural-traditional activity); game farming is practiced by 27% of the farmers.  For the coloured communities, the top 4 most important resources related to thicket to maintain their livelihood and wellbeing are water (13.6%), firewood (12.2%), building material (11.2%), and medicinal thicket resources (9.2%). However, some ^c``_l_h]_m [l_ ^_n_]n_^ \_nq__h nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ [h^

‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ p[fo_ i` mj_]c`c] _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m: ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’ `il chmn[h]_ cm ^_jc]n_^ [m highly important, yet its appreciation is clearly less positive with regards to perceived quality of life.

This study shows that the implementation of STRP under CDM regulation would have considerable impacts on socio-]ofnol[f p[fo_m [h^ ko[fcns i` fcp_m i` \inb `[lg_lm [h^ ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m. Tbl__ ‘`clmn-jb[m_’ ]b[ha_ processes that would bring about both positive and negative socio-cultural impacts are identified. These are changes in user rights policies for land-use, interlinked change in physical land-om_ ([h^ qcnb nb[n j_ijf_’m activities), and initial changes in land cover.

The overlays of land-use maps and maps with STRP site indications generate additional valuable insights on probable impacts of restoration implementation. This shows the added value of specific participatory research methods, such as PGIS. Depending on the locations where current land-use and probable STRP sites overlap, impacts for the farmers partially reduce certain cultural traditions (e.g. livestock keeping) and possible creation (il ch mig_ ][m_m: []]_f_l[ncih) i` h_q ‘q[sm i` nbchecha’ (_.a. _rcmn_h]_ p[fo_). R_f[ncha ni nb_ ‘]ihmncno_hnm i` q_ff\_cha’, `[lg_lm qiof^ ìl chmn[h]_ \_ h_a[ncp_fs cgj[]n_^ ch nb_cl ‘`l__îg i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih’ nblioab h_q land-om_ lcabnm [h^ jimcncp_fs cgj[]n_^ ìl nb_cl ‘`__fcha q_ff’. Impacts for the coloured communities include high reduction in current livestock numbers (affecting cultural traditions), increase in employment opportunities (through the STRP related poverty alleviation programme Working for Water), possible creation of envy amongst individuals concerning unequal ji\ m_f_]ncih jli]_ôl_m (ch`fo_h]cha nb_ ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih i` mi]c[f aliojm’ _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_), [h^ [q[l_h_mm l[cmcha (nblioab nb_ ‘h[nol_ _ô][ncih’ _f_g_hn i` STRP cgjf_g_hn[ncih).

This study concludes that social impact assessments (SIA) do not always aim at predicting the future. SIA is [^pi][n_^ ni g_l_fs \_ [ ‚q[s i` nbchecha‛, il [h attempt to highlight factors that deserve thorough attention and consideration in the planning for project implementation. Important factors this study recommends for restoration projects are therefore: respect towards local values, ensuring local involvement and participation, striving towards equitable benefit sharing, ensuring maintenance and improvement of livelihoods, and providing training, technical assistance and education to local people. Finally, restoration planning and implementation is incomplete when it focuses only on ecological processes. Social goals should also be included in restoration jlid_]nm \_][om_ nb_ ‘mi]c[f’ [h^ ‘_]ifiac][f’ [l_ chn_lnqch_^.

Acknowledgements

This MSc thesis report is the result of a research on socio-cultural values of local stakeholders in the western Baviaanskloof, South Africa, and their relevancy to restoration planning and implementation. Together with three other thesis reports this report forms an Integrated Assessment on Ecosystem Goods and Services. The fieldwork for the Integrated Assessment took place between September and December 2007.

None of the fieldwork nor the analysis and documentation process would have been possible without the generous help of many people. First I would like to thank dr. Dolf de Groot (Wageningen University) for his time and effort to give me valuable advice and support throughout the process. Many thanks to the EarthCollective team, Coen and Silvia for their great support, and in specific Bas, Dieter and Matt for their inspiring scientific and organisational support. Without all of you this valuable experience would have never been part of my life. Thanks [fmi ni nb_ l_mn i` nb_ ‘Kioa[ a[ha’, Lea and Janneke, and off course my fieldwork colleagues Emmanuelle, Eliska and Ignacio for making this an incredible experience, I very much enjoyed working with you, and being around all of you was always a lot of fun.

I am very grateful to the people who took time to answer all of our questions: thanks to Mike Powell (Rhodes Restoration Research Group) for his support and cooperation. Many thanks to Prof. Richard Cowling and Andrew Knight (Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University) for advising and stimulating our research; the quality of our fieldwork has greatly improved with your guidance. A lot of credit also goes to all the local residents in the q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`; nb[hem ni nb_ `[lg_lm’ `[gcfc_m nb[n q_f]ig_^ om ch nb_cl big_m [h^ mjicf_^ om ni the bone qcnb ‘\l[[cm’ [h^ inb_l g_[fm. I p_ls go]b [jjl_]c[n_ nb_ ncg_ [h^ _`ìln i` Pc_n_l Kloa_l [h^ Klcm L[gjl_]bn ni g[e_ om `__f [n big_ ch nb_ ‘efii`’. Tb[he sio ni [ff nb_ chb[\cn[hnm i` S_q_ìhn_ch [h^ S[[cg[hmbi_e ìl receiving us; a special thanks to Noel, Abbey-Gail and Christo for guiding us as translators. Thanks to the Chnuganoo community farm for their hospitality during the two weeks we camped on the property.

I am very thankful to Edwill Moore, Pierre Joubert and Reinette Colesky from Gamtoos Irrigation Board, as well as to Wayne Erlank and Hein from Eastern Cape Parks, who facilitated our stay in Kouga Dam and Geelhoutbos. Thank you very much for your collaboration and support. A thank you also goes to Yolandi Vermaak, who was always eager to help us making our stay very special.

Without funding as received by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Gamtoos Irrigation Board, Rhodes Restoration Research Group, and Wageningen University, this research would have not been possible. Thank you very much for facilitating this research opportunity.

Finally, I would like to thank my parents, brothers and friends for their mental support, for believing in me and their encouragement throughout the whole process of my studies.

Table of contents

Chapter 1. Introduction ...... 10 1.1 Background ...... 10 1.2 Context of the research ...... 11 1.3 Problem statement ...... 14 1.4 Research objective and research questions ...... 14 1.5 Research area ...... 15 1.6 Thesis outline ...... 20

Chapter 2. Research concepts ...... 21 2.1 Ecosystem functions and services ...... 21 2.2 Integrated Assessment (IA) ...... 22 2.3 Ecosystem services and socio-cultural values ...... 24

Chapter 3. Research methodology and data collection ...... 32 3.1 Application of the discussed concepts in the research methods...... 32 3.2 Data collection methods ...... 39

Chapter 4. Baviaanskloof: stakeholder profiles and socio-cultural structures ...... 42 4.1 Stakeholders in context of the research ...... 42 4.2 General profile of the selected stakeholder groups ...... 43

Chapter 5. F[lg_lm’ mi]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` B[pc[[hmefii`’m _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ...... 47 5.1 F[lg_lm’ mi]ci-cultural valuation of cultural services ...... 47 5.2 Socio-cultural values of other ecosystem services ...... 51 5.3 Socio-cultural values and perceived wellbeing ...... 53

Chapter 6. Cifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m’ mi]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` B[pc[[hmefii`m’ _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m .... 58 6.1 Socio-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` B[pc[[hmefii`’m cultural ecosystem services ...... 58 6.2 Socio-cultural values of other ecosystem services ...... 61 6.3 Socio-cultural structure and values: relation to perceived wellbeing ...... 64

Chapter 7. Relations between land cover and socio-cultural values of farmers and communities . 69 7.1 F[lg_lm’ mi]ci-culturally valued activities and their relation with land cover...... 69 7.2 Ciggohcnc_m’ mi]ci-cultural values in relation with thicket types, species and locations ...... 70

Chapter 8. Carbon marketing in western Baviaanskloof: plans, implementation & probable socio- cultural implications ...... 73 8.1 STRP and the Baviaanskloof ...... 73 8.2 Restoration applicability in the western Baviaanskloof and related change processes ...... 75 8.3 STRP, socio-cultural values and perceived wellbeing ...... 80

Chapter 9. Discussion ...... 91 9.1 Discussion of methods ...... 91 9.2 Insights from results ...... 92 9.3 General fieldwork matters ...... 93

Chapter 10. Conclusions and recommendations ...... 96 10.1 Socio-cultural values of thicket ecosystem services, and perceived wellbeing ...... 96 10.2 Impacts of carbon marketing implementation on the socio-cultural dimension ...... 97 10.3 Recommendations ...... 98

References

Annexes

List of tables and figures

Figure 1.1: Location of research area and the occurring thicket types, western Baviaanskloof Figure 1.2: Thicket vegetation types in the Baviaanskloof research area Figure 2.1: Framework for integrated assessment and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services Figure 2.2: Pathways to derive biophysical and human impacts Figure 2.3: Conceptual Framework of Interactions between Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, Human Well- being, and Drivers of Change (local, regional and global scales) Figure 3.1: Schematic outline of the research study Figure 6.1: Relative importance of socio-_]ihigc] _f_g_hnm []]il^cha ni nb_ ]ifiol_^ chb[\cn[hnm’ ch western Baviaanskloof Figure 7.1: overlay of vegetation types and cadastre datasets Figure 7.2: Land use and the relation with land cover in the communities Saaimanshoek and Sewefontein Figure 8.1: Possible future restoration sites; overlay of vegetation types and cadastres datasets Figure 8.2: Schematic overview of first and second order change processes through STRP implementation Figure 8.3: overlay of vegetation types and cadastres datasets Figure 7.4: overlay of vegetation types and cadastre datasets

Table 1: CBD categories for socio-cultural impact assessments Table 2: Ecosystem services with socio-cultural values and their indicators Table 3: Ef_g_hnm il ‘]ihmncno_hnm’ i` q_ff\_cha [h^ nb_cl ch^c][nilm Table 4: socio-culturally important land-uses and land covers Table 5: change processes and their links with indicators of socio-cultural importance, and wellbeing

Box 1: The subtropical thicket biome Box 2: Four ecosystem functions Box 3: [ `[lg_l’m ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ Box 4: mythical mermaids in Baviaanskloof Box 5: STRP projections for employment opportunities Box 6: CDM at Bosques Pico Bonito, Honduras Box 7: the UWA-FACE carbon forestry initiative at Mount Elgon, Uganda

List of acronyms

BMR Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve BMRP Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve Project BSC Baviaanskloof Steering Committee CAPE Cape Action for People and the Environment CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CDM Clean Development Mechanism CER Certified Emission Reduction CFR Cape Floristic Region CI Conservation International CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry DEAET Department of Economic Affairs, Environment and Tourism (national level) EASTCARE Ecosystem Approach for Subtropical Thicket Conservation And Restoration (Eastern Cape, South Africa) ECP Eastern Cape Parks ECPB Eastern Cape Parks Board FOE Friends Of the Earth FSC Forest Stewardship Council GIB Gamtoos Irrigation Board GIS Geographic Information Systems LULUCF Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment PDD Project Design Document PDM Pebble Distribution Method PES Payment for Ecosystem Services PGIS Participatory Geographic Information Systems PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal PRESENCE Participatory Restoration of Ecosystem SErvices and Natural Capital (Eastern Cape) R3G Rhodes Restoration Research Group RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal SA South Africa SIA Social Impact Assessment STEP Subtropical Thicket Ecosystem Planning STRP Subtropical Thicket Restoration (or Rehabilitation) Programme UNCHE United Nations Conference on the Human Environment UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UWA-FACE Uganda Wildlife Authority - Forests Absorbing Carbon-dioxide Emissions WUR Wageningen University and Research Centre

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 1. Introduction______

1.1 Background

1.1.1 The globalisation of the environmental concern

The start of the Environmental concern was illustrated by a so-][ff_^ _g_lacha ‘Al][^c[h’ qilf^pc_q, qbc]b niie place amongst the urban elite of the western countries in the 19th and early 20th century, and embodied a certain cultural approach to the importance of the existence of nature (van Koppen, 2000). Mostly private owned protected nature areas as well as the first laws oh ]ihm_lp[ncih ^_p_fij_^ `lig nbcm ‘h_q’ jichn i` pc_q (Zhang, 2006). While this first wave of Environmental concern was not yet aimed at transforming the actions of humankind, the second wave in the 60s and 70s was of a far more insistent note. During these years, much criticism started to develop on the industry and its polluting practices; the most famous book that was published ih nbcm g[nn_l b[m \__h R[]b_f C[lmih’m Silent Spring (dating from 1962), directing against the chemical industry and its production of deadly pesticides. This book and other work by Carson is often seen as the initiation of the modern Environmental movement (Bellamy Foster and Clark, 2008), and together with other literature on similar matters1 plus the emergence of environmental organizations such as Greenpeace (in 1972) and FOE (in 1969), a general public concern for the environment started to be raised. As a result, national authorities started to form and implement environmental laws and regulation, and standardization (Zhang, 2006). Since environmental issues never followed the legal human boundaries of land ownership, individual nations soon realized that their plans regarding environmental policy making would need cooperation with neighbouring countries in order to make these new policies succeed. Environmental issues thus soon became of international importance.

Consequently, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) in Stockholm in 1972, being the first United Nations conference with a focus on the environment, created the initial global cooperation between nations on the specific issues of the environment. The foundation of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) was realized after this conference, in order to encourage United Nations agencies to integrate environmental measures in their programs. Following this conference, many other conferences were held, resulting into environmental regimes and protocols that concerned the global community; examples are the ozone regime (from 1985 on), the Cartagena protocol on Biosafety (in 2000) that came forward from the Convention on Biodiversity (in 1992), or the Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992 and onwards) followed by the Kyoto Protocol (in 1997). Through these global efforts, humankind is increasingly realising the need for joint global action towards the protection of, and mitigation of thr_[nm ni nb_ _[lnb’m h[nol[f l_mcfc_h]_.

1.1.2 Contrasts in responsibilities between the developed and underdeveloped world

One aspect that UNCHE indicated, was the fact that environmental problems such as habitat degradation, toxicity and acid rain were not necessarily relevant issues for all countries (Buss, 2008); while developing countries (the ‘Sionb’) q_l_ ih ih_ b[h^ m[c^ ni l[nb_l jolmo_ ^_p_fijg_hn nb[h jlin_]n nb_ _hpclihg_hn, nb_ ch^omnlc[fct_^ ^_p_fij_^ ]iohnlc_m (nb_ ‘Nilnb’) q_l_ ]lcnc]cm_^ `il nb_cl cgj[]nm ih nb_ _hpclihg_hn nblioab nb_cl _]ihigc] activities. Consequently, industrialized countries were addressed for the role they should have in closing the gap between themselves and underdeveloped countries towards protecting the environment (Buss, 2008). The ^c``_l_h]_m ch l_mjihmc\cfcnc_m \_nq__h nb_ ‘Nilnb’ [h^ ‘Sionb’ ]ih]_lhcha _hpclihg_hn[f cmmo_m b[m \_]ig_ especially apparent with the set-up of global regimes and protocols through the years. The Kyoto Protocol, which has come forward from the Framework Convention on Climate Change, is one of the most prominent protocols that has made a clear distinction between responsibilities and roles of developed (Annex I) and developing (Annex

1 Such as the articles Robert Rudd wrote in 1959 for The Nation:‚Tb_ Ill_mjihmc\f_ Picmih_lm‛, [h^ ‚P_mnc]c^_m: Tb_ R_[f P_lcf‛

11 ‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

II) countries. Here, the developed countries that have ratified the Protocol, are required to reduce their carbon emissions to 5 percent below their 1990 collective average by 2012 (UNFCCC 2008b); in contrast, the developing countries have no direct obligations, but are given the possibility to help developed countries reduce their emissions through implementing certain flexible mechanisms, such as the Clean Development Mechanism.

1.1.3 The Kyoto Protocol and CDM: North-South collaboration

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), as has been defined under the Kyoto Protocol, allows developing countries to host emission-reduction projects in order to sell so-called Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits to developed countries that have emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitments (UNFCCC 2008a). Such collaboration between the developed and developing countries could, for the developed countries, help reach their Kyoto targets concerning carbon emission reduction or limitation; for the developing countries, the hosting of a CDM project would contribute to sustainable development (UNFCCC 2008a; Akong Minang, 2007). Examples that could be eligible for CDM implementation are, amongst others, rural electrification projects using solar panels, the installation of more energy-efficient boilers, or forestation/afforestation projects (UNFCCC 2008a).

1.2 Context of the research

1.2.1 CDM and the road towards STRP

The introduction of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol has created a vision within the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), as this governmental department has realised CDM can generate the possibility –finance wise– to initiate projects aimed at restoring natural capital, improving ecosystem functioning and the rate of supply for ecosystem services, as well as that it can provide for employment and capacity building in rural areas (Powell et al. 2006). In addition, initiation of projects under the CDM would open up possibilities to commit as a nation to conventions such as the Convention of Biodiversity, and it would offer the opportunity to integrate Millennium Ecosystem Assessment principles in projected activities. Regarding the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the South African government had already initiated several projects in the past that consider its Box 1: The subtropical thicket biome principles, these being projects and Approximately 17% of the surface area of the Eastern Cape programmes such as Working for Water, province is covered by subtropical thicket (Powell et al. 2006), Working for Wetlands and Working for Fire an extra-ordinary biodiverse biome which has recently been declared part of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany (Woodworth, 2006) all aimed at poverty biodiversity hotspot (Earthcollective (eds), 2007a). Thicket alleviation and natural resource restoration. divides up to 112 types with 1.558 recorded types of flora, of In 2003, Working for Water and the South which 322 are endemic (Vlok et al. 2003). Thicket mostly African Wilderness Foundation initiated a makes up a dense formation of evergreen and weakly deciduous shrubs and low trees, and in many of the pilot called the Working for Woodlands different types of thicket Portulacaria afra, alias Project (Department of Water Affairs and Spekboom, is the dominant species (Cowling and Vlok, Forestry 2008), which put a focus on the 2005; Powel et al. 2006). Transformation of thicket into rehabilitation of the subtropical thicket in the an open savanna-like system has happened over the past on large scale, mostly due to heavy browsing and Eastern Cape province (see box 1). overgrazing by goats (Mills et al. 2005); this has lead to Restoration of thicket was (and is) considered subsistent transformative degradation of 800.000 of high importance as current practices and hectares of semiarid thicket, and currently another 600.000 hectares of thicket are in the process of the related ongoing degradation would degradation (Lloyd et al. 2002 in Mills et al. 2005). Now, culminate more and more in disrupted only some 5.000 km2 of the estimated 47.000 km2 of nutrient cycles, slow rates of water original thicket cover remains in a „pristine‟ state infiltration, poor water-use efficiency and (Lombard et al. 2003 in Earthcollective (eds), 2007a). irreversible states of desertification (Powell et

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR al. 2006). Targets within the Working for Woodlands Project are therefore to address invasive flora, carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and to combat desertification (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry 2008). With the realisation that thicket, and in specific the dominant species of thicket, Portulacaria afra (see box 1), has the capacity to store extraordinary amounts of carbon being a semi-arid ecosystem –it stores over 20 kg./km2 when intact– (Cowling and Mills, 2006), the Subtropical Thicket Rehabilitation Project (STRP) was initiated in January 2004. STRP is in an ongoing experimental phase, and its specific aims are to test the feasibility of using Portulacaria afra and other thicket species to sequester carbon under the Clean Development Mechanism (Powell et al. 2006). With an eye on biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation, two inextricably linked aims of the Working for Woodlands under the Working for Water project, restoration of degraded subtropical thicket ‚qiof^ []bc_p_ nb_ ]ig\ch_^ [cgm i` cgjlipcha lol[f fcp_fcbii^m, l_mnilcha \ci^cp_lmcns, [h^ l_jf_hcmbcha h[nol[f ][jcn[f/_]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m‛ (Powell et al. 2006). To read more about the current projections and achievement of STRP, see section 8.1 in this thesis report.

1.2.2 Thesis context: EASTCARE (Ecosystem Approach for Subtropical Thicket Conservation And Restoration)2

The project of which this thesis has been part is an initiative of Wageningen University and Research Centre (WUR) in collaboration with PRESENCE (Participatory Restoration of Ecosystem SErvices and Natural Capital, Eastern Cape) and EarthCollective. E[lnbCiff_]ncp_ cm [ ‚h_nqile nb[n ]l_[n_m, mojjilnm [h^ `[]cfcn[n_m chcnc[ncp_m that improve understanding of the links between nature, ecosystems and human well-\_cha‛ (Verschuuren et al. 2007). The aim of EarthCollective in South Africa is to facilitate research to restore degraded landscape for the benefit of local communities, working with partners in South Africa. EarthCollective has proposed PRESENCE as a q[s ni `[]cfcn[n_ ]iff[\il[ncih \_nq__h ‘Nilnb-Sionb’ j[lnh_lm ni ^_fcp_l [^^cncih[f l_m_[l]b [h^ n_]bhc][f expertise needed to effectively restore degraded landscapes and support poverty alleviation and livelihoods. PRESENCE addresses key scientific knowledge gaps (specifically surrounding subtropical thicket restoration); it combines research from diverse scientific disciplines as well as local knowledge to ensure outcomes that are: ecologically sound (conserving biodiversity); stakeholder-driven (community participation); socio-economically beneficial (supporting rural livelihoods); and financially viable (e.g. by exploring possibilities for carbon trading and biodiversity credits) (Earthcollective (eds), 2007b). PRESENCE has been proposed as a collaborative effort with STRP for building applied research capacity and addressing critical knowledge gaps in ecosystem restoration (Earthcollective (eds), 2007b). In this context, EarthCollective developed the EASTCARE programme (Ecosystem Approach for Subtropical Thicket Conservation And Restoration in the Eastern Cape, South Africa), which is a pilot case study for implementation in western Baviaanskloof falling under the PRESENCE framework. This case study employs the Ecosystem Approach for reaching an exhaustive understanding of natural and cultural values present in the western Baviaanskloof (Zylstra in press). The Ecosystem Approach of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) aims to perform an adequate balance of conservation and development and therefore includes a holistic, integrated approach to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. This approach is used as a basis for developing strategies and options for a stakeholder-driven restoration implementation aimed at addressing land degradation and associated loss of ecosystem services and diminished natural capital (Zylstra in press). Emphasis will be placed on stakeholder engagement and participation as an essential element in ensuring long-term conservation goals. Promoting awareness of the many benefits the sustainable use of thicket ecosystem services provide in supporting regional livelihoods will be central to achieving this objective (Zylstra in press). EASTCARE utilises an integrated ecosystem services approach to (Zylstra in press):  Assess which thicket ecosystem services are meaningful to stakeholders;  Assess how stakeholders perceive subtropical thicket;  Formulate the benefits (and values) that stakeholders derive from their land;

2 Adapted from the thesis by Noirtin (2008)

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

 Evaluate relationships between stakeholders; and  define areas and boundaries suitable for restoration

The first part of EASTCARE consists of an integrated assessment of ecosystem goods and services of Baviaanskloof realised by four students of Wageningen University, studying different aspects of the region. This research study forms part of the four studies, and will have a specific focus on socio-cultural aspects of the research area. The three other students are:  Ignacio de la Flor: focussing on the economic aspect of the western Baviaanskloof  Emmanuelle Noirtin: focussing on the analysis of stakeholders and their involvement in thicket restoration  Eliska Lorencova: focussing on the institutional capacity concerning the CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) and the Voluntary carbon offsets. See annex A1 for an overview of all studies and their relation to each other and other researches.

These studies will support the Subtropical Thicket Restoration Program (STRP) pilot project, which has been developed by the South African Government as part of the national Working for Woodlands program. The support from these studies will come from their investigations for options for restoring the valuable thicket biome to meet both socioeconomic needs and ecological objectives (Earthcollective (eds), 2007b). The integrated assessment will result in a report that can be used as a resource for management and policy advice as well as for indicating and prioritising research needs for PRESENCE, STRP and BMR (Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve). The success of the assessment depends on more than just the sum of the individual theses: students are required to work in an international multi-cultural team with the purpose of integrating various scientific and practical disciplines. See Annex A2 for a schematic overview of the relationships between the different institutions involved in the subtropical thicket rehabilitation.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

1.3 Problem statement

Despite efforts to preserve the biodiversity in BMR, changes in the regional and local economy and societal aspects of the people living in the area have been causing environmental pressures. Those pressures are creating threats to the preservation of the unique plant and animal biodiversity of the area: invasive alien species, unsustainable harvesting, poor land-use planning and land-use transformation due to agriculture and urbanization are examples of the threats. Underlying causes for the current state of the biodiversity in the region include lack of capacity and poor co-ordination between the bodies responsible for the management of natural resources, as well as lack of awareness of the importance of biodiversity and the impacts caused by urgent measures to meet the basic needs of society.

Recent studies have been conducted by ECPB (Eastern Cape Parks Board) on sustainable management options for BMR, and amongst the threats that were identified for this specific wilderness area, two main ones are the existence of shortages in research and baseline studies and the lack of ecological connectivity, which leads to loss i` nb_ chn_alcns i` nb_ [l_[’m \ci^cp_lmcns. O\pciomfs, nb_l_ cm [ h__^ ni ^_p_fij \_nn_l oh^_lmn[h^cha i` nb_ [l_[’m ecological (cyclic) processes as well as the ecosystem services that are derived from these processes, which are _mm_hnc[f ch mojjilncha [h^ g[chn[chcha fi][f mn[e_bif^_lm’ fcpcha mcno[ncihm.

To understand the ecosystem services and the benefits people derive from them, there are two main perspectives: the economic perspective on the one hand, and the socio-cultural perspective on the other. Regarding the socio- cultural perspective, STRP (Subtropical Thicket Restoration Program) has not yet integrated the socio-cultural aspects of restoration plans sufficiently (personal communication with B. Verschuuren).

1.4 Research objective and research questions

The objective of this study is as follows: To perform a socio-cultural valuation assessment on the ecosystem services of thicket in Baviaanskloof, followed by an analysis of the possible impacts that the marketing of carbon might have on these assessed values. The assessment will be accomplished by studying the ecosystem services of thicket and their socio-cultural importance; herewith links will be made to perceived wellbeing and the current land covers and land uses, as well as the changes they might undergo because of the implementation of carbon marketing.

The related research questions are as follows:

(1) What socio-cultural values are identified by the inhabitants and landowners in the western Baviaanskloof? A) What socio-cultural values do the inhabitants and landowners attribute to the Thicket Ecosystem goods and services, and in what way are they perceived as important? B) What is the relation between the identified socio-cultural values and the specific land covers and land-uses in the western Baviaanskloof?

(2) What is the perceived wellbeing of inhabitants and landowners in the western Baviaanskloof from the perspective of the socio-cultural dimension? (3) What are the possible impacts of the implementation of carbon marketing on the socio-cultural values and (perceived) wellbeing of the inhabitants and landowners? A) What is the current state of, or what are current plans for implementation of the reforestation and carbon marketing programme in the Baviaanskloof research area?

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

B) How would implementation of the reforestation and carbon marketing programme in the Baviaanskloof research area change the land cover and land uses? C) What would be the socio-cultural impacts (both positive and negative) if current or potential plans for carbon sequestration/entering the carbon market would be implemented?

1.5 Research area

1.5.1 Baviaanskloof: a unique and diverse ecosystem

Baviaansefii`, ‚V[ff_s i` B[\iihm‛, cm fi][n_^ ch [ p[ff_s ch \_nq__h nb_ nqi j[l[ff_f mcno[n_^ giohn[ch l[ha_m B[pc[[hmefii` [h^ Kioa[. In fc_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh l_acihm i` Sionb A`lc][’m E[mn_lh C[j_ jlipch]_, [h^ mnl_n]b_m 95 kilometres to its most eastern point at the coastal city of Port Elizabeth. The Eastern Cape Parks Board (ECPB) manages a number of formal protected areas in the region, of which the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve is one of them, being the third largest protected area in South Africa with an area of 199.476 hectares (Eastern Cape Parks Board, 2007). Baviaanskloof is recognized by ecologists to be at the highest level of ecosystem, as it represents m_p_h i` Sionb A`lc][’m _cabn \cig_m: nb_ Fsh\im, So\nlijccal Thicket, Nama-karroo, Succulent Karoo, Grassland, Savanna and Forest biomes (Eastern Cape Parks Board, 2007; Boshoff, 2005; Eastern Cape Parks Board, 2007). The exceptional biodiversity of the area is attributable to the great diversity of climatic and physical conditions in the region. The Fynbos biome for instance, is only to be found on the poor soils of the mountains, and it largely dominates the Cape Floristic Region World Heritage Site3. The Subtropical Thicket Biome on the other hand, ehiqh [m [ \ci^cp_lmcns ‚binmjin‛ (Boshoff, 2005) occurs only on the more fertile soils in fire-protected valleys. The Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve cluster provides for a highly diverse and varied habitat, maintaining 27 vegetation types, dominated by Fynbos and Subtropical Thicket Biome aspects. Large numbers of thicket mosaics have been defined in the area, which are generally clumps of thicket in a matrix of other vegetation such as Fynbos or succulent Karoo (Boshoff, 2005). All these types of vegetation support some 1.100 species of plants, of which 20 are endemic, and 52 are listed in the Red Data Book (Eastern Cape Parks Board, 2007; Crane, 2006).

Being at the highest level of ecosystem, the Baviaanskloof provides for many important ecosystem services crucial for sustaining local and regional livelihoods; one of those ecosystem services is for instance the sustained supply of good quality water (Boshoff, 2005), which is of critical importance for the fourth largest city of South Africa: Port Elizabeth.

3 The Cape Floristic Region World Heritage Site, as a total of eight protected areas in southern South Africa are now officially named, compromises a total area of 553.000 hectares, and is known as the richest area for plants in the world on a per area basis (Conservation International, 2007).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

1.5.2 Conservation history of Baviaanskloof

Conservation practices in Baviaanskloof have taken place from the early 1920s on, and the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve area, which comprises of 184.385 hectares, has always been state owned and was proclaimed a protected area in 1923. at that time the protected area was named the Baviaanskloof Forest Reserve, and the governmental Forestry Department was in charge for management; the aims for conservation at that time were focussed on the area being a mountain catchment, and included (Boshoff, 2005):  to maintain the vegetation cover;  to minimize soil erosion; and  to provide a sustained yield of high quality water

Until 1987, the Baviaanskloof Forest Reserve was managed by the Forestry Department, and minor changes in management took place. Then, the Cape Provincial Administration took over the management and changed the name of the reserve into Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve, managing the area a]]il^cha ni nb_ ‘qcf^_lh_mm jlch]cjf_m’. Ih 1994, g[h[a_g_hn l_mjihmc\cfcns i` nb_ N[nol_ R_m_lp_ q[m acp_h ip_l ni the Department of Economic Affairs, Environment & Tourism (DEAET), and the Eastern Cape Provincial Government, continuing managing the Nature Reserve according to wilderness principles. From 1987 to the mid and late 90s, a total of 19.670 hectares was bought with the help of private funds and State funding, and added to the Nature Reserve. In 2004, Eastern Cape Parks Board took over management of Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve, and is still managing it at the current moment.

In 1997 already, ideas emerged to develop Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve into a Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve, when the reserve manager at that time, Derek Clark, proposed a consolidation of 56.000 hectares west from Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve, and the establishment of a 20.000 hectares large sustainable game farming zone in the mountains north of the reserve (Boshoff, 2005). Recently, the CAPE project4 identified the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve and surrounding areas as potential for creating a mega conservation area5, including linkages to other either existing or proposed conservation areas. In 2000, the STEP project (Subtropical Thicket Ecosystem Planning Project) was initiated, and was similar to the CAPE project, only this time having a focus specifically on the thicket ecosystem. This Global Environment Facility supported initiative was finished in 2004 and brought forward the following objectives (Boshoff and Wilson, 2004):  to provide a conservation planning framework and implementation strategy for the conservation of subtropical thicket;  to suggest and prioritise explicit conservation actions;  to provide spatial biodiversity information for incorporation into regional, provincial and national land-use planning frameworks;  to provide a capacity building service in the application of the spatial conservation planning products, especially in the local government sphere; and  to create an awareness of the value and plight of the Thicket Biome. The STEP project identified two purposes of its activities, being the ensuring of the retention of biodiversity, and the ensuring of the persistence of biodiversity, the latter explaining itself as a safeguarding of sustainable socio- economic activities in the area through the development of cooperative strategies for conservation and livelihood enhancing, the so-called Megaconservancy Networks.

4 ‚The Cape Action for People and the Environment (C.A.P.E.) Project is a multi-stakeholder research, planning and implementation initiative between government, civil society and the private sector to co-ordinate and maximize efforts to conserve the highly threatened 87 892 km2 Cape Floristic Region, one of only six floral kingdoms on earth and the only one that falls entirely within the borders of a sihaf_ ]iohnls.‛ (Boshoff, 2005). 5 ‚Mega conservation areas comprise areas of largely pristine habitat that are sufficiently large (250 000–1 000 000 ha) to support all of the _]ifiac][f jli]_mm_m h_]_mm[ls ni ]ihm_lp_ \ci^cp_lmcns ch nb_ fiha n_lg.‛ (Boshoff, 2005)

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

In 2002, the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve Project (BMRP) was started in order to create an actual Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve, and the Baviaanskloof Steering Committee (BSC) was designated to oversee, advice and facilitate the process of the Project. Goals for the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve Project as defined by the BSC are as follows (Baviaanskloof Steering Committee, 2003):  To expand the protected area network to an estimated 500.000 hectares which is believed to be the area required in the region to conserve the unique biodiversity as well as the ecological and evolutionary processes required to do so;  Ti _hmol_ nb[n nb_ j_ijf_ i` nb_ [l_[ \_h_`cn `lig nb_ ^_p_fijg_hn i` nb_ ‚\ci^cp_lmcns _]ihigs‛ i` nb_ l_acih; [h^  To develop co-operative governance structures that will promote the sustainable management of the area (i.e. between government, civil society and private sector)

Just two years after the process towards the forming of a Mega-Reserve was started, international recognition of B[pc[[hmefii`’m \ci^cp_lmcns ][g_ [fiha ch nb_ `ilg i` nb_ jli]f[g[ncih i` B[pc[[hmefii` N[nol_ R_m_lp_, together with seven other reserves in the Cape Floristic Region, as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, placing nb_ mcn_ ih nb_ fcmn i` [l_[m \_cha i` ‚ohcp_lm[f mcahc`c][h]_ ni bog[hcns‛ (UNESCO 2008). Whilst this jli]f[g[ncih \lcham [fiha jlc^_ i` B[pc[[hmefii`’m \ci^cp_lm_ mcahc`c][h]_, [h^ qcnb nb[n g[s\_ g[hs opportunities, it also brings another challenge to the management of the proposed Mega-Reserve, as UNESCO World Heritage Sites are subject to specific management and development regulations.

To be able to take the challenge to make the formation of a Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve a fact, a Conservation Strategy has been produced by the Project Management Unit, who is assigned by the Wilderness Foundation (the implementing agent of BMRP as appointed by DEAET) to design and implement the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve Project. This Conservation Snl[n_as cm [cg_^ ni qile niq[l^m [ ‘\ci^cp_lmcns _]ihigs’, qbc]b cm [h [jjli[]b nb[n chn_hnm ni ch]l_[m_ ]ihm_lp[ncih’m ]ihnlc\oncih ni jip_lns [ff_pc[ncih [h^ _]ihigc] aliqnb (Project Management Unit, 2004). Hence, a sustainable use of natural resources is targeted in the Project, and a pilot activity in the Baviaanskloof area emphasises on: the establishment of co-operative and active partnerships and governance structures, the equitable sharing of socio-economic benefits, the creation of PES (Payment for Ecosystem Services) programmes, sustainable natural resource use, the encouragement (not enforcement) of more conservation-based land-use activities, and job creation amongst others (Project Management Unit, 2004). The Cihm_lp[ncih Snl[n_as’m ip_l[ff pcmcih cm `il B[pc[[hmefii` M_a[-R_m_lp_ ni \_]ig_ ‚[ \cifiac][ffs, _]ihigc][ffs and socially sustainable conservation area incorporating private landowners, state protected areas and ]iggoh[f ]ih]_lhm‛ (Project Management Unit, 2004) and with that it has adopted the philosophy of the STEP jlid_]n: ‚e__jcha j_ijf_ ih nb_ f[h^ ch fcpcha f[h^m][j_m‛. Tb_ Cihm_lp[ncih Snl[n_as cm ch jli]_mm [n jl_m_hn, and activities, results and researches are being discussed amongst BSC stakeholders every three months.

1.5.3 The research area

The focus of this research study will, in line with the other research studies within the Integrated Assessment, have a focus on the non-protected areas within the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve. These areas are predominantly private owned by white farmers, and there are two rural settlements of the coloured communities Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek (see figure 1.1).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Figure 1.1: Location of research area and the occurring thicket types, western Baviaanskloof; Adapted from Vlok & Euston-Brown (2002) and South African National Biodiversity Institute (2007)

The research area, as can be concluded from the map, contains eight of the large amount of general vegetation types as have been defined by the STEP project (Vlok et al. 2003), all belonging to the Groot mainland thicket typification (see for a scheme and overview of the eight vegetation types figure 1.2 below).

The most dominant type in the research area is the Baviaanskloof Mountain Fynbos complex; together with the B[pc[[hm Fsh\im Tbc]e_n ([ mg[ff ‘cmf[h^’ i` Fsh\im ch B[pc[[hmefii`) nbcm p_a_n[ncih nsj_ i]]olm [n fi][ncihm bcab_l up in the mountains on steep rocky sites, and provides a clear boundary between grassy fynbos and Valley Thicket as the slopes it grows on are a natural protection against fires (Vlok and Euston-Brown, 2002). Endemic woody fynbos species such as the Cape Wing-Nut (Atalaya capensis) and breadpalm (Encephalartos longifolius) are existent in this Fynbos Thicket vegetation. Typically endemic is the Baviaans Cedar tree (Widdringtonia schwarzii), a rare species in other vegetation types. The Kouga Mountain Fynbos vegetation makes up smaller part of the designated research area, and is mostly restricted to the deeper sandy-loamy soils; the vegetation is dominated by a matrix vegetation, including Renosterbos (Elytropappus rhinocerotis) and Patensie Fynbos, as well as some Arid Fynbos species (succulents in specific).

The Baviaans Renoster Thicket is a matrix vegetation type which is restricted to soils with a higher clay content, and occurs on sites with loamy soils (Renosterbos Elytropappus rhinocerotis) or deep red-clayed soils (domination of Pteronia incana [h^ ‘A[fqcdh’ Aloe ferox). This vegetation type has been fragmented in the past centuries due to indiscrete human-induced fires, and grassy components have developed throughout the vegetation area (Vlok and Euston-Brown, 2002).

The Baviaans Valley Thicket is a fragmented Thicket vegetation in which Fynbos shrubs occur (such as Agathosma puberula and Aspalathus setacea), intermixed with Thicket shrubs and succulents (e.g. Azima tetracantha and Carissa haematocarpa, \on hi ‘mj_e\iig’ Portulacaria afra); typical woody Thicket components that occur within

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR this vegetation represent a fair amount of a.o. Boscia oleoides [h^ ‘jlocg\iig’ Pappea capensis, and woody shrubs and climbers such as Carissa bispinosa and Grewia robusta are endemic (Vlok and Euston-Brown, 2002).

Thicket

Dune Mainland Gouritz Algo Albany Transfish a

Gouritz Gamka Gamtoos Albany Sunday Fish Buffels Kei Escarpment s Groot

Thicket Valley thicket Arid thicket (only solid)

Groot arid spekboomveld Solid thicket Mosaic thicket

Baviaans Baviaans Baviaans Baviaans Baviaans renoster spekboom thicket valley thicket fynbos Doringveld thicket thicket

Figure 1.2: Thicket vegetation types in the Baviaanskloof research area; adapted from Vlok et al. (2003) and Vlok and Euston-Brown (2002)

The naming of the next vegetation type, the Baviaans Spekboom Thicket, already indicates an abundancy of spekboom (Portulacaria afra); this succulent shrubby tree species often co-exists with Aloe speciosa, and the less abundant woody trees include Boscia oleoides, Euclea undulate, Pappea capensis and Schotia afra. Woody shrubs occurring in this vegetation type are mostly the more drought resilient species (e.g. Carissa haematocarpa and Pegolettia baccharidifolia) and when the vegetation is disturbed (in process of degradation), typically species like Cenchrus ciliaris, Cynodon dactylon, Pentzia incana and often Aloe ferox (Aalwijn) become more abundant (Vlok and Euston-Brown, 2002). The Baviaans Spekboom Thicket is currently considered as a vulnerable area by the STEP project, and has degraded over the past years due to human-induced agricultural activities.

The Baviaans Doringveld is a vegetation type which only occurs close along the Baviaanskloof River. Many so- called karroid shrubs such as the abundant Acacia karoo (Doringhout) are to be found here, as well as Azima tetracantha and Rhus longispina amongst others. This vegetation type exists mostly in patches above the regular flood line in the floodplains, and grassy elements occur here as well after significant amounts of rain. Like the Baviaans Spekboom Thicket, the Baviaans Doringveld is also depicted as being highly degraded and thus vulnerable, due to agricultural practices (Vlok and Euston-Brown, 2002).

Finally, the Groot Arid Spekboomveld is a vegetation type quite similar to the Baviaans Spekboom thicket, with major differences in having the Pappea capensis less abundant, and replaced by the more common Euclea undulata. The vegetation type is dominated by spekboom (Portulacaria afra) and karroid shrubs, and when disturbed (degraded), alien shrublets take its place; grass components occur in this vegetation after some good amounts of rain. As the vegetation type is known to suffer from overgrazing by human introduced livestock (even the smaller shrubs are eaten), it is, together with the Baviaans Doringveld and the Baviaans Spekboomveld, considered a vulnerable thicket type.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

1.6 Thesis outline

This report will start with an evaluation of research concepts relevant to the field of study; then, the specific application of those research concepts to this study research will be discussed, together with a brief outline of the data collection methods that have been applied during the fieldwork process.

Consequently, chapter 4 will give an introduction to stakeholders of the research area, followed by an overview of the stakeholder groups that have been considered further in this study research. Chapter 5 will then go into-depth on the socio-cultural valuation of one of the selected stakeholder groups, and will make a link between the identified values and wellbeing elements. Chapter 6 will show a similar set-up as the previous chapter, only applied to the second selected stakeholder group.

Then, chapter 7 will elaborate on spatial relations between socio-cultural values and land cover and land use. Chapter 8 will consequently draw attention upon the carbon market and plans for its implementation in the area of research, and will give a preliminary evaluation of probable impacts of this implementation on the earlier identified socio-cultural values and wellbeing elements. Chapter 9 will provide a discussion on results of the study research, and will give a review on some of the used research methods. The conclusion and recommendations in chapter 10 will finally conclude this study report.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 2. Research concepts______

2.1 Ecosystem functions and services

For quite some decades now, many experts in the field have been developing and improving methodologies to valuate ecosystem services; the motivations to undertake these methodological developments were mainly ]l_[n_^ \s [h ‚ch]l_[mcha [q[l_h_mm nb[n nb_ \_h_`cnm jlipc^_^ \s h[nural and semi-natural ecosystems were i`n_h oh^_l_mncg[n_^ ch ^_]cmcih g[echa‛ (H_ffcq_ff, 1969; O^og [h^ O^og, 1972; ch Hein et al., 2006).

In order to be able to define which are the ecosystem services of a specific characteristic bio-physical environment, the ecosystem functions of the bio-physical setting first need to be identified. Ecosystem functions b[p_ \__h ^_`ch_^ [m: ‚nb_ ][j[]cns i` h[nol[f jli]_mm_m [h^ ]igjih_hnm ni jlipc^_ aii^m [h^ m_lpc]_m nb[n satisfy human needs, directly or ih^cl_]nfs‛ (D_ Gliin, 1992 ch De Groot et al. 2002).

Ecosystem functions following this definition encompass four basic categories according to de Groot et al. 2000): regulation functions, habitat functions, production functions, and information functions. In 2003, the Millennium Amm_mmg_hn jo\fcmb_^ cnm ‘Fl[g_qile ìl Amm_mmg_hn’ l_jiln, [h^ \ocf^cha ìlq[l^ ih nb_ jlch]cjf_ i` ìol g[ch ecosystem functions, this report defined the following four categories: provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services and supporting services. Regulating and provisioning services within the categories as defined by nb_ MA gimnfs fch_ oj qcnb nb_ ‘l_aof[ncih òh]ncihm’ [h^ ‘jliô]ncih òh]ncihm’ [m ^_m]lc\_^ \s ^_ Gliin et al. (1992, in De Groot et al. 2000). Cofnol[f m_lpc]_m ch nb_ MA ^_`chcncih _f[\il[n_ ih nb_ ‘chìlg[ncih òh]ncihm’ \s de Groot et al. (2000), chnliô]cha ]igjih_hnm mo]b [m ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ [h^ ‘l_fcacih’.

The major difference between the MA definition and the definition of ecosystem functions by de Groot et al. (2000) [l_ nb_ ][n_ailc_m ‘mojjilncha m_lpc]_m’ (MA, 2003) [h^ ‘b[\cn[n òh]ncihm’ (De Groot et al. 2000). Sojjilncha m_lpc]_m [l_ ^_`ch_^ \s MA (2003) [m ‚m_lpc]_m h_]_mm[ls ìl nb_ jliô]ncih i` [ff inb_l _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m‛ [h^ [l_ ^cpc^_^ ch nb_ ]igjih_hnm micf ìlg[ncih, honlc_hn ]s]fcha [h^ jlcg[ls jliduction; this service cm g_hncih_^ ni jlipc^_ ‚[nb_] m_lpc]_m h_]_mm[ls ìl nb_ jliô]ncih i` [ff inb_l _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m‛. D_ Gliin el al. (2000) define the habitat function as the provisioning of refuge and reproduction habitat by natural ecosystems (see also box 2 below), and do not define an overall ecosystem service category which supports other defined ecosystem service categories.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Box 2: Four ecosystem functions

 Regulation functions: this group of functions relates to the capacity of natural and semi-natural ecosystems to regulate essential ecological processes and life support systems through bio-geochemical cycles and other biospheric processes. In addition to maintaining ecosystem (and biosphere) health, these regulation functions provide many services that have direct and indirect benefits to humans (such as clean air, water and soil, and biological control services).  Habitat functions: natural ecosystems provide refuge and reproduction habitat to wild plants and animals and thereby contribute to the (in situ) conservation of biological and genetic diversity and evolutionary processes.  Production functions: Photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs converts energy, carbon dioxide, water and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate structures which are then used by secondary producers to create an even larger variety of living biomass. This broad diversity in carbohydrate structures provides many ecosystem goods for human consumption, ranging from food and raw materials to energy resources and genetic material.  Information functions: Because most of human evolution took place within the context of undomesticated habitat, natul[f _]imsmn_gm jlipc^_ [h _mm_hnc[f ‘l_`_l_h]_ `oh]ncih’ [h^ ]ihnlc\on_ ni the maintenance of human health by providing opportunities for reflection, spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and aesthetic experience.

(De Groot et al. 2000)

Having the ecosystem functions defined, a list of ecosystem goods and services can be derived; according to the Millennium Assessment (Boshoff and Wilson, 2004; MA, 2005), ecosystem services are ‚nb_ \_h_`cnm j_ijf_ i\n[ch `lig _]imsmn_gm‛. Tb_m_ qiof^ ch]fo^_ [ff nb_ aii^m [h^ m_lpc]_m nb[n [l_ p[lc[\f_m [gihamn nb_ `iol nsj_m i` ecosystem functions as mentioned in box 2. Examples are food and water (production functions), climatic an physical optima for refuge (habitat functions), soil formation and nutrient cycling (supporting services) and religious and spiritual services (Information functions). For a complete list of ecosystem goods and services see the overview in Annex B1.

2.2 Integrated Assessment (IA)

2.2.1 IA: an evaluation and valuation framework

D_`chcncihm i` nb_ ]ih]_jn ‘Ihn_al[n_^ Amm_mmg_hn’ b[p_ _pifp_^ nblioab l_]_hn s_[lm [h^ m_p_l[f _rj_lnm ch nb_ field have given their own interpretations. The definition by Parson (in Jäger, 1998) combines some of these definitions, stating that Integrated Assessment (IA) is aimed at ‚a[nb_lcha, mshnb_mctcha, chn_ljl_ncha, [h^ ]iggohc][ncha ehiqf_â_ `lig p[lciom _rj_ln îg[chm [h^ ^cm]cjfch_m‛. Ih [^^cncih ni nbcm mn[n_g_hn, W_s[hn et al. (in Toth and Hizsnyik, 1998) mention Integrated Assessments are done in order to carry out ‚]iil^ch[n_^ _rjfil[ncih i` jimmc\f_ ònol_ nl[d_]nilc_m i` bog[h [h^ h[nol[f msmn_gm,… [mi nb[n nb_] ^_p_fijg_hn i` chmcabnm into key questions of policy formation, and prioritization of research needs [can be made] in order to enhance our [\cfcns ni c^_hnc`s li\omn jifc]s ijncihm‛.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Building forward on these principles, de Groot et al. (2002) designed a framework, introducing a systematic typology for integrated assessment and valuation of ecosystem services:

Ecological values Ecosystem Based on structure ecological and process sustainability

Decision making

Ecosystem process to Socio- Total goods and determine services cultural value values Based policy options on equity and and cultural management measures Ecosystem perceptions functions: 1. Regulation 2. Habitat Economic 3. Production values 4. Information Based on efficiency and cost- effectiveness

Figure 2.1: Framework for integrated assessment and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services; source: de Groot et al. (2002)

The framework as given in figure 2.1 proposes the valuation of ecosystem goods and services based on three specific fields: the ecological, socio-cultural, and economic. These three fields are then brought together into a ‘nin[f p[fo_’, qbc]b ][h \_ [h cgjiln[hn chjon `il ^_]cmcih g[echa ch ila[hcm[ncihm [h^ chmncnoncihm. Tb_ []no[f decisions these organisations and institutions consequently make will form a new input towards the ecosystem structure and process, which can initiate another process into the framework.

2.2.2 Relevance of IA for conservation and restoration planning

As the presented framework in the previous paragraph already implied, humankind maintains certain values for the ecosystem goods and m_lpc]_m ^_lcp_^ `lig nb_ _[lnb’m l_miol]_m. Hiq_p_l, nb_ _r[]n ho[h]_ i` nb_m_ p[fo_m have remained relatively unknown or ignored by humanity, as there exist complex interacting factors towards the present anthropogenic disruptions of the biosphere (Daily, 1997). With the growing debate on global _hpclihg_hn[f cmmo_m ih _[lnb, bog[hcns cm mn[lncha ni oh^_lmn[h^ nb_ cgjiln[h]_ i` h[nol_’m _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m, and nature conservation as well as restoration activities have been initiated on a global scale to an increasing extent. However, to actually fully understand why conservation and restoration is so significant, the full value of the ecosystem functions and derived services would need to be unveiled. As Daily (1997) moaa_mnm: ‚bog[hcns b[m never had a more pressing need to understand its dependences on nature. From time immemorial we have too fcabnfs p[fo_^ mig_ i` nb_ gimn \[mc] l_miol]_m ih qbc]b q_ ^_j_h^ […]‛. Tbom, bog[hcns mbiof^ oh^_lmn[h^ nb_ _r[]n biq [h^ qbs i` ]ihm_lp[ncih/l_mnil[ncih, \_][om_ c` ‚q_ ^ih’n jlin_]n qb[n q_ ^ih’n p[fo_‛ (Daily, 1997), _[lnb’m h[nol[f l_miol]_m qcff hin \_ gimn _``_]ncp_fs jl_m_lp_^.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

2.2.3 RRA (Rapid Rural Appraisal) & PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal)

In the 70s and 80s, academics started developing a research method, the Rural Rapid Appraisal, that would enable researchers to get better insight and gain more information from local people about local conditions (Chambers, 1994a). This research method consequently encompassed a growing range of tools aimed at increasing cost- effectiveh_mm [h^ `ch^cha \_nn_l [fn_lh[ncp_m ni nb_ ‚ih_-mc^_^‛ ko_mncihh[cl_ molp_sm (Chambers, 1994a). With the International Conference on Rapid Rural Appraisal in Khon Kaen in 1985, the method became widely known and gained more interest (Chambers, 1994a); subsequently, with the broad range of scientific papers published after the specific conference, RRA seemed to have generated general acceptance in the scientific sphere. Especially regarding natural resource management issues, participatory methods aimed to generate community perspectives were often mentioned as important (Lynam et al. 2007). In the 80s and 90s, non-governmental organizations further developed the method, and introduced the concept of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). This concept is similar to RRA in a way that it is also based on direct learning from local people and the optimizing of tradeoffs amongst others (Chambers, 1994b); however, it is different in that it aims more at empowering local people to manage their own affairs (Waters-Bayer and Bayer, 1994). As Chambers (1994b) describes the focus of PRA qiof^ \_ ni _h[\f_ nb_ l_f_p[hn fi][f j_ijf_ ni ‚mb[l_, _hb[h]_ [h^ [h[fst_ nb_cl ehiqf_^a_ i` fc`_ [h^ ]ih^cncihm, ni jf[h [h^ ni []n‛.

Both PRA and RRA methods share the application of certain tools; RRA on one hand more focussed on the extractive approach through data-collection by outsiders, while PRA would be more focussed on the sharing- _gjiq_lcha [jjli[]b qcnb [ b_[pc_l n[me `il nb_ ‘chmc^_lm’ (Chambers, 1994a). Tools used in both participatory research methods are abundant, and range from matrix scoring and ranking exercises (also calf_^ ‘j_\\f_ ^cmnlc\oncih g_nbi^’ ch Sheil et al. 2002) to transect walks and participatory mapping. Annex C1 gives an overview of most common tools used in RRA and PRA methods.

2.3 Ecosystem services and socio-cultural values

2.3.1 ‘Si]ci-]ofnol[f’, [ ]ihn_mn_^ ]ih]_jn

M[hs ^cm]ommcihm ch nb_ [][^_gc] `c_f^ b[p_ \__h n[echa jf[]_ ih nb_ n_lg ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f’, [h^ m]bif[lm continuously reconsider the concept independent from each other, taking different conceptual roads in l_^_`chcha nb_ ]ih]_jn chni n_lgm mo]b [m ‘mi]cibcmnilc][f’ (Lolc[ 1981 ch Wertsch et al. 1995) il ‘]oltural- bcmnilc][f’ (Sgclhip 1975 ch Wertsch et al. 1995), [h^ _p_h ‘mi]ci-cultural-bcmnilc][f jms]bifias’ (Cif_ ch Wertsch et al. 1995). There seems to be no common agreement on the socio-cultural discourse and a scientific just definition is yet to be found. Regarding the concept of culture in this respect, Cocks (2006) argues that existent academic approaches towards these kinds of concepts are still too narrowly perceived as they: ‚`[cf[..] ni mnl_mm nb[n nb_m_ msmn_gm [l_ ]l_[ncihm i` nb_ l_m_[l]b_l [h^ hin i` nb_ j_ijf_ ^_m]lc\_^ (R[jjiln & Op_lcha 2000)…. [T]he definition of culture as an integran_^ msmn_g i` p[fo_m [h^ \_fc_`m `[cfm ni l_`f_]n ]ofnol_ [m cn cm _rj_lc_h]_^‛.

Cihmc^_lcha [ff nb_m_ ^c``_l_hn ijchcihm ih ^_`chcha qb[n cm ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f’, jfom nb_ `[]n nb[n nb_ ]ih]_jn cm i`n_h viewed in incomplete ways, it consequently becomes difficult to define an appropriate approach to the term when conducting research. Wertsch et al. (1995) describe the goals of a socio-cultural approach in research as follows: ‚[the goals of a socio-cultural approach should explain] the relationships between human action, on the one hand, [h^ nb_ ]ofnol[f, chmncnoncih[f, [h^ bcmnilc][f mcno[ncihm ch qbc]b nbcm []ncih i]]olm, ih nb_ inb_l‛. Within this approach, mediation and cultural tools6 are mentioned to play an essential role in basic formulation of the links between human action and the cultural, institutional and historical aspects in the situational context of the action

6 Cofnol[f niifm, il ‚g_^cn[ncih[f g_[hm‛, chpifp_m l_jl_m_hn[ncih `lig nb_ g_hn[f j_lmj_]ncp_m i` nb_ `oh]ncihm cn b[m ch bog[h []ncih (Wertsch and Herrenkohl, 1999).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

(Wertsch et al. 1995). Clarifying this, Wenger (1998) introduces the concepts of participation and reification; j[lnc]cj[ncih qiof^ \_ nb_ ‘mi]c[f _rj_lc_h]_’ i` ch^cpc^o[fm il aliojm i` ‘fcpcha ch nb_ qilf^’ l_a[l^cha nb_ `__fcha i` \_fihacha, chpifp_g_hn, g_hn[f jli]_mm_m, [h^ []ncih; cn cm [ ‘miol]_ i` c^_hncns’ (W_ha_l ch Fernandez et al. 2007). R_c`c][ncih qiof^ nb_h \_ nb_ ‘i\d_]nc`c][ncih i` jl[]nc]_’, qb_l_ nb_ mi-called cultural tools are created qcnbch [ ]iggohcns ch il^_l ni ‘[acp_] `ilg ni iol _rj_lc_h]_’ (W_ha_l ch Fernandez et al. 2007). Interaction between members of communities exists around utilisation of the created cultural tools and, being more related to the social structure and functioning of communities, this results in specific social practices within different communities of practice7.

H_h]_, ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f’ [m [ ]ih]_jn mbiof^ _h]igj[mm g[hs chn_lh[f [m q_ff [m _rn_lh[f mcno[ncih[f `[]nilm, applied to a psychological context of the stakeholder. The question only remains: how? How to identify a social _rj_lc_h]_ qcnbch ]iggohcnc_m i` jl[]nc]_? Hiq ni [mm_mm _rcmn_h]_ i` ‘]ofnol[f niifm’ il _p_h [ mi]ci-cultural ]ihn_rn? In cm i\pciom nb[n, \_`il_ [jjfscha [ ]ihn_mn_^ ]ih]_jn mo]b [m ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f’ ch l_m_[l]b, [ ]f_[l [h^ workable d_`chcncih mbiof^ \_ jlipc^_^. P[l[al[jb 3.1.2 qcff ai chni ^_jnb ih nb_ ]ihn_rn i` ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f’ ni this specific research study.

2.3.2 Ecosystem services, their socio-cultural values, and human wellbeing

In existing literature on ecosystem services, socio-cultural aspects have been identified as to be of high importance; one of the four ecosystem functions categories even refers to a socio-cultural approach directly (m_]ncih 2.1): \inb nb_ ‘ch`ilg[ncih `oh]ncihm’ [m ^_`ch_^ \s ^_ Gliin et al. (2000) [h^ nb_ ‘]ofnol[f m_lpc]_m’ \s MA (2003) directly relate to cultural values; these are the so-called cultural services, and they encompass a set of benefits people i\n[ch `lig _]imsmn_gm nblioab ‚mjclcno[f _hlc]bg_hn, ]iahcncp_ ^_p_fijg_hn, l_`f_]ncih, l_]l_[ncih, [h^ [_mnb_nc] _rj_lc_h]_m‛ (MA, 2005). Greenfacts (2005) has provided a compilation of categories of cultural services that are existent in the academic sphere:

 Cultural diversity: diversity of ecosystems is one factor influencing the diversity of cultures  Spiritual and religious values: many religions attach spiritual and religious values to ecosystems or their components  Knowledge systems: (traditional and formal); ecosystems influence the types of knowledge systems developed by different cultures  Educational values: ecosystems and their components and processes provide the basis for both formal and informal education in many societies  Inspiration: ecosystems provide a rich source of inspiration for art, folklore, national symbols, architecture, and advertising.  Aesthetic values: many people find beauty or aesthetic value in various aspects of ecosystems, as reflected in the support for parks, scenic drives, and the selection of housing locations  Social relations: ecosystems influence the types of social relations that are established in particular cultures. Fishing societies, for example, differ in many respects in their social relations from nomadic herding or agricultural societies  Sense of place: g[hs j_ijf_ p[fo_ nb_ ‚m_hm_ i` jf[]_‛ nb[n cm [mmi]c[n_^ qcnb l_]iahct_^ features of their environment, including aspects of the ecosystem.

7 As defined by Wenger (1998), Ciggohcnc_m i` jl[]nc]_ [l_ ‚aliojm i` j_ijf_ qbi mb[l_ [ ]ih]_lh il [ j[mmcih ìl mig_nbcha nb_s î [h^ f_[lh biq ni î cn \_nn_l [m nb_s chn_l[]n l_aof[lfs‛

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

 Cultural heritage values: many societies place high value on the maintenance of either bcmnilc][ffs cgjiln[hn f[h^m][j_m (‚]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_m‛8) or culturally significant species  Recreation and ecotourism: people often choose where to spend their leisure time based in part on the characteristics of the natural or cultivated landscapes in a particular area.

Regarding only the one-way relationship between the socio-cultural dimension and natural resources (here: ecosystem services) as described in the categories above, Bruner (1990 in Wertsch et al. 1995) warns that simply ‘ip_lf[scha’ nb_ _]ifiac][f ]ihn_rn qcnb mi]ci-cultural perceptions gives merely a limited picture. The causes of human socio-cultural behaviour are not just to be assumed to lie in the biological substrate; rather, as argued by Bruner (1990 in Wertsch et al. 1995), the perspective should be on the socio-]ofnol[f [mj_]n cnm_f`, [h^ nb_ ‚ko_mn for meaning within culture [as] the prij_l ][om_m i` bog[h []ncih‛. Tbom, qb_h [jjfscha [ mi]ci-cultural approach to research of natural resource concepts, not only should socio-cultural services derived from natural resources be studied, but a wider scope of the socio-cultural meaning should equally be taken into. A wider scope here would include integration of the experiences of culture and the holistic quality of life enjoyed by cultures (Cocks, 2006), as well as the psychological context (Chiesura and de Groot, 2003), ethics (Cole in Wertsch et al. 1995), behavioural and attitudinal elements (Clayton and Opotow, 2003; Chiesura and de Groot, 2003) and socio-institutional-historical aspects that lie behind it (Wertsch et al. 1995). The components g_hncih_^ b_l_ [l_ ^sh[gc] ch h[nol_, _.a. ch^cpc^o[fm’ jl_`_l_h]_m ([nncno^_m) ]ihmn[hnfs ]b[ha_ (Kumar and Kumar, 2008), making clear that when assessing specific socio-cultural contexts, it will only result in the description of one specific moment. Pearson (1998) and Smith et al. (2001) already partly described the importance to consider this fact when conducting socio-cultural related research; they state that the condition of the socio-cultural significance of the ecosystem services as perceived by ethnic groups is a crucial factor in socio- cultural research. Explaining this a bit further, a link can be made to what was stated in the previous paragraph ih nb_ ‘_rj_lc_h]_m i` ]ofnol_’: _ko[ffs ni nb_ `[]n nb[n nb_ ]ih^cncih i` nb_ jbsmc][f h[nol[f _hpclihg_hn (nb_ ecosystem services) is dynamic, its linked socio-cultural significance is dynamic as well, not only meaning that cultures can change over time through external biophysical changes, but also, that biophysical changes can be triggered by changes in socio-cultural significances held by cultural groups; these are e.g. trends in deliberate selection of cultural assemblages as described by Groenfeldt (2003 in Cocks, 2006).

In addition to the above stated, the relation between socio-cultural values and wellbeing is an important factor when taking a socio-cultural perspective. As has been formerly clarified by Verschuuren (2005), the importance of socio-cultural values of natural ecosystems only allows full accountability when their desirability and usefulness in relation to human well being is being assessed. In this respect, assigning socio-cultural values of ecosystem services should not be limited to the sole category of the cultural services as defined by De Groot & Ramakrishnan (2005) or the Framework for Assessment (MA, 2003); preferably, all the other ecosystem functions and services should be taken into account as according to Verschuuren (2005): ‚bog[h q_ff-being is not only inextricably linked to goods and services provided by ecosystems but more so by the functioning of the ecosystem as an ch^cpcmc\f_ qbif_‛. Ihmjcl_^ \s nbcm l_[mihcha, Verschuuren (2005) elaborated on the list of cultural services categories as defined by the MA, and created a list of the ecosystem services of socio-cultural importance. The ]igjih_hnm ‘cgjiln[h]_ ni bog[h b_[fnb’, ‘_rcmn_h]_ p[fo_’ [h^ ‘j_[]_ [h^ l_]ih]cfc[ncih’ q_l_ [^^_^ ni nb_ _rcmncha fcmn i` ]ofnol[f m_lpc]_m, nb_ f[nn_l l_jf[]cha [h^ [^[jn_^ nb_ MA ^_`ch_^ ]igjih_hn ‘mi]c[f l_f[ncihm’.

8 Wascher (2004 in De Groot and Ramakrishnan 2005) ^_`ch_m Cofnol[f f[h^m][j_m [m ‚spatially defined units whose character and functions are defined by the complex and region-specific interaction of natural processes with human activities that are driven by economic, social and _hpclihg_hn[f `il]_m [h^ p[fo_m‛. Ih 1992 nb_ Wilf^ H_lcn[a_ Cihp_hncih q[m nb_ `clmn chn_lh[ncih[f f_a[f chmnlog_hn ni l_]ianise and protect cultural landscapes (UNESCO 2008).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

In the Millennium Assessment synthesis published in 2005 (MA, 2005), interrelations between ecosystems and human wellbeing are described, and the importance of a healthy ecosystem is emphasized as to determine for a al_[n j[ln nb_ mn[n_ i` nb_ MA ^_`ch_^ ‘]ihmncno_hnm i` q_ff\_cha’. Tb_m_ ]ihmncno_hnm i` q_ff\_cha [l_ ][n_ailct_^ into five socio-economic elements: basic material needs for a good life; health; good social relations; security; and freedom of choice and action. The latter is structured by influence from the other four elements as well as external factors such as education, socio-economic trends, or politics.

2.3.3 The importance of considering socio-cultural values in restoration planning

In any type of planning for the implementation of certain projects, it is ethically highly important to consider and take into account all involved stakeholders and the individuals and communal groups that will be affected. Howevel, ch jl[]nc]_ cn jlip_m hin ni \_ nb[n mcgjf_ ni ^i]og_hn [ff mn[e_bif^_lm’ chn_l_mnm [h^ jl_`_l_h]_m, [h^ therefore often specific stakeholder individuals or groups are left out in decision making and planning processes. These specific stakeholders refer in many cases to rural and indigenous communities, whose needs, interests and perceptions are not as easy to define as the more commercial stakeholders (Sheil et al. 2002); explicit efforts would be needed to unveil what they value as important.

In the specific case of NRM, conservation and restoration planning, scholars plead for so-called socio-cultural assessments as (adapted from Cowling and Wilhelm-Rechmann, 2007); Chiesura and de Groot, 2003); MA), 2005):  Ecosystem services are a very important source of well being, affecting the quality of life of dependent individuals and communal groups directly;  Ecosystem services support specific values that constitute the unique cultural identity of ethnic groups living in and depending on the ecosystem;  Such assessments most highly depend on the input of local experts, which would encourage local participation, contributing substantially to local support for the project;  Such assessments create an understanding of how humans interact with and value their natural environments, which enables: - the creation of value-specific indicators to take into account when planning and implementing a certain project or programme; - the identification of those behaviours that need to be reinforced or changed to safeguard the aims for conservation or restoration, and with that, biodiversity;  In addition to the previous bullet point: these assessments enable the targeting and framing of actions specific to stakeholders who are influential for conservation/ restoration.

2.3.4 From changes in land use and land cover to socio-cultural implications

Changes in land use typically bring forward changes in land cover, which can bring forward changes in socio- cultural life situations and values of people that are directly connected with a specific land use and/or land cover. Slootweg et al. (2001) illustrate the interrelations between interventions, social change processes, biophysical change processes, and impacts on the human as well as biophysical dimensions (figure 2.2). Likewise, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment proposes these interrelations using concepts such as direct or indirect drivers of change, ecosystem services, and human wellbeing and poverty reduction (see figure 2.3).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Intervention

2nd order 2nd order

Biophysical changes Social change processes

Landscape filter Direct Invoked

Indirect Biophysical impacts Human impacts

Key: = direct influence = indirect influence

= core = first and second = selective processes order changes force

Figure 2.2: Pathways to derive biophysical and human impacts. Source: adapted from Slootweg et al. (2001)

The framework by Slootweg et al. (2001) takes ecosystem functions and services (as described in section 2.1), and the way they are valued by humans, as a starting point. In the framework however, ecosystem services are not explicitly mentioned as they are in the framework of the MA (2005); see figure 2.3.

Using indicators, Slootweg et al. (2001), figure above, evaluate the social and biophysical change processes a certain intervention can bring forward, enabling to estimate probable human and biophysical impacts; these change processes are comparable to the direct and indirect drivers of change as defined by the MA (2005); figure 2.3 below. As further explained by Slootweg et al. (2001), social change processes in this context are not impacts in themselves; they merely set the stage for, and act as a guiding tool towards the impacts that will be felt by individual households and communities on physical and/or cognitive level. Change processes thus are independent from the local context, and can be measured objectively; the impacts are then context dependent, and concern changes in the functions of the natural environment (biophysical) as well ass changes in the ways in which change processes are perceived (socio-cultural).

The first and second order biophysical and social change processes are described as being change processes that directly result from interventions (first order change processes), and processes that result from a so-called causal chain of events, that is, interactions between social and biophysical change processes (second and third order change processes).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Human wellbeing and poverty reduction Indirect drivers of change

 Security  Demographic  Basic material for good life  Economic  Health  Sociopolitical  Good social relations  Science and technology  Cultural and religious

Direct drivers of change Ecosystem services  Changes in land uses and cover  Provisioning  Species introduction or removal  Regulating  Technology adaptation and use  Cultural  External inputs  Supporting  Harvest and resource consumption Life on earth - Biodiversity  Climate change  Natural, physical, biological drivers

= strategies and interventions

Figure 2.3: Conceptual Framework of Interactions between Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, Human Well-being, and Drivers of Change (local, regional and global scales); adapted from MA (2005)

The landscape filter in the framework by Slootweg et al. (2001) cm g_[hn ni ‘`cfn_l’ nb_ l_f_p[hn cgj[]nm `lig nb_ jin_hnc[ffs fiha fcmn i` cgj[]nm, qbc]b cm om_òf [m ‚…[ fiha fcmn i` jin_hnc[f cgj[]nm ][h \_ ^_lcp_^ ìl [ff cg[ach[\f_ _hpclihg_hn[f ]ih^cncihm… qcnb mig_ ehiqf_â_ i` nb_ specific location, it would be possible to improve the identification of potential impacts by using the concepts of ecosystem and land-use type. By knowing the ecosystem or land-use type in which a biophysical change occurs, it would be possible to indicate the functions that potentially will be affected. The long list of potential impacts can thus be narrowed down ]ihmc^_l[\fs…‛ (Slootweg et al. 2001).

The impacts derived from social and biophysical change processes within the framework by Slootweg et al. (2001) are connected to variables that can be identified amongst the three broad categories of values of ecosystems services for human beings: the social (including culture), economic, and ecological values, as Slootweg et al. (2001), amongst many other scholars, acknowledge. Moving through the process of defining socio-cultural values and identifying social and biophysical change processes that derive from specific interventions, potential social and cultural impacts can be explored. Social and cultural impacts in this respect have been identified by Vanclay (2002) as ‚[ff mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f ]ihm_koences to human populations of any public or private actions that alter the ways in which people live, work, play, relate to one another, organize to meet their needs, and generally cope as members of society. Cultural impacts involves changes to the norms, values, and beliefs of individuals that guide and rationalize their cognition of themselves [h^ nb_cl mi]c_ns‛.

It is of utmost importance to, prior to the implementation of specific plans, define the possible socio-cultural impacts policies and/or managerial decisions may have for the people that will be affected by decisions. It is important as (adapted from Burdge, 2003):  helps decision makers and other concerned individuals and social groups understand how a proposed action will change the lives of certain persons that live in and/or connect with the concerned region.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

 alerts planners, decision-makers and project proponents to changes in the primary and secondary zones of influences.  provides indicators of social impacts that can be understood by decision-makers and citizens alike.  is done before an action is taken and/or a decision is made and therefore not only becomes a valuable tool in the planning/ decision process, but also helps the concerned population to prepare for participation/ coping in a proposed action  includes suggestions for alternatives to the proposed action as well as enhancement and mitigation measures.  is carried out in the context of environmental follow-ups and even while the impacts are being generated.

In academic literature, many discussions exists on the typification of social issues to be considered in Social Impact Assessment (van Schooten et al. in Becker and Vanclay, 2003), and the number of proposed lists of social impacts are typically divided into the quantifiable category and the qualitative category. For the qualitative category, many scholars such as Burdge (2003) and Vanclay (2002) have developed lists of indicators for social impacts based on a range of criteria such as health, education, security, community characteristic, employment, community cohesion and equity amongst others (Labuschagne and Brent, 2006).

Vanclay (1999 in Vanclay, 2002), building forward on existing lists of SIA, has developed the following list of variables that are identified as important:  j_ijf_’m q[s i` fc`_—that is, how they live, work, play, and interact with one another on a day-to- day basis;  their culture—that is, their shared beliefs, customs, values, and language or dialect;  their community—its cohesion, stability, character, services, and facilities;  their political systems—the extent to which people are able to participate in decisions that affect their lives, the level of democratisation that is taking place, and the resources provided for this purpose;  their environment—the quality of the air and water that people use; the availability and quality of the food that they eat; the level of hazard or risk, dust, and noise in which they are exposed to; the adequacy of sanitation, their physical safety, and their access to and control over resources;  their health and well-being—qb_l_ ‘b_[fnb’ cm oh^_lmnii^ ch [ g[hh_l similar to the World H_[fnb Ola[hcm[ncih ^_`chcncih: ‘‘[ mn[n_ i` ]igjf_n_ jbsmc][f, g_hn[f, [h^ mi]c[f q_ff-being, not g_l_fs nb_ [\m_h]_ i` ^cm_[m_ il ch`clgcns’’;  their personal and property rights—particularly whether people are economically affected, or experience personal disadvantage, which may include a violation of their civil liberties; and  their fears and aspirations—their perceptions about their safety, their fears about the future of their community, and their aspirations for their future and the future of their children.

This list corresponds to a great extent to what the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity stated in its Akwé Kon Guidelines (2004); they basically identified 3 major categories for socio-cultural impact assessment, of which 2 categories fully match the variables as mentioned by Vanclay; tb_ nbcl^ ][n_ails ch]fo^_m nb_ ‘]ofnol[f b_lcn[a_ cgj[]n [mm_mmg_hn’, mn[ncha nb_ cgjiln[h]_ i` jbsmc][f g[hc`_mn[ncihm i` nb_ ]ofnol_m i` mj_]c`c] _nbhc] groups (for an overview of the CBD categories see table 1).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Table 1: CBD categories for socio-cultural impact assessments Cultural impact assessment Cultural heritage impact assessment Social impact assessment

Potential positive and negative impacts of Potential positive and negative impacts of Potential positive and negative effects of jlijim_^ jlid_]nm ih ‘q[s i` fc`_’ i` proposed projects on physical proposed projects on the rights (of groups of people; impacts on: values, g[hc`_mn[ncihm i` [ ]iggohcns’m ]ofnol[f economic, social, cultural, civic and belief systems, customary laws, language, heritage including sites, structures, political dimension), well-being, vitality customs, economy, relationships with the archaeological, architectural, historical, and viability of a group of people. local environment/particular species, religious, spiritual, cultural, ecological or social organization and traditions. aesthetic value or significance. H_l_ nb_ ‘ko[fcns i` fc`_’ cm g_[mol_^ omcha socio-economic indicators such as income distribution, physical and social integrity and protection of individuals and communities, employment levels and opportunities, health and welfare, education, and availability and standards of housing and accommodation, infrastructure, services.

Source: adapted from Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2004)

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 3. Research methodology and data collection______

The previous chapter describes and analyses existing theories and discussions on specific concepts that relate to this research study. This specific chapter will use further discussion on these theories, and in combination with own interpretations, will form a set of research concepts and methods as will be applied in the results and analysis sections of this research report.

3.1 Application of the discussed concepts in the research methods

3.1.1 Integrated approach

The process and procedure of research in this study case was organized in a cooperative manner as it was primarily aimed to have an integrated analysis outcome. The researchers involved in this study were to bring their own emphases in analysis together as to form an overall multi-aspect approach towards the topic of study. To achieve this, the researchers have coordinated their individual researches together whenever applicable, and cooperation during the activities in the research process has been valued essential in this integrative approach.

3.1.2 Socio-cultural valuation & analysis of perceived wellbeing

Socio-cultural valuation assessments are considered part of a so-called Integrated Assessment Framework as described in paragraph 2.2.1; within this framework as put forward by de Groot et al. (2002), socio-cultural p[fo[ncih cm g_hncih_^ ni b[p_ [ `i]om ih ‘]ofnol[f j_l]_jncihm [h^ _kocns’. Ih l_`_l_h]_ ni nb_ nb_il_nc][f _rjfil[ncihm ih ‘qb[n cm mi]ci-]ofnol[f’ ch nb_ jl_pciom ]b[jn_l, [m q_ff [m qb[n bas been described concerning ecosystem services and socio-]ofnol[f ]ihn_rnm, cn cm i` ]lcnc][f mcahc`c][h]_ ni ^_`ch_ ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f’ [m [jjfc_^ ni this study research:

‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f’ ch nbcm mno^s l_m_[l]b g_[hm nb_ q[sm ch qbc]b j_ijf_ fcp_, qile, play, relate to one another, organise to meet their needs, cope as members of society, as well as the norms, values, and beliefs of those people that guide and rationalise their cognition of themselves and their society.

(adapted from Vanclay, 2002)

A^^cncih[ffs, W_ha_l’m (1998 ch Fernandez et al. 2007) ]ih]_jn i` ‘mi]c[f _rj_lc_h]_’ [h^ Ci]em (2006) ‘_rj_lc_h]_m i` ]ofnol_’ qcff \_ ]ihmc^_l_^: biq ^i j_ijf_ j_l]_cp_ nb_cl iqh ]ofnol[f [h^ mi]c[f fc`_ [h^ biq, [m [ result of this, do they perceive their quality of life and wellbeing?

Cihm_ko_hnfs, nb_ ]ih]_jn i` ‘p[fo_’ h__^m [ ]f_[l ^_`chcncih `il nbcm ][m_ [m cn cm i`n_h chn_ljl_n_^ ch ^c``_l_hn q[sm ch ]oll_hn fcn_l[nol_ (m__ `il chmn[h]_ Gcfcjch’m ^_`chcncihm i` nb_ ]ih]_jn; Gcfcjch 2000 ch Kumar and Kumar, 2008). ‘V[fo_’ ch nbcm l_m_[l]b mno^s qcff \_ ^cpc^_^ oj ni ‘cgjiln[h]_’ [h^ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ i` nb_ mi]ci-cultural indicators as will be described hereafter. This was done as during the fieldwork period of this research study, ‘p[fo_’ q[m ^c``_l_hnfs chn_ljl_n_^ [h^ _rjf[ch_^ \s nb_ chn_lpc_q_^ mn[e_bif^_lm. ‘Igjiln[h]_’ ch nbcm g[nn_l cm seen as to what extent specific socio-cultural indicators are perceived as important by stakeholders for maintaining their current social and cultural life situations (a socio-cultural dependence on resources). ‘Ajjl_]c[ncih’ cm ]fim_fs ]ihh_]n_^ ni nb_ ‘mi]c[f _rj_lc_h]_m’ [h^ ‘_rj_lc_h]_m i` ]ofnol_’ [m ^_m]lc\_^ [\ip_; nb_ concept, as used in this research study, encompasses the extent to which the socio-culturally important indicators are actually appreciated by the interpc_q_^ mn[e_bif^_lm. Am [ l_mofn, mn[e_bif^_lm’ j_lmj_]ncp_m ih nb_cl iqh social and cultural lives, as well as their wellbeing can be indicated.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Regarding the indicators for socio-]ofnol[f p[fo[ncih, nb_s [l_ `il ih_ j[ln [^[jn_^ `lig nb_ ‘_]imsmn_g aii^s [h^ m_lpc]_m’ m]b_g_ [m ^_p_fij_^ \s D_ Gliin et al. (2002). For another part, the indicators are based on a typology of ten distinct socio-cultural functions and values for the ecosystems of wetlands, as created by Verschuuren (2005). This typology is accompanied by a list of general indicators that serve as specific measurement units to determine the overall socio-cultural importance of the categories of ecosystem services they refer to (for the typology see annex B2). As the applicability and status of importance of socio-cultural indicators is very much case-specific to particular types of landscapes and vegetation (and therefore, ecosystem services), this study contains a focus on the ecosystem services and their indicators as given in the overview in Annex C2. This focus is on one hand based on joint agreement between all students participating in the Integrated Assessment research, and on the other hand on the applicability of specific ecosystem services to socio-cultural values in the western Baviaanskloof (the research area).

The socio-cultural valuation study in this report will be set up as follows: all the chosen ecosystem services and their indicators will first be introduced as given in table 2 below. To keep objectivity, adaptation of the indicators ‘cgjiln[h]_ ni bog[h b_[fnb’ [h^ ‘_rcmn_h]_ p[fo_’ [m acp_h ch nb_ nsjifias \s V_lm]bool_h (2005) is necessary as they both already indicate certain socio-cultural importance or appreciation in their description. These indicators will therefore be adapted to more objective descriptions, and will be replaced to ecosystem service categories where their objective description is applicable (based on the scheme by De Groot et al. 2002). These adapted indicators include medicinal resources (production function), food and water supply (production services), gas regulation (regulation services) and refugium (habitat services).

Table 2: Ecosystem services with socio-cultural values and their indicators

needs Social

action

Health

Securi

relations

choice & choice

Freedom of Freedom of Basic material material Basic Cultural (information) services of the thicket ecosystem A) Aesthetic A1 Physical appearance of wilderness X X A2 Presence of scenic drives and routes X X B) Knowledge & education B1 Knowledge about traditional healing systems X B2 Scientific research X B3 Eco tourism/ nature education X B4 Bench marking for ensuring resource availability X X C) Cultural heritage C1 Role in cultural landscapes X X C2 Cultural traditions (activities) X X C3 traditional resource use X X C4 Socio-culturally / traditionally significant species X C5 UNESCO world heritage listing X

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Table 2 continued D) Spiritual/ religious values D1 Presence of sacred sites or features X D2 Oral tradition & stories X D3 Traditional healing systems X X E) R_f[r[ncih [h^ _hdisg_hn i` ‘`l__ ncg_’ E1 Suitability/capacity to provide for (traditional) recreational activities X X F) Inspirational & expression F1 Use of nature as motive in books, film, painting, music X F2 Use of nature in architecture, decoration, advertising etc. X G) Sense of place G1 Story lines, generational history X X G2 Cohesion of family, social or cultural groups X X X G3 Caring for country X H) Peace & reconciliation H1 Boarder crossing resource sharing X X X X H2 Reconciliation between social and cultural groups X X X H3 Increased social integration X X X Production services of the thicket ecosystem I) Food I1 Suitability/capacity of natural system to provide for harvesting of wild edible X X fruits I3 The use of the natural system to cultivate crops (subsistence farming) X X

J) Water supply J1 Provision, and the filtering, retention and storage of fresh water for domestic X X and agricultural uses K) Medicinal resources K1 Suitability/capacity of natural system to provide health services X X K2 Restorative and regenerative effects on people such as decreased level of X X stress and mental fatigue K3 Decreased need for health care services and medication X X Regulation services of the thicket ecosystem L) Air quality L1 Role of the natural system in regulation of CO2 X X L2 Role of the natural system in providing good air quality X X Habitat services of the thicket ecosystem M) Refugium services M1 Continuous suitability and capacity of the natural system to maintain X biodiversity M2 Suitability/capacity of natural system to support lives of livestock and wild X X animal species that can be hunted or fished Objective approach of specific ecosystem services in the western Baviaanskloof. NB: this is not a complete overview of all ecosystem services: only those services have been selected that have significant socio-cultural importance and/or appreciation for stakeholder groups. Adapted from De Groot et al. (2002) and Verschuuren (2005)

Subsequently to considering the socio-cultural concepts and their indicators, table 2 above takes socio-cultural aspects of human wellbeing into account as well, this because there exists an inextricable link between ecosystem services, their socio-cultural values, and wellbeing (Verschuuren, 2005; MA, 2005; Chiesura and de Groot, 2003; see also paragraph 2.3.2). Regarding these aspects of (socio-cultural) human wellbeing, the five elements from the ‘]ihmncno_hnm i` q_ff\_cha’ (MA, 2005; see annex B3) will serve as a starting point. The table above proposes certain links between each of the five elements of wellbeing and the individual indicators of socio-cultural importance. As can be concluded from the table, certain indicators are applicable to multiple elements of q_ff\_cha. Fil chmn[h]_, ‘j_[]_ [h^ l_]ih]cfc[ncih’ ch^c][nilm mo]b [m nb_ ‘Reconciliation between social and

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

]ofnol[f aliojm’, ][h \_ [mm_mm_^ \s ]ihmc^_lcha cnm cgjiln[h]_ `il ‘mi]c[f l_f[ncihm’ (jimcncp_ l_]ih]cfc[ncih f_[^m ni aii^ mi]c[f l_f[ncihm) [h^ `il ‘m_]olcns’ (h_a[ncp_ l_]ih]cfc[ncih ]iof^ f_[d to decreased personal safety).

Tb_h, nb_ q_ff\_cha _f_g_hn ‘`l__^ig i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih’ cm _mm_hnc[ffs [jjfc][\f_ ni [ff i` nb_ ch^c][nilm [m cn concerns a broad element (MA, 2005) that shows congruency with all indicators, be it to a greater or lesser extent for each individual indicator. This element is influenced by the other constituents of wellbeing as well as by other factors (MA, 2005), mo]b [m _^o][ncih. Am]lc\cha nb_ ch^c][nilm ni nb_ _f_g_hnm `lig nb_ ‘]ihmncno_hnm i` q_ff\_cha’, ^_m]lcjncihm \s nb_ Mcff_hhcog E]imsmn_g Amm_mmg_hn (2005), the Secretariat of CBD (2004) and social indicators as defined by Vanclay (1999 in Vanclay, 2002) have been consulted. Table 3 below gives an overview of the five elements and their indicators.

T[\f_ 3: Ef_g_hnm il ‘]ihmncno_hnm’ i` q_ff\_cha [h^ nb_cl ch^c][nilm Security Basic material for a good life Health Good social relations  Personal safety  Adequate livelihoods  Strength  Social cohesion and  Secure access to necessary  Sufficient nutritious food  Feeling well (physically, but stability of communities resource (making resources  Shelter (and quality of [fmi g_hn[ffs: ‘ko[fcns i`  Mutual respect & social available) housing) fc`_’ ch^c][nilm mo]b [m integration  Security from disasters  Access to goods (the fact employment levels, or  Ability to help others that resources are available) appreciation of surrounding (resource sharing) aesthetics)  Access to clean air and water Freedom of choice and action Opportunity to be able to achieve what and individual values doing and being; this includes rights, cultural beliefs, customs, and values as well as individual and/or ciggoh[f p[fo_m ]ih]_lhcha nb_ ‘q[s i` fc`_’ Source: adapted from MA (2005); Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2004); and Vanclay (1999 in Vanclay, 2002)

With the use of mostly qualitative and participatory approaches during the fieldwork of this research study, the ]bic]_ cm g[^_ ni pc_q ‘q_ff\_cha’ i` nb_ [mm_mm_^ stakeholders from the eye of the stakeholders themselves as far as possible, so how they perceive their wellbeing. This perspective consequently supports a more realistic view on q_ff\_cha ch nb_ l_m_[l]b [l_[ [m nb_ ]ih]_jn i` ‘q_ff\_cha’ gcabn \_ ^c``_l_hnfs chn_ljl_n_^ \s nb_ l_m_[l]b_lm’ [h^ ‘nb_ l_m_[l]b_^’ \_][om_ i` nb_cl ^c``_l_hn mi]ci-cultural backgrounds. Applying this approach, just the indicators that allow a socio-cultural perspective will be evaluated for each considered stakeholder group; in the results section of this study report it will become clear therefore that for different stakeholders, distinct sets of socio-cultural indicators apply.

The evaluation of perceived wellbeing will be supported by the analysis of the appreciation values of socio- ]ofnol[f cgjiln[hn _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m; [m qcff \_]ig_ ]f_[l ch nb_ l_mofnm m_]ncih i` nbcm mno^s, nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_ p[fo_’ ]ih]_lhcha mig_ i` nb_ ch^c][nilm [fl_[^s g[e_m [ ^cl_]n fche ni j_l]_cp_^ q_ff\_cha, [h^ cm ch nbim_ ][m_m comparable with tb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih p[fo_’ (_.a. cgjiln[h]_ i` [_mnb_nc] \_[ons ch^c][n_m [ ]_ln[ch [jjl_]c[ncih `il nb_ h[nol[f mollioh^cham). Tb_ ‘mn[n_ i` _rcmn_h]_’ [h^ ko[fcns i` cgjiln[hn h[nol[f l_miol]_m (_]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m) will logically also be evaluated for the analysis of perceived wellbeing.

3.1.3 Stakeholder analysis

The overall in-depth stakeholder analysis within the Integrated Assessment of which this thesis report is part, has been conducted by Emmanuelle Noirtin (see her thesis); the stakeholder analysis included in this report will ch]fo^_ ihfs nb_ m_f_]n_^ mn[e_bif^_lm [m ^_m]lc\_^ ch 4.1.2. D_`chcha ‘mn[e_bif^_lm’ ch l_f[ncih ni nbcm mno^s research, it will follow upon the definition as has already been given by Emmanuelle Noirtin in her thesis in order ni e__j [ j[l[ff_f qcnbch nb_ chn_al[n_^ h[nol_ i` [ff `iol nb_m_m nia_nb_l. Tb_ ^_`chcncih i` ‘mn[e_bif^_lm’ ch nbcm

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR l_m_[l]b mno^s cm nb_l_ìl_: ‚a person, organisation or group with interests in services provided by the thicket ecosystem functions. Stakeholders are both the people with power to control the use of thicket ecosystem òh]ncihm [m q_ff [m nbim_ qcnb hi ch`fo_h]_, \on qbim_ fcp_fcbii^m [l_ [``_]n_^ \s ]b[hacha om_ i` òh]ncihm‛ (Noirtin, 2008). This research study narrows down further within this definition of stakeholders, which will be more elaborately described in section 4.1.2. Narrowing down to specific stakeholders, theories on categories as well as primary and secondary stakeholders have been consulted. Regarding the theories on categories, this research decides on a focus on stakeholders that can be grouped regarding the following categories (Schmeer, 1999; Grimble and Wellard, 1997):  Tb_ ‘chn_l_mn_^ j[lnc_m’, \[m_^ ih mj[nc[f/ ila[hct[ncih[f/ mj_]c`c] chn_l_mn;  Tb_ ‘[``_]n_^’ il nb_ ‘ih_m qbi [``_]n’;  The importance of specific stakeholders regarding the specific topic of the research

Regarding the definitions of primary and secondary stakeholders in relation to this research study, primary stakeholders are the ones that stand to lose the most, as has also been described by Emmanuelle Noirtin in her thesis.

3.1.4 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

As PRA is a combination of a list of methods, first a description will be given of the methods that have been used in this study case9 (methods as described by Chambers, 1994a):

 Group discussions of various kinds; in the two communities, 10 groups of 3 to 8 participants were organized to perform matrix scoring and ranking, participatory mapping, and semi-structured group discussions. The groups deliberately constituted of either mixed or separated groups, taking into account gender, age and employment. A distinction between groups was made to give an extra dimension to the focus groups, as, for example, women could have different ideas about discussion topics then men.  ‚nb_s ^i cn‛; three inhabitants of the two local communities were provided with a digital camera for a day, and were asked to take pi]nol_m i` ‘qb[n cm gimn cgjiln[hn `il nb_g [m chb[\cn[hnm i` B[pc[[hmefii`’. Tbcm g_nbi^ _h[\f_^ fi][f j_ijf_ ni n[e_ nb_ lif_ [m nb_ i\m_lp_l, qbc]b qiof^ provide a visual representation of the study area, not through the eyes of the researcher, but through the eyes of people from the studied population.  Participatory analysis of secondary sources; during semi-structured interviews with the farmers community aerial photographs and low-detailed vegetation/ cadastral maps were used to pcmo[fcm_ `[lg_lm’ jlijerties and land-uses as well as ecological trends when applicable.  Participatory mapping and modelling; individuals from the two local communities were asked to b_fj ch ]ihmnlo]ncha [ ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f om_’ g[j i` nb_cl ]iggoh[f jlij_lnc_m [h^ nb_ BMR mno^s area consequently. GIS applications were used here to generate data for further analysis in the Socio-cultural Impact Assessment.  Transect walks; with a handful of both individual farmers as well as people from local communities informative walks through the study area were undertaken, during which (land-use, species occurrence, etc) zones could be identified and ecological trends and their social contexts could be discussed.  Time lines and trend and change analysis; both with farmers and local communities trends and changes through time were discussed during focus group sessions and semi-structured

9 Tb_ g_nbi^m ‘m_gc-mnlo]nol_^ chn_lpc_qm’ [h^ ‘e_s ch`ilg[hnm [l_ ^_m]lc\_^ ch m_]ncih 3.3, ‘m_]ih^[ls miol]_m’ [l_ ^_[fn qcnb ch m_]ncih 3.2

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

interviews. Topics that often came up included changes/trends in population, changes in law and equity, ecological (disaster) histories, land use changes through time and education amongst others.  Livelihood analysis; by asking specific questions during group discussions and individual chn_lpc_qm, [ a_h_l[f c^_[ ]iof^ \_ `ilg_^ [\ion j_ijf_’m fc`_ mcno[ncihm ch n_lgm i` _]ihigc] stability, access to facilities and service, and cooperation and/or conflicts between stakeholders.  Analysis of difference; [m nb_l_ _rcmnm [ p_ls [jj[l_hn ^cpcmcih \_nq__h nb_ qbcn_ ‘lc]b’ `[lg_lm ch nb_ mno^s [l_[ [h^ nb_ ‘jiil’ ]ifiol_^ j_ijf_ (fi][f ]iggohcnc_m), ]ihnl[mn ]igj[lcmihm inevitably needed to be made. When felt to be appropriate (as it concerns quite a sensitive topic), questions on this topic were posed either during focus group sessions or during semi- structured interviews. Questions were based on topics such as the histors i` ‘[j[lnb_c^’, ]oll_hn conflict situations between social groups, and priorities that the different social groups maintain.  Matrix scoring and ranking; nbcm cm [ g_nbi^ i`n_h l_`_ll_^ ni [m nb_ ‘P_\\f_ Dcmnlc\oncih M_nbi^ (PDM)’, [h^ b[m [jjfc_^ ni nb_ local communities in this research study. For the implementation of this method, the groups of 3 to 8 people that were organized to hold group discussions were asked to perform the matrix scoring and ranking as a first activity.

The Participatory Rural Appraisal tool was chosen with a focus on the coloured community of the research area, with the Pebble Distribution Method (matrix scoring and ranking) considered as the primary tool to analyze perceived importance of specific land-uses and/or vegetation in relation to activities. During focus group sessions with the coloured community, the Pebble Distribution Method was often followed or joined with a group ^cm]ommcih [h^ nb_ j[lnc]cj[nils g[jjcha g_nbi^; nb_ f[nn_l g_nbi^ q[m \[m_^ ih nb_ ]ih]_jn i` ‘]iggonity g[jjcha’, qbc]b Cb[g\_lm (1994a) depicts [m ‚….[ g_[hm `il a[nb_lcha ch`ilg[ncih [\ion h[nol[f l_miol]_m, mj_]c[f mcn_m [h^ fi][f j_l]_jncihm qcnbch [ mb[l_^ a_ial[jbc][f `l[g_qile‛.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

3.1.5 Social Impact Assessment (SIA)

The framework as created by Slootweg et al. (2001) will be used in this study research as a guidance to narrow down from the intervention (in this study the Subtropical Thicket Restoration Programme) towards biophysical and social change processes, and from there to the relevant human (socio-cultural) impacts that typically derive from those change processes. Figure 3.1 below shows the framework as has been adapted to this specific research study, and also includes the socio-cultural values and perceived wellbeing aspects as discussed in the previous paragraph. Different from the framework as described by Slootweg et al. (2001), the figure below divides up into two dimenmcihm, \_cha nb_ ‘^sh[gc] ^cg_hmcih i` mi]ci-\cijbsmc][f chn_l[]ncihm ch nb_ f[h^m][j_’ [h^ nb_ ‘mi]ci- ]ofnol[f ^cg_hmcih (ch]fo^cha q_ff\_cha)’. Tb_ `clmn g_hncih_^ ^cg_hmcih pc_qm [m cnm ]_hnl[f [h^ ofncg[n_ jichn the social and cultural impacts, as that will be the final stage of this research study. These impacts can be derived from biophysical change processes and their impacts on ecosystem services; the latter has been defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005); see also section 2.1) as an interaction point in its conceptual framework of Interactions between Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, Human Well-being, and Drivers of Change (figure 2.3 in paragraph 2.3.4), and has been added to figure 3.1 below.

DYNAMIC DIMENSION OF SOCIO-BIOPHYSICAL SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSION INTERACTIONS IN THE LANDSCAPE (INCLUDING WELLBEING)

1st & Biophysical change 2nd order processes considered:

 Land cover change

Impacts on ecosystem services Elements (or constituents) of wellbeing:

Social and  Security cultural  Basic material for a structure/ good life

Intervention (STRP) Intervention system  Health Social and cultural  Good social impacts Social change processes relations considered:  Freedom of choice Socio-cultural and action  Land use change values and  Resource availability perceptions (on 1st & & access (user rights) wellbeing) 2nd  Social preferences order

Key: = not influenced in = influenced by framework framework processes = divides up to

= strong influences = partial influences

Figure 3.1: Schematic outline of the research study; adapted from Slootweg et al. (2001); Vanclay (1999 in Vanclay, 2002); MA (2005) The second dimension in the framework describes the socio-cultural structures and values and the relation to perceived wellbeing, as has been investigated using the valuation methods as described in the previous paragraph. In this framework, the outcome of the analysis of the aspects in the first dimension (socio-biophysical interactions in the landscape) will have certain impacts on the socio-cultural aspects in the second dimension. An example of

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR such an impact is a deprivation of inhabitants in an area from harvesting certain natural resources (impact) as a result of a new law (social change process), as it will change the way of harvestiha [h^ qcnb nb[n nb_ ‘q[s i` fcpcha’ in specific ways. In the framework, an arrow runs from the social and cultural structure/ system aspects to the [mj_]n ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m [h^ j_l]_jncihm ih q_ff\_cha’. Umcha nb_ m[g_ _r[gjf_, nb_ ]b[ha_ ch nb_ q[s of b[lp_mncha [h^ nb_ ‘q[s i` fcpcha’ ][h b[p_ cgj[]nm ih nb_ mi]ci-cultural values a certain stakeholder group holds. If the stakeholder group for instance formerly valued the specific natural resource as a cultural tool, the deprivation from harvesting this natural resource any longer could result in a diminishing or maybe even a loss of nb_ j_l]_jncih i` nb_ h[nol[f l_miol]_ [m [ ]ofnol[f niif. Tb_ ‘mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f cgj[]nm’ [mj_]n [fmi mbiqm [h [lliq lohhcha ^cl_]nfs ni nb_ ‘mi]ci-cultural values and j_l]_jncihm i` q_ff\_cha’ `_[nol_. Ah _r[gjf_ b_l_ cm when a socio-cultural impact concerns a net loss in aesthetic values, which connects directly to the concept of ‘[_mnb_nc] p[fo_m’ (ih_ i` nb_ mi]ci-cultural value categories, see table 2 in paragraph 3.1.2). Then, from the ^cg_hmcih ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m [h^ j_l]_jncihm ih q_ff\_cha’, [h [lliq lohm ni nb_ ‘mi]c[f ]b[ha_ jli]_mm_m’ aspect, indicating the effects (changes in) socio-cultural values and perceptions on wellbeing can have on the formation of new change processes. For example, changes in knowledge (one of the concepts within socio- cultural values) on natural processes can bring about technological changes or can change preferences on resource use (more eco-friendly).

Wb_h [h[fsmcha nb_ ‘socio-]ofnol[f cgj[]nm’ [mj_]n `lig nb_ `l[g_qile ch nb_ l_mofnm m_]ncih i` nbcm l_m_[l]b study, the impact variable typology as described by Vanclay (1999 in Vanclay, 2002) see paragraph 2.3.4) will be used as a basis, and adapted to the ecosystem services indicators as defined in the socio-cultural valuation study, which will already have a case-specific focus (see paragraph 3.1.2 for the variables). Consequently, the impacts on the socio-cultural wellbeing can be determined.

3.1.6 The use of Geographic Information Systems and PGIS

The potential benefit of the application of GIS systems to the social studies has already been depicted by Minerby et al. (in Becker and Vanclay, 2003), who described the added values of GIS technologies to Social Impact Asm_mmg_hnm (SIAm). Tb_s jon `ilq[l^ nb[n GIS g[jjcha ][h, [gihamn inb_lm, \_ om_^ ni mno^s j_ijf_’m interdependence, proximity, and access to resources through use of so-called overlays (e.g. comparing vegetation maps with firewood collection maps). Moreover, Minerbi et al. (in Becker and Vanclay, 2003) discussed that a ^_mcl_^ [mj_]n i` nb_ om_ i` mi]c[f g[jm ]iof^ \_ ni ‚[llcp_ [n [ ]ihm_hmom l_a[l^cha q_cabncha [h^ ranking ]lcn_lc[ ch l_miol]_ g[h[a_g_hn jf[hhcha‛.

In this research study, GIS is being applied using a participatory approach, the so-called PGIS (Participatory Geo Information Systems). PGIS has been developed with an aim to make it more accessible and available to stakeholders in order to involve them more effectively in decision making processes (Akong Minang, 2007); b_h]_, nb_ om_ i` PGIS jligin_m [ ‘\innig-oj’ [jjli[]b, n[la_ncha ni l_p_[f nb_ h__^m [h^ p[fo_m i` fi][f communities, which consequently, will assist towards more ethically justified decision making. As Abbot et al. (1998) jon cn: ‚P[lnc]cj[nils GIS cm, […] [h [nn_gjn ni onclise GIS technology in the context of the needs and capabilities of communities that will be involved with, and affected by, development projects and programmes.‛ PGIS in this study has been integrated with the use of a selection of techniques as defined under the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method (for description and discussion of this method and its techniques see paragraphs 2.2.3 and 3.1.4); to arrive at the maps as displayed in this thesis, existing GIS maps were combined with own produced overlays using the following PRA techniques: transect walks in combination with participatory sketching and pebble distribution method (for detailed outcomes using the individual techniques see Annex D4 and D5).

3.2 Data collection methods

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

3.2.1 Desk research and literature review

Literature review is a very valuable source to integrate all existent relevant scientific knowledge, and to put the research into context; Jankowicz (in Saunders et al. 2003) mn[n_m nb_ ìffiqcha: ‚Khiqf_â_ î_mh’n _rcmn ch [ p[]oog, [h^ siol qile ihfs b[m p[fo_ ch l_f[ncih ni inb_l j_ijf_’m. Yiol qile [h^ sio `ch^cham qcff \_ mcahc`c][hn only to the extent that nb_s’l_ nb_ m[g_ [m, il ^c``_l_hn `lig, inb_l j_ijf_’m qile [h^ `ch^cham‛. A l_m_[l]b mbiof^ never be started without first reading about what has already been found out about the same (or a similar) topic before.

The approach used for literature review in this case is the deductive approach: a conceptual framework will be developed at first hand after which the data required during fieldwork will be used to test the conceptual framework. Primary sources of literature review used in this study research concern professional and academic journals, books, reports on conference proceedings, and theses amongst others. Secondary sources of literature review include newspaper articles and unpublished reports.

3.2.2 Semi-structured and qualitative interviews

In agreement with all other study researches within the Integrated Assessment, interviews have been structured in a flexible way, typically referring to the common set-up of semi-structured interviews. As Saunders et al. (2003) state, in semi-mnlo]nol_^ chn_lpc_qm ‚nb_ l_m_[l]b_l qcff b[p_ [ fcmn i` nb_g_m [h^ ko_mncihm ni \_ ]ip_l_^, although these may vary from interview to chn_lpc_q‛. Ih nb_ ][m_ i` nb_ `c_f^qile `il nb_ Ihn_al[n_^ Amm_mmg_hn, the four research studies would integrate their themes and lists of questions together to create one semi- structured interview. Some of the research studies required structured questions, while other research studies (amongst which this study) especially required qualitative questioning. As a result, the interview set-up was partly structured (standardized), and partly semi-structured (see annex C3 for the interview set-up).

Qualitative unstructured interviews, also referred to as in-depth interviews (Saunders et al. 2003) were additionally part of the fieldwork process, this in the form of informative as well as opportunistic interviewing. This type of interviewing was considered valuable as it would give the interviewees the opportunity to talk freely about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the socio-cultural approach; as a result, issues could come up through these interviews that would not be likely to come up through (semi)-mnlo]nol_^ chn_lpc_qm, [m cn qiof^ \_ ‘nb_ chn_lpc_q__’m j_l]_jncihm nb[n aoc^_ nb_ ]ih^o]n i` nb_ chn_lpc_q‛ (Saunders et al. 2003).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

3.2.3 Focus group sessions

Fi]om alioj m_mmcihm, il ‘^cm]ommcih aliojm’ [m nb_s b[p_ \__h l_`_ll_^ ni ch 3.1.4, [l_ chn_lpc_qm ‚]imposed of a mg[ff hog\_l i` j[lnc]cj[hnm, `[]cfcn[n_^ \s [ ‘gi^_l[nil’, ch qbc]b ^cm]ommcih cm `i]om_^ ih [mj_]nm i` [ acp_h nb_g_ il nijc]‛ (Saunders et al. 2003). The use of focus group sessions to acquire data has been chosen as they are a quick way to gather data from multiple individuals at the same time; additionally, individuals participating in focus group sessions might encourage each other to think about certain issues, which can bring information to the surface that would not be acquired using individual interviews. Further explanation of the working procedure of the focus group sessions has been given in paragraph 3.1.4.

3.2.4 Observation

Tb_ i\m_lp[ncih g_nbi^ ‘j[lnc]cj[hn i\m_lp[ncih’ b[m \__h om_^ ch nbcm l_m_[l]b mno^s; nbcm cm qb_h ‚nb_ l_m_[l]b_l [nn_gjnm ni j[lnc]cj[n_ `offs ch nb_ fcp_m [h^ []ncpcnc_m i` mo\d_]nm‛ (Gcff & Jibhmih 1997 ch Saunders et al. 2003) so nb[n [nn_gjnm ][h \_ g[^_ ni a_n ni nb_ liin i` ‘qb[n cm aicha ih’ ch [ qc^_ l[ha_ i` mi]c[f m_nncham (Saunders et al. 2003). The role that was chosen for the researcher in the use of the observation technique, was that of the ‘i\m_lp_l [m j[lnc]cj[hn’, qb_l_ nb_ l_m_[l]b_l’m identity is revealed, and the researcher only observes the activity without taking part (Saunders et al. 2003). An example here would be the scoring and ranking exercises using the pebble distribution method: the researcher would only explain the exercise and act as a spectator during the continuation of the assignment.

3.2.5 Other methods used

Other methods that have been chosen to use during fieldwork are: transect walks, participatory mapping, and a photography exercise. These methods have been chosen as to encourage a perspective from the research population (how they perceive things); explanations of how the methods have been applied are given in paragraph 3.1.4.

3.2.6 Sampling techniques and sample sizes

For the quantitative semi-mnlo]nol_^ molp_sm [m q_l_ [jjfc_^ ch nbcm mno^s l_m_[l]b, nb_ ‘do^ag_hn m[gjf_’ technique (Marshall, 1996) was used as it appeared to generate the most productive sample to answer most research questions of all Integrated Assessment research studies. With this technique, individuals are selected by the researcher self; in the case of the white farmers in the western Baviaanskloof, this meant a sampling towards key information persons, which would in all cases be the farmers themselves, in some cases accompanied by their wives. Regarding the sample size for the surveys, Saunders et al. (2003) recommend the use of a 95 percent certainty level; at household level, this would mean that all of the farming households in the research area should be interviewed as their total number is that low that a 5 percent margin of error would only allow exclusion of half a household. For the qualitative interviews, the judgemental technique was also used, for both white farmers and communities. This also meant approaching key information persons, as these individuals would more likely be able to answer questions accurately than others. For the focus group sessions however, a combined judgemental and random sampling technique was used: the judgemental technique was used to sample towards specific social groups (e.g. women), from which a random sampling technique would be applied to choose individuals within those groups without prejudgement. Sample sizes in the case of qualitative research methods would not be of a big issue, as in general, the amount of required respondents normally becomes obvious throughout the fieldwork progress, at the point of data saturation (Marshall, 1996).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 4. Baviaanskloof: stakeholder profiles and socio-cultural structures

4.1 Stakeholders in context of the research

4.1.1 G_h_l[f chnli^o]ncih chni B[pc[[hmefii`’ mn[e_bif^_lm10

The western Baviaanskloof knows many stakeholders from a local to a global level; with the declaration of the Baviaanskloof as part of a UNESCO world heritage status in 2005, a first connection with a formal international organization was a fact. Since recently, in collaboration with national organisations and institutions, international bodies such as Earthcollective (through Wageningen University, the Netherlands) are involved in Baviaanskloof, especially in relation to the previously discussed STRP programme.

Then, on a national and provincial level, governmental bodies such as the Department of water affairs and Forestry (DWAF) and the Department of Environment and Tourism (DEAT) play a role concerning legal and regulatory issues. DWAF in this case is the key funder of the STRP programme in the Eastern Cape, and has assigned the Gamtoos Irrigation Board (GIB) as the official implementer of the programme. In order to help effective implementation of STRP, DWAF has additionally funded the Rhodes Restoration Research Group (R3G)11 to conduct research and act as scientific advisories for the GIB. Eastern Cape Parks (ECP) is the semi-governmental body, which owns and manages the Nature Reserve areas within the Baviaanskloof with means to conserve h[nol_’m l_miol]_m [m q_ff [m ni ^_p_fij [h^ gihcnil niolcmg chcnc[ncp_m. Tb_h [fmi, hih-governmental bodies such as the Wilderness Foundation and Landmark Foundation have their stake in Baviaanskloof through their conservation-based initiatives.

Finally, local stakeholders in the western Baviaanskloof typically concern the Baviaanskloof municipality, but also its inhabitants, which concern the white farming families and coloured communities amongst others.

4.1.2 Relevance of specific stakeholder groups in the context of the research

Regarding the focus of this research study, the large amount and diversity of stakeholders, and the availability of time, it is of importance to limit the scale of the research as well as to select stakeholder groups and/or individuals of primary importance. The spatial scale of the research study has already been determined and described in paragraph 1.5.3.

For the selection of the most relevant stakeholder groups regarding this research study, only stakeholders of primary importance were considered for selection. For narrowing down to the scope of primary important stakeholder groups, the following selection criteria have been used:

The stakeholder group:  refers to a currently living cultural ethnicity in the research area;  refers to a significant amount of individuals;  has a primary stake in the research area in terms of that a property is owned and/or permanently inhabited by the stakeholder(s);

10 For more information on the stakeholder network of western B[pc[[hmefii`, m__ Egg[ho_ff_ Niclnch’m nb_mcm 11 R3G involves scientists from Rhodes University, Stellenbosch University, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan university and private consultants

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

In addition, for the sake of the socio-cultural impact study incorporated in this report, the focus of this research study will be highly on the stakeholder groups and/or individuals that are likely to be most heavily affected by the planning and implementation of the Subtropical Thicket Restoration Programme.

Taking into consideration the previously mentioned criteria, and referring to the socio-cultural impact study, the following three main stakeholder groups are depicted as to form the focus of the research study:  The farmers living and owning an agricultural business in the Baviaanskloof research area;  The coloured communities Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek, both situated in the research area; and

4.2 General profile of the selected stakeholder groups

4.2.1 The BMR society: a diversity of ethnic identities

To understand the current mixture of ethnicities in the Baviaanskloof research area, one needs to consult a long history of dwelling cultural groups, starting from the prehistoric times. Though there is no hard evidence, there are indications that some 2 to 3 million years ago, in the Earlier Stone Age, the first hominids lived in Baviaanskloof. In the Middle Stone Age, some 30.000 to 120.000 years ago, modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) emerged, which are believed to be the early ancestors of the southern African KhoiSan people (Binneman, 2006). Around 25.000 years ago, the Middle Stone Age was replaced by the Late Stone Age, and during a Glacial Maximum early in that Age the environment, animals and people faced drastic changes. Vegetation became more closed and humanlike settlements developed a more sophisticated living style, of which tangible remains –such as digging sticks and mummified human remains– are found on regular bases at present.

For a large part of the past 20.000 years, San hunter-gatherer settlements occupied the Baviaanskloof area, living in the abundance of caves present in the region. It is of these settlements that rock paintings have been, and still [l_, \_cha `ioh^. Tb_ `clmn mi ][ff_^ ‘l_[f mi]ci-_]ihigc]’ change in the landscape (Binneman, 2006) came around 2.000 years ago when KhoiKhoi pastoralists entered the region and introduced domesticated animals such as goats, sheep and cattle. With a slight pressure on the San people, the KhoiKhoi and San settlements co-occupied Baviaanskloof and became a mixed identity which is known under the name KhoiSan. Some 1.700 years ago, Iron Age agro-pastoralists migrated towards Baviaanskloof and environs from middle African countries, mixing with the already present ethnicities and introducing crops such as millet and sorghum. According to Boshoff (2005), the Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve can be seen as an important meeting place for diverse ethnicities in the prehistoric Stone Age.

In the 18th century, European settlers entered the Baviaanskloof region and impacted the landscape to such an extent that it sealed the fate of the KhoiSan (Boshoff, 2005); the Europeans hunted most of the present native animals to extinction and replaced them with domesticated animals; in addition, they put large parts of the arable land to cultivation. These drastic changes disabled the KhoiSan settlements to an increasing extent to maintain their traditional way of living; as a result, the KhoiSan saw little other options than to move onto the farms of the European settlements and work as servants and labourers. By the end of the 19th century, the traditional independent KhoiSan no more existed in the area, and they became entirely dependent on the white European descendant farmers who were entering the area and claiming land for their agricultural activities. In the 20th century, the Apartheid laws were created and put into practice, which advocated an extremely unequal treatment of white and coloured/black people in South Africa, in favour of the white population. The practices of Apartheid had their realm in the western Baviaanskloof as well, justifying the white farmers to treat their black and coloured workers as their property in whichever way they considered as needed. When the Apartheid laws came to an end

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR in 1994, the situation changed, and the rights between white and black/coloured people were equalized. In Baviaanskloof, as in many places in South Africa, inequality however did not cease to exist as there was a large gap between the coloured/black poor and rich white populations. The white farmers kept on owning the land they had, and the local coloured and black people kept on owning nothing more than their families and jobs, and housing (which, in most cases, was also the property of the white farmers). Far before the end of the Apartheid however many white farmers already changed the treatment of their black and coloured workers in a positive sense. Presently, farmers are now by law obliged to pay their workers a minimum salary, and many farmers in the western Baviaanskloof now even provide their labourers with housing, electricity, sanitation, and even more.

4.2.2 Socio-cultural structure of the specific stakeholder groups

Currently, there are approximately 1.000 Individuals living permanently in the Baviaanskloof area, which is in a decline as more and more (coloured and black) people decide to migrate towards other regions in search for jobs (Crane, 2006). Of the inhabitants in Baviaanskloof, eleven are European descendent farmers and there is a handful of non-permanent inhabitant landowners; also, there is a community farm, and three local communities of which one consists of mainly Xhosa settlers and two consist of mostly coloured inhabitants.

Farmers

In the Baviaanskloof research area, currently 11 farmers and their families that own a property are permanently living and working there. All farmers are white Afrikaans, meaning that they are all descendants of either the British or Dutch settlers that entered and spread throughout the country in the 19th century. The men of the g[dilcns i` nb_m_ `[lg_lm’ `[gcfc_m b[p_ fcp_^ ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii` nb_cl qbif_ fc`_, [h^ _cnb_l inherited their farm properties from their (grand)parents, or bought their own property in the area after having left their parental homes. Only three men farmers have bought a property and moved to the western Baviaanskloof from another area. Nearly all farmers are of the same generation (around 30-45 years old) except for two farmers, who [l_ [jjli[]bcha nb_cl mcrnc_m’; gimn i` nb_g [l_ g[llc_^, [h^ b[p_ (ih [p_l[a_) nqi ]bcf^l_h qbig ai ni \i[l^cha school in Willowmore. In general, the economic activities of the farmers concern ostrich, sheep and goat farming, cattle raising, and to an increasing extent, tourism (for more information on the economic activities, see Ignacio ^_ f[ Ffil’m nb_mcm). Pl_pciomfs, p_a_n[\f_ m__^ jli^o]ncih q[m [h cgjiln[hn `[lgcng activity in the area, but since the cessation of subsidies for this industry in 1994, farmers have largely abandoned the activity (Crane, 2006).

Am gimn i` nb_ `[lg_lm’ g_h b[p_ aliqh oj nia_nb_l, nb_l_ _rcmnm [ mnliha ]iggoh[f \ih^ \_nq__h gimn i` nb_g; regular joint festivities are a fact and every couple of months they meet to discuss important topics concerning their Baviaanskloof farmers association. This association has been formed some years ago as to create possibilities to discuss issues that concern all of them, and to formulate decisions and plan specific actions that need collaboration amongst every one. Every two years, the association chooses a new chairperson democratically, who is to take overall responsibility for the association and its meetings, and who serves as a contact person on behalf of the association.

R_a[l^cha nb_ `[lg_lm’ qcp_m, nb_cl mnilc_m [l_ mig_biq ^c``_l_hn `lig nb_ `[lg_lm g_h; gimn i` nb_ qcp_m b[p_ not grown up in western Baviaanskloof, but grew up in Willowmore or another rural area outside the valley. In a_h_l[f, nb_ `[lg_lm’ qcp_m m__m to have happily adapted to the isolated life in the valley, however some wives mention they had difficulties to adapt to their new living area at the start. Most of the wives either dedicate themselves to the care of their children and the house, whereas many of them to an increasing extent devote their time to the offering of tourism facilities and activities (mostly being the offering of accommodation). Most women in the valley appear to have created a bond amongst each other (as observed during some of nb_ `[lg_lm’ `_mn[f []ncpcnc_m), [h^ nb_s [l_ \_cha al_[nfs mojjiln_^ \s nb_ Wig_h’m Ammi]c[ncih, qbc]b cm mcno[n_^ ch Wcffiqgil_ [h^ offers regular activities and excursions for its members.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Coloured communities

The western Baviaanskloof contains three communities: the coloured communities of Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek, and the community of Coleskeplas, which is situated just within boarders of the Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve, and is mostly inhabited by Xhosa people. For sensitive political reasons, Coleskeplas could not be visited during the time of fieldwork, and the community is therefore not included in this study.

 Sewefontein is a community farm; until seven years ago the property (1.300 ha) was owned by a white Afrikaans farmer, but when he decided to sell his farm the coloured community living and/or working on the farm organised together and went through a long juridical procedure to buy the farm and make it their property. At this moment, there are 75 shareholders of the farm property, and only 20 families actually live on nb_ `[lg. Tb_ inb_l mb[l_bif^_lm fcp_ qcnb nb_cl `[gcfc_m _cnb_l ch S[[cg[hmbi_e il ih [hinb_l `[lg’m jlij_lns, and being a shareholder, they are allowed to use part of the arable land in Sewefontein (10 ha of around 150 ha) to keep livestock and to cultivate their vegetables. As a commercial activity, the community herds a substantial amount of goats (around 500) and sheep (around 200), for which they cultivate luzern on 40 hectares of the arable land. The community has been advised in doing so by an experienced white farmer for the past two years. However, the goat and sheep farming does not provide the community and its 75 shareholders with a stable and significant income; moreover, just recently a Business Plan which was presented to the government with the means to receive supporting donations for maintaining and expanding nb_ ]iggohcns’m _]ihigc] []ncpcnc_m q[m l_d_]n_^, [h^ nb_ qbcn_ `[lg_l ]ihmofn[hn q[m `cl_^. Tb_ ]iggohcns at this moment has arrived at a critical point; they will need to organize themselves and take decisions for future actions. However, with 75 shareholders, only one official meeting per year, and a self created law for decision making which requires approval of all shareholders before any action is to be undertaken, it will be a difficult and challenging task for the community to actually make decisions and get organized. A community trust of twelve democratically chosen shareholders is dedicating its efforts to find ways to improve the community wellbeing and an income, and to steer towards facilitating decision making. However, up to the present moment, clear plans and decision making efforts have not been made or negotiated. Desires have been expressed to renovate the old farm houses (there are three of them) and use them for tourism purposes, but since those houses are currently occupied by families –ih]_ S_q_`ihn_ch \_][g_ nb_ mb[l_bif^_lm’ property the first to claim the empty houses were allowed to live there–, there is no prospect of that happening soon.

In all housing in Sewefontein, running water is available that comes from a rich water source of which the community is the lucky owner; the water source provides for 50.000 litres of water every hour, and is shared with a neighbouring farm and the Chnuganoo community farm. However, since the community does not own an efficient mechanised irrigation system for its 150 hectares of arable land, only some 50 hectares of their land is being irrigated manually or through a traditional irrigation system. Tb_ ]iggohcns ^i_mh’n ]ihn[ch [ system for flushing toilets, nor is it provided with electricity, as it is a private property that should organize and pay for electricity installation themselves. However, regarding the fact that many households in the community own radios, televisions, even on occasion refrigerators and freezers, it seems that the installation of electricity would be highly appreciated.

 Saaimanshoek is a community situated approximately five kilometres from Sewefontein; it is a church owned community, and was founded in 1930. The property of this community is smaller than that of Sewefontein (between 300 and 400 hectares), but is more densily populated: around 40 families live in the community, and as is no land for cultivation only shareholders of Sewefontein can go to Sewefontein and cultivate own crops there. As Saaimanshoek is a church property, the organization and benefits of the community are somehow different than in Sewefontein. The local church has, through democratic elections held every two years, assigned a number of church leaders, of which five currently live in Saaimanshoek. These church leaders are

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

to take care that the community remains a liveable community, and that its inhabitants do not enter the ‘qliha’ j[nb, nb[n cm, ^lcnk large amounts of alcohol or grow and smoke marihuana or so-][ff_^ ‘^[aa[’. Especially the consumption of alcohol is a problem in the community and amongst the coloured population of the valley, and has become a severely serious problem after the opening up of a bottle store at one of the qbcn_ A`lce[[hm `[lg_l’m jlij_lnc_m [ ]iojf_ i` s_[lm [ai. Tb_ ]bol]b f_[^_lm b[p_ nb_ jiq_l ni \[h j_ijf_ out of the community, and everyone who wants to live in the community should first get a signed approval of one of the church leaders to actually move in; for outsiders that want to visit the community, it is always highly appreciated when approval from one of the church leaders is first asked. Being a church owned and therefore a public property, Saaimanshoek receives certain benefits from the municipality of Baviaanskloof. Approximately six years ago, electricity was installed in the community, and there are telephone lines with at least two public phones in the community and private phones in the church houses (which are used to house the primary school teachers). These church houses have running tap water and flushing toilets, while other l_aof[l biom_m ch nb_ ]iggohcns ^ih’n b[p_ lohhcha q[n_l [h^ g[e_ om_ i` \il_ bif_m il nb_ lcp_l ch nb_ community, and have biological toilets. The primary school in the community is the only primary school for coloured children still existent in the valley, and children from Sewefontein and Coleskeplas are picked up by an old schoolbus every day to go to the primary school.

For binb S_q_`ihn_ch [h^ S[[cg[hmbi_e, nb_ ‘q[s i` fc`_’ i` j_ijf_ cm p_ls go]b nb_ m[g_, [fnbioab nb_s \inb have different benefits being a private and a public property respectively. An average household in either community exists of around six people: grandparents, their children with husbands or wives, and grandchildren. Most men in both communities work for nearby white Afrikaans farmers as labourers on their lands, and the women mostly work in the household and sometimes help on the field. Since farmers massively abandoned vegetable seed farming since 1994, communities have lost large part of their jobs as the remaining farming activities were far less labour-intensive (Crane, 2006).

Somewhere between 30 and 40 people (both men and women) are currently employed via the Working For Water programme (see annex D6 for detailed info on this programme); they are divided up to three teams, each being led by a contractor (also a coloured inhabitant), and their main activities are to plant spekboom trees (portulacaria afra) on the STRP designated areas. However, there is not enough available employment in the valley, which causes many young people to move out of Baviaanskloof in search for jobs. As a result, the amount of young people unequally lines up to the amount of elderly people (the coloured community is aging). This is the major cause of many families in both Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek depends either partly or even entirely on j_hmcihm l_]_cp_^ _p_ls gihnb `lig nb_ aip_lhg_hn. P_ijf_’m ^c_n ch \inb ]iggohcnc_m gimnfs _rcmnm i` \l_[^, pumpkin, potatoes, beans and onions, and on occasions chicken or pork, or the very favourite goat meat. Although in Sewefontein there is an organic garden where twelve locals are being taught by a permaculture organisation to cultivate vegetables such as lettuce and spinach, no one in the communities is significantly interested in, or cannot afford, to buy these other type of vegetables. Housing in both communities is mostly created by the inhabitants themselves, and the material used for building is taken from the nature areas around; material such as wood (‘^ilchabion’ il Acacia Karoo, [h^ ‘\fio\im’ il Diospyros lycioides), riet (Phragmites australis) and clay are the primary sources for building.

Other land owners and inhabitants

Next to the farming community and the black and coloured communities, there are some minor inhabitant and landowner groups that can be identified; the landowner groups concern people that either have bought a piece of land with housing to use as holiday address, or people that own land individually or within a trust; according to mig_ i` nb_ `[lg_lm ch nb_ l_m_[l]b [l_[, nb_m_ f[hîqh_lm [l_ \[l_fs jl_m_hn [n nb_cl jlij_lnc_m il îh’n _p_h î

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR anything with the land they own. Due to time-related issues and barriers to making contact, this group of landowners will not be taken into account in the rest of this report.

One other inhabitant group that will be taken into account to a limited extent, the Chnuganoo community farm. The property (approximately 650 ha) of this community is owned by a trust of an unknown amount of people, and as a rule it can only generate money for charity purposes. Anyone paying 10.000 Rands (863.187 Euro, at 11 August 2008) to the charity fund is allowed to claim a piece of land on the property, build a house and cultivate crops. Currently, the community in Chnuganoo consists of seven white Afrikaans people, and one woman from the Ct_]b R_jo\fc]; lohhcha q[n_l cm [p[cf[\f_ `il [ff i` nb_ ]iggohcns’m chb[\cn[hnm, [h^ nb_l_ cm hi _f_]nlc]cns. Aa_m of the inhabitants vary from around 20 years old to 70, and all have created their own living space, helping each other out when needed but mostly leaving each other to live their own lives to their preferences. The community `[lg cm ehiqh ni nb_ `[lg_lm i` B[pc[[hmefii` [m nb_ ‘bcjjc_ `[lg’, [h^ nb_s b[p_ [h cgage of being people that do nothing, no work, no harm, but to grow marihuana and smoke (which is not that strange as a couple of years ago the local police found marihuana plants at their property several times). In reality, the inhabitants do have their activities, be it either with an income or on voluntary purposes, and they all mostly live and work in the most self sustainable way possible. Chapter 5. F[lg_lm’ mi]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` B[pc[[hmefii`’m _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m

5.1 F[lg_lm’ mi]ci-cultural valuation of cultural services

5.1.1 Aesthetic values

Regarding aesthetic values of the living environment in the Baviaanskloof research area, there were several things significantly valued by the farmers; to the question whether nature in Baviaanskloof was considered important \_][om_ i` cnm \_[ons, _cabn i` nb_ _f_p_h chn_lpc_q_^ `[lg_lm [hmq_l_^ ‘nin[ffs [al__’, nqi `[lg_lm [hmq_l_^ ‘[al__ ni mig_ _rn_hn’, [h^ ihfs ih_ `[lg_l l_g[ch_^ h_onl[f. H_h]_, 90,9 j_l]_hn i` nb_ `[lg_lm _hpcmcihm nb_ beauty of their natural surroundings as important. Many farmers grew up in Baviaanskloof and mentioned to want ni mn[s nb_l_ \_][om_ i` nb_ jf[]_’m [_mnb_nc] \_[ons [m q_ff [m ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ [h^ inb_l l_[mihm (^cm]omm_^ f[n_l in this section). Other farmers that did not grow up in the area or moved there relatively recently (less than ten years ago; these concern five farmers) often mentioned aesthetic-related reasons that they had considered when deciding about moving to Baviaanskloof; one interviewed farmer mentions bcm `[gcfs’m ‚jlcpcf_a_^ ijjilnohcns ni [gip_ ni] fcp_ ch mo]b [ \_[onc`of [l_[‛ (j_lm. ]ig. qcnb `[lg_l +/- 38 years old, 2007).

When consulting the farmers about their free-time activities (as described under recreational values), the importance of scenic drives and routes in the Baviaanskloof was often discussed. Many farmers mentioned to use the existing roads and tracks in the Baviaanskloof research area and the protected Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve ni n[e_ nb_cl `[gcfs [h^ `lc_h^m oj ch nb_cl ‘\[eec_’ (`iol qb__f ^lcp_) ni _cnb_l _hdis nb_ h[nol[f mollioh^cham qbcf_ ^lcpcha il ni b[p_ [ jc]hc] il ‘\l[[c’ (\[l\_ko_). Afmi, `il nb_ `[lg_lm nb[n n[e_ nb_cl niolcmn ao_mnm ih bcecha il driving excursions on their land (these are five famers), the existing roads and tracks were even more so considered as important.

5.1.2 Knowledge & education

Discussing knowledge values of thicket with the farmers three related variables could be defined: scientific research, eco tourism/ nature education, and bench marking for ensuring resource availability.

Regarding scientific research, farmers often mention to think it is important to learn to understand natural processes better in order to improve their way of farming, benefiting both themselves and the ecosystem.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Especially now that profitable farming becomes more difficult with the degrading ecosystem in Baviaanskloof, farmers to an increasing extent become more interested to know more about sustainable ecosystem management. During the fieldwork for this research, one farmer provided the facilities at his property for a workshop about PRESENCE, in which a broad scientific audience presented and discussed ideas about thicket restoration. According to the farmer the workshop was a great opportunity to gain more knowledge on thicket restoration jl[]nc]_m, [m b_ g_hncih_^ ni \_ ‚[ ]ihm_lp[ncihcmn gsm_f`‛ (j_lm. ]igg. qcnb mn[e_bif^_l 2007).

Concerning the nature and eco-tourism education variable, farmers especially refer to nature education for their children; nine ion i` nb_ _f_p_h chn_lpc_q_^ `[lg_lm g_hncih ni ‘nin[ffs [al__’ qcnb nb_ mn[n_g_hn nb[n fcpcha ch nb_ Baviaanskloof natural surroundings is important because it teaches their children about nature (one additional `[lg_l [hmq_l_^ ‘[al__ ni mig_ _rn_hn’; m__ nb_ n[\f_m ch [hh_r D3). Mimn i` nb_ `[lg_lm’ ]bcf^l_h ai ni \i[l^cha schools during the weeks, and many farmers mention that they consider it important for their children to be able to come back to Baviaanskloof every once in a while so they can play freely around in nature (pers. comm. with stakeholders 2007).

Bench marking for ensuring resource availability has, in the case of water, been a an unavoidable challenge for the farmers for years if not decades already, and is still considered very important with the occasional drought problems many farmers mention to deal with (at least five farmers explicitly mentioned drought problems; see interviews annex D1). Developing improved or new ways to obtain sufficient water supply therefore is perceived as quite important for many of the interviewed farmers for many decades already. In the 70s namely, the South African government already provided the farmers in Baviaanskloof with subsidies to build furrows in the catchment area to be able to control water flows better and direct greater water flows to the agricultural irrigation areas. However, through the years especially the downstream farmers experienced that these artificial water flows had a negative impact on the health of the floodplains (as they were deprived of water because of the furrows) and the state of the overall water table (which was lowering). One downstream farmer therefore decided to remove the subsidized furrows to give way again to the (regeneration of the) natural water flow, and built a natural system on his farm to store and capture water in a more sustainable way. Discussion is presently going on amongst farmers to remove all furrows in the whole of Baviaanskloof in order to enable the floodplains once again to become as they used to be in their natural healthy state.

5.1.3 Cultural heritage

For the cultural heritage variable under the cultural services, the following indicators are relevant for the farmers: ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’, ‘nb_ lif_ ch ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_m’ [h^ ‘UNESCO qilf^ b_lcn[a_ fcmncha’.

Concerning the cultural traditions, farmers typically value their farming activity as highly important; for most farmers in the Baviaanskloof, farming has been the core activity of their families for years if not decades. It seems to be a cofnol[f nl[^cncih ni ]ihncho_ `[lgcha []ncpcnc_m ch nb_ ‘efii`’ [m nb_s b[p_ \__h ]ihncho_^ `il [ fiha ncg_. A l_f[ncp_fs h_q []ncpcns nb[n ch]l_[mchafs chn_al[n_m qcnb nb_ `[lg_lm’ nl[^cncih[f []ncpcnc_m, cm niolcmg. M[hs `[lg_lm have initiated tourism activities on their properties which up to the present have been of minor economic importance; however, tourism is seen as an activity that might become increasingly important in the near future (pers. com. several stakeholders).

Then, there is a more superficial cultural tradition which is seen as important by all interviewed farmers: the occasional braai (barbeque), either with family or farmers amongst themselves. Any time the farmers meet (`[lg_lm’ [mmi]c[ncih g__ncham, il j[lnc_m) [ \l[[c cm ]_hnl[f ni their gathering, and seems to serve as the core facilitating activity to get easy conversation going.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

As many farmers in the Baviaanskloof research area either grew up in the area or have lived in the area for a very long time, the agricultural landscape b[m \_]ig_ ‘h[nol[f’ [h^ nl[^cncih[f ni nb_g: nb_cl [alc]ofnol[f f[h^m b[p_ become part of their culture and are encaptured in their daily activities and even their lifestyles. The reason why, for the farmers, the cultural landscape in their living environment is so specific to them is the unique combination of the natural and agricultural landscape together: their properties lie in a valley between the rugged mountains of the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve both towards the north and the south. Being a very important catchment area, ecosystem processes in the Baviaanskloof research area are characteristic in their own way and farmers have been developing specific ways of farming in order to be able to make optimal use of the ecosystem services.

The fact that Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve has been included in the UNESCO world heritage listing has brought across a general realization amongst the farmers that the biodiversity in their natural living environment is unique and even internationally recognized. On occasions they mentioned not to have known before that nature in the Baviaanskloof was so special and that its biodiversity was so unique that it would ever be internationally recognized (pers. comm. stakeholders 2007).

5.1.4 Spiritual/ religious values

Regarding religious sites or features, there is just one obvious site that is of significant importance to the farmers: the church in the Baviaanskloof research area. Most farmers mention to join church services when they are organized every first Sunday of the month; however, in the daily lives of the farmers religion does not seem to play a very significant role.

5.1.5 R_f[r[ncih [h^ _hdisg_hn i` ‘`l__ ncg_’

Wb_h ^cm]ommcha l_f[r[ncih [h^ ‘`l__ ncg_’ []ncpcnc_m qcnb nb_ `[lg_lm, m_p_h ion i` nb_ _f_p_h chn_lpcewed farmers mention that working on their farm properties already gives them a lot of fulfilment (see table annex D3); some [^^cncih[f ]igg_hnm ch]fo^_ nb[n nb_ gipcha i` mb__j ip_l nb_ ‘p_f^’ (jlij_lns) cm ih_ i` nb_ `[piolcn_ []ncpcnc_m as it allows them to enjoy a look over their properties (pers. com. with several stakeholders).

Concerning true free time and relaxation activities, farmers often mention not to have much time for it as their work takes up most of their daily lives. Still, eight out of tb_ _f_p_h chn_lpc_q_^ `[lg_lm ‘nin[ffs [al__’ ni nb_ statement that their natural surroundings allow them to enjoy free time, and two farmers agree to this statement to some extent (only one farmer stayed neutral on the question). Free time activities considered as important by the farmers include the spending time with family at their house (six out of eleven farmers, with three non- response), going for trips outside Baviaanskloof (seven out of eleven farmers, one negative response and two non- response), and doing activities in Baviaanskloof with family or friends (seven out of eleven farmers, four non- response). Regarding the latter, farmers mentioned activities such as walking/hiking, camping, horseback riding [h^ b[pcha ‘\l[[cm’ (\[l\_ko_m) qcnb inb_l `[lg_lm’ `[gcfc_m (nb_ f[nn_l q[m ^cm]omm_^ oh^_l nb_ ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’ indicator, paragraph 5.1.3).

5.1.6 Inspirational & expression

Some farmers in the Baviaanskloof research area maintain hobbies/activities in which their natural surroundings serve [m [h chmjcl[ncih[f miol]_. Fil nb_ ch^c][nil ‘om_ i` h[nol_ [m gincp_ ch \iiem, `cfg, j[chncha, gomc]’, _r[gjf_m ]ih]_lhcha nb_ qbcn_ `[lgcha ]iggohcns ch nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` ch]fo^_ j[chncha (ih_ `[lg_l’m qc`_), nb_ inspirational studying of thicket plant mj_]c_m (ih_ `[lg_l’m qc`_) [h^ nb_ _rcmncha c^_[ i` ih_ `[lgcha ]iojf_ ni qlcn_ [ \iie. Cih]_lhcha nb_ ch^c][nil ‘om_ i` h[nol_ ch [l]bcn_]nol_, [^p_lncmcha _n]’, mig_ i` nb_ `[lg_lm’ families that run a tourism business use the aesthetic beauty of their natural surroundings to make pictures for advertisement purposes. One farming couple has used its natural surroundings as an inspiration to construct tourism accommodation on their property: the occurrence of many caves on their land inspired them to build

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR accommodation facilities in those caves using as little extra material as possible in an attempt to maintain the feeling of closeness to wilderness in the facilities (pers. com. with stakeholder 2007).

5.1.7 Sense of place

In general, farmers characteristically merge private lives and socio-economic activities on their private Bir 3: [ `[lg_l’m ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ owned properties. Because of this, and since they ‚Fir David Mas Masumoto, a third-generation mostly highly depend on the health of their Japanese-American peach farmer, personal, familial, surrounding natural ecosystem for their farming and communal identity are all intermingles and rooted activities, farmers typically maintain a very strong ch jf[]_: ‚Tb_ al_[n_mn f_mmih I af_[h `lig gs `c_f^m cm nb[n I ][hhin `[lg [fih_…. Wb_h I a[t_ ip_l gs `[lg I sense of place. Many indicators contribute to this imagine Baachan [grandmother] or Dad walking ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ `__fcha, [m \ir 3 _rjf[chm ch nb_ ][m_ through the fields. They seem content, at home on this of a Japanese-American peach farmer, who is very land. My Sun Crest peaches are now part of the history strongly attached to his farming property because of this place I too call home. I understand where I am because I know where I came from. I am homebound, i` ‘a_h_l[ncih[f bcmnils’, ‘]ib_mcih i` `[gcfs’, [h^ forever linked to a piece of earth and the living bcm ‘][lcha `il nb_ ]iohnls’, qbc]b [l_ [ff ‘m_hm_ i` ]l_[nol_m nb[n l_mc^_ b_l_‛ jf[]_’ ch^c][nilm. Fil nb_ ][m_ i` nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` (Holmes in Clayton and Opotow, 2003) farmers, these same sense of place indicators are of importance; the following will describe these indicators one by one.

As most of the farmers (over 63%) have lived a generation or even longer in the Baviaanskloof research area, many nostalgic and historical anecdotic stories exist to which the farmers seem to be quite attached. Those stories are seen as important heritage, which is illustrated by the fact that, during the fieldwork period of this study research, [ \iief_n ][ff_^ ‚B[pc[[hmefii` mnilc_m‛ q[m l_f_[m_^ [h^ jon ih m[f_ ch mnil_m. Snilc_m nb[n [l_ nif^ ch nb_ \iief_n are mostly based on the happening of the big flood in 1916 in the Baviaanskloof and the effects it had on the farming community back then until the present. It goes into depth on specific detailed memories of previous and present Baviaanskloof farmers as an encouragement to keep generational history and Bavc[[hmefii` `[lg_lm’ strong bounding alive.

Cih]_lhcha nb_ ch^c][nil ‘]ib_mcih i` `[gcfs, mi]c[f il ]ofnol[f aliojm’, [ff `[lg_lm [n `clmn mcn_ m__g ni b[p_ [ strong bound with their fathers and forefathers, especially as the majority of them have inherited their farm jlij_lnc_m `lig nb_cl `[gcfc_m. Ih nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` l_m_[l]b [l_[, [ p_ls mnliha ]ib_mcih i` nb_ qbcn_ `[lg_lm’ community exists; as one farmer commented during the interview, living in an isolated place like Baviaanskloof unsurprisingly crean_m [ ‚mg[ff ]iggohcns ih cnm iqh‛ (mn[e_bif^_l j_lm. ]ig. 2007). Mimn qbcn_ `[lg_lm ch nb_ research area have grown up together and have built up long-f[mncha `lc_h^mbcjm; ‘h_q’ `[lg_lm ch nb_ [l_[ [l_ generally welcomed to the society, and are always welcome to join all important social activities. These social []ncpcnc_m l[ha_ `lig nb_ ko[ln_lfs `[lg_lm’ [mmi]c[ncih g__ncham ni ‘\l[[cm’ (\[l\_ko_m) [n `[lg_lm biom_m [h^ even occasional gatherings to watch important national happenings on television together (such as the finals of the rugby world tournament during the time of our fieldwork).

R_a[l^cha nb_ ‘][lcha `il nb_ ]iohnls’ ch^c][nil, [ff `[lg_lm m__g ni \_ kocn_ ]ih]_lh_^ [\ion nb_ mn[n_ i` nb_cl properties, which of course has a very important socio-economic dimension to it –their land is their income. Because of drought and land cover degradation reasons many farmers have decided over the years to move from highly unsustainable livestock keeping (especially goats) towards the keeping of livestoce nb[n ^i_mh’n b[p_ [m high of an impact on land cover health (such as cattle, ostriches, sheep). Only a few individual farmers are actively involved in activities on their lands that concern a caring for the natural vegetation; these farmers mention to have realized over the years that the socio-economic health of their farming properties highly depends on the health of

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR the natural vegetation and ecosystem services. These farmers are often already involved in restoration activities on their own properties as they believe that a restored ecosystem could solve for a great part current problems mo]b [m ^lioabn [h^ _limcih; [m ih_ `[lg_l ]igg_hnm ‚[l_mnil[ncih ni g_ g_[hm] ni nls [h^ a_n siol _]imsmn_g [m it was in a healthy state where it can live and look aft_l cnm_f` qcnbion bog[h chn_lp_hcha‛ (mn[e_bif^_l communication 2007).

5.1.8 Peace & reconciliation

For this cultural service, there are three indicators of importance for the white farming community in B[pc[[hmefii`: ‘\i[l^_l ]limmcha l_miol]_ mb[lcha’ (ch nb_ ][m_ i` q[n_l), ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’, [h^ ‘ch]l_[m_^ mi]c[f chn_al[ncih’.

Am q[n_l cm [ ^sh[gc] l_miol]_ nb[n nsjc][ffs ]limm_m g[hs ][^[mnl_m’ \i[l^_lm ch nb_ B[pc[[hmefii`, cn understandably is of importance for the farmers to make joint agreements and commitments amongst themselves and coloured communities on the use of this resource. The importance of water sharing becomes obvious when for instance observing the fact that the community of Sewefontein shares water from its seven fountains with two h_cab\iolcha `[lg_lm. Wcnb nb_ `[]n nb[n ‘\i[l^_l ]limmcha l_miol]_ mb[lcha’ cm i` cgjiln[h]_, mi]c[f chn_al[ncih and reconciliation between people equally becomes important, i.e. if social and/or cultural groups would not live in peace together, boarder crossing resource sharing would probably be very much of a problem. Farmers seem to value it of high importance to create and maintain a general reconciliation and social integration amongst themselves; this is mostly because of the fact that they all share similar socio-economic activities and therefore are dependent on the same (types of) resources. In general a strong feeling of the importance of joint responsibility and commitment exists amongst the farmers to manage the natural resources the best way they can. This is for instance observable in the joint interest the farmers show during their quarterly meetings, where they often invite organisations and researchers that are involved in conservation or natural resource management issues in Baviaanskloof, to give a presentation or organize a discussion.

5.2 Socio-cultural values of other ecosystem services

5.2.1 Food production services

For these services, there is one indicator of specific socio-cultural importance to the white farmers in the B[pc[[hmefii` l_m_[l]b [l_[: nb_ ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e [h^ qcf^ [hcg[f mj_]c_m’. Fclmnfs, nbcm ch^c][nil l_`_lm ni nb_ j[ln i` nb_ fcp_mni]e e_jn \s `[lg_lm nb[n cm hin ihfs economically valued (income wise); many farmers keep certain livestock for own consumption, as the fresh meat is ]ihmc^_l_^ ]il_ ni gimn i` nb_ `[lg_lm’ ^c_nm (i\m_lp[ncih [h^ j_lm. ]igg. qcnb mn[e_bif^_lm 2007). S_]ih^fs, nbcm indicator refers to fishing and hunting activities that concern some of the farmers: as the farmers that mentioned to go fishing on occasions additionally mentioned to do this mostly in places outside the Baviaanskloof research area, the fishing activity is not further considered in this study research. Concerning the hunting, at least three farmers explicitly mentioned to hunt for kudus and other wildlife once in a while, for reasons of pleasure as well as the capturing of good quality (and free) meat (pers. com. stakeholder 2007). Two of these farmers mention the bohncha [m \_cha j[ln i` nb_ ‘niolcmn j[]e[a_’ nb_s jlipc^_ ni nb_cl ao_mnm, [h^ b[p_ ]l_[n_^ [ a[g_ `[lgcha tih_ on their properties especially designed for this purpose (see also figure 7.1 in section 7.3).

5.2.2 Water supply

Fil nb_ ][m_ i` q[n_l mojjfs, nb_ ch^c][nil ‘jlipcmcih, [h^ nb_ `cfn_lcha, l_n_hncih [h^ mnil[a_ i` `l_mb q[n_l ìl îg_mnc] [h^ [alc]ofnol[f om_m’ cm i` mi]ci-cultural importance to the farmers. Fresh water from the Baviaanskloof valley is being used by nb_ `[lg_lm ìl g[hs i` nb_cl mi]c[f ‘^[cfs fc`_’ []ncpcnc_m mo]b [m ]iiecha, q[mbcha [h^

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR irrigation. Water supply from the Baviaanskloof valley is the only source of fresh water for the farmers and thus important in enabling the farmers to maintain the ways in which they live, work, and organise to meet their needs.

5.2.3 Medicinal & health resources

During the interviews with the farmers in the Baviaanskloof research area it became clear that, concerning the ‘g_^c]ch[f & b_[fnb l_miol]_m’, ihfs nb_ ch^c][nil ‘R_mnil[ncp_ [h^ l_a_h_l[ncp_ _``_]nm ih j_ijf_ (mo]b [m ^_]l_[m_^ f_p_f i` mnl_mm [h^ g_hn[f `[ncao_)’ q[m l_[ffs [jjfc][\f_. R_a[l^cha nb_ chn_lpc_q ko_mncih ih qb_nb_l thicket species were used for medicinal purposes, no interviewee amongst the white farmers community in B[pc[[hmefii` [hmq_l_^ ‘s_m’ (m__ [fmi nb_ `clmn n[\f_ ch [hh_r D3). Ti nb_ ko_mncih qb_nb_l h[nol_ ch Baviaanskloof helps to get rid of stress and fatigue, seven out of ten farmers that answered the question g_hncih_^ ni ‘nin[ffs [al__’ qcnb nb_ mn[n_g_hn; nbl__ `[lg_lm answered neutral to the question (there was one non-response). Additional comments to the responses concerned for instance that the natural environment works ‘l_f[rcha’ ih ih_m gch^, _p_h gil_ mi qb_h nb_ h[nol_ cm in a good and healthy condition (pers. com. with stakeholders 2007).

5.2.4 Air quality

During the interviews with the farmers, the purpose of the interview was first explained to them; this included an explanation of the planned STRP project in their living area, and its official objective to sequester carbon through the planting of Portulacaria afra in designated areas. Reactions from many farmers to the explanation seemed to show a newly generated social interest in (the importance of) contributing to a worldwide issue; as one farmer ]igg_hn_^ ih nb_ jimmc\cfcns ni ]iij_l[n_ ch nb_ STRP jlid_]n: ‚it is excellent to help companies reduce _gcmmcihm‛ (j_lm. ]ig. qcnb mn[e_bif^_l 2007).

5.2.5 Refugium services (habitat function)

R_a[l^cha nb_ ‘]ihnchoiom mocn[\cfcns i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni g[chn[ch \ci^cp_lmcns’ ch^c][nil ^_`ch_^ oh^_l nb_ refugium services, the white farming community seems to attach a certain importance value to it. The majority of the farmers expresses a preference for nature protection and conservation through voluntary work, though this is mostly caused by socio-economic reasoning (e.g. filling of erosion holes to prevent further problems with land cover). Some farmers however explicitly express the opinion that nature conservation in itself is of importance as q_ff; [n f_[mn `iol `[lg_lm g_hncih_^ ni b[p_ ‘f_`n’ j[ln i` nb_cl f[h^ `il g[hs s_[lm ni [ffiq cnm h[nol[f regeneration. Then, all farmers together have decided to jointly participate in voluntary actions with the Landmark Foundation12, which has set up a project in the Baviaanskloof to protect the leopards living in the area; farmers cooperate controlling and monitoring leopard traps on their properties and provide the trapped leopards with a collar, after which they are released back into nature again. Reasons for farmers to participate in this programme is because the wild animals originally belonging to the area should be protected in order to keep nature the way it should be (pers. comm. with stakeholder during farmers association meeting, November 2007).

Cih]_lhcha h[nol[f p_a_n[ncih ]ihm_lp[ncih, `iol i` nb_ _f_p_h chn_lpc_q_^ `[lg_lm [hmq_l_^ ‘s_m’ ni nb_ ko_mncih ‘Have you undertaken any nature conservation activities to protect any areas in the last two years (e.g., surveys, restoration)?‟. Two farmers answered „sort of‟ to this question, three farmers answered „no‟, and there were two non-responses (see also annex D3). Then, to the question whether farmers would be willing to rehabilitate areas on their properties, they unanimously answered „yes‟. For many

12 The Landmark Foundation is an official South African not-for-profit organisation, which strives for so-][ff_^ ‚f[h^g[le ]b[ha_ i` nbchecha [h^ \_b[pciol‛ ch il^_l ni gip_ niq[l^m [ gil_ ]ihm_lp[ncih \[m_^ _]ihigs. Plid_]nm nb_s chcnc[n_ `i]om ih [ \li[^ l[ha_ i` nopics such as protected area expansion and consolidation, climate change, desertification, social and economic upliftment of people through building the conservation economy, conservation-friendly and compatible land-use change, and species conservation. Conservation is seen in its broadest context to include the living and cultural landscape (Landmark Foundation, 2008).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR farmers there was underlying economic reasoning attached to these answers as they often expressed that they would only rehabilitate “if paid for it” (commented by three farmers) or when their livelihoods would be assured (strongly agreed upon by eight farmers, agreed upon by three).

5.3 Socio-cultural values and perceived wellbeing

As mentioned in section 3.1.2, the perceived wellbeing in relation with ecosystem services can be determined by ]ihmc^_lcha nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ p[fo_ ch ]ig\ch[ncih qcnb nb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ p[fo_ i` mi]ci-cultural important services, and the status of existence of the concerning natural services. On the basis of this, the elements of wellbeing as defined in paragraph 3.1.5 will be evaluated below. Only those components of the constituents of wellbeing will be evaluated below for which information has been gathered. Annex D8 shows a quick overview of all socio-cultural indicators and their (importance and appreciation) values.

5.3.1 Security

Thim _f_g_hn ][h \_ ^cpc^_^ chni ‘j_lmih[f m[`_ns’ [h^ ‘m_]ol_ l_miol]_ []]_mm (_hmolcha l_miol]_m [p[cf[\cfcns)’. Personal safety can be connected with the socio-]ofnol[f ch^c][nilm ‘lif_ ch ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’, ‘]ib_mcih i` mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’, ‘ch]l_[m_^ mi]c[f chn_al[ncih’ [h^ ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’ (see the overview in table 2, paragraph 3.1.2). Secure resource access can consequently be connected to the socio-cultural indicators ‘\i[l^_l ]limmcha l_miol]_ mb[lcha’, ‘\_h]b g[lecha `il _hmolcha l_miol]_ [p[cf[\cfcns’, [h^ ‘m]c_hnc`c] l_m_[l]b’.

The isolation of a relatively small habitant population in between the rugged mountains of Kouga and B[pc[[hmefii` b[m ]l_[n_^ [ ‚mg[ff ]iggohcns ih cnm iqh‛ ch qbc]b nb_ j_ijf_ are quite dependent on each other and therefore have created a communal way of living in which there exists a general feeling of confidence and trust amongst each other (pers. com. with several stakeholders 2007). Farmers regularly mentioned during the inn_lpc_qm nb[n nb_s `__f `ilnoh[n_ ni fcp_ ch nb_ ‘efii`’ [m cn cm [gihamn nb_ [l_[m qcnb nb_ fiq_mn ]lcg_ l[n_m ch South Africa (confirmed by the local police station). Thus, in the light of personal safety, farmers highly appreciate their small community in the isolated setting of Baviaanskloof.

Tb_h, ]ih]_lhcha ‘m_]ol_ l_miol]_ []]_mm’, m_]ncih 5.2 [fl_[^s ch^c][n_^ nb_ bcab cgjiln[h]_ i` \i[l^_l ]limmcha water supply sharing amongst farmers and coloured communities; people in some cases depend on each other for good water supply. Boarder crossing water sharing and discussion about water use exists amongst farmers and communities in the western Baviaanskloof and is highly appreciated as people realise they need each other in order to maintain an availability of sufficient water for their social needs. However, because of the increasing problems of drought (as mentioned by many farmers), farmers more and more face the problem of insufficient water availability. As a result, some individuals do not seem to entirely respect the need to share water and therefore choose to deprive others of the supply in order to gain more for themselves; these individuals thus apply ‘\_h]b g[lecha’ domn `il nb_ m[e_ i` nb_cl iqh, qbc]b cm hin p_ls go]b [jjl_]c[n_^ \s nb_ inb_l farmers and coloured inhabitants in the area as it does not promote a fair sharing.

A\ion nb_ ‘m]c_hnc`c] l_m_[l]b’, j[l[al[jb 5.1.2 [fl_[^s ch^c][n_^ nb_ cgjiln[h]_ `[lg_lm [mmcah ni l_m_[l]b \_cha done on options for sustainable ecosystem management. However, some farmers mention to being visited and interviewed by researchers and students too often, being asked the same questions over and over again without in nb_ _h^ \_cha ch`ilg_^ [\ion nb_ l_mofnm. ‚R_m_[l]b ]ig_m [h^ ai_m‛ ih_ `[lg_l (g[f_, +/- 60 years old) argues, ‚[h^ q_ mj_h^ [ fin i` ncg_ [hmq_lcha ko_mncihm \on q_ ^ih’n \_h_`cn `lig nb_ l_mofnm nb_s `ch^ ion‛. A mfcabn difference can thus be detected between the importance and appreciation value.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

5.3.2 Basic material for good life

For the falg_lm, nbcm _f_g_hn l_`_lm ni ‘[^_ko[n_ fcp_fcbii^m’, ‘mo``c]c_hn honlcnciom `ii^’, [h^ ‘[]]_mm ni aii^m’ (factors concerning this specific constituent of wellbeing; MA, 2005). H_l_, nb_ ch^c][nilm ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e [h^ qcf^ [hcg[fm nb[n ][h \_ bohn_^/`cmb_^’, nb_ ‘jlipcmcih, `cfn_lcha, l_n_hncih, [h^ mnil[a_ i` `l_mb q[n_l’ [h^ ‘]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’ [l_ [jjfccable.

Cih]_lhcha nb_ ‘[^_ko[n_ fcp_fcbii^’ ]igjih_hn, `il nb_ `[lg_lm nb_ mn[n_ i` _rcmn_h]_ i` nb_ mollioh^cha h[nol[f resources is highly important. The health of the ecosystem determines for an important part the continuity of `[lg_lm’ mi]ci-culturally (and primarily economically) important farming activities: the amount of available fresh water and a healthy vegetation for instance are crucial to well-conditioned livestock keeping. The natural system in Baviaanskloof itself has come to a point that it is not able to support for all livestock on its own, and farmers unavoidably need to cultivate or buy food for their livestock (luzern, grasses) at increasing rates (results from interviews with farmers). For the availability of fresh water, there are occasional problems of drought and farmers increasingly need to try to develop ways to ensure water availability (as discussed in the previous paragraph). Despite these increasingly serious problems, farmers still continue to prefer their farming activities over any other activities, as they often mention farming as an activity they would never want to abandon entirely (stakeholder communication 2007).

Game farming and hunting are activities of some of the farmers that somehow stand loose from their other `[lgcha []ncpcnc_m; nb_ ch^c][nilm ‘][j[]cns ni jlipc^_ `il l_]l_[ncih[f []ncpcnc_m’ [h^ ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e [h^ qcf^ [hcg[fm nb[n ][h \_ bohn_^/`cmb_^’ [l_ bcabfs [jjl_]c[n_^ \s mig_ i` the farmers for the resources they provide that support the socio-cultural activities game farming and hunting.

5.3.3 Health

Regarding the farmers, the socio-cultural indicators attributable to this element mostly communicate to the ‘`__fcha q_ff’ ]igjih_hn [m ^_`ch_^ \s nb_ Mcff_hhcog Amm_mmg_hn oh^_l nb_ ‘H_[fnb’ ]ihmncno_hn i` q_ff\_cha (MA, 2005)13. Tbim_ ch^c][nilm ([m n[e_h `lig n[\f_ 2, j[l[al[jb 3.1.2) ch]fo^_ ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’, ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’, ‘jl_m_h]_ i` m]_hc] ^lcp_m’, ‘][j[]cns ni jlipc^_ `il l_]l_[ncih[f []ncpcnc_m’, [h^ ‘l_mnil[ncp_ [h^ l_a_h_l[ncp_ _``_]nm ih j_ijf_ mo]b [m ^_]l_[m_^ f_p_f i` mnl_mm [h^ g_hn[f `[ncao_’. Fil nb_m_ indicatorm, \inb nb_ `[lg_lm’ j_l]_cp_^ mn[nom i` nb_ _rcmn_hn h[nol[f l_miol]_m [m q_ff [m nb_cl [jjl_]c[ncih [l_ important when determining perceived wellbeing.

Cih]_lhcha nb_ ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’, `[lg_lm i`n_h _rjfc]cnfs g_hncih_^ nb[n nb_cl `[lgcha []ncpcnces make them feel well; most of them have been farming all their lives, having taken over the activity from their fathers and `il_`[nb_lm. F[lg_lm ch nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` [jj_[l ni m__ nb_cl `[lgcha []ncpcnc_m [m [ ‘q[s i` fc`_’ nb[n nb_s b[p_ become attached to; they feel a certain pride for their livestock and even mention to consider the farming activity as a sort of relationship (stakeholder communication 2007).

As stated before in paragraph 1.5.3, several vegetation types within the Baviaanskloof research area are depicted as vulnerable and are quite degraded (based on observation). Farmers seem to have mixed ideas about the status of existence of thicket vegetation in their living area, as some of them seem to acknowledge the fact that the ecosystem is degrading (e.g. interview with Pieter Kruger), and others mention to think the natural environment is actually doing quite well (e.g. Thijs Cilliers believes his land does not need much restoration). In some of the areas òlnb_l ojbcff [h^ ch nb_ ‘efii`’ (]anyon) areas of the Baviaanskloof, natural vegetation is less degraded, and `[lg_lm m__g ni [jjl_]c[n_ nb_m_ mcn_m _mj_]c[ffs ìl ‘`l__ ncg_’ []ncpcnc_m (i\m_lp[ncih ôlcha nl[hm_]n q[fem [h^

13 Tb_ ‘H_[fnb’ ]ihmncno_hn’m ‘mnl_hanb’ [h^ ‘[]]_mm ni ]f_[h [cl [h^ q[n_l’ ]igjih_hnm q_l_ hin nbilioabfs ^cm]omm_^ qcnb nb_ `armers.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

^lcp_m ip_l `[lg_lm’ jlij_lnc_m). A\ion nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` l_m_[lch area in overall, farmers do not seem to have mj_]c`c] [nn[]bg_hn ni ]_ln[ch p_a_n[ncih nsj_m qb_h n[fecha [\ion nb_ ‘l_mnil[ncp_ [h^ l_a_h_l[ncp_ _``_]nm’ i` nature; just walking with the livestock over their private properties gives farmers already the opportunity to enjoy and feel relaxed from their natural surroundings (pers. com. with several stakeholders 2007). Regarding the appreciation of the aesthetics of their natural surroundings, a reference can be made to the importance value (paragraph 5.1.1); [^^cncih[ffs, `[lg_lm [jjl_]c[n_ cn _mj_]c[ffs qb_h ‚_p_lsnbcha cm al__h‛ [h^ [\oh^[hnfs vegetated (pers. com. with stakeholder 2007; observation during transect drives).

5.3.4 Good social relations

For the evaluation of this element of wellbeing, the socio-]ofnol[f ch^c][nilm ‘]ib_mcih i` `[gcfs, mi]c[f il ]ofnol[f aliojm’, ‘mnils fch_m, a_h_l[ncih[f bcmnils’, ‘\i[l^_l ]limmcha l_miol]_ mb[lcha’, ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’ [h^ ‘ch]l_[m_^ mi]c[f chn_al[ncih’ jf[s [ ]ig\ch_^ lif_.

Farmers often mentioned during interviews to be very happy to live in the area as they know amongst themselves that they can count on each other for many things (such as resource sharing). Most farmers have grown up in Baviaanskloof and there exists a generation-long familial feeling amongst them; according to some farmers this is partly because their habitat location is so isolated and their community only very small (stakeholders ]iggohc][ncih 2007). Tb_ ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ `__fcha ìl g[hs `[lg_lm cm p_ry high (see also paragraph 5.1.7), and nb_cl bcab [jjl_]c[ncih ìl ‘aii^ mi]c[f l_f[ncihm’ ch^c][nilm \_]ig_m ]f_[l `lig nb_ i`n_h b_[l^ ]igg_hn nb[n nb_ farmers will do anything possible to be able to stay in the area where they grew up together (pers. comm. with several stakeholders 2007). In addition, farmers regularly have barbeques and meetings together, either to socialize or to have their quarterly gatherings together. During those gatherings, farmers discuss their common issues concerning their farming activities, for which they consequently seek best solutions and opportunities jointly. Because of this well organized cooperation between farmers, they consider the integration and reconciliation amongst themselves as having quite positively developed over the years. Paragraph 5.1.7 already _rjf[ch_^ nb_ `[]n nb[n ôlcha nb_ ncg_ i` `c_f^qile ìl nbcm mno^s, [ \iief_n ih B[pc[[hmefii`’ mnilc_m q[m released; this given on itself indicates that the generational history of the farmers in the western Baviaanskloof is very much appreciated and even found worthwhile to eternize.

Then, regarding the relation of farmers with the coloured communities, on one side many farmers to an increasing extent seem to integrate the coloured inhabitants (and labourers) in nb_cl fc`_mnsf_m: `[lg_lm’ qcp_m g_hncih ni ]iie i]][mcih[ffs `il nb_ f[\iol_lm, `[lg_lm [l_ chmn[ffcha `[]cfcnc_m mo]b [m _f_]nlc]cns ch nb_cl f[\iol_lm’ biom_m, and some farmers even occasionally socialize with their labourers (one farmer was observed when playing cards qcnb bcm f[\iol_lm). Oh nb_ inb_l mc^_, mig_ `[lg_lm ^i hin m__g ni l_mj_]n ]iggohcnc_m’ ^_j_h^_h]s ih nb_ same water resources and choose to deprive the communities of water supply for their own benefit (pers. com. with several stakeholders 2007). However, farmers in general mention it is of importance to treat the coloured inhabitants well (especially the people living on their land) and provide them with facilities that allow a reasonable standard of living. Social and cultural integration and cohesion thus seems to develop over time, with increasing respect and appreciation between socio-culturally different stakeholder groups.

5.3.5 Freedom of choice and action

This element includes many of the things mentioned previously with the other elements and possibly includes g[hs, c` hin [ff, ch^c][nilm. T[e_h [ff nia_nb_l, nbcm _f_g_hn mbiof^ _h]igj[mm _p_lsnbcha nb[n ‚[acp_m nb_] ijjilnohcns ni \_ [\f_ ni []bc_p_ qb[n [h ch^cpc^o[f p[fo_m ^icha [h^ \_cha‛ (MA, 2005). The question thus is to what extent the thicket ecosystem in the western Baviaanskloof actually allows farmers to live their lives, and take opportunities, the way they desire to.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Previous paragraphs already showed that the farmers very much value some of the benefits that living in the B[pc[[hmefii` \lcham [fiha. In [ffiqm nb_g ni g[chn[ch nb_cl ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’, ch]fo^cha `[gcfc[f [h^ ]iggoh[f bounding and generational history as well as their attachment to the cultural landscape (they have lived in the [l_[ ìl ^_][^_m [h^ ‘ehiq’ nb_ jf[]_, nb_s jl_`_l ni mn[s). A^^cncih[ffs, cn acp_m nb_g nb_ `l__îg ni g[e_ om_ i` resources around them (such as water) and enjoy the natural surroundings any time they desire to. Going into more detail into the latter, farmers seem to appreciate for several reasons to live in a significant natural area such [m nb_ B[pc[[hmefii`; ch^c][ncihm ìl nbcm [l_ [jjl_]c[ncih p[fo_m i` ch^c][nilm mo]b [m ‘_co-tourism and nature _ô][ncih’, ‘UNESCO qilf^ b_lcn[a_ fcmncha’, ‘om_ i` h[nol_ [m gincp_ ch \iiem [h^ j[chncha’, ‘om_ i` h[nol_ ch [l]bcn_]nol_’, ‘][lcha ìl ]iohnls’ [h^ ‘]ihnchoiom mocn[\cfcns i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni g[chn[ch \ci^cp_lmcns’. Regarding eco-niolcmg [h^ h[nol_ _ô][ncih, `[lg_lm b[p_ _rjl_mm_^ cn i` ‚_rnl[ p[fo_‛ ni fcp_ ch nb_ Baviaanskloof (stakeholder communication 2007) as it gives their children the opportunity to play and learn with nature when they are home from boarding school. Also, considering the fact that the farmers with tourism accommodation on their properties often mention to take their visitors on walks or drives into the vegetated areas of their lands, shows a certain appreciation for the existence of nature on their properties. The fact that the Baviaanskloof has been proclaimed a UNESCO world heritage site opens doors to appreciating the natural beauty of the area even more; many of the farmers have mentioned during their interviews that it is a good cause to take care that nature in the Baviaanskloof is maintained or brought back to the way it should be. The proclamation of Baviaanskloof as a UNESCO world heritage site was mentioned by one farmer as to give a feeling of pride (stakeholder communication 2007).

As discussed before, for farmers their socio-economic reasoning makes up a great deal for their concerns about taking good care of the land and nature. However, a certain different reasoning in the form of a so-called ‘_rcmn_h]_ p[fo_’14 has also been detected concerning well-treatment of land and nature. A clear example is the `[lg_lm’ pifohn[ls ]iff[\il[ncih qcnb nb_ L[h^g[le `ioh^[ncih15 , an organization which has set up a project in the Baviaanskloof to protect the leopards living in the area. Farmers cooperate controlling and monitoring leopard traps on their properties, and provide the trapped leopards with a collar, after which they are released back into nature again. This specific collaboration with the Landmark foundation does not provide farmers with any socio-economic advantage and thus indicates a pure existence value based reasoning. However, to find out the exact existence value of other activities and ecosystem services (comparing it with the socio-economic value), a more profound psychological-behavioural study would need to be done, which is beyond the scope of this research study.

Then, for the use of nature in books and painting, as well as architecture, a reference can be made to the ‘cgjiln[h]_’ p[fo_ i` nb_ mj_]c`c] ch^c][nilm (j[l[al[jb 5.1.6); these values only have had the opportunity to develop from the fact that the natural resources exist in the Baviaanskloof and are appreciated for their existence. In other words, farmers building for example tourism accommodation from the resources they find on their properties (the caves as mentioned before) would never have had the opportunity to build these types of accommodations without the existence of those specific resources. Thus, a combination of the fact that certain resources are used because of their occurrence in the Baviaanskloof unveils an appreciation value for their existence.

Besides the positive appreciation of certain indicators that lead to a freedom of choice and action, there is also an occasional negative appreciation of a specific indicator concerning this constituent of wellbeing. While farmers

14 Ercmn_h]_ p[fo_ qiof^ ch^c][n_ [ \_fc_` nb[n h[nol_ b[m [ lcabn ni _rcmn, hin ìl bog[hm’ m[e_, \on ìl cnm iqh m[e_. 15 The Landmark Foundation is an official South African not-for-profit organisation, which strives for so-][ff_^ ‚f[h^g[le ]b[ha_ i` nbcheing [h^ \_b[pciol‛ ch il^_l ni gip_ niq[l^m [ gil_ ]ihm_lp[ncih \[m_^ _]ihigs. Plid_]nm nb_s chcnc[n_ ì]om ih [ \li[^ l[ha_ i` nopics such as protected area expansion/ consolidation, socio- economic upliftment, and species conservation. Conservation is seen in its broadest context to include the living and cultural landscape (Landmark Foundation, 2008).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR oh ih_ mc^_ g_hncih ni \_ b[jjs ni fcp_ ch nb_ ‘efii`’ [m cn jlipc^_m [ bcab ^_al__ i` m[`_ns, nb_s ih nb_ inb_l b[h^ mention that being so isolated has some disadvantages as well. Access to public and commercial services for instance is nearly a two-biol ^lcp_ [q[s `il gimn `[lg_lm. M[hs `[lg_l `[gcfc_m’ ]bcf^l_h nb_l_`il_ ai ni \i[l^cha m]biif `[l [q[s, qbc]b cm h_a[ncp_fs [jjl_]c[n_^ \s _mj_]c[ffs nb_ `[lg_lm’ qcp_m. Tbom, `lig nb_ j_lmj_]tive of this ]ihmncno_hn i` q_ff\_cha, nb_ ‘]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’ ch^c][nil cm h_a[ncp_fs [jjl_]c[n_^.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 6. Cifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m’ mi]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` B[pc[[hmefii`m’ _]imsmn_g services

6.1 Socio-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` B[pc[[hmefii`’m ]ofnol[f _]imystem services

Below the relevant cultural services of the thicket ecosystem in Baviaanskloof will be listed and described for the coloured communities that inhabit the research area. The perceived importance of these cultural services by the communities will be discussed using a socio-cultural perspective, supported by qualitative and quantitative data.

6.1.1 Aesthetic values

R_a[l^cha nb_ ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’ [m mn[n_^ ch n[\f_ 2 (j[l[al[jb 3.1.2), ìl j[ln i` nb_ ]iggohcnc_m’ chb[\cn[nts it appears a challenge to assess their socio-cultural importance and appreciation: many individuals have grown up in Baviaanskloof and never even visited the protected Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve; the only places they have been to in their lives are their direct surroundings in the Baviaanskloof research area and occasional visits to Willowmore for grocery shopping or visiting the hospital. This given makes it hard for those individuals to set up a frame of reference to valuate the aesthetics of their environment. However, with the _rcmn_h]_ i` ]iggoh[f jlin_]n_^ mcn_m mo]b [m nb_ ‚jiiln‛ ch S_q_ìhn_ch nb_l_ [l_ ch^c][ncihm nb[n ]iggohcnc_m in some way do p[fo_ nb_ cgjiln[h]_ i` nb_ _rcmn_h]_ i` h[nol[f \_[ons. Tb_ ‚jiiln‛ cm [ mg[ff `_h]_^ [l_[ h_[l one of the fountains in Sewefontein, where tall trees grow (native as well as alien species) and flowers are abundant; the main feature of this small nature area is its rich flow of clean water. All along the river in Sewefontein the area is fenced and to great extent left for nature to grow, which is not entirely attributable to [_mnb_nc] p[fo_m \on _p_h gil_ mi ni mjclcno[f [h^ ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ p[fo_m (m__ ch f[n_l j[l[al[jbm ch nbcm m_]ncih ìl description).

6.1.2 Knowledge & education

Regarding the knowledge variable in the cultural services of the thicket ecosystem traditional healing systems and nature education are most often mentioned. Especially the individuals in the communities that are very knowledgeable in medicinal uses of thicket species highly value the fact that this knowledge exists and continues ni _rcmnm. Ih nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` p[ff_s, ih_ g[h (‚\im^ien_l‛ Kf[[mmc_) cm ]iggihfs ehiqh [h^ [jjl_]c[n_^ ni \_ [ full-time practitioner in traditional healing based on Baviaanskloof flora and fauna. According to this man, traditional healing has been the calling of his family for generations, and he mentions about himself: ‚40 s_[lm [ai I b[^ [ ^l_[g [h^ Gi^ nif^ g_ nbcm q[m gs ][ffcha, I f_[lh_^ [\ion jf[hnm `lig gs `[nb_l‛ (j_lm. ]ig. qcnb Klaassie; freely translated from Afrikaans). The coloured community in Baviaanskloof very much values the knowledge of this traditional healer as important, and visits are regularly made to the healer for treatment of more serious illnesses. One woman (+/- 24 years old) from Saaimanshoek for instance mentioned to have taken b_l \[\s ni nb_ nl[^cncih[f b_[f_l ni nl_[n nb_ mo``_lcha i` nb_ fcnnf_ ]bcf^’m b_[ln [`n_l [ mo^^_h ^_[nb i` cnm favourite grandfather.

Concerning nature education, many individuals interviewed in the communities mention to teach their children about medicinal plants and the dangers of nature (e.g. snakes). Many of the interviewed people, and especially youngsters, mentioned to be interested in learning about nature; this is supported by the fact that 50-50 (a nature documentary) appears to be the second favourite program to watch on television in the communities (stakeholder communication 2007).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

6.1.3 Cultural heritage

In relation to the indicators for the cultural heritage service of the thicket ecosystem, the following can be applied ni nb_ ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m ch nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` l_m_[l]b [l_[: ‘lif_ ch ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_m’, ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’ [h^ ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’.

Concerning the role of the natural system in cultural landscapes, more or less the same holds true for the coloured communities as for the white farmers; many of the coloured inhabitants in the Baviaanskloof research have grown up in the area, and the combination between the natural and agricultural landscape has become naturally familiar and traditional to them: the agricultural properties of Sewefontein and the white farmers have become part of their socio-cultural lives and are encaptured in their daily activities and even their lifestyles (as many of the coloured inhabitants work as labourers for the white farmers). The cultural landscape in this sense thus has an important value for the ways in which the communities live and the values and beliefs they attach to it.

Regarding the cultural traditions, there are some activities that coloured communities have developed amongst them. The herding of goats and sheep has, especially in Sewefontein, been a decade-long activity; when the mb[l_bif^_lm i` nbcm ]iggohcns \ioabn nb_cl `[lg’m jlij_lns m_p_h s_[lm [ai, nb_s \ought the existing herd of mb__j [h^ ai[nm [fiha qcnb cn. Coll_hnfs, nbcm b_l^ cm m__h [m nb_ ]iggohcns’m _]ihigc] nl_[mol_, [h^ _p_ls ^[s nb_ [hcg[fm [l_ n[e_h `lig nb_ ‘el[[f’ (jfin) ni nb_ `l__ al[tcha [l_[m [lioh^ ih nb_ jlij_lns. M[hs ch^cpc^o[f families (either from Sewefontein or Saaimanshhoek) have their own goat in the herd, which according to them, acp_m nb_ ‚\_mn g_[n‛ (j_lm. ]ig. qcnb m_p_l[f mn[e_bif^_lm 2007).

Then, there are church activities such as the annual festivity between the three coloured communities in the western Baviaanskloof, and the celebration of Christmas with the slaughtering and preparation of goat. One cultural tradition concerning a spiritual activity was found to be applicable to the coloured communities: every ncg_ nb_ ‘niee_fimmc_’ ]l_[nol_ cm [lioh^ (m__ `il [h _rjf[h[ncih j[l[al[jb 6.1.4 ih mjclcno[f p[fo_m) `cl_m [l_ g[^_ with a specific thicket species (swartstorm or Cadaba aphylla) to chase the creature away.

A\ion nb_ ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’ ch^c][nil, cn b[m become clear that the coloured communities highly depend on woody thicket species in order to satisfy specific social needs. Traditionally, thicket species such as doringboom (Acacia karoo) and kershout (Pterocelastrus tricuspidatus) are used for construction purposes and fire material (see also annex D7), and clay found around the rivers is used for construction.

6.1.4 Spiritual/ religious values

This cultural service contains three indicators of importance for the communities: sacred sites and features, oral tradition and stories, and traditional healing systems.

Sacred sites and features in the communities can be attributed to so-called „cultural tools‟ – objectifications and the „giving form‟ to experiences, norms and values. These specific sites and features are mostly connected to religious norms and values (both communities are connected to the congregational church), and concern the church in Saaimanshoek as well as the cemetery.

Consulting the communities on their oral traditions and stories, two main mythical stories are often mentioned to \_ l_aof[lfs nif^. Oh_ i` nbim_ gsnbm ]ih]_lhm nb_ ]l_[nol_ ‚niee_fimmc_‛, qbc]b cm [ ^q[l`-like being that sneaks oj ni j_ijf_’m biom_m ch nb_ _p_hcham ni \lcha hcabng[l_m il ^cm_[m_m, _mj_]c[ffs ni ]bcf^l_h. Wben the story goes [lioh^ nb[n nb_ ‚niee_fimmc_‛ cm ch nb_ h_cab\iolbii^, j_ijf_ ]iff_]n nb_ Sq[lnmnilg jf[hn (Cadaba aphylla) and burn it as the smoke is believed to chase the mythical creature away.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Another story about mythical creatures exists around the occurrence of mermaids in and alongside the rivers of Baviaanskloof; these are beings that are half fish, half woman and are told to pull people into the water when they come too close. Some years ago two travellers, Casper Greeff and Ruvan Boshoff, went to the Baviaanskloof in m_[l]b ìl nb_ ‘nlonb’ [\ion g_lg[c^m. They visited a coloured woman working Box 4: mythical mermaids in Baviaanskloof [n ih_ i` nb_ qbcn_ `[lg_l’m f[h^, qbi told them about an experience she had "I saw the mermaids twice. The first time was years ago, in a qcnb nb_ g_lg[c^m: ‚nb_ q[n_l mn[ln_^ pool near here. She had pitch black hair - long hair - and pure white skin and breasts like a woman. The bottom half of her swirling, swirling, swirling. It went body was in the water. She was combing her hair with a black around and around like it was boiling in comb, and when she saw me, she went underwater and a kettle. I saw big green fish swimming disappeared. As she went under her hair spread out on top of nb_ q[n_l. In q[m \_[oncòf […] Tb_s [me sio ih_ ko_mncih. Tb_s round the pool. Then I saw three pretty ask, 'Do you eat fish?' If you say 'yes' they will kill you - they are îffm mqcggcha lioh^ [h^ lioh^ […] half-`cmb […]Sig_ncg_m nb_s qcff joff [ ]bcf^ oh^_l nb_ q[n_l. I` Then a big brown snake with a white that happens to your child, you mustn't cry and carry on, stripe on its head came out of the pool because then they will kill the child and throw her out. No, you must get a cow, and slaughter it next to the river, and cook it. [h^ ]b[m_^ g_‛ (Greeff and Boshoff, Then send down the haunches. When you go home your child 2002). In another interview with Klaas qcff \_ \[]e […]nb_ qbif_ i` [h_[l\s] Z[[cg[h'm Hi_e ehiqm i` Sq[lnt (‘\imîen_l’ Kf[[mmc_) Gl__`` [h^ nb_m_ [g_lg[c^m]. Tb_s b[p_ m__h nb_g […] Tb_ Kioa[ [Rcp_l] - that's a dangerous place. There are many mermaidm nb_l_ […] Boshoff (2002) succeeded to get a very They say that if you catch one of those mermaids there will be a detailed description of the mermaids big flood." and their intentions to kidnap people – (Greeff and Boshoff, 2002) and sometimes even kill them (see box 4 for part of the interview).

Concerning traditional healing systems, a system of medicinal plant use has been developed over the years by forefathers of the coloured inhabitants. This system is generally seen as very important to maintain, not just because modern health facilities are far away and medicinal plant use does not cost any money, but more so because the belief in medicinal plant use in general still seems to be stronger than modern health care (based on interviews and the observed fact that once a question was posed to an interviewee on medicinal plants, a devoted mnils ih mj_]c`c] jf[hnm [h^ nb_cl om_m qiof^ `iffiq). Fil mjclcno[f b_[fcha, ‘mj_]c[fcmnm’ mo]b [m ‘\im^ien_l Kf[[mmc_’ are mentioned as important persons to consult, as they have well-respected knowledge on a broad scale of medicinal plant uses.

6.1.5 R_f[r[ncih [h^ _hdisg_hn i` ‘`l__ ncg_’

Most individuals and their families in both communities mention not to have significant free time activities; they mostly mention to spend time in and around their houses with family or friends, and have occasional gatherings at nb_ `iohn[ch jf[]_m il lcp_l mc^_m. O\m_lp[ncih [h^ ch`ilg[ncih `lig m_]ih^[ls miol]_m (nb_ ‘bcjjs ]iggohcns’) confirm the fact that the coloured inhabitants spend most of their (free) time visiting and socializing with family and friends around their houses. Additionally, the coloured inhabitants appear to have a strong preference for alcohol consumption in their free time, which has even lead to specific familial or communal problems several times (personal communication with Chnuganoo inhabitant 2007).

6.1.6 Sense of place

Regarding the sense of place service, there are three indicators applicable to the coloured communities in the q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`: ‘mnils fch_m, [nn[]bg_hn ni a_h_l[ncih[f bcmnils’, ‘]ib_mcih i` `[gcfs, mi]c[f il ]ofnol[f aliojm’, [h^ ‘][lcha `il ]iohnls’.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

During the fieldwork interview activities for this research study, on occasions individuals would refer to happenings in the past and tell stories about them with an observable touch of nostalgia. An example is a story told by a 75-year old male inhabitant of Sewefontein community, about how the white farmer he once used to qile `il qiof^ ]b[m_ \[\iihm i`` bcm f[h^. Tb_ qbcn_ `[lg_l qiof^ h[g_fs jon ih [ ^l_mm [h^ [ qig_h’m b[n (‚ef__^ndc_ [[h _h e[jjc_ ij‛) [m \[\iihm q_l_ \_fc_p_^ hin ni \_ m][l_^ `il qig_h; nb_h, nb_ `[lg_l qiof^ sneak up close to the baboons and, to the surprise of the baboons, would all of a sudden draw his rifle and shoot.

Cohesion of family is an important value for the coloured communities; many families live together in one house with grandparents, children and grandchildren. Individuals within those families depend on each other concerning daily activities such as working (economic income), cultivation, cooking, washing, taking care of children and ill family members etcetera. Regarding the fact that, just as with the white farmers, most coloured inhabitants have grown up in the Baviaanskloof (over 95% of interviewed people) and often even have a long generational family bcmnils ch nb_ ‘efii`’, [ dichn `__fcha i` \_fihacha ch nb_ [l_[ _rcmnm.

6.1.7 Peace & reconciliation

A ]ig\ch[ncih i` nb_ nbl__ ch^c][nilm ‘Bi[l^_l ]limmcha l_miol]_ mb[lcha’, ‘R_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h ]ofnol_m’, [h^ ‘Ih]l_[m_^ mi]c[f chn_al[ncih’ ][h \_ ]ihmc^_l_^ oh^_l nbcm m_lpc]_ `il nb_ ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m ch q_mn_lh Baviaanskloof.

In general, much of the same can be said for the coloured communities as for the white farmers (see paragraph 5.1.8) about the indicator concerning resource sharing. Water is a dynamic resource crossing many of the ][^[mnl_m’ \i[l^_lm ch nb_ [l_[, qbc]b g[e_m cn cgjiln[hn ni g[e_ dichn [al__g_hnm [h^ ]iggcng_hnm `il \inb communities and farmers concerning the use and sharing of the resource. Sewefontein community for instance shares its abundant sources of water with two neighbouring farmers, and Saaimanshoek is dependent on upstream water use for its availability of water. Positive social integration and reconciliation becomes important with this co-dependency on each other concerning resource usage; reconciliation is even more so important for the communities considering the fact that they jointly share pieces of land to live on. In Saaimanshoek, this importance becomes visible through the organization of [ ]bol]b f_[^_lm’ ]iggcnn__, qbim_ jlcg[ls n[mem [l_ ni maintain order and peace in the community through monitoring their behaviour. In Sewefontein, a trust of 12 eligible people carries a similar task, and takes care that all decisions made concerning the property are agreed upon by all shareholders (to avoid anger disagreement).

6.2 Socio-cultural values of other ecosystem services

Picture 6.1: taken at Sewefontein by 6.2.1 Food production services local inhabitant, showing the importance of cultivation For this service, three indicators were investigated for the coloured communities, beina nb_ ‘Socn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni jlipc^_ `il b[lp_mncha i` qcf^ _^c\f_ `locnm’, ‘Socn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` qcf^ [hcg[f mj_]c_m nb[n ][h \_ bohn_^ il `cmb_^’ [h^ ‘Tb_ use of the natural system to cultivate crijm (mo\mcmn_h]_ `[lgcha)’. Concerning the first indicator, the pebble distribution method application during the focus group sessions already indicated that wild edible fruits are hardly being harvested from the thicket vegetation (on rare occasions edible `locnm `lig nb_ ‘jlocg\iig’ il Pappea capensis were taken and eaten). Regarding the second indicator, the true importance of hunting and fishing

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR for the coloured inhabitants was hard to determine as it is forbidden by law to hunt for wild animals on public properties (the road in Baviaanskloof is a public property where animals can often and easily be spotted); interviewees would therefore keep often quiet concerning the question whether they hunted or fished. However, during some of the interviews with coloured inhabitants as well as with individuals from the Chnuganoo community farm, it came forward that some coloured inhabitants definitely hunt for wild animals on occasions. As an individual from Chnuganoo community farm put it: ‚b[p_ sio _p_l m__h [ nirtes walking around near the communities? That is because they hunt them for food; far away in the mega reserve areas you will find tortoises, \on b_l_ sio ][h \[l_fs `ch^ nb_g [hsgil_ […]. R_aof[lfs I [g n[echa jil]ojch_ nl[jm [q[s, fi][f j_ijf_ jon nb_g h_[l nb_ li[^ ni ][n]b nb_g [h^ _[n nb_g‛ (j_lmih[f ]iggohc][ncih qcnb g[f_ chb[\cn[hn i` Cbhoa[hii community farm).

Then, the last of the three indicators is considered important by the coloured communities as it enables them to cultivate crops; this has an economic dimension to it as it provides individuals with an alternative to having to buy food. However, there is a socio-cultural dimension to it as well, as the coloured inhabitants have traditionally been cultivating crops like potatoes, pumpkins, beans and onions for many decades. Picture 6.1 shows an image taken by a female Sewefontein inhabitant (+/- 25 years old); this was one of the many pictures she took of the cultivation land and the workers in her community, to show the high importance of the availability of crops for her and her family.

6.2.2 Water supply

Tb_ ‘jlipcmcih, `cfn_lcha, l_n_hncih [h^ mnil[a_ i` `l_mb q[n_l `il ^ig_mnc] [h^ [alc]ofnol[f om_m’ cm \_cha l_a[l^_^ as highly important in daily activities (the way of life) in the coloured communities. Considering the outcome of the focus group sessions, water is even seen as the first most important resource (13.6%, see figure 6.1), as it is used for consumption, irrigation, cooking and washing activities.

Importance of elements for livelihood & wellbeing

Water 13.6 Fuel w ood collection 12.2 Pensions 12 Building material collection 11.2 Medicinal plant collection 9.2 Cropping 8.4 Other social grants 8.2 Livestock 7 Employment 6.6 Donations 5.6 Other 1.8 Hunting 1.6 Edible plant collection 1.4 Fishing 1.2

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Figure 6.1: Relative importance of socio-_]ihigc] _f_g_hnm []]il^cha ni nb_ ]ifiol_^ chb[\cn[hnm’ ch q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`. B[m_^ ih 10 PDM exercises with a total of 44 individual participants.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

6.2.3 Medicinal & health resources

The extensive biodiversity of thicket in the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve region provides for many opportunities to medicinal uses of specific flora and fauna species. During fieldwork in the research area, and with help from a previous study done on plant uses in nearby Coleskeplas community (Rhodes University Consortium 2006), around 50 plant species and their medicinal uses were recorded. Most medicinal uses of thicket species are used for illnesses such as flue, stomach problems or cold, but frequent recordings have also mentioned the treatment of cancer, diabetes or strokes amongst others (see annex D7 for an extensive overview of the uses of thicket species).

A research study done by the Rhodes University Consortium (2006) in Coleskeplas community just outside the \i[l^_l i` nbcm l_jiln’m l_m_[l]b [l_[ jl_pciomfs ]ih]fo^_^ nb[n 86 j_l]_hn i` cnm (g[chfs Xbim[) chb[\cn[hnm regularly uses an average of 30 different medicinal plants. As the three communities Sewefontein, Saaimanshoek and Coleskeplas are quite socially interconnected (explained in section 4.2.2), the outcomes of the study done by the Rhodes University Consortium to some extent are quite comparable to fieldwork outcomes of this specific research study: from the ten discussion groups held amongst the coloured inhabitants, only one discussion group explicitly mentioned to make more use of modern health care facilities than the traditional medicinal plant uses. This specific discussion group consisted of six individuals out of a total of 44 individuals that participated in the group discussions, which is 13.6 percent. The other nine discussion groups mentioned not to go to a doctor but use medicinal plants instead, which then makes up 86.4% of the respondents (of course it still remains an estimation to some extent as in the group discussions people might not all have expressed their own truths about medicinal plant uses or modern health care).

An outcome quite different from the research done by the Rhodes University Consortium is that the average number of plant species used for medicinal purposes stands at 16.8 (result from the focus group sessions). This difference can be explained, firstly, because Saaimanshoek and Sewefontein mainly contain coloured inhabitants, and Coleskeplas community consists of mainly Xhosa inhabitants which are observed to have more profound cultural uses of thicket. Secondly, the difference can be explained as he focus group sessions were not all only based on household groups (as the research by Rhodes) but also on age and gender groups. Differences were especially apparent between ages in this matter: the two focus group sessions with men and women aged above 45 showed the use of an average number of 23 medicinal plant species, whilst the two discussion groups of men and women aged under 22 showed an average number of 14,5. Mixed age and gender groups came up with very different results, showing high varieties in numbers of medicinal plants used, ranging from only 11 species to 18 or even 22 species (see annex D4 for the PDM results). These differences can be explained by the fact that in some focus group sessions individuals or members of families participated that were recognized to be quite knowledgeable in medicinal plant uses. During interviews in both communities four individuals (three older men and one older lady –all aged above 60) were identified by interviewees as persons they often asked for advice on medicinal plant uses. Consulting two of these individuals on medicinal plant species and their uses resulted in Picture 6.2: a local man showing the g_^c]ch[f jf[hn ‘a[hmc_m’, om_^ `il preliminary inventories of respectively 48 and 37 listed thicket species (a a.o. diabetes and cancer compilation of these lists can be found in annex D7).

Regarding to how important the communities view the medicinal plants they derive from thicket in comparison with other important variables, a reference can be made to the PDM exercise that required focus groups to choose the most important resources that support their livelihood and wellbeing. Of the 15 defined socio-economic categories, medicinal plants were mentioned to make up 9,2 percent of the importance (see figure 6.1 in previous paragraph); medicinal uses of thicket species came after the categories water collection

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

(13.6%), fuel wood collection (12.2%), pensions (12.0%) and building material collection (11.2%). In addition to the socio-economic ranking activity, the photographing exercise (see description of this exercise in paragraph 3.1.4 under the PRA sub-b_[^cha ‘nb_s ^i cn’) mbiq_^ m_p_l[f jbinim qcnb g_^ccinal plants as the object of focus. Picture 6.2 was taken by a local Sewefontein inhabitant in the garden of his father in law; a comment that came qcnb nb_ jc]nol_: ‚jf[hnm [l_ l_[ffs cgjiln[hn [m g_^c]ch_, q_ b[p_ nb_g ch iol a[l^_h [h^ nbcm jf[hn [a[hmies or Sutherlandia frutescens] cm p_ls cgjiln[hn ch iol `[gcfs‛.

H_h]_, l_`f_]ncha \[]e ni nb_ ch^c][nilm oh^_l ‘cgjiln[h]_ ni bog[h b_[fnb’, `il nb_ ]iggohcnc_m ch a_h_l[f ][h be concluded that the suitability and capacity of thicket to provide health services is very high; consequently, medicinal plants are considered quite important as they are even ranked before cropping, livestock keeping and _gjfisg_hn. Cih]_lhcha [ ‘^_]l_[m_^ h__^ `il b_[fnb ][l_ m_lpc]_m [h^ g_^c][ncih’ (K3 ch n[\f_ 2 j[l[al[jb 3.1.2) there can be concluded that this definitely holds true for the majority of individuals in the communities, as through the use of medicinal plants (which is for free) modern health care facilities are less needed.

6.2.4 Air quality services

For the ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m, nb_ ch^c][nil ‘lif_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ch jlipc^cha aii^ [cl ko[fcns’ cm ]ihmc^_l_^ [m p_ls cgjiln[hn ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`. Amecha nb_ ko_mncih ‚qbs ^i sio fce_ ni fcp_ ch nb_ B[pc[[hmefii`?‛, 24.2 percent (33 respondents) mentcih_^ ‘]f_[h [cl’ [m ih_ i` nb_ nbl__ gimn cgjiln[hn l_[mihm (m__ [fmi [hh_r D4). Many individuals during the focus group sessions and individual interviews mentioned to realize that the air in Baviaanskloof was a lot better for the health than the pollutiha a[mm_m i` nb_ ]cnc_m ionmc^_ nb_ ‘efii`’.

6.2.5 Refugium services (habitat function)

Cih]_lhcha nb_ ch^c][nil ‘Cihnchoiom mocn[\cfcns i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni g[chn[ch \ci^cp_lmcns’, cn cm cgjiln[hn ch some sense for the communities as they depend on the state of existence of biodiversity in order to be able to practice some of their socio-culturally valued activities such as medicinal plant uses. Then, the sole opinion that the maintenance of biodiversity is of importance, is shared especially amongst individuals working for either ECPB (Eastern Cape Parks Board) or the Working for Water project (planting the Portulacaria afra). Reasons for this can be attributed to a certain appreciation value for nature, which these individuals often mention to have gained through their specific jobs; paragraph 6.4.5 will go further into detail concerning this specific value.

6.3 Socio-cultural structure and values: relation to perceived wellbeing

The previous two paragraphs explained the socio-cultural importance i` mj_]c`c] _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m’ ch^c][nilm ìl the coloured communities in the Baviaanskloof research area. This section will link these indicators to the ‘_f_g_hnm i` q_ff\_cha’ [m ^_m]lc\_^ ch j[l[al[jb 2.3.2 (m__ [fmi [hh_r B3); mcgcf[l ni nb_ [h[fsmcm of the ‘j_l]_cp_^ q_ff\_cha’ ìl nb_ `[lg_lm, ìl nb_ ]iggohcnc_m nb_cl j_l]_cp_^ q_ff\_cha qcff \_ ^_n_lgch_^ \s analysing their appreciation for socio-]ofnol[f cgjiln[hn _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m [m q_ff [m [h _p[fo[ncih i` nb_ ‘mn[n_ i` _rcmn_h]_’ i` nbim_ m_lvices. For some of the elements and/or indicators as will be described below, no major difference has been determined between their importance and appreciation; for other elements/indicators however, the difference is significant and will therefore give a multi-aspectual view on the perceived wellbeing of the coloured communities. See annex D8 for an overview of the socio-cultural valuation.

6.3.1 Security

Jomn fce_ qcnb nb_ `[lg_lm, `il nb_ ]iggohcnc_m nbcm _f_g_hn ][h \_ ^cpc^_^ chni nb_ ‘j_lmih[f m[`_ns’ [h^ ‘m_]ol_ l_miol]_ []]_mm’ ]igjih_hnm. Erjf[chcha nb_ ]igjih_hnm ch ]ihn_rn qcnb nb_ _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m [h^ nb_cl mi]ci- ]ofnol[f p[fo[ncih, nb_s ][h \_ ]ihh_]n_^ qcnb nb_ ch^c][nilm ‘lif_ ch ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’, ‘]ib_mcih i` `[gcfs [h^

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR social or cultur[f aliojm’, ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’, ‘\_h]b g[lecha `il _hmolcha l_miol]_ [p[cf[\cfcns’ [h^ ‘\i[l^_l ]limmcha l_miol]_ mb[lcha’.

The isolation of a relatively small habitant population in between the rugged mountains of Kouga and Baviaanskloof gives the inhabitants of Saaimanshoek and Sewefontein a general feeling of safety. As was already _rjf[ch_^ ch j[l[al[jb 5.4.1 (_f_g_hn i` ‘m_]olcns’ ]ih]_lhcha nb_ `[lg_lm) ]ifiol_^ chb[\cn[hnm [h^ nb_ qbcn_ farmers in general live quite peacefully together. Out of 33 respondents in the communities, 21.2% (7 people) g_hncih_^ ‘m[`_ns’ [m ih_ i` nb_ nbl__ gimn cgjiln[hn l_[mihm `il q[hncha ni fcp_ ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii` (see also annex D4); the isolated location of Baviaanskloof is thus positively appreciated by the communities for the safe environment it provides them.

Regarding the ensured availability of resources (in this case water), the situation for Saaimanshoek is not as positive as it is for Sewefontein; water in Saaimanshoek is not abundantly available, and they continuously need to find new ways to provide themselves with sufficient amount of water. Sewefontein on the other hand has more than sufficient water available, and has enough even to share it with two neighbouring farmers. Boarder crossing resource sharing does not work as well for Saaimanshoek as it does for Sewefontein, as neighbouring farmers are more likely to deprive the community from the sources than that they are willing to make joint agreements and compromises (see also paragraph 5.3.1).

6.3.2 Basic material for good life

Fil nbcm _f_g_hn i` q_ff\_cha, nb_ ]igjih_hnm ‘[^_ko[n_ fcp_fcbii^m’ [m q_ff [m ‘mo``c]c_hn honlcnciom ìi^’, ‘mb_fn_l’ [h^ ‘[]]_mm ni aii^m’ [l_ [jjfc][\f_ ni nb_ ]ifiol_^ chb[\cn[hnm. Tb_ mi]io-]ofnol[ffs p[fo_^ ch^c][nilm ‘jlipcmcih, [h^ nb_ `cfn_lcha, l_n_hncih [h^ mnil[a_ i` `l_mb q[n_l’, ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni jlipc^_ ìl b[lp_mncha i` qcf^ _^c\f_ `locnm’, ‘nb_ om_ i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni ]ofncp[n_ ]lijm (mo\mcmn_h]_ `[lgcha)’, ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’, [h^ ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e [h^ qcf^ [hcg[f mj_]c_m nb[n ][h \_ bohn_^ il `cmb_^’ [l_ om_^ ìl _p[fo[ncih \_fiq.

Regarding the provisioning of fresh water, the communities seem to highly appreciate the fact that the source is actually there; Sewefontein for instance appears to genuinely respect that their property provides for the highest amount of water than any other property in the western Baviaanskloof (Sewefontein me[hm ‘m_p_h ìohn[chm’ ch A`lce[[hm), [h^ nb_l_ìl_ mb[l_m nb_ q[n_l `lig cnm miol]_m qcnb nqi h_cab\iolcha `[lg_lm. A^^cncih[ffs, ‘nb_ jiiln’ cm [ `_h]_^ ]iggoh[f jlin_]n_^ h[nol_ [l_[ ch S_q_ìhn_ch qbc]b cm jlin_]n_^, `clmnfs [m cn cm ih_ i` nb_ nqi most important fountains in the community, and secondly, as it is appreciated for its natural beauty (pers. comm. with stakeholders 2007). Water is seen as the top most important source for life by the communities (as explained before in paragraph 6.2.2), and in the case of Saaimanshoek, it seems to be very much appreciated when times arrive in which the source becomes a bit Picture 6.3: characteristic housing in more abundantly available. Individual interviewees in the community on coloured communities of western occasions mentioned informally to have wanted to live in one of the church Baviaanskloof houses, as there is water available in these houses more than from the other water sources in the community.

As the communities mentioned not to explicitly use thicket species for food (ion]ig_ i` PDM _r_l]cm_, m__ [hh_r D4), nb_ ‘mocn[\cfcns/ ][pacity of h[nol[f msmn_g ni jlipc^_ `il b[lp_mncha i` qcf^ _^c\f_ `locnm’ cm hin p[fo_^ [m important, and thereby not visibly appreciated by the communities. Cropping is done by most shareholders of Sewefontein as there is a specific part of land reserved `il ]lijjcha ih nb[n ]iggohcns’m jlij_lns. A

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR mcahc`c][hn ^c``_l_h]_ \_nq__h nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ il ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ i` nb_ ch^c][nil ‘nb_ om_ i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni ]ofncp[n_ ]lijm (mo\mcmn_h]_ `[lgcha)’ b[m hin \__h ^_n_]n_^ ^olcha `c_f^qile; nb_ [jjl_]c[ncin of the possibility to cultivate crops is here therefore linked to the importance the communities have given to it: cropping is valued as the sixth most important category for the maintenance of a good livelihood (as can be seen in table 4 paragraph 6.2.2).

Tb_h, `il nb_ ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’, ]iggohcnc_m ehiq nb_s bcabfs ^_j_h^ ih nb_ [p[cf[\cfcns i` mj_]c`c] thicket species for building material as well as fuel wood. This dependence on thicket species has been there for generations and has brought about traditional and characteristic building styles (see picture 6.3) and fuel wood om_. Cih]_lhcha `o_f qii^ om_, mj_]c`c] nbc]e_n mj_]c_m [l_ l[n_^ ‘\_mn’ qb_l_[m inb_lm [l_ hin om_^ [m nb_s [l_ ehiqh ni acp_ ‘\[^ fo]e’ il \_][om_ nb_s [l_ ]ihmc^_l_^ [ l[l_ mj_]c_m (_.a. nb_ ][m_ i` ‘qcna[n\iig’ [fc[m Boscia oleoides; see also annex D7). Thus, for fuel wood use, specific thicket species seem to be highly appreciated for their quality (pruimboom or Pappea capensis is respected for its long burning capacity). For building material use, thicket species and the traditional use of clay however seem not to be so much appreciated by the communities; interviewees on occasions mentioned they would have liked to live in one of the church houses as they are made of brick and are of better quality. During one of the interviews with a local in the community of Saaimanshoek, the interviewee mentioned to regret the fact that she needed to re-plaster the walls in her house every once in a while as the clay was of such a bad quality. Another interviewee mentioned the danger of having electricity in the traditionally built houses; several houses in the community of Saaimanshoek had burned down because of a burn out of the electricity system (based on observation).

Finally, ]ih]_lhcha nb_ ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e [h^ qcf^ [hcg[f mj_]c_m nb[n ][h \_ bohn_^ il `cmb_^’ m__gm ni \_ bcabfs [jjl_]c[n_^ [m nb_ ]iggohcnc_m [jj_[l ni p_ls go]b fce_ nb_ `[]n that they can keep livestock such as goats and sheep. Community members individually especially enjoy the ability ni e__j ai[nm [m cn jlipc^_m `il ‚nb_ \_mn g_[n‛ (j_lm. ]ig. qcnb mn[e_bif^_lm 2007); [h^ [m g_[n cm nii _rj_hmcp_ to buy, people feel the need to keep the goats as livestock themselves. Regarding hunting or fishing, it remains ^c``c]ofn ni acp_ [ ]f_[l jc]nol_; bohncha ch jo\fc] [l_[m [h^ inb_l j_ijf_’m jlij_lnc_m cm `il\c^^_h, nbom communities on most occasions do not mention the fact that they would hunt or fish for food. As mentioned already in paragraph 6.2.1, communities do hunt on occasions for tortoises and porky pines, thus there should exist a certain appreciation or importance of this indicator. As there is not enough reliable information about this specific indicator, it will not further be considered.

6.3.3 Health

R_a[l^cha nb_ _f_g_hn i` b_[fnb, nb_ ]igjih_hnm ‘mnl_hanb’, ‘`__fcha q_ff’ [h^ ‘[]]_mm ni ]f_[h [cl [h^ q[n_l’ [l_ of importance; related socio-]ofnol[ffs p[fo_^ ch^c][nilm [l_ ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’, ‘nl[^cncih[f b_[fcha msmn_gm’, ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns ni jlipc^_ `il (nl[^cncih[f) l_]l_[ncih[f []ncpcnc_m’, ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni jlipc^_ b_[fnb m_lpc]_m’, ‘^_]l_[m_^ h__^ `il b_[fnb ][l_ m_lpc]_m [h^ g_^c][ncih’ [h^ nb_ ‘lif_ i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ch jlipc^cha aii^ [cl ko[fcns’.

Fil nb_ ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’, chb[\cn[hnm i` nb_ ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m m__g_^ ni [jjl_]c[n_ ni ]_ln[ch _rn_hnm nb_ [_mnb_nc]m i` nb_cl mollioh^cham [m cn b_fjm nb_g ni ‘`__f q_ff’ (ch^c][nil i` nb_ ‘b_[fnb’ constituent of wellbeing; MA, 2005); several individuals mentioned to prefer when everything around them is green, and 21.2% of 33 respoh^_hnm [hmq_l_^ ‘\_[ons i` nb_ [l_[’ [m ih_ i` nb_ nbl__ g[ch l_[mihm ni q[hn ni fcp_ in the western Baviaanskloof (annex D4).

Concerning the traditional healing systems and the health services of the thicket ecosystem, the majority of the communities mentioned to prefer traditional medicinal uses of thicket species over modern health care services. Especially the interviewees that had close connection to individuals with great knowledge on medicinal plant uses

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR appeared to appreciate the use of medicinal plants; reasons for them to prefer traditional medicinal plant uses over going to a doctor were: they grew up using the medicinal plants (it is an ancient and well-respected health care system their fathers and forefathers used) and the doctor lives too far away and is too expensive. Interviewees nb[n ^c^h’n b[p_ ^cl_]n \ioh^m qcnb ehiqf_â_[\f_ `[gcfs g_g\_lm il [h []ko[chn[h]_ m__g_^ ni jl_`_l aicha ni [ î]nil (biq_p_l [n ncg_m nb_ î]nil q[m ‚nii `[l [q[s‛ il ‚nii _rj_hmcp_‛ qbc]b a[p_ nb_ ihfs ijncih no use medicinal plants; stakeholder communication 2007). For the medicinal plant uses, the current condition of thicket is also of importance when assessing the state of wellbeing: several individual interviewees mentioned the fact that in the past it was easier to obtain certain medicinal plants than it is these days. For species such as ‘eq_heq_\[m’ (Pittosporum viridiflorum) il ‘liicqiln_f’ (Bulbine latifolia) for example, people nowadays need to go far away to the protected parks board (Nature Reserve) areas to search for them and harvest them (which is actually prohibited; these species are officially endangered and protected).

Then, for the ‘Rif_ i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ch jlipc^cha aii^ [cl ko[fcns’, nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ p[fo_ cm ]fim_fs l_f[n_^ ni nb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ p[fo_; ‘]f_[h [cl’ q[m ]bim_h [m ih_ i` nb_ nbl__ gimn cgjiln[hn l_[mihm `il q[hncha ni fcp_ ch Baviaanskloof by 24.2% of the communities (33 respondents, see also paragraph 6.2.4).

6.3.4 Good social relations

For this element of wellbeing, nb_ ]iggohcnc_m’ [jjl_]c[ncih i` nb_ mi]ci-]ofnol[f ch^c][nilm ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’, ‘mnils fch_m, a_h_l[ncih[f bcmnils’, ‘]ib_mcih i` `[gcfs, mi]c[f il ]ofnol[f aliojm’, ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’ [h^ ‘ch]l_[m_^ mi]c[f chn_al[ncih’ jf[s [h chn_l[]ncp_ lif_.

A certain social and familial cohesion exists amongst the coloured inhabitants in western Baviaanskloof, which appears to contribute to the two main reasons for coloured interviewees to remain living in the area (see also annex D4): 63.6% says to be wanting to live in Baviaanskloof as they grew up there (21 out of 33 respondents), and 48.5% mentions to want to live in the area as their family is there (16 out of 33 respondents). Thus, generational history as well as the cohesion of family and cultural groups gives coloured inhabitants a certain preference for living in the western Baviaanskloof.

Reconciliation between the coloured inhabitants and white farmers also knows a long generational history and is seen as important by both social groups (as explained in paragraphs 5.1.8 and 6.1.7); however this does not automatically mean that this reconciliation always exists in the first place, and secondly, whether the reconciliation is so much appreciated by both groups. Regarding the history of apartheid and the large gap between the rich (white farmers) and poor (coloured communities) in the western Baviaanskloof, it would not be very much a surprise if there would exist certain disrespect between these two social groups. However, to get a clear picture on the appreciation of the true reconciliation status between the social groups (which on first hand seems to be quite peaceful), a more in-to-depth psychological and behavioural study should be done, which goes beyond the scope of this study research.

6.3.5 Freedom of choice and action

This element of wellbeing combines the importance value, state of existence, and appreciation value of all other `iol _f_g_hnm [h^ g[e_m [ fche ni inb_l `[]nilm nb[n ch`fo_h]_ j_ijf_’m ijjilnohcns ni be able to achieve what they value doing and being (MA, 2005). For the coloured communities for instance, strong feelings exist around their dependence on certain resources because of their livelihood status and the isolated setting of their living area. Their dependence on basic natural resources for provision of shelter (housing) is not very much appreciated but is in many cases their only option to have housing facility; their low wages and low employment opportunities ch nb_ ‘efii`’ ^i hin acp_ ]ifiol_^ chb[\cn[hnm mo``c]c_hn jol]b[mcha jiq_l ni \_ [\f_ ni \os nb_ gil_ _rj_hmcp_ and better quality building material available outside the Baviaanskloof. However, the coloured people would

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR b[p_ ni acp_ oj nb_cl p_ls go]b [jjl_]c[n_^ ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ `__fcha (`[gcfc[f, ]iggoh[f ]ib_mcih [h^ generational history) as well as the safety and resource-rich Baviaanskloof area in search for better quality livelihoods (in employment, housing quality, and purchasing power sense). Many inhabitants therefore choose to stay in the Baviaanskloof, as it allows them to maintain their way of life, using many natural resources for free in a way they have done for decades (clean water, use of wood, medicinal plants). However also, many former inhabitants already chose in the past to leave the Baviaanskloof as they preferred better employment and higher purchasing power over the situation of life as they had it in the Baviaanskloof; other reasons were also mentioned for leaving the Baviaanskloof, such as the better accessibility of public and commercial services outside the area (e.g. hospital, education) (stakeholders personal communication 2007).

Regarding the fact that the coloured communities live in an area surrounded by the biodiverse and (in general) aesthetically appreciated thicket, is not left unnoticed by certain groups. Youngsters for example have gained certain interest into knowing what biodiversity in their living area is all about and on occasions even express a willingness to learn more about nature to develop their own knowledge and being. The local translator during our fieldwork (Noel, 21 years old male from Coleskeplas community) for example commented once during a fieldtrip: ‚I qiof^ l_[ffs q[hn ni ai ni [ ohcp_lmcns ni f_[lh gil_ [\ion jf[hnm [h^ [hcg[fm, ihfs I ^ih’n b[p_ nb_ gih_s […] do you know where I could apply for a job for ECPB or Working for Water so I can follow the courses they jlipc^_?‛. T[fecha ni nb_ jlch]cjf_ i` S[[cg[hmbi_e’m jlcg[ls m]biif [\ion nb_ chn_l_mn i` siohamn_lm ni f_[lh more about nature, his reactions were very much in favour of integrating more nature education. As he ]igg_hn_^ `olnb_l: ‚Cbcf^l_h mbiof^ f_[lh hin ni ecff nbcham [ch h[nol_], ni n[e_ ][l_ i` nb_cl _hpclihg_hn […]; ][h ECPB jlipc^_ f_[`f_nm il jimn_lm [n f_[mn ni b[ha ch nb_ ]f[mm liigm?‛.

Another group that has expressed their appreciation for living in the biodiverse unique area of Baviaanskloof concern the individuals that have had opportunities to visit protected areas in the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve section. Most of these individuals have been able to visit the protected nature sites through their jobs at Eastern Cape Parks Board or the Working for Water programme (planting the Portulacaria afra). These individuals seem to appreciate the beauty of thicket as they, through their jobs, now know ‚qb[n h[nol_ []no[ffs g_[hm‛ (j_lm. ]ig. With ECPB rangers, annex D2), and that nature in Baviaanskloof is unique and should be protected. A comment from a contractor of one of the Working for Water teams adds to this that a job in nature conservation helps to ‚[jjl_]c[n_ gil_ qb[n h[nol_ b[m ni i``_l‛ (j_lm. ]ig. qcnb g[f_ 38-year old contractor, see annex D2). Another employee in the Working for Water programme mentions about her visits to the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve: ‚[cn] g[^_ g_ l_[fct_ nb[n B[pc[[hmefii` cm \_[oncòf, [h^ qb[n h[nol_ cm mojjim_^ ni \_ fce_ ch [ff i` B[pc[[hmefii`‛ [h^ ‚Aff nbim_ jf[hnm [h^ [hcg[fm, cn cm \_[oncòf….. [ fin i` j_ijf_ b_l_ îh’n a_n nb_ ]b[h]_ ni pcmcn nb[n j[ln i` B[pc[[hmefii` [nb_ l_m_lp_], cn mbiof^ \_ _[mc_l ìl nb_g‛ (j_lm. ]iggohc][ncih qcnb A\\_s-Gail, see annex D2).

For the coloured individuals that do not have a direct relation to nature conservation through their jobs and daily lives, preferences for conservation are not equally apparent; the principle of the primary school at Saaimanshoek mentions as a possible reason that people are simply not-knowing, and not educated. Many of the coloured j_ijf_ ch B[pc[[hmefii` ^ih’n b[p_ [h c^_[ [\ion nb_ Wilf^ H_lcn[a_ mn[nom i` nb_cl fcpcha _hpclihg_hn, [h^ nb_s have never been told or taught about the uniqueness of the ecosystem they derive many of their important resources from. Since most of the individuals in the communities have never visited the protected nature areas in Baviaanskloof, a frame of reference does not exist for them to compare and conclude what nature in the Baviaanskloof should actually look like; they can only relate to their direct living environment.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 7. Relations between land cover and socio-cultural values of farmers and communities

7.1 F[lg_lm’ mi]ci-culturally valued activities and their relation with land cover

As described already in section 4.2.2, farmers in the Baviaanskloof research area only cultivate small parts of their arable land as a food source for their livestock, which exists of ostriches, sheep, cattle and (mohair) goats. An increasing amount of farmers is initiating or expanding businesses in tourism, which mostly concerns accommodation, game farming (for hunting) and organising a variety of tours. As has become clear in previous j[l[al[jbm, nb_ `[lg_lm ]ihmc^_l nb_cl qile [m nb_cl ]ofnol_ [h^ ‘q[s i` fc`_’ gil_ nb[h [hsnbcha else. The map below shows an overview of the land uses of the farmers with an overlay of the vegetation type dataset, in an [nn_gjn ni l_f[n_ mj_]c`c] p_a_n[ncih nsj_m qcnb nb_ `[lg_lm’ mi]ci-cultural important land uses.

Figure 7.1: overlay of vegetation types and cadastre datasets (derived from South African National Biodiversity Institute (2007) and Mike Powell (pers. com.), with land-uses of the farmers in western Baviaanskloof (participatory mapping exercise during fieldwork).

As can be concluded from the map, there is no clear relation between livestock keeping and specific vegetation types. Most farmers leave the majority of their livestock to graze free within the boundaries of their properties; only ostriches and vulnerable other livestock (pregnant and non full-grown livestock) are kept in plots near the li[^m [h^/il nb_ `[lg_lm’ biom_m [h^ `[]cfcnc_m (mo]b [m q[n_l jichnm). R_a[l^cha nb_ locations of the plots (and the `[lg_lm’ biomcha `[]cfcnc_m), [ff i` nb_g [l_ ch nb_ Dilchap_f^, Alc^ \[pc[[hm mj_e\iigp_f^, il nb_ B[pc[[hm mj_e\iig nbc]e_n [l_[m; nb_m_ [l_ [ff p_a_n[ncih nsj_m [m b[p_ \__h ^_jc]n_^ [m ‘pofh_l[\f_’ \s STEP ([m _rjf[ch_^ in 1.5.3).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Wb_h ]ihmc^_lcha nb_ g_hncih_^ fi][ncihm `il ‘`l__ ncg_’ [h^ l_f[r[ncih []ncpcnc_m, g[hs i` nb_ fi][ncihm mentioned by the farmers are either in the Nature Reserve area (locations such as Geelhoutbos or Smitskraal; these are not indicated in fcaol_ 1.1 ch 1.5.3), il ionmc^_ B[pc[[hmefii` (mo]b [m J_``l_s’m B[s). R_f[r[ncih []ncpcnc_m within the research area mostly concern family activities in and around the house, and on occasions a road trip chni [ ‘efii`’ (][hsih) il ojbcff mionbq[l^m ih iqh property (pers. com. with stakeholders 2007; and observation). As the inventory of roads and tracks is not complete in the map it is unlikely to be able to indicate exact locations; however, from observations with four farmers (stakeholders communication 2007) cn b[m \_]ig_ ]f_[l nb[n ‘`l__ ncg_’ [h^ l_f[r[ncih mcn_m ih iqh jlij_lns ]ih]_lh nb_ [l_[m nb[n [l_ hin b_[pcfs om_^ `il fcp_mni]e [h^ [l_ relatively abundantly vegetated.

7.2 Ciggohcnc_m’ mi]ci-cultural values in relation with thicket types, species and locations

As the coloured communities in the Baviaanskloof research area depend, from a socio-]ofnol[f jichn i` pc_q’, ni [ great extent on the quality and availability of the natural resources that surround them, it is of significant interest to investigate the spatial dimension of their socio-cultural values. This section will explore the specific socio- cultural significance of certain locations in the research area through an analysis of essential thicket species and their occurrence.

Table 4 below shows the relative significance of land use and/or land cover types concerning a set of socio- cultural important indicators. The table only shows those socio-cultural indicators that are tangible in a way and/or can be concretely related to practical examples that are applicable to the coloured communities. Initially, nb_ ch^c][nil ‘jl_m_h]_ i` m[]l_^ mcn_m il `_[nol_m’ q[m [fmi ch]fo^_^, \on mch]_ hinbcha ][g_ oj ^olcha nb_ `i]om alioj m_mmcihm ]ih]_lhcha nbcm ch^c][nil (nb_ mjclcno[f `_[nol_ ‘q[n_lg_c^’ [m _rjf[ch_^ ch j[l[al[jb 6.1.4 q[m only mentioned during some of the individual interviews) it has not further been considered in the table. The first row in the table shows the indicators as have been presented to the communities during the exercise of PDM (pebble distribution method); they were made concrete in a way that the communities would be able to recognize them as being applicable to their daily lives. The second row relates the adapted indicators of the first row to the l_f_p[hn ‘ch^c][nilm of socio-]ofnol[f cgjiln[h]_’ [m acp_h ch n[\f_ 2 (j[l[al[jb 3.1.2). Tb_h, nb_ `clmn ]ifogh shows the land-use and land cover units that have been identified during the fieldwork activities; amongst the ][n_ails ‘inb_lm’, E[mn_lh C[j_ P[lem [l_[m (B[pc[[hskloof Nature Reserve), road sides (public property) and `[lg_lm’ f[h^m (jlcp[n_ jlij_lnc_m) q_l_ g_hncih_^ \s nb_ ]iggohcnc_m.

Evaluating the table as given below, it becomes clear that for the different socio-cultural indicators, diverse sets of land cover types and/or land-uses are considered as important by the communities. This can be explained by the fact that the communities use different thicket species for different purposes, and that for some socio-cultural indicators, people use higher or lower diversities in thicket species (see for more information annex D4). M_^c]ch[f jf[hnm ìl chmn[h]_ [l_ n[e_h _mj_]c[ffs `lig p_a_n[n_^ f[h^ ]ip_l [l_[m mo]b [m nb_ ‘\ombp_f^’ mcn_m [m well as the riversides and fynbos areas. However, collective nature areas and private gardens are also of significant importance; the reason why so many land cover and land-use types are of importance for medicinal plants is because this indicator shows the highest amount of relevant thicket species (see annex D4). The indicatil ‘ìi^’ was interpreted differently amongst discussion groups due to linguistic and communicative issues (one chn_ljl_ncha ‘om_ i` nbc]e_n mj_]c_m’, inb_lm chn_ljl_ncha ‘mo\mcmn_h]_ `[lgcha’), [h^ qcff nb_l_ìl_ hin \_ òlnb_l analysed in this report.

Material for construction purposes or firewood only concern four significantly important species (annex D4) and is gimnfs n[e_h `lig ]iggoh[f h[nol_ [l_[m, [h^ ih i]][mcihm `lig nb_ lcp_lmc^_m il ‘\ombp_f^’ mcn_m. Olh[g_hn[f resources are mostly found along the rivers and only concern two thicket species (Phragmites australis and Salvia

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR repens); thicket species are not often used for ornaments, which can also be observed from the amount of focus groups that actually put the so-][ff_^ ‘j_\\f_m’ `il nbcm ch^ccator (only seven out of the ten focus groups). From own observation can additionally be concluded that thicket species are only rarely used for decoration; most households prefer more commercial (artificial) decoration.

Table 4: socio-culturally important land-uses and land covers

Concrete examples

applicable to the

communities

Medicine Food houses Construction construction Light and tools Firewood ornamental and Recreation values aesthetic

Indicators of socio- Subsistence Recreation farming/ capacity of cultural importance Use of activities/ Medici- natural system to Traditional resource use/ nature in physical nal health provide edible fruits traditionally significant species decora- appea-rance services and lives of wild tion of Land-use/ land cover animals to be

wilderness (present) Overall units hunted private garden in housing areas 13,67 7,22 1,33 2,96 2,33 8,57 4 12,22 (individuals) Communal nature 14 2,78 49,67 45,19 31,33 8,1 32 32,22 areas Community cultivated 2,33 6,67 2 - 2,33 - - 4,07 land livestock camps 1,33 0,56 2,33 - - - - 1,85 (kraal) grazing areas 2,67 8,89 5 4,81 13,33 3,81 1,67 4,07 Bushveld (spekboom 23,67 38,33 10,33 12,96 13,67 2,38 4 13,33 sites on slopes) Fynbos (on top of the 15 21,67 3 10,37 7 2,38 2 7,04 hill or mountain River (sides) 16,33 1,11 10 12,59 18,33 54,29 20,33 11,85 Fountains (water 8 - 10,67 4,81 7 20,48 15 10 sources) Onb_l….. 3 12,78 5,67 6,3 4,67 - 21 3,33 100 100 100 100 100 (100) 100 (90) 100 (70) 100 (100) TOTAL (60) (100) (100) (90) Importance of specific land cover/use units for fulfilment of socio-cultural values; based on 10 sessions of PDM (pebble distribution method); given in percentages. The numbers between brackets in the TOTAL-bar are the percentages of the interviewees that responded to the question. Tb_h, ìl l_]l_[ncih [h^ [_mnb_nc] p[fo_m, ]iff_]ncp_ h[nol_ [l_[m, lcp_lmc^_m [h^ ‘inb_l’ [l_[m [l_ ^_jc]n_^ [m gimn cgjiln[hn \s nb_ ]iggohcnc_m. Tb_ ‘inb_l’ ][n_ails b_l_ g_[hm _cnb_l nb_ mj_h^cha ncg_ qcnb `[gcfs chmc^_ il around the house, or on occasions the visiting of Geelhoutbos site (in the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve; some community members mentioned to have had the opportunity to go to this site with park rangers employed by ECP). Fil nb_ ]ifogh l_jl_m_hncha ‘ìi^’, g[hs ì]om aliojm chn_ljl_n_^ cn _cnb_l ihfs ìl ‘b[lp_mncha i` qcf^ _^c\f_ `locnm’ il ‘mo\mcmn_h]_ `[lgcha’; l_a[l^cha nb_ [^^cncih[f `[]n nb[n ihfs 6 ion i` nb_ 10 ì]om aliojm distributed pebbles for this indicator, the outcome is not very reliable and will therefore not be further considered. Finally, the last column of table 4 above shows an overall importance of land cover and land-use types, from the point of view of the communities. The interpretation of the outcome in this column can partly be connected to figure 6.1 in 6.2.2, which defined the importance of socio-economic categories according to the communities. There, fuel wood and building material were the second and fourth most important categories;

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR table 4 above shows collective nature areas as the most important site (where most of the fuel wood and building material comes from). Water was the category mentioned as most important in figure 6.1 (6.2.2); table 4 above shows the combined value of rivers and fountains as second most important (summed up value). Medicinal plants q_l_ ^_jc]n_^ [m `c`nb gimn cgjiln[hn ch j[l[al[jb 6.2.1, qbc]b ]iof^ \_ j[lnfs nb_ l_[mih `il qbs ‘\ombp_f^’ mcn_m are valued as third most overall important (being the first most important site for sole medicinal plant extraction).

The land-use and land cover units as given in the table correspond for most part to the categories as given in the map in figure 7.2 below, which is a spatial visualisation of specific land covers and uses in the two communities (based on transect q[fem [h^ i\m_lp[ncih). Tb_ ][n_ailc_m ‘Gliin [lc^ mj_e\iigp_f^’, ‘B[pc[[hm mj_e\iigp_f^’, [h^ ‘B[pc[[hm p[ff_s nbc]e_n’ ip_lf[j ni mig_ _rn_hn qcnb nb_ f[h^ ]ip_l [h^ f[h^-om_ [l_[m ‘\ombp_f^’ [h^ ‘al[tcha [l_[m’ `lig n[\f_ 4 [\ip_.

Figure 7.2: Land use and the relation with land cover in the communities Saaimanshoek and Sewefontein. Based on own observation and participatory mapping during transect walks. Hence, the map as given in figure 7.2 above shows the land cover and land uses of the communities Saaimanshoek and Sewefontein. As can be seen, the grey scaled polygon features represent the five thicket types present (land cover), and the coloured features represent specific land uses. Vegetation types (land cover) to some extent appear to relate to specific socio-culturally important land uses; from the map above for instance can be concluded that the Baviaans doringveld is mostly used for subsistence farming (Sewefontein).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 8. Carbon marketing in western Baviaanskloof: plans, implementation & probable socio-cultural implications

8.1 STRP and the Baviaanskloof

8.1.1 STRP towards CDM certification: current planning and implementation

As already introduced in paragraph 1.2.1, the Subtropical Thicket Rehabilitation Project (STRP) was initiated in 2004, mojjiln_^ [h^ `ch[h]_^ \s nb_ Sionb A`lc][h aip_lhg_hn’m D_j[lng_hn i` W[n_l A``[clm [h^ Fil_mnls (DWAF). This paragraph will go into depth on the advancement of the STRP project and the specific implementation planning in the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve.

In 2007, officials involved in the planning and implementation of STRP designed a first draft of the Project Design Document16, a document which is required for application for all host countries that plan to implement the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)17. The PDD for STRP puts a focus on the protected degraded areas within the Baviaanskloof, and proposes a restoration of the land through the planting of Portulacaria afra, as this species is originally dominant in the thicket biome and supports many other native plants through the ideal microclimate it creates (Mills, 2007); Cowling and Mills (2006) [^^ ni nbcm: ‚Portulacaria afra could return biodiversity to the nl[hm`ilg_^ f[h^m][j_ […], l_^o]_ micf _limcih, chcrease wildlife carrying capacity, [and] improve water ch`cfnl[ncih [h^ l_n_hncih‛. Moreover, Portulacaria afra has been proven continuously to store unusual large amounts of carbon at increasing rates over a period of at least 20 years (Cowling and Mills, 2006). After approximately 60 years of restoration activities, the thicket ecosystem is anticipated to have replaced full carbon stocks and a favourable and stable ecological state will have established for all thicket vegetation species to reinstate (Mills, 2007).

Enabling the actual implementation of the restoration plans, DWAF has given the regionally operating Gamtoos Irrigation Board (GIB) on-site responsibilities to manage finances and administration, as well as the operation of the project. Individuals assigned by GIB manage the contractor teams that have received specific education for the project, and are employed under the Working for Water programme. Tasks that the contractor teams carry out are alien plant species removal, cultivation and harvesting of thicket plant species, and the planting of Portulacaria afra cuttings in designated restoration areas. At the present, a special nursery has been established near the boarder of Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve to cultivate thicket plant species (Powell et al. 2006) and ideas exist to implement a second nursery closer to plantation sites (pers. com. with Mike Powell). The selection of restoration sites has been based on original vegetation occurrence and specific regulation points by the CDM board which include (adapted from Mills, 2007):  Degradation of the site occurred before 31 December 1989 and the site has not been commercially afforested and planted subsequent to 31 December 1999;  The specific site has a single minimum tree crown cover of 30% when vegetation is intact;  The site has a single minimum land area value of 0,05 hectares; and  The site has a single minimum tree height value of 2 meters in case of intact vegetation Up to date, approximately 300 hectares have already been restored by planting Portulacaria afra cuttings in the Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve, and plans are being made to restore up to 1.500 hectares more until the year 2020 (Mills, 2007). The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, being the official Designated National Authority (the focal point for CDM in South Africa) and project developer, has committed itself to monitor STRP at intervals of

16 The CDM-PDD presents information on the essential technical and organizational aspects of the project activity and is a key input into the validation, registration, and verification of the project as required under the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC UNFCCC (2008a). 17 approval for CDM implementation is still to be received

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR five years for the next 60 years (Mills, 2007). DWAF will subsequently remain to fund the implementation of the project (the planting of cuttings) until 2010.

8.1.2 Planning for future implementation: relevancy of STRP to selected stakeholders

As determined in the previous paragraph, the first draft of the Project Design Document focussed on the conservation status areas within the Baviaanskloof Mega-R_m_lp_ l_acih. Dolcha nb_ ncg_ i` nbcm mno^s’m `c_f^qile however, the STRP goals and objectives were presented to the inhabitant stakeholders/landowners of tbcm mno^s’m research area. This area does not have a conservation status but has been heavily farmed up till now; the degradation status of large part in this area is equal to (if not worse) than the already assigned STRP restoration sites, making it appropriate for restoration. Implementation of STRP in this area is understandably considered by the project officials as it is practically situated in the middle of the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve, which is one of the Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve clusters that already contains official STRP sites. Two informal meetings were organized with the white farming community and the coloured community (and other interested individuals), with nb_ [cg ni chnli^o]_ nb_ ]ih]_jn i` ‘][l\ih g[le_ncha’ [h^ ni a_n [ `clmn al[mj on what the local willingness would be to join the project.

Mills (2007) brings forward that the restoration activities through STRP will, next to positive environmental effects, promote positive socio-economic effects for the involved stakeholders in the Baviaanskloof as well; these would include:  Creation of unskilled jobs for harvesting and planting of Portulacaria afra cuttings  Creation of training and skilled jobs (e.g. field technicians)  An increase the economic benefits derived from land in a sustainable manner (e.g. carbon credits through CDM; eco-tourism initiatives)  A strongly improved sustainable availability of fuel wood, timber building material, and (on longer term) the quality of run-off water

Hence, STRP implementation in the Baviaanskloof research area should bring opportunities for poverty alleviation (generation of employment; improved availability of resources) and a more sustainable alternative for the increasingly unsustainable and less profitable agricultural activities.

8.1.3 First response of selected stakeholders to restoration opportunities

As mentioned previously, during the time of fieldwork the objectives of STRP were introduced to the stakeholders in western Baviaanskloof. Both white farmers and communities showed their first thoughts, expectations and concerns about the plans and possibilities of restoration.

Regarding the white farming community, the planning for STRP very well received after an introductory presentation, and individual interviews with the farmers generated several comments and questions. Farmers in a_h_l[f mbiq_^ bcab _hnbomc[mg ìl nb_ jlid_]nm’ i\d_]ncp_m, [m ih_ `[lg_l (g[f_, +/- 35 years old) commented: ‚[STRP qiof^ \_] [ fiha n_lg pc[\f_ nbcha, p_ls aii^ c^_[, mo]b [ ]f_p_l jf[h […]‛; ch [^^cncih ni this, another `[lg_l l_`_ll_^ ni nb_ cgjiln[h]_ i` []ncp_ l_mnil[ncih: ‚mig_ j_ijf_ nbche nb[n nb_s b[p_ ni f_[p_ [h [l_[ qcnbion îcha [hsnbcha ch cn ni ]ihm_lp_ cn, \on I îh’n [al__. I nbche q_ b[p_ ni g[h[a_ cn.‛ (g[f_ `[lg_l, +/- 35 years old). The older generation of farmers in the Baviaanskloof showed the occasional scepticism; one farmer for instance emphasized the fact that initial restoration would only be focussed on Spekboom (Portulacaria afra), while other thicket species would seem to be forgotten. Also, questions on time-, money- and labour-related issues came across, as one farmer (male, +/- 60 s_[lm if^) jon cn ‚I ][h’n q[cn 20 s_[lm…‛ (l_`_llcha ni nb_ f_hanb i` the project). Finances appeared to be the biggest issue for the farmers; when asking about a possible willingness ni j[lnc]cj[n_ ch nb_ jlid_]n’m cgjf_g_hn[ncih, gimn i` nb_ `[lg_lm qiof^ [hmq_l ni \_ qcffcha ni ]iff[\il[n_ ihfs

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR when their livelihoods would be assured. On the question whether they would be willing to restore when their fcp_fcbii^m qiof^ \_ [mmol_^, 8 `[lg_lm [hmq_l_^ ‘nin[ffs [al__’, [h^ 3 `[lg_lm [hmq_l_^ ‘[al__’; hih_ i` nb_ farmers did not agree with the statement (see also annex D3).

Concerning the coloured communities, mixed reactions were received when being introduced to STRP and its objectives. On one hand many individuals mentioned to view the project as something positive as it would bring more employment (see also annex D2 for interview results); some individuals mentioned additional benefits that the planting of Spekboom (Portulacaria afra) ]iof^ \lcha [fiha: ‚[jf[hncha Sj_e\iig] cm aii^ ìl h[nol_ [h^ ìl nb_ [cl‛ (g[f_ 38-s_[l if^ ]ihnl[]nil ìl W`W n_[g) [h^ ‚cn cm aii^ \_][om_ g[hs jf[hnm [l_ ^scha hiq, cn cm becoming less green and the green should com_ \[]e \_][om_ cn cm gil_ \_[oncòf‛ (qig[h `lig S_q_ìhn_ch, 71 years old). However, some scepticism towards the project was also detected; just as the white farmers, some chn_lpc_q_^ ]ifiol_^ chb[\cn[hnm g_hncih_^ nb_cl ]ih]_lhm i` nb_ jlid_]n’m chcnc[f focus on the Spekboom (Portulacaria afra), [m ih_ g[f_ Wilecha ìl W[n_l _gjfis__ g_hncihm: ‚planting the spekboom is good, but what [\ion nb_ inb_l jf[hnm?‛. Tb_h, nb_l_ _rcmnm [ a_h_l[f gcmnlomn `lig nb_ ]iggohcnc_m niq[l^m i``c]c[f \i^c_m ô_ ni certain experiences in the past; one individual stated for instance the fact that they had been made promises \_ìl_ ‚\on h_p_l m[q nb_g l_[fct_^‛ (j_lm. ]ig. qcnb mn[e_bif^_l, `l__fs nl[hmf[n_^ `lig A`lce[[hm).

8.2 Restoration applicability in the western Baviaanskloof and related change processes

8.2.1 STRP applicability in the western Baviaanskloof

From 2004 on up to the present, STRP has been in an experimental pilot phase, and many studies have been carried out concerning ideal Portulacaria afra planting conditions and rates of carbon sequestration (determining consequently probable economic benefits). Throughout the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve several experimental planting sites exist in order to investigate which soil types and spatial (altitudes, slopes) conditions would make the chance of success for STRP implementation on large scale the highest.

Having determined ideal restoration sites and planting conditions, the requirements for official carbon sequestration sites for CDM were taken into account and used as a filter to decide on probable restoration sites in the Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve planning region. Intact thicket vegetation was hereby concluded as to qualify for a forest, since the mean tree crown cover is approximately 70% and the mean canopy height is two meters or higher (Mills, 2007). Degraded thicket in the project areas however, was only determined to have tree crown cover of less than 30% and a mean canopy height of less than two meters, which would mean fulfilment of the first condition for CDM approval. Additionally, evidence has been shown in the Project Design Document (Mills, 2007) that in the projected restoration sites heavy degradation already occurred before the 31st of December 1989, which provides fulfilment of the second requirement for CDM approval.

Hence, considering the requirements for CDM approval and suitability of plantation sites, STRP researchers and officials determined thicket types within the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve that would be appropriate for restoration. These thicket types, in which Portulacaria afra is originally a common species, are concluded to be the Baviaans Valley Thicket, Gamtoos Valley Thicket, and the Baviaans Spekboom Thicket (Mills, 2007).

The Baviaans Valley Thicket and Baviaans Spekboom Thicket are both vegetation types that occur in the western Baviaanskloof (see figure below) and would thus possibly qualify for CDM certification as well. Considering a third vegetation type in the western Baviaanskloof, the Groot arid spekboomveld, this thicket vegetation type does not occur in Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve and is thus not mentioned in the Project Design Document for CDM approval. However, this vegetation type could possibly be qualified as a CDM restoration site as well, since Portulacaria afra is originally a dominant species and this vegetation type is determined as being vulnerable by

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

STEP datasets (see also paragraph 1.5.3); also, heavy degradation of this thicket type in the form of soil erosion was observed during a transect walk in the Chnuganoo community farm, which is predominantly Groot arid spekboomveld.

Figure 8.1: Possible future restoration sites; overlay of vegetation types and cadastres datasets (datasets adapted from South African National Biodiversity Institute (2007), and Mike Powell (pers. com.)

The map in figure 8.1 above shows the possible restoration sites suitable for CDM certification in the western Baviaanskloof. These sites have not been thoroughly investigated yet considering their fulfillment of requirements for CDM approval. However, regarding the high comparability of the sites with the current sites that are planned for CDM certification, these sites are very likely to be considered as STRP (and CDM) sites in the future (pers. com. with Dieter van den Broeck).

8.2.2 Biophysical and socio-cultural change processes through STRP

The implementation of the Subtropical Thicket Rehabilitation Project in the western Baviaanskloof would, deliberately or unintentionally, set the stage for a chain of both biophysical and (interlinked) social change processes (see also the framework as presented in paragraph 3.1.5). These change processes would subsequently lead to biophysical and human impacts, the latter including impacts on socio-cultural structures and values, and (perceived) wellbeing.

Taking a closer look at the planned implementation of STRP as was explained in previous paragraphs, figure 8.2 below gives a schematic overview of the considered change processes:

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Change in user rights policies for land- use

First order Interlinked change in physical land-use (short term) [h^ j_ijf_’m []ncpcnc_m changes

Initial change in land cover

Second order (longer term) changes

Ongoing transitions Ongoing changes in Ongoing changes in Etcetera.. in land-uses j_ijf_’m ^[cfs land cover and activities ecosystem

Figure 8.2: Schematic overview of first and second order change processes through STRP implementation (based on BPJ)

As the schematic overview implies, STRP implementation would bring first order social and biophysical change processes, in the first stage of the implementation process. The first change process taking place would be a change in policies for land-use: implementation of STRP under CDM guidelines would bring about required adaptation or changes in regulation for the treatment and use of land in the specific area. The first draft of the Project Design Document specified land-om_ lcabnm ni nb_ CDM l_aof[ncih: ‚Tb_ jo\fc] qcff hin b[p_ lcabnm i` accemm ni b[lp_mncha nb_ m_ko_mn_l_^ ][l\ih… [[h^] qcff hin b[lp_mn P. afra or farm livestock on the A/R18 mcn_m‛ (Mills, 2007). Then, following from the change in land-use politics, the actual changes in physical land-uses would take place, in parallel with ]b[ha_m ch j_ijf_’m ^[cfs []ncpcnc_m. Cb[ha_m ch jbsmc][f f[h^-uses would in practice mean a decrease (or even a total stop) in livestock farming in order to dedicate (parts of) the land to agro-forestry for carbon sequestration, that is the planting of Portulacaria afra cuttings on designated STRP sites. This physical land-om_ ]b[ha_ qiof^ ch_pcn[\fs \lcha ]b[ha_m ch fi][f j_ijf_’m []ncpcnc_m: n[mem [h^ []ncpcnc_m l_f[n_^ ni `ilg_l livestock farming would have to give way for the new tasks and activities concerning the more strictly regulated agro-forestry. The actual practical implementation of STRP would then bring a first order change in land cover: alien plants would be removed and Portulacaria afra cuttings would be planted dispersed over the fenced STRP areas.

The three stages concerning the first order change processes would then jointly lead to a next stage: the second order change processes. In STRPs course towards the second order change processes, it is probable that certain biophysical and socio-cultural impacts will occur, that will have their influence on the second order change processes. For instance, through the planting of Portulacaria afra cuttings, there could be assumed that a first stage of ecosystem regeneration would be reached, that is the creation of a microclimate for which the dominant thicket species is well-known (see also paragraph 8.1.1). An on-going biophysical change process that could result from this could be the regeneration of the original thicket ecosystem (a microclimate would support other indigenous plants to grow), as has also been described by Mills & Cowling (2006). The first order change process

18 A/R in this context means Afforestation/Restoration sites, alias the projected STRP sites

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR concerning the physical land-use change and connected activities could possibly lead to renewed socio-cultural preferences that would initiate a new change process; e.g. a newly generated preference to preserve biodiversity could lead to a more conservation-based economy (ongoing change in land-use) and more conservation-friendly activities (ongoing change in peojf_’m ^[cfs []ncpcnc_m). Hiq_p_l, l_a[l^cha nb_ `[]n nb[n nb_m_ ]ih]_lh m_]ih^ [h^ further order change processes, which depend on the occurrence and outcome of first order change processes (hence indicating a decreasing certainty), these change processes (and further) will not be considered in this research study.

8.2.3 Change processes and their link with socio-cultural and wellbeing indicators

In order to be able to relate the identified change processes to the socio-cultural values and wellbeing of farmers and coloured communities in the western Baviaanskloof, it is necessary to link the change processes to the relevant indicators of socio-cultural importance (as was discussed previously in paragraph 3.1.5). Consequently, having identified the relevant indicators, this can be related to the constituents of wellbeing, as has similarly been done in paragraph 3.1.2. Table 5 below shows the relevant links between first order change processes, indicators of socio-cultural importance and the constituents of wellbeing as applicable to the western Baviaanskloof and STRP.

Only those indicators are specified in the table that show a direct link to the given change process and are quite likely to be impacted because of these change processes (based on BPJ). As can be seen, several indicators of socio-cultural importance are mentioned under different change processes; this given does not imply however that these indicators are of higher importance than other indicators. More so, those specific indicators are merely applicable to multiple change processes and can not be solely attributed to one single change process.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Table 5: change processes and their links with indicators of socio-cultural importance, and wellbeing

Specific process for Linked indicators of socio-cultural Relevant constituents Change process theme(s) STRP implementation importance of wellbeing

 Cultural traditions  Health (strength &  Traditional resource use feeling well)  Socio-culturally significant species  Basic material for  Presence sacred sites/ features good life Institutional: introduction  Freedom of choice Change in user rights  The use of the natural system to of new land-use policies cultivate crops & action  Use of natural system to support lives of livestock  Use of natural system to provide health services

 Cultural traditions  Health (strength  Nature education & feeling well)  Freedom of Conversion in land-use Cb[ha_ ch `[lg_lm’ [h^  Reconciliation between social and choice & action [h^ j_ijf_’m mi]ci- communities daily cultural groups economic activities activities  Use of natural system to support  Basic material for lives of livestock good life  Good social First order change process orderFirst change relations

 Physical appearance of wilderness  Health (strength  Role in cultural landscape & feeling well) Change from degraded  Use of nature in books, film,  Freedom of Land cover conversion/ landscapes to painting etc. choice & action diversification restoration-process  Use of nature in advertising  Basic material for landscapes  Caring for country good life

 Continuous suitability of the natural system to maintain biodiversity Based on Best Professional Judgement

Another thing that can be noticed from the table, is that only three constituents of wellbeing are influenced by the impacts from two of the mentioned change processes; these are health, basic material for good life, and `l__îg i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih ìl nb_ `clmn [h^ nbcl^ ]b[ha_ jli]_mm_m. Tb_ `[]n nb[n nb_ ]ihmncno_hnm ‘m_]olcns’ [h^ ‘aii^ mi]c[f l_f[ncihm’ [l_ hin ch`fo_h]_^ ch nb_m_ ]b[ha_ jli]_mm_m, ][h be explained when taking a look at their linked indicators of socio-]ofnol[f cgjiln[h]_: ‘m_]olcns’ ìl chmn[h]_ ihfs l_f[n_m ni nb_ ‘j_[]_ [h^ l_]ih]cfc[ncih’ ch^c][nilm [h^ nb_ ‘lif_ ch ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’, ‘\_h]bg[lecha ìl _hmolcha l_miol]_ [p[cf[\cfcns’ [h^ ‘]ohesion of family, social or cultural groups’ ch^c][nilm. Aff nb_m_ ch^c][nilm [l_ hin c^_hnc`c_^ [m ‘fce_fs ni \_ cgj[]n_^’ ìl nb_ `clmn [h^ nbcl^ ]b[ha_ jli]_mm, _r]_jn ìl ‘lif_ ch ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’ (biq_p_l nbcm ch^c][nil cm, ch nb_ fcabn if ‘m_]olcns’, hin [jjfc][\f_ ni nb_m_ ]b[ha_ jli]_mm).

Fil nb_ m_]ih^ g_hncih_^ ]b[ha_ jli]_mm, nb_ ]ihmncno_hn ‘aii^ mi]c[f l_f[ncihm’ cm g_hncih_^ [m fce_fs ni \_ cgj[]n_^, nbcm [m cnm ]ihh_]n_^ ch^c][nil ‘]ib_mcih i` `[gcfs, mi]c[f il ]ofnol[f aliojm’ is included in the list of relevant indicators for the change process.

H_h]_, ihfs nb_ ‘m_]olcns’ ]ihmncno_hn i` q_ff\_cha cm hin ch]fo^_^ ch nb_ n[\f_ [\ip_, [m hih_ i` cnm ]ihh_]n_^ indicators are included in the column with indicators that would likely be impacted.

Concerning the indicators that are mentioned in the table above, and thus are likely to be impacted, the next section will go into depth to explaining why and how these indicators will be impacted.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

8.3 STRP, socio-cultural values and perceived wellbeing

The following paragraphs will provide a more detailed description on the probable impacts that the first order change process through STRP implementation could bring forward. As these impacts are very stakeholder-specific (as are the socio-cultural values and perceived wellbeing), they will be discussed for both the white farmers and coloured communities separately.

8.3.1 Change processes through STRP: socio-cultural impacts on farmers

Concerning the mentioned first order change processes in table 5 (paragraph 8.2.3), several indicators of socio- ]ofnol[f cgjiln[h]_ q_l_ c^_hnc`c_^ [m ‘fce_fs ni \_ cgj[]n_^’; [ m_f_]ncih i` nb_g [jj_[l [jjfc][\f_ ni nb_ qbcn_ farming community. The following will explain the applicability of all indicators to each of the three first order change processes:

Impacts derived from changes in user rights (social change process)

As has been stated in the first draft of the Project Design Document, the implementation of restoration (STRP) on properties would be required to happen under certain regulation: the sequestered carbon should by no means be harvested and livestock should be kept off the restoration sites (Mills, 2007). For the farmers, this would mean that they would not be allowed to continue their current farming activities (keeping livestock) on the part of their f[h^m ^_mcah[n_^ ni l_mnil[ncih []ncpcnc_m; nb_ ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’ [h^ ‘om_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e’ ch^c][nilm i` mi]ci-cultural importance could in this case probably be impacted. However, to assess the extent of the probable impacts, it is important to investigate how projected restoration sites overlap current land- use areas. The map in figure 8.3 below shows an overlay of probable STRP sites with land-use of the farmers in the western Baviaanskloof.

Am ][h \_ ]ih]fo^_^ `lig nb_ g[j \_fiq, hin [ff i` nb_ `[lg_lm’ f[h^m cm mocn[\f_ ìl l_mnil[ncih, l_mofncha ch nb_ fact that 25 percent of all current plots (8 out of 32) would not need to give way for full implementation of STRP. In addition, the map shows quite an unequal division of probable restoration sites over the cadastres, which indicates that, when STRP would be fully implemented, some farmers would have to change their land-uses to a larger extent than other farmers. In any case, all farmers choosing to implement STRP would need to obey new land-use rights and would therefore have to move their livestock or even get rid of (part of) it. The socio-culturally valued indicator ‘om_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e’ qiof^ nbom \_ h_a[ncp_fs cgj[]n_^ ìl j[ln i` nb_ `[lg_lm’ jlij_lnc_m [m h_q l_aof[ncih qiof^ hin [ffiq nb_g [hs fiha_l ni e__j nb_cl fcp_mni]e [hsqb_l_ nb_s choose. As farmers in the western Baviaanskloof are used to being relatively liberate in the use of their lands and cnm h[nol[f l_miol]_m, nb_ h_q l_aof[ncih ]iof^ b[p_ ]_ln[ch cgj[]n ih nb_cl g_hn[f ‘`__fcha q_ff’, qcnb [ fche ni [ h_a[ncp_ cgj[]n ih nb_cl ‘`l__îg i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih’. D_`chcn_fs nb_ `[lg_lm qiof^ b[p_ ni a_n om_d to obeying strong land-use restrictions for the first time in their lives, and they might consider it as a disadvantage that the project brings along: they would not be as free to do anything with their land as they were before.

As the herding of livestock is one of the farmers traditional (cultural) activities that is highly valued in not just an economic way, but also a socio-]ofnol[f q[s (m__ [fmi j[l[al[jb 5.1.3), nb_ ch^c][nil ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’ ][h \_ related to the negative impact of the chang_ jli]_mm ih ‘om_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e’. Depending on the extent to which the farmers would need to get rid of their traditional farming activities, they would consequently have to give up (part of) their much appreciated cultural-traditional land-use: the keeping of livestock. The next change process will evaluate the probable impact these required land-use changes would bring along.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Figure 8.3:overlay of vegetation types and cadastres datasets (adapted from South African National Biodiversity Institute, 2007) with land-uses of farmers (derived from participatory mapping exercises).

Cb[ha_ ch `[lg_lm’ ^[cfs []ncpcnc_m and land-use

As was explained for the previous change process, farmers will need to change their current land-uses to a certain extent in order to implement STRP the way it is set up in the Project Design Document. The cultural tradition to use major part of the property to let livestock graze free on natural vegetation sites19 would in this case be limited or even forced to a full stop, as the remaining land would not provide for sufficient resources to keep livestock the way the farmers are used to. Options would be to reduce to very small livestock numbers which can be supported by the remaining parts of land, and to remove plots (presently mostly used for ostriches and vulnerable livestock) to non-eligible restoration sites (see the map in figure 8.3). In any case, STRP implementation would certainly have an influence on the cultural tradition of livestock herding, especially the herding on free grazing areas, as `[lg_lm b[p_ g_hncih_^ ^olcha chn_lpc_qm ni _mj_]c[ffs p[fo_ nb_ ‚q[fecha qcnb fcp_mni]e‛ ip_r their lands (pers. comm. stakeholder 2007). Thus, implementing the plans for restoration would have a negative impact on current traditional cultural activities, many farmers would regret the fact they would need to get rid of (part of) their livestock (pers. comm. stakeholders 2007). However, as was explained in paragraph 8.1.3, farmers mention to definitely choose to change their land-uses for restoration purposes when their livelihoods would be assured; the fact that they choose to do this could be an ch^c][ncih nb[n STRP cgjf_g_hn[ncih ]iof^ chcnc[n_ h_q ‚q[sm i`

19 However to an increasing extent farmers cultivate grasses/luzern for their livestock, or buy fodder in order to be able to feed their animals. This as the natural vegetation does not provide the capacity (anymore) to feed all livestock (see also Ignacio de la Flor his thesis on economic valuation).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR nbchecha‛ [h^ ]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm. Tblioab a_nncha `[gcfc[l qcnb nb_ l_mnil[ncih jlid_]n [h^ nb_ i\d_]ncp_m \_bch^ it, farmers could start to develop certain interests in nature conservation, or strengthen their current interest in preserving the native thicket ecosystem. This will be explained further for the third change process later in this paragraph.

Another indicator which has been socio-culturally valued by a few of the interviewed farm_lm, cm nb_ ‘om_ i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e [h^ qcf^ [hcg[f mj_]c_m nb[n ][h \_ bohn_^’ (ch nbcm ][m_: a[g_ farming). As can be seen in the map (green areas in figure 8.3) more than half of the properties used for the purpose of game farming is eligible for STRP implementation. The parts of the properties used for restoration would not allow any grazing animals to enter (including game), thus the current part of the land used for game farming (in many cases combined with tourism) would be halved and have a negative impact on the related indicator of socio-]ofnol[f cgjiln[h]_. Tb_ ‘`__fcha q_ff’ ]igjih_hn (‘b_[fnb’ ]ihmncno_hn i` q_ff\_cha) i` nb_ l_f_p[hn `[lg_lm ]iof^ \_ h_a[ncp_fs ch`fo_h]_^ [m nb_cl ‘bi\\s’-activity would need to be restricted to a certain extent. Similarly to the change in livestock keeping as was discussed previously, the restrictions put on game `[lgcha nblioab STRP cgjf_g_hn[ncih ]iof^ ]ihm_ko_hnfs b[p_ cnm ch`fo_h]_ ih nb_ `[lg_lm’ `__fcha ni b[p_ ‘`l__^ig i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih’.

Change from degraded landscapes to restoration-in-process landscapes (biophysical change)

As mentioned for the previously discussed change process, the change in land cover through restoration aimed land-use change could lead to renewed interests in conservation. Implementing a project such as STRP on their properties, farmers would be directly confronted with the practice of restoration and the purpose of the activity. Through the process of implementation, farmers might get more interested in the how and why of restoration, which builds forward on the current process of realization amongst farmers to how important it is to take good ][l_ i` nb_ pofh_l[\f_ nbc]e_n (m__ j[l[al[jb 5.2.5). B_][om_ i` nb_ ‘h[nol_ _^o][ncih’ _f_g_hn i` nb_ project (restoration-]ihm_lp[ncih \[m_^), [ jimcncp_ ]b[ha_ ch nb_ ‘][lcha `il ]iohnls’ ch^c][nil ]iof^ n[e_ jf[]_. Am nb_ farmers would previously care for a continued productivity of their lands, implementation of STRP could generate a care for the ecosystem health, since they would have learned how a healthy ecosystem can provide for better quality and availability of resources (services).

Then, as the landscapes dedicated to STRP would initiate the process towards a recovering of the native thicket, nb_ ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’ [h^ ‘jl_m_h]_ i` m]_hc] ^lcp_m [h^ lion_m’ qiof^ (nbioab mfiqfs) a_n positively impacted, which very probably would be appreciated by many farmers. This because the current scenic drives on their properties (mostly uphill on limited used land) are presently quite appreciated as well (as explained in paragraph 5.1.1). Appreciation of the thicket in process of restoration could additionally come to expression nblioab nb_ om_ i` nbcm ‘h_q’ h[nol_ ch \iiem il j[chncham, ir even advertising; farmers have for instance been using the natural surroundings of the Baviaanskloof already to advertise for their tourism facilities. Thicket restoration, and not just the benefit of the action but additionally the act itself, could be used for advertising purposes in the future20. Tb_h [fmi, nblioab STRP cgjf_g_hn[ncih, `[lg_lm ]iof^ ^_p_fij `olnb_l nb_cl ‘_rcmn_h]_ p[fo_’ ip_l nb_ ‘]ihnchoiom mocn[\cfcns i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni g[chn[ch \ci^cp_lmcns’. Am nb_ _r[gjf_ ih `[lg_lm’ current volunteering for the Landmark foundation has shown previously (paragraph 5.2.5), the farmers already b[p_ \__h ^_p_fijcha [ ]_ln[ch ‘_rcmn_h]_ p[fo_’ ip_l ]_ln[ch h[ncp_ nbc]e_n ([hcg[f) mj_]c_m.

This altogether could lead to a new role of thicket in th_ ‘]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’ ch nb_ B[pc[[hmefii`: qbcf_ agricultural lands are now dominating in the valley, surrounded by Nature Reserve areas, STRP implementation

20 The act of conservation, and consequently restoration, is a source of attraction for nature tourists; as was once experienced during fieldwork in the Baviaanskloof. A woman tourist (+/- 40 years old) mentioned to be genuinely interested in the STRP project, she had seen the information billboard near one restoration site in the Baviaanskloof.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

]iof^ ]b[ha_ nb_ fiie i` [alc]ofnol[f [l_[m chni l_mnil[ncih [l_[m. Wb_nb_l nbcm h_q ‘]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’ qiof^ \_ preferred over the traditional agricultural landscapes by farmers, further in-depth psychological research would be needed.

In conclusion, the indicators of socio-cultural value related to this last change process, would all be impacted in a positive way through a successful STRP implementation. Taking all the relevant indicators together, they show a fche ni nb_ ‘b_[fnb’ ]ihmncno_hn i` q_ff\_cha (m__ _rjf[h[ncih i` nb[n fche j[l[al[jb 3.1.2), [h^ nb_h [a[ch, nb_ ‘`__fcha q_ff’ ]igjih_hn. Because of a possible renewed interest in nature conservation and a realization of the benefits restoration brings along, farmers would not so much face the problems they are currently facing with their lands anymore. Erosion holes (through overgrazing) and increasing problems with water availability (lowering water table because of vegetation degradation) would not be a further increasing problem through restoration any longer (Cowling and Mills, 2006). More likely, these problems would be solved through the jli]_mm i` l_mnil[ncih cgjf_g_hn[ncih. Tbcm ]iof^ nb_h f_[^ ni [h cgjlip_^ ‘`__fcha q_ff’ i` nb_ `[lg_lm, [m nb_s would conduct activities more in balance with the capacity and balance of the ecosystem services than their former agricultural activities would allow. Presently, one interviewed farmer already has been restoring ecosystem services on his land for many years (especially water flows; see also paragraph 5.1.2); this same farmer mentioned ni `__f [ ‚]ihm_lp[ncihcmn‛ bcgm_f` (j_lm. ]igg. mn[e_bif^_r 2007), realizing the high importance of taking good care for a healthy ecosystem. Hence, implementing STRP and learning about the benefits of restoration could even initiate a process towards a new idealism and way of thinking for the farmers: caring for maintaining and improving ecosystem health.

8.3.2 Change processes through STRP: socio-cultural impacts on communities

Relating the biophysical and social change process directly to the socio-cultural important indicators concerning the local communities of Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek in the western Baviaanskloof, probable socio-cultural impacts can be identified. The following will assess the applicability of all indicators to each of the three first order change processes:

Impacts derived from changes in user rights (social change process)

Starting from the first change process through STRP implementation (the change in land-use politics) some possible socio-]ofnol[f cgj[]nm `il nb_ ]iggohcnc_m ][h \_ ^_n_]n_^. R_a[l^cha nb_ ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’ [h^ ‘om_ of h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e’ ch^c][nilm, [ l_`_l_h]_ ][h \_ g[^_ ni qb[n q[m m[c^ ch nb_ Plid_]n Design Document (Mills, 2007) on user rights in designated restoration sites (see in detail paragraph 8.2.2). Following this, the local inhabitants of Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek would then not be able to keep their current livestock on projected STRP sites on their properties, which would indicate a negative impact on the ]iggohcnc_m’ ]ofnol[f nl[^cncih ni `[lg ai[nm [h^ mb__j nb_ q[s nb_s have done for decades (mostly grazing free on the property) (see for description paragraph 6.1.3). To assess the actual extent of the impact however, it would be necessary to analyze spatial locations of projected STRP sites together with an analysis of specific locations of communal uses. For the coloured communities in the western Baviaanskloof, the extent of this specific impact can nbom \_ g_[mol_^ \s ip_lf[scha nb_ ‘f[h^ ]ip_l [h^ f[h^-om_’ g[j (m_]ncih 7.2) qcnb nb_ ‘jli\[\f_ STRP mcn_m’ g[j (paragraph 8.2.1); the outcome of this overlay is shown in the map in figure 8.4 below. As can be concluded from the map, exactly the places where Sewefontein currently has its goats and sheep grazing free, are the places where restoration could probably take place. This means that the implementation of STRP on these sites would clash with a cultural tradition of the coloured communities.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Figure 8.4: overlay of vegetation types and cadastre datasets (adapted from South African National Biodiversity Institute, 2007, and Mike Powel (pers. com)), and specific land-uses based on participatory mapping and PDM outcomes

Tb_h, ]ih]_lhcha nb_ ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’, ‘mi]ci-]ofnol[ffs mcahc`c][hn mj_]c_m’, [h^ ‘om_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni jlipc^_ b_[fnb m_lpc]_m’ ch^c][nilm, [ mcgcf[l l_`_l_h]_ ][h \_ g[^_ ni qb[n b[m \__h mn[n_^ ch nb_ Plid_]n D_mcah Document; this document explicitly states that concerning harvesting practices, people will not be allowed to harvest Portulacaria afra in STRP sites, as this species is designated for carbon sequestration (Mills 2007). The document does not specifically state that harvesting is not at all allowed on STRP sites, which would mean that communities could continue harvesting other species that are of importance regarding the three mentioned indicators. Regarding the fact that Portulacaria afra cm hin mcahc`c][hnfs [jjfc][\f_ ni _cnb_l ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’, ‘mi]ci-cultol[ffs mcahc`c][hn mj_]c_m’ il ‘om_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni jlipc^_ b_[fnb m_lpc]_m’ (m__ Ahh_r D4), STRP implementation in this sense would seem not to have specific negative or positive impacts on these indicators of socio-cultural importance (in the first order change process). Nevertheless, taking a further look on the ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’ ch^c][nil, nb_ jl[]nc][f om_ i` nb_ b[lp_mn_^ l_miol]_m ]ih]_lhcha nbcm ch^c][nil do somehow indicate a probable clash between this indicator and STRP projected sites. The objectification of harvested traditional resources namely concern the self-built housing facilities in both Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek communities; as can be seen on the map in figure 8.4 above, nearly all housing areas in both communities overlap with probable STRP sites. However, considering the fact that those housing areas only make up quite an insignificant part of the total area that could be restored, it is more likely that the communities will decide to not implement STRP on these areas instead of removing their housing facilities to non-restorable areas (which would probably take more effort that that it would bring benefits).

R_a[l^cha nb_ ch^c][nilm ‘jl_m_h]_ i` m[]l_^ mcn_m/ `_[nol_m’ [h^ ‘om_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni ]ofncp[n_ ]lijm’ [ `irst comparison with the change of land-use rights through STRP would indicate a negative impact on these indicators as the physical activity concerning these indicators would not be compatible with land-use regulation under STRP. However, taking a look at the map as shown in figure 8.4 above, it becomes clear that especially the cultivation

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR areas barely overlap with the probable STRP sites. STRP implementation in this sense would thus not have mcahc`c][hn cgj[]n ih nb_ ‘om_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni ]ofncp[n_ ]lijm’, l_a[l^cha nb_ `clmn il^_l ]b[ha_ jli]_mm_m. Different from the cultivation sites, the sacred sites and features actually are situated in probable STRP sites: sacred sites for the communities only concern the church and cemetery in Saaimanshoek, which are both situated in the housing areas in this community. Recalling what was said on STRP sites and housing areas previously in this paragraph, STRP will probably not clash with this indicator of socio-cultural importance as housing facilities areas will very likely not be used for STRP implementation because of the rather insignificant amount of land they take up. Negative or positive impacts regarding this indicator are therefore not expected to happen based on the first order change processes.

Making a link from the impacts on indicators to the constituents of wellbeing, the possible negative impacts nblioab nb_ `clmn il^_l ]b[ha_ jli]_mm ]ih]_lhcha STRP cgjf_g_hn[ncih ]iof^ f_[^ ni [ ^_]l_[m_ ch nb_ ‘`__fcha q_ff’ ]igjih_hn ]ih]_lhcha nb_ ‘b_[fnb’ ]instituent of wellbeing. This because communities would not be able any longer to herd goats and sheep the way they have done for decades: free grazing on natural lands (thicket) would not be allowed anymore, and especially Sewefontein would have to get rid of the majority of their currently f[la_ b_l^m i` ai[nm [h^ mb__j. Ciggohcnc_m gcabn nb_l_ìl_ [^^cncih[ffs `__f b[lg_^ ch nb_cl ‘`l__îg i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih’, [m nb_ h_q l_aof[ncihm ih om_l lcabnm ìl STRP [l_[m qiof^ fcgcn nb_g ch omcha g[dil j[ln i` nheir properties the way they would originally want to.

Cb[ha_ ch ]iggohcnc_m’ ^[cfs []ncpcnc_m [h^ f[h^-use

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Fil nb_ m_]ih^ il^_l ]b[ha_ jli]_mm, nb_ ‘]b[ha_ ch j_ijf_’m ^[cfs []ncpcnc_m [h^ f[h^-om_’, nb_ `iffiqcha mi]ci- cultural indicators are important: ‘h[nol_ _^o][ncih’, ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’, ‘]ultural nl[^cncihm’, [h^ ‘om_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` fcp_mni]e’. R_a[l^cha nb_ f[nn_l nqi ch^c][nilm nb_l_ cm [ strong overlap with what was Box 5: STRP projections for employment opportunities discussed for the first change ‘Tb_ jlid_]n ^_p_fij_l qcff _gjfis [h _mncg[n_^ 100 j_ijf_ ih [ process: communities will need to seasonal basis. These labourers are unskilled and confront the prospect of being unable to find work. The decline of the agricultural sector in this change their land-use in terms of region, partly owing to habitat degradation has impacted severely on the herding large amounts of goats and _gjfisg_hn jlimj_]nm i` mo]b j_ijf_.‛ sheep on large part of their

‚Tb_ qile nb[n qcff \_ jlipc^_^ \s nb_ jlid_]nm cm ih [ ]ihnl[]n \[mcm [h^ property, which might lead to entails physical labour (planting of cuttings) for the majority of h_a[ncp_ cgj[]nm ih nb_ ‘`__fcha employees. In each team of 10 labourers there will be a team leader who is trained to manage the contract, and earmarked to become a business q_ff’ ]igjih_hn [h^ nb_ ‘`l__îg person (carbon entrepreneur). There are also ten labourers who will i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih’ constituent of been trained to be field technicians i.e. they are able to sample soils and plants, and enter data. A further 15 people will be employed in a nursery q_ff\_cha. Cih]_lhcha nb_ ‘]ofnol[f operated by DWAF, where trials on P. afra are undertaken and other nl[^cncihm’, nb_l_ cm [hinb_l [mj_]n species are propagated for biodiversity credits. The teams closely follow the National Government guidelines of the poverty relief (i.e. those that might become of importance in n[e_h oj \s nb_ D_j[lng_hn i` Po\fc] Ehn_ljlcm_m’, ‚Erj[h^_^ Po\fc] this change process: the long time Wilem Plial[gg_‛) jlch]cjf_m oh^_l qbc]b [n f_[mn 60% i` _gjfis__m tradition of coloured inhabitants to are required to be women and at least 25% of employees are required to \_ sionb.‛ work with livestock (sheep, goats, cattle, ostriches) on farg_lm’ f[h^m Source: Project Design Document (Mills, 2007) would very probably come to a stop partly as the farmers implementing STRP would need to give up part of their livestock keeping in order to implement successful restoration (see previous paragraph). However, STRP would develop opportunities for new daily land-use activities for the coloured inhabitants in terms of employment, as box 5 explains. As the Project Design Document explains, 100 seasonal jobs for coloured inhabitants would be created (this is through the poverty alleviation programme and Working for Water), divided up into team leader positions, field technician positions, nursery positions, and mostly (rather untrained) physical f[\iol jimcncihm (jf[hncha). Cifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m’ nl[^cncih[f f[h^-use activities would thus be drastically changed into restoration-aimed land-use activities. To determine whether this would bring about negative and/or positive impacts on socio-cultural values, a reference can be made to the interviews held with people that were already employed for STRP during fieldwork of this study research21. Comments mentioned by those interviewed ch^cpcô[fm (‘Wilecha ìl W[n_l’ chn_lpc_qm) gimnfs l_`_ll_^ ni nb_ ch^c][nilm ‘h[nol_ _ô][ncih’, [h^ ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’. R_a[l^cha h[nol_ education, during interviews individuals mentioned to highly enjoy learning more about nature through jobs. However, as present job opportunities for STRP in the western Baviaanskloof area only concern the physical labour (planting), current employees there mention to feel left out regarding the courses and training other employees in other areas get offered (these are the necessary additional courses at the nursery or for field technicians for instance). A certain feeling of envy can be detected here from the western Baviaanskloof employees towards the employees in other areas (Cambria area, which is on the eastern side of the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve). Envy concerning job opportunities via STRP however is not only detected from western Baviaanskloof employees towards employees in other areas: in the q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii` cnm_f`, _hps m__gm ni _rcmn `lig nb_ j_ijf_ nb[n b[p_h’n b[^ di\ i``_lcham ìl STRP niq[l^m people that did get job offerings and currently work for STRP (through Working for Water). This feeling of envy however appears to have a story behind it, as some former STRP employees mentioned the fact of dishonest selection of people to fill job offerings. The first selection of candidates for Working for Water employment at

21 As mentioned before, the STRP pilot programme has employed three teams of employees (one in Sewefontein, two in Saaimanshoek) for planting activities on experimental restoration sites.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

STRP sites was mentioned to follow an official and socially accepted procedure: heads of the communities in western Baviaanskloof were asked to appoint people that would probably make good candidates for the jobs, looking at behavioural attitudes, age, and life situation. Then, the selected group of people would make a test to determine whether their knowledge and capacities were sufficient enough to be employed by Working for Water. After this first selection following selections went different, which, according to some interviewed former employees, was not very much socially accepted. During these follow-up selections, current team leaders (contractors, also coloured inhabitants) of existing Working for Water teams were simply asked to appoint people they thought would be able to fulfil a job offer. Whether Working for Water aims to only employ one person out of each household in order to maintain equality amongst coloured inhabitants, the working method in the selection procedure seemed to have strong probabilities to be biased ch `[piol i` nb_ ]ihnl[]nilm’ `[gcfs [h^ friends network. This given has created a general feeling of distrust and envy amongst community members in Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek, and is thus has a certain negative impact on the indicator concerning ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ ]ofnol[f aliojm’.

Relating what is discussed above to the constituents of wellbeing, general conclusions can be drawn: the fact that the nature education aspect of being employed by Working for Water in the STRP project is viewed as something jimcncp_ [gihamn g[hs i` nb_ ]oll_hn _gjfis__m ]iof^ g_[h [ jimcncp_ cgj[]n ih nb_ ‘`__fcha q_ff’ ]igjih_hn (health constituent of wellbeing). Then, the given that employment opportunities seem not to benefit every family in need and appear not to reach every individual capable for the job (through biased selection procedures) has h_a[ncp_ cgj[]nm ih nb_ ‘aii^ mi]c[f l_f[ncihm’ ]ihmncno_hn i` q_ff\_cha \_][om_ i` [ ]l_[ncih i` _hps [h^ ^cmnlomn. Then, concerning the contents of the new emplosg_hn ijjilnohcnc_m ch nb_ fcabn i` nb_ ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm’ indicator, a clear conclusion can not be made: the question is whether the coloured inhabitants would prefer their traditional labour activities (farming livestock) over the activities within the Working for Water programme (planting), or the other way around? In order to find an answer to this question it would be necessary to include a more into depth psychological research, and as that is behind the scope of this research, it is thus not further considered.

Change from degraded landscapes to restoration-in-process landscapes (biophysical change)

The last first order change process considered in this research study concerns a biophysical change, that is the start of a process towards the restoration of the indigenous thicket ecosystem. Several indicators of socio-cultural cgjiln[h]_ [l_ fce_fs ni \_ cgj[]n_^ nblioab nbcm ]b[ha_ jli]_mm: nb_ ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’ ìl instance will probably be positively impacted to an increasing extent as the regeneration of thicket will bring the ‘al__h’ p_a_n[ncih \[]e (nbioab p_ls mfiqfs), qbc]b cm p_ls go]b jl_`_ll_^ \s g[hs i` nb_ (chn_lpc_q_^) chb[\cn[hnm; [m [h chn_lpc_q__ g_hncihm: ‚[…] B[pc[[hmefii` cm \_[oncòf […] Aff nbim_ jf[hnm [h^ [hcmals, it is \_[oncòf‛ (qig[h +/- 24 years old). Consequently, the ‘][lcha ìl ]iohnls’ ch^c][nil [m q_ff [m nb_ _rcmn_h]_ p[fo_ ip_l nb_ ‘]ihnchoiom mocn[\cfcns i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni g[chn[ch \ci^cp_lmcns’ indicator would possibly also be positively imj[]n_^. Tblioab ]ifiol_^ chb[\cn[hnm’ ^cl_]n ]ih`lihn[ncih qcnb nbc]e_n l_mnil[ncih mcn_m ih iqh jlij_lnc_m [h^ `[lg_lm’ jlij_lnc_m [ l_h_q_^ il cgjlip_^ ]ih]_lh ìl nb_ q_ff\_cha i` nb_ h[nol[f _]imsmn_g ]iof^ \_ a_h_l[n_^. Tb_ ‘h[nol_ _ô][ncih’ ]igjih_ht as discussed for the previous change process could even work as a catalyser for the positive impact on the socio-cultural values of the two indicators, as a contractor for ih_ i` nb_ Wilecha ìl W[n_l n_[gm g_hncihm: ‚[…] qile ch h[nol_ […] b_fjm om ni [ppreciate more what nature has to offer. The spekboom [Portulacaria afra] g[e_m nb_ [cl ]f_[h [h^ cm aii^. […] I [fq[sm om_^ g_^c]ch[f jf[hnm \on hiq I [jjl_]c[n_ nb_ h[nol_ gil_ nb[n jlipc^_m g_ nbim_ g_^c]ch[f jf[hnm […] ionmc^_ B[pc[[hmefii` j_ijf_ say nb[n nb_ h[nol_ b_l_ cm cgjiln[hn, cn cm mj_]c[f nb[n q_ ][h `ch^ mi g[hs om_òf jf[hnm b_l_‛.

Tb_ ‘lif_ ch ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’ ch^c][nil ]iof^ \_ cgj[]n_^ [m nb_ mcabn i` nb_ ^_][^_m ^igch[ncha [alc]ofnol[f lands would give way for great part to landscapes in process of vegetation restoration. To determine whether this

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR would be perceived as a positive or negative impact by coloured inhabitants, a link can be made to what is ^cm]omm_^ ih nb_ cgj[]nm ih inb_l ch^c][nilm g_hncih_^ [\ip_. A h_q ‘mi]ci-cultur[f g_[hcha’ i` nb_ f[h^m][j_ ]iof^ ^_p_fij nblioab l_mnil[ncih []ncpcnc_m, \[m_^ ih b_[fnbs _]imsmn_g \_h_`cnm mo]b [m nb[n ‚mj_e\iig g[e_m nb_ [cl ]f_[h‛ (j_lm. ]igg. mn[e_bif^_l 2007), qbc]b [fl_[^s [jj_[lm ni \_ p[fo_^ \s ]oll_hn Wilecha `il W[n_l teams.

Lchecha nb_ jli\[\f_ cgj[]nm ih ch^c][nilm ni nb_ ]ihmncno_hnm i` q_ff\_cha, _mj_]c[ffs nb_ ‘`__fcha q_ff’ component (health constituent) appears to be positively impacted: the ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’ [h^ ‘lif_ ch ]ofnol[f f[h^m][j_’ ch^c][nilm \inb l_`_l ni ‘`__fcha q_ff’ ([m ^cm]omm_^ ch j[l[al[jb 6.3.3). Tb_ ilcach[f \_[ons i` nbc]e_n m__gm ni \_ kocn_ [jjl_]c[n_^ \s mig_ i` nb_ chn_lpc_q_^ chb[\cn[hnm: ‚B[pc[[hmefii` [N[nol_ Reserve] is beautiful, [it shows] what nature is supposed to be fce_ ch [ff i` B[pc[[hmefii`‛ (j_lmih[f communication with stakeholders 2007).

8.3.3 R_f[ncha jl_fcgch[ls cgj[]nm ni ‘f_mmihm f_[lh_^ `lig jl[]nc]_’

As discussed in the previous paragraphs, implementation of a restoration project such as STRP would very probably bring across socio-cultural impacts through both biophysical and social change processes. An attempt was made to classify most likely impacts that would occur during a first order change process, taken the scenario i` ‘_]ifiac][f mo]]_mm’ i` nb_ lestoration project. The assessment clarified that the sole given of ecological success of restoration does not automatically imply a social success as well: both positive and negative impacts are likely to occur. The question is however, what determines whether they will actually occur? Some case studies from practice can give some clarification on this, as the following will show.

When looking at some case studies in practice, it becomes clear that the same change processes and impacts as mentioned in previous paragraphs have actually been an issue concerning similar interventions in other places. The case studies also show that a highly influential factor towards the severance of certain change processes and impacts, is the way in which an intervention im g[h[a_^. Ah _r[gjf_ cm nb_ ‘Bimko_m Pc]i Bihcni’ jlid_]n ch Honduras: this case has been widely applauded by the World Bank for its innovative and sustainable management approach and is currently even a standard example for other LULUCF (Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry)

Box 6: CDM at Bosques Pico Bonito, Honduras

Pico Bonito National Park is home to a broad range of endangered and threatened species, and is an essential connection point in the Meso-American Biological Corridor (The World Bank Carbon Finance Unit 2008). Through unsustainable agricultural practices and overgrazing by cattle, the natural resources in and surrounding the Park have been heavily degraded. Reforestation has been implemented on 2.600 hectares of land (The World Bank Carbon Finance Unit 2008), of which 1.000 hectares is used for commercial practices (FSC certified plantations); the remaining land is designated to be transferred into protected areas (Honduras this Week 2007). The project aims to assist small- scale farmers to introduce agro-forestry production techniques and presently employs already an amount of 185 local people that formerly lived in extreme poverty (The Ecologic Development Fund 2008). Hence, both environmental and social goals have been developed for implementation of the project; on one side the Park will generate a net growth in protected area coverage. On the other side, 20 villages in the Park buffer zone will share economic and social benefits; besides technical assistance for farming, these villages will benefit from sustainable forestry management training, establishment of sustainable livelihoods, and permanent sharing of profits for community investment (The World Bank Carbon Finance Unit 2008). As the Ecologic Development Fund puts it, active chpifp_g_hn i` fi][f j_ijf_ jimcncp_fs ch`fo_h]_m nb_g ni \_]ig_ ‚_``_]ncp_ _hpclihg_hn[f mn_q[l^m‛.

projects in degraded landscapes (The World Bank Carbon Finance Unit 2008). The success of the project has been attributed to the so-][ff_^ ‘\innig-oj’ [jjli[]b cn [jjfc_m. Ih nbcm [jjli[]b, fi][f ]iggohcnc_m [l_ []ncp_fs involved through their representation in the jlid_]n’m ]iljil[ncih, _hmol_^ \_h_`cnm `lig nb_ l_`il_mn[ncih jlid_]n through shareholding, employment opportunities, education and training (see Box 6). Another factor that is

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR mentioned to have contributed to the success of the project is the parallel co-implementation of one other forestry aimed project: the commercial and FSC certified plantation site. Income generated from this plantation is important in financing reforestation as well as realizing what is promised to the communities. Comparing this to the change processes defined for the case study in this research makes clear that the probable occurrence of impacts at Pico Bonito has been attempted to positively manipulate; change processes such as change in land-use rights have been consulted with locally involved people, and social as well as economic benefits have been directed towards the local sphere at the best possible.

One case on the other extreme is the highly criticised UWA-FACE forestry project at Mount Elgon in Eastern Uganda (box 7). Unlike the project in Honduras, this CDM initiative only marginally appreciated local needs through the offering of employment opportunities. The ecological goals of the project were given highest priority, often on the expense of local communities. The reforestation activities were joined by a broadening of the N[ncih[f P[le’m \ioh^[lc_m, qbc]b q[m []]igj[hc_^ \s pcif_hn _pc]ncihm i` _hncl_ pcff[a_m (m__ \ir 7); ch [^^cncih to this, communities were taken their rights to harvest natural resources within the jlid_]n’m \ioh^[lc_m, qbc]b resulted in a range of negative social (and cultural) impacts. Relating this example to the identified change processes for the

Box 7: the UWA-FACE carbon forestry initiative at Mount Elgon, Uganda

In 1994, the Uganda National Parks authority (currently the Uganda Wildlife Authority) initiated an agro-forestry project in Mount Elgon National Park, in agreement and collaboration with the Dutch FACE (Forests Absorbing Carbon-dioxide Emissions) foundation. The UWA-FACE project (as it was named) involved the planting of a two to three kilometres wide strip of trees inside the 211 kilometre long boundary of the Park. In the first phase of operation (1994-1997), the project restored 3.320 hectares in the Mount Elgon National Park. Up to 2002, 8.800 hectares were planted with trees, and another 16.200 hectares were planned to be planted. While management officials of the project claimed that the restoration activities brought forest regeneration and economic benefits to local people, a critical into-depth analysis by the Rainforest Movement showed that local communities only marginally benefited from employment opportunities. Moreover, the same analysis indicated that communities q_l_ qc^_fs ^iqhjf[s_^ \s nb_ jlid_]n’m cmplementation as new laws concerning land-use rights no longer allowed locals to collect their much-needed natural resources. Locals could no longer have their livestock graze at the sights they had gone for years, and some locals were even convicted from their lands in an aggressive way, as Lang and Bs[eif[ (2006) l_jiln: ‚Dolcha nb_ _pc]ncih, qbc]b q[m ][llc_^ ion qcnb nb_ b_fj i` nb_ Pifc]_ [h^ Ua[h^[ P_ijf_’m Defence Force (UPDF) soldiers, villagers lost most of their livestock and saw their wives and children beaten up and nilnol_^‛.

Source: (New Internationalist, 2006; Byakola and Lang, 2006)

B[pc[[hmefii` ][m_, cn \_]ig_m ]f_[l nb[n ‘]b[ha_m ch f[h^-om_ lcabnm’ [n UWA-FACE in Uganda have been implemented without consulting local communities, resulting in negative impacts on resource access, and initiating a spiral downwards to negative impacts on social and cultural land-uses. Consequently, as local people felt to be unjustified because of the top-down decisions, they started legal procedures and even decided to ^_fc\_l[n_fs _h]li[]b jlid_]n’m [l_[m ni a_n nb_cl go]b h__^_^ l_miol]_m (Byakola and Lang, 2006), this influencing the ecological success of the restoration objectives.

H_h]_, qb[n nb_ nqi ][m_ mno^c_m mbilnfs mbiq, cm nb[n \inb nb_ g[h[a_g_hn j_lmj_]ncp_ [h^ [ jlid_]n’m [jjli[]b toq[l^m fi][f j_ijf_’m h__^m ][h bcabfs ch`fo_h]_ nb_ jli]_mm niq[l^m \inb nb_ _]ifiac][f [h^ mi]c[f mo]]_mm i` [ restoration project. The Katoomba group and Forest Alliance (2006) []ehiqf_^a_m nbcm: ‚Forest carbon projects b[p_ nb_ jin_hnc[f ni […] ]ihnlc\on_ al_[n \_h_`cnm ni nb_ lol[f jiil [h^ \ci^cp_lmcns […] [\on may] also have the potential to impose great risks for local communities and for natural biodiversity. Such risks may be avoided by ][l_`of jlid_]n m_f_]ncih, ^_mcah [h^ cgjf_g_hn[ncih‛

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 9. Discussion______

9.1 Discussion of methods

This section discusses the insights that have been generated during fieldwork on the use of certain research methods as have been applied in this study.

9.1.1 The usefulness of participatory research methods

Participatory research methods are widely praised for their bottom-up approach as they incorporate local knowledge, involve local people in all stages of research (Calheiros et al. 2000), and provide for improved knowledge and information systems in natural resources management planning (Lynam et al. 2007). Several international institutions such as the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) have already widely applied participatory research methods. This especially in tropical natural resource-dependent communities in qbc]b ‚jip_lns, fcn_l[]s, f[hao[a_, ]ofnol_ [h^ []]_mm ][h [ff jim_ i\mn[]f_m ni _``_]ncp_ _ha[a_g_hn‛ (Lynam et al. 2007); [h _r[gjf_ cm CIFOR’m j[lnc]cj[nils f[h^m][j_ [mm_mmg_hn ch E[mn K[fcg[hn[h (Sheil et al. 2002). For natural resource-dependent inhabitants of such area, a participatory approach might be especially important, as nbim_ j_ijf_’m chpifp_g_hn ]iof^ \lcha [\ion fi][ffs cgportant variables that would otherwise not be considered. Moreover, possible recommendations that could result from participatory research could lead to more accurate policy decisions that would benefit in the local context (Calheiros et al. 2000).

Thus, in an ethical sense, the use of participatory methods would be justified as it allows a better understanding of, [h^ [^[jn[ncih niq[l^m, fi][f j_ijf_’m h__^m [h^ p[fo_m. Hiq_p_l, nb_ use of participatory methods in scientific research has received some critiques over the years as well. The Participatory Rural Appraisal method for instance l_]_cp_^ ]lcnc]cmg `il cnm jbcfimijbc][f [h^ nb_il_nc][f jl_^cf_]ncihm, ch qbc]b ‘]iggih _rj_lc_h]_m’ q_l_ jl_`_ll_^ ip_l nb_il_nc][f \[m_m, [h^ ‘jl[]nc]_’ q[m _gjb[mct_^ ip_l ‘g_n[jbsmc]m’ (Kapoor, 2002). This would lead to subjectivity in the form of assumptions on the side of the researcher, indicating a probability of bias in the research outcomes. When these research outcomes would consequently be used for decision making, it could raise serious legitimacy and justice issues (Kapoor, 2002). Lynam et al. (2007) mention to acknowledge the fact that it is difficult, if not nearly impossible, for researchers to be objective in participatory research that is aimed at an interest in outcomes.

Still, the use of participatory methods should be encouraged, especially in research that involves natural resources [h^ f[h^m][j_ g[h[a_g_hn ch [h [l_[ qb_l_ fi][f j_ijf_ ^cl_]nfs ^_j_h^ ih nb_ b_[fnb [h^ _rcmn_h]_ i` h[nol_’m _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m. Li][f j_ijf_’m chpifp_g_hn ch l_m_[l]b g_nbi^m [l_ gil_ fce_fs ni b_fj c^_hnc`scha jli\f_gm, preferences and other specific values; implementing tools of participatory methods in this study has definitely brought issues to the surface that would otherwise not have been unveiled. A clear example is the use of the Pebble Distribution Method and participatory mapping in order to identify socio-culturally valued locations: without the use of these tools, the significance of certain land-om_m [h^ f[h^ ]ip_l nsj_m ni fi][f j_ijf_’m mi]ci- cultural context would not have been identified during fieldwork for this study. While subjectivity might (unavoidably) have played a role in the set-up of research methods, and therefore in certain outcomes of this study, the use of participatory methods undoubtedly created a better sense of understanding than conventional methods would have achieved in the same case. Moreover, the participatory fieldwork practice seemed to gain higher acceptance and trust by local people, probably as they felt considered important because of their involvement.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

9.1.2 Mapping exercises: a viable tool in analysing impacts of land-use change

Spatial visualisation in the form of mapping exercises (through Participatory GIS) has proven its significance in determining the extent to which change processes and impacts might occur through STRP implementation in the western Baviaanskloof. The overlay maps of the STRP-sites and current land-uses in the research area (figures 8.3 and 8.4 in chapter 8) showed that probable restoration sites would or would not fully overlap with socio-culturally valued land-uses. As a result, a clearer picture concerning the probable extent of impacts could already be shown for some of the relevant socio-cultural values. This given indicates that, when evaluating probable impacts from an intervention that connects to land-use and land cover change, it is a viable effort to take a spatial point of view. Hence, GIS techniques and in specific Participatory GIS exercises should be encouraged in socio-cultural research, as they can provide for important social and cultural insights regarding projected land-use and land cover change.

9.1.3 SIA results are not necessarily a prediction

Having applied a specific list of social and cultural indicators to a (preliminary) social impact assessment (based on a procedure as described by Vanclay, 2002), this study concluded with a range of change processes and consequent socio-cultural impacts that could occur through STRP implementation. Several factors play a role in whether certain impacts will actually occur or not, this dependent on which social and ecological scenario will take place. Because of the fact that it remains difficult at this stage to determine which scenario will actually take place for STRP implementation, this study emphasizes that the identified probable impacts are not meant to predict what will happen. Rather, as the impact study in this study concerns a one-case scenario, it should be seen [m [ ‚q[s i` nbchecha‛ (Becker and Vanclay, 2003), as well as an attempt to highlight factors that deserve thorough attention and consideration at the planning for implementation.

9.2 Insights from results

9.2.1 Socio-cultural values are stakeholder specific

The assessment on socio-cultural values for habitant stakeholders in the western Baviaanskloof has proven a significant difference in what is important for, and appreciated, by white farmers and coloured communities. The fact that the social structure of both groups is relatively isolated from each other, together with the given that \inb aliojm’ mi]c[f mcno[ncihm, ]ofnol_m [h^ nl[^cncins highly differ, makes it understandable that not all socio- ]ofnol[f p[fo_m [l_ ]iggihfs mb[l_^ [gihamn nb_ nqi aliojm. O`n_h nbom, ^c``_l_hn m_nm i` ‘mi]ci-culturally valued _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m’ [jjfs ni ]iggohcnc_m [h^ `[lg_lm, [h^ nb_ []no[f mi]ci-cultural value itself is often differently perceived by both social groups as well.

Wbcf_ \inb `[lg_lm [h^ ]iggohcnc_m mb[l_ nb_ mcgcf[l mnliha ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ `__fcha [\ion fcpcha ch nb_ q_mn_lh Baviaanskloof, only the coloured communities express socio-cultural values for medicinal plant uses, spiritual uses of thicket or traditional resource uses. Then, only farmers mention socio-cultural valuation for scientific research, restorative effects of nature on their mental health, as well as that they emphasize a high valuation on indicators mo]b [m ‘\_h]b g[lecha `il l_miol]_ [p[cf[\cfcns’. Tb_ f[nn_l cm ]igjl_b_hmc\f_ [m `[lg_lm iqh f[la_ jlij_lnc_m with their family (in contrast to the communities) and make more intensive (agricultural) use of their land; enmolcha [ ]ihncho_^ [p[cf[\cfcns i` q[n_l `il nb_ g[chn_h[h]_ i` nb_ jlij_lns’m h[nol[f b_[fnb cm ch nbcm m_hm_ [ clear example of important bench marking. Hence, socio-cultural values are specific to different stakeholder groups, and, depending on how much into depth a socio-cultural research would go, could even be individual- specific. In order not to loose the overview on the research topic, this study decided to use a two-sided division into socio-cultural groups: the farmers on one hand, and communities on the other.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

9.2.2 Dc``_l_hn chn_ljl_n[ncihm i` ‘p[fo_’ f_[^ ni ^cp_lm_ ion]ig_m

What has become clear from the assessment of socio-cultural values in this research study, is that different chn_ljl_n[ncihm i` nb_ ]ih]_jn ‘p[fo_’ ][h jon ^c``_l_hn fcabnm ih j_ijf_’m mi]ci-cultural perspective. Whether in academic literature, socio-]ofnol[f [mj_]nm ][h \_ ìoh^ ch p[lciom chn_ljl_n[ncihm i` nb_ ]ih]_jn i` ‘p[fo_’ (_.a. ‘_rcmn_h]_ p[fo_’, ‘chnlchmc] p[fo_’: Gcfcjch 2000 ch Kog[l & Kog[l 2008), hi mj_]c`c] distinctions for the concept are given considering the socio-cultural dimension in context with perceptions on wellbeing. In the attempt of this study to apply perceived wellbeing where possible (from the eyes of the research population), it became clear nb[n domn ih_ chn_ljl_n[ncih i` nb_ ]ih]_jn i` ‘p[fo_’ qiof^ hin acp_ [ ]f_[l jc]nol_. P[l[al[jb 3.1.2 nb_l_ìl_ chnliô]_^ nqi ^c``_l_hn g_[hcham i` nb_ ]ih]_jn, nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_ p[fo_’ ih ih_ b[h^, [h^ nb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih p[fo_’ ih nb_ inb_l.

Incorporatina \inb nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_ p[fo_’ [h^ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih p[fo_’ ch [h[fsmcha nb_ l_mofnm, mig_ chn_l_mncha outcomes were generated that indicate the existence of different dimensions in socio-cultural valuation. While `il chmn[h]_ nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_ p[fo_’ qiof^ ch^c][n_ bcab il fiq mcahc`c][h]_ i` [ ]_ln[ch ‘ch^c][nil i` mi]ci-cultural p[fo_’, nb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih p[fo_’ qiof^ ch mig_ ][m_m ch^c][n_ [ p_ls ^c``_l_hn ion]ig_. Ih nb_ ]ihn_rn i` nbcm research study, this difference can be explained because of the fact that some socio-culturally valued (ecosystem service) indicators would initially be qualified as important, while the implementation of these indicators in jl[]nc]_ q[m j_l]_cp_^ [m [ ^cm[jjichng_hn. Ah _r[gjf_ cm nb_ ‘m]c_hnc`c] l_m_[l]b’ ch^c][nil: g[hs i` nbe farmers mentioned the importance of scientific research to ensure natural balance and improve their abilities to carry out effective bench marking for resources availability. However, some of these farmers additionally mentioned that scientific research outcomes up to that moment had never been communicated to them, which gives a negative ^cg_hmcih ni nb_ ch^c][nil. Ahinb_l _r[gjf_ cm nb_ ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’ i` nb_ ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m, qbc]b is seen as an important factor in their lives, while the practice is not that much appreciated (see paragraph 6.3.2). These examples both indicate that socio-cultural valuation, when using different dimensions as in this case study, is not always positive. Therefore, this case study shows that it can be of grean p[fo_ ni chp_mnca[n_ nb_ ‘_rj_lc_h]_m i` ]ofnol_ [h^ bifcmnc] ko[fcns i` fc`_ _hdis_^ \s ]ofnol_m’ (ch nb_ `ilg i` appreciation value) (adapted from Cocks, 2006; see also paragraph 2.3.2) in addition to a sole perspective towards the socio-cultural importance of specific resources.

9.2.3 Social factors are crucial in restoration planning

Regarding the example case studies as evaluated in paragraph 8.3.3, it has become clear that the probability of socio-cultural impacts to occur through an intervention (e.g. restoration implementation) highly depends on a jlid_]n’m g[h[a_g_hn j_lmj_]ncp_, [nncno^_m i` chpifp_^ ch^cpc^o[fm [h^ ila[hct[ncihm, l_mj_]n niq[l^m [ff involved and affected stakeholders, co-implemented interventions, and other social factors. The case studies have shown that it is of importance in restoration planning not just to take into

account success factors towards ecological success, but success factors towards Picture 9.1: the use of participatory scoring methods social success as well. Moreover, as the UWA-FACE case study indicated, during the fieldwork ecological success could even partly be determined by social factors; the procedure ‘mi]c[f’ [h^ ‘_]ifiac][f’ ^cg_hmcihm [l_ chn_lnqch_^.

9.3 General fieldwork matters

9.3.1 Putting PRA/RRA tools into practice: issues and impediments

The fieldwork of this research study has, for the use of participatory methods, been an explorative and experiential process. Prior to the fieldwork, a list of existing PRA/RRA tools was selected for application in this research study (see

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR their description paragraph 3.1.4), without actually being able to know which of those tools would work best in the particular local context in the research area in South Africa. Participatory research methods namely are more sensitive to the local context than conventional research methods, as their results depend more on what is said and done by the research population (actions based on reactions). Participatory methods consequently need specific application based on local contexts. As a result of this, try-out and adaptation or exclusion of the prior selected toolm q[m chcnc[ffs h__^_^ ni `ch^ nb_ \_mn gcr i` _``_]ncp_ niifm `il nbcm l_m_[l]b mno^s’m ]ihn_rn.

During the fieldwork process of this study, a best feasible mix of tools was chosen after a pilot period of testing of nqi ^[sm; ‘alioj ^cm]ommcih’ ch ]ig\ch[ncih qcnb nb_ ‘g[nlcr m]ilcha [h^ l[hecha’ (j_\\f_ ^cmnlc\oncih g_nbi^) q[m ^cm]ip_l_^ ni qile \_mn ìl nb_ fi][f ]ihn_rn (m__ jc]nol_ 9.1), [m q_ff [m nb_ ‘j[lnc]cj[nils g[jjcha’ ch ]ig\ch[ncih qcnb \inb nb_ ‘nl[hm_]n q[fem’ [h^ ‘g[nlcr m]ilcha [h^ l[hecha’. R_[mihm nb[n f_^ ni ]biimcha nb_m_ combinations of methods as the primary ones were, firstly and understandably, their applicability to the context; both methods proved their ability to be quite easily applied to (spatial) socio-cultural valuation of land-use and f[h^ ]ip_l. S_]ih^fs, fi][f j_ijf_’m l_[]ncihm ni nb_ jlijim_^ g_nbi^m q_l_ go]b gil_ _hnbomc[mnc] niq[l^m nb_ mentioned methods than to the other methods. Initiating with the pebble distribution method exercise in group ^cm]ommcihm b_fj_^ ‘\l_[echa nb_ c]_’ ch fi][f ]iggohcnc_m, [h^ `[]cfcn[n_^ ij_hcha îilm ni gil_ chni-depth group discussions. Thirdly, the operating procedure of the mentioned applied methods appeared to work the best for the people they were applied to; for the photography _r_l]cm_ nb[n q[m \[m_^ ih nb_ ‘nb_s î cn’ PRA/RRA method, the communities for instance mostly seemed to perceive the exercise as an opportunity to take pictures of themselves and their families. As a result of this, only a few of the many pictures were actually accompanied with useful comments indicating a socio-cultural perspective.

One major issue that this research study came across to in the use of participatory methods, is the fact that there do not exist commonly accepted operating procedures that show an overall sound theoretical background. According to Chambers (1994a), nbcm qiof^ \_ [h [^p[hn[a_ [m cn ‚_h]iol[a_m ]l_[ncpcns‛ ch nb_ om_ i` PRA/RRA methods. However, this actually makes it difficult to evaluate the use of these methods in practice, as there does not exist a thorough theoretically explored framework for reference. Sheil and Liswanti (2006) therefore state that the soundness and reliability of, for instance participatory scoring methods, is dependant on the experiential knowledge and methodological approach of the researcher. As the use of scoring and other participatory methods was applied in an experimental way in this research study, an existing study that showed experienced application of participatory methods was used as a source of reference22. This does not mean however that the validity of the outcomes is fully assured; as Nemarundwe and Richards (2002 in Sheil and Liswanti, 2006) state about scoring methods, understanding of the methods by participants can never be entirely guaranteed, as well as that numbers in scoring might imply inappropriate precision, and judgement scales might be distorted. This research study acknowledges this and realizes, also through its practical experience, that participatory research methods still need much technological and theoretical improvement. Until that happens, participatory methods still remain useful in that they help unveiling important issues concerning human well-being, which leads to possible important inputs to improving consultation and management (Sheil and Liswanti, 2006).

9.3.2 Procedural fieldwork matters

During the fieldwork process of this research study, several issues came across that require a mentioning in this study report. Issues concern specific stakeholder consultation, communication barriers, as well as procedural outcomes of the interviews held.

22 This concerns a report by CIFOR (Agung Sardjono et al. 2002)

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Regarding fieldwork practices in the coloured communities, a first barrier to research concerned the issue of language: as the majority of the inhabitant coloured people only spoke Afrikaans, it was difficult to verbally communicate with them in a direct way. Hence, their was a need to consult a translator for carrying out interviews and explaining the participatory (scoring and ranking) exercises. Because of this, the fieldwork procedure and the process of the interviews could not always be controlled; verifying the correct translation of that what was questioned or answered was difficult, and thus occasionally it would remain a question whether information acquired during interviews was based on correctly interpreted questions and answers. As a result, biased interpretation might have occurred between the researcher, the interviewed people and the translator.

Then also, the results of fieldwork done in the coloured communities are not fully representative for the entire coloured population in the western Baviaanskloof. This is firstly, because fieldwork for this research was (for political reasons) not allowed in a third coloured community in the research area: Coleskeplas. Especially because of the fact that there are slight cultural differences between this community and the other two communities (Coleskeplas is mainly Xhosa inhabited, while the other communities are mainly inhabited by coloured Afrikaans), the results of this research are only representative for part of the coloured inhabitants of the research area. Secondly, representativeness of the results derived from the coloured inhabitants needs careful consideration as only the inhabitants of the two communities Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek were interviewed. Coloured chb[\cn[hnm ih qbcn_ `[lg_lm’ jlij_lnc_m q_l_ hin chn_lpc_q_^ ^o_ ni jl[]nc][f fcgcn[ncihm (cgjl[]nc][f ^cmn[h]_m, time-related issues, and concessions/compromises for the integrated research planning). Thus, results from the interviews held with the coloured inhabitants can not be generalized over the entire coloured population of the research area, and are only applicable to the communities Sewefontein and Saaimanshoek.

For the white farming communities, the issue of language or representativeness of fieldwork results is not applicable as it is for the coloured communities. One aspect that does need mentioning though, is the outcome of the quantitative and qualitative interviews for the socio-cultural approach of this research study. As the semi- mnlo]nol_^ molp_sm q_l_ gimnfs _r_]on_^ qcnb nb_ g_h i` nb_ `[lg_lm’ biom_bif^m (i]][mcih[ffs ch jl_m_h]_ i` their wives), the quantitative results of this study show a certain bias towards the socio-cultural preferences of the men in the farming community. For this reason, this study attempted to emphasize the results derived from the qualitative research results and methods (including observations and informal unstructured interviewing of both `[lg_l `[gcfc_m’ g_h [h^ qig_h).

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

Chapter 10. Conclusions and recommendations______

Results as have been analysed in this research study have been drawn from an experiential fieldwork process in which different research and data collection methods were applied. Being an experimental use of the methodologies, this study came across to various insights and issues, which will be touched upon in the next sections. First, some insights as have been gained through the analysis of results will be clarified, after which the last section will go into depth on recommendations concerning this analysis, as well as the use of methodologies.

10.1 Socio-cultural values of thicket ecosystem services, and perceived wellbeing

Recalling the first research question of this study, ‘Wb[n mi]ci-cultural values are identified by the inhabitants and f[hîqh_lm ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`?’, several insights have been generated. As was argued in the discussion of this report, socio-cultural values are not just area specific, but even further specific to stakeholder groups, and if needed, even to stakeholder individuals. This study has, for feasibility and synoptic reasons, focussed on stakeholder group level, and has identified two major stakeholder groups amongst the inhabitants of western Baviaanskloof: the white farming community on one hand, and the coloured communities on the other. Overlapping as well as differing socio-cultural values were detected between these stakeholder groups, which can be attributed to the complexity of interweaving and diverting value systems and traditional social structures and ‘q[sm i` fc`_’ i` \inb aliojm. Cih]_lhcha nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ p[fo_, \inb qbcn_ `[lg_lm [h^ ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m mb[l_ nb_ m[g_ ‘m_hm_ i` jf[]_’ `__fcha i` nb_cl fcp_m ch nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` [m q_ff [m that comparable values are mb[l_^ ]ih]_lhcha nb_ ‘j_[]_ [h^ l_]ih]cfc[ncih’ ][n_ails. Oh nb_ f_p_f i` ch^cpcô[f ch^c][nilm qcnbch nb_ categories of socio-]ofnol[f p[fo_, `[lg_lm ih ih_ b[h^ _rjl_mm [ bcab_l cgjiln[h]_ ìl nb_ ‘m]c_hnc`c] l_m_[l]b’, ‘restil[ncp_ [h^ l_a_h_l[ncp_ _``_]nm’, [h^ ‘jl_m_h]_ i` m]_hc] ^lcp_m [h^ lion_m’ ch^c][nilm [gihamn inb_lm. Cifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m ih nb_ inb_l b[h^ l_a[l^ ch^c][nilm mo]b [m ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’, ‘nhe use of the natural system to cultivate crops (subsisn_h]_ `[lgcha)’ [h^ ‘mocn[\cfcns/][j[]cns i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni jlipc^_ b_[fnb m_lpc]_m’ i` bcab_l cgjiln[h]_’, qbc]b ch^c][n_m nb_cl bcab_l ^cl_]n mi]c[f ^_j_h^_h]_ ih h[nol[f l_miol]_m. Spatial visualisation of socio-culturally significant land covers and land-uses has given an extra dimension to the p[fo[ncih _r_l]cm_; ìl chmn[h]_, ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m mbiq_^ ‘]iggoh[f h[nol_ [l_[m’ ih nb_cl jlij_lnc_m, qbc]b [l_ cgjiln[hn [l_[m ìl nb_ ]iff_]ncih i` qii^_h l_miol]_m (nb_cl ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’). Farmers on the other hand showed most part of their properties was arranged for agricultural use, which is their number one daily activity of high economic importance.

Relating the first stage of socio-]ofnol[f p[fo[ncih, nb[n cm nb_ [mm_mmg_hn i` nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ p[fo_, ni nb_ m_]ih^ mn[a_, j_l]_cp_^ q_ff\_cha q[m chp_mnca[n_^ omcha nb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ p[fo_ [h^ mn[nom i` _rcmn_h]_ i` nb_ ch^c][nilm (and their connected natural resources). This analysis served to answer the second research question in this research study: ‘What is the perceived wellbeing of inhabitants and landowners in the western Baviaanskloof from the perspective of the socio-cultural dimension?’. H_h]_, l_f[ncihm \_nq__h nb_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ p[fo_ [h^ nb_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ p[fo_ q_l_ [mm_mm_^, which generated most particular insights on some of the indicators of socio- cultural value. For instance, some indicators were perceived as very important by stakeholder groups on the one hand, while they were negatively appreciated on the other hand; an er[gjf_ cm nb_ ‘nl[^cncih[f l_miol]_ om_’ ch^c][nil [gihamn nb_ ]ifiol_^ ]iggohcnc_m. Tb_ l_p_lm_ biq_p_l q[m hin i\m_lp_^: [ h_a[ncp_ ‘cgjiln[h]_’ p[fo[ncih qcnb [ jimcncp_ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ p[fo_. Fil gimn ch^c][nilm, [ jimcncp_ l_f[ncih q[m i\m_lp_^ \_nq__h ‘cgjiln[h]_’ [h^ ‘[jjl_]c[ncih’ p[fo_m, qbc]b ][h \_ [nnlc\on_^ ni nb_ `[]n nb[n g[hs mi]ci-cultural indicators do hin ^cl_]nfs l_`_l ni [ ‘^_j_h^cha-ih’ jlch]cjf_, \on [l_ gil_ mi ch^c][nilm `il qbc]b mn[e_bif^_lm b[p_ a_h_l[n_^ specific values because of the sole existence of the connected natural resources. An example is the indicator

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’: mj_]c`c] [jjl_]c[ncih `il nbcm ch^c][nil b[m ^_p_fij_^ \_][om_ i` cnm _rcmn_h]_, and is consequently valued as important as well.

10.2 Impacts of carbon marketing implementation on the socio-cultural dimension

Regarding the third research question, ‘qb[n [l_ nb_ jimmc\f_ cgj[]nm i` nb_ cgjf_g_hn[ncih i` ][l\ih g[le_ncha on the socio-cultural values and (perceived) wellbeing of the inb[\cn[hnm [h^ f[h^iqh_lm?’, this study used provided information on STRP (the restoration project) in combination with own analyses and existing case studies to arrive to a preliminary socio-cultural impact assessment. For the two stakeholder groups, possible impacts were defined based on three change processes that would likely occur in the first stage of restoration implementation (see table 6 for an overview).

Table 6: overview of change processes and their impacts on farmers & coloured communities Change process Socio-cultural impacts R_f[n_^ ‘ch^c][nilm’ [h^ ‘constituents of q_ff\_cha’ Farmers & communities: Farmers & communities: - partial loss in freedom to treat properties as - ‘Um_ i` h[nol[f msmn_g ni mojjiln fcp_m i` they choose livestock and wild animal species that can be Change in user rights - grazing restrictions lead to necessary reduction bohn_^ il `cmb_^’ in livestock numbers (and for some farmers: the game that is farmed) [``_]ncha ‘`__fcha q_ff’ [h^ ‘`l__^ig i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih’

Farmers: Farmers: + ^_p_fijg_hn i` ‘h_q’ nl[^cncih[f f[h^-uses +/- ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm ([]ncpcnc_m)’ which farmers are presently already applying + ‘h[nol_ _^o][ncih’ (e.g. tourism) - limiting/ stopping traditional farming activities Af`_]ncha ‘`__fcha q_ff’ Change in daily activities Coloured communities: Coloured communities: and land-use + new employment opportunities with and +/- ‘]ofnol[f nl[^cncihm ([]ncpcnc_m)’ educational element - jimmc\fs: ‘l_]ih]cfc[ncih \_nq__h mi]c[f [h^ - possible increased feelings of envy towards ]ofnol[f aliojm’ individuals that get (better) employment + ‘h[nol_ _^o][ncih’ opportunities - limiting/ stopping traditional farming activities A``_]ncha ‘`__fcha q_ff’ [h^ ‘mi]c[f l_f[ncihm’

Farmers: Farmers & communities: + possible increased interest in restoration/ Possible positive impacts for: conservation and care for ecosystem health + ‘][lcha `il ]iohnls’ + ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’ Coloured communities: + ‘]ihnchoiom mocn[\cfcns [h^ ][j[]cns i` nb_ + nb_ l_nolh i` nb_ [jjl_]c[n_^ ‚al__h‛ ch nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni g[chn[ch \ci^cp_lmcns’ Change from degraded western Baviaanskloof landscape to a The farmers: landscape in process of + ‘om_ i` h[nol_ [m gincp_ ch \iiem, `cfg, restoration j[chncha, gomc]’ + ‘om_ of nature in architecture, decoration, [^p_lncmcha _n].’ + ‘jl_m_h]_ i` m]_hc] ^lcp_m [h^ lion_m’

A``_]ncha ‘`__fcha q_ff’

A first change process, the change in land-use rights through the organisation of STRP, would bring restrictions of land-use to both farmers and coloured communities: especially grazing restrictions for livestock would require both stakeholder groups to reduce traditional farming activities and treat their land according to new regulations. This could consequently lead to a loss in nb_ ‘`l__^ig i` ]bic]_ [h^ []ncih’ (ih_ i` nb_ ‘]ihmncno_hnm i` q_ff\_cha’) [h^ ‘`__fcha q_ff’ (nb_ ‘b_[fnb’ ]ihmncno_hn) i` \inb `[lg_lm [h^ ]iggohcnc_m, [m nb_cl jl_pciom fc\_lns ch nb_ om_ i` their land would be partly restricted. Then, the second change process would involve changing the traditional land-uses and activities; both stakeholder groups would need to move towards a new activity, that is agro-forestry.

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

For the farmers, this could consequently mean a positive input towards the creation of a viable tourism business, which is an increasing economic opportunity on which farmers are currently already anticipating (to an increasing extent). They would however have to reduce their cherished traditional farming activities (livestock keeping), a fact which applies to the coloured communities as well. In addition, the communities could be positively impacted nblioab h_q _gjfisg_hn ijjilnohcnc_m, [h^ nb_ mecffm [h^ ‘f_[lhcha ìl nb_ ][l_ i` h[nol_’ _f_g_hnm nb_m_ employment opportunities would possibly brcha [fiha (jimcncp_fs cgj[]ncha nb_ ‘h[nol_ _ô][ncih’ ch^c][nil ìl instance). Finally, the third discussed change process included the biophysical change in land cover, that is the change from degraded landscapes to landscapes that are in the process of restoration. This change process could b[p_ jimcncp_ cgj[]nm ih _mj_]c[ffs ch^c][nilm mo]b [m ‘jbsmc][f [jj_[l[h]_ i` qcf^_lh_mm’ [h^ ‘][lcha ìl ]iohnls’, ]ihm_ko_hnfs f_[^cha ni ]l_[ncih [h^ òlnb_l ^_p_fijg_hn i` [ ]_ln[ch ‘_rcmn_h]_ p[fo_’ ip_l nb_ chîcator ‘]ihnchoiom mocn[\cfcns i` nb_ h[nol[f msmn_g ni g[chn[ch \ci^cp_lmcns’.

10.3 Recommendations

10.3.1 The use of particular research methodologies in socio-cultural assessments

This research study has applied a mix of participatory and other methods to collect data for analysis; as participatory research methods know advantages as well as disadvantages (see the discussion section in this report), it is valuable to always make additional use of conventional methods (e.g. surveying or qualitative interviewing). In order to make use of a combination of the best feasible and reliable research methods in a particular case, it is of crucial importance for any social research to consider a range of factors prior to choosing specific (participatory) methods. Those factors, as defined through experience in fieldwork of this study, should include amongst others:  the purpose of using specific methods and tools; do the chosen methods add significant value towards answering research questions?  scientific argumentation to support the use of methods; are the methods recognized in the academic field as being viable enough?  application of the methods; how should the methods be designed to fit the local context? In addition should be taken into account how practical circumstances could possibly influence the carrying out of the chosen methods?  choosing a best mix of methods; which of the selected research methods form a best mix together? It is best to choose a small group of main methods to be used and deselect the ones that give no specific added value in combination with other methods.  own prior experience in the use of methods; many participatory research tools (equal to, or even more than conventional research tools/methods) require experience and practice in order to carry them out efficiently and effectively (i.e. organizing focus group sessions) 10.3.2 Recommendations towards restoration implementation

Based on the socio-cultural analyses as presented in this study, this paragraph concludes with certain aspects that require attention when a restoration project (such as STRP) aims to strive towards both ecological and social success:

 Respect local values; taking into account what is important and appreciated by local communities helps understanding and cooperation between these local communities and other stakeholders involved in restoration activities. Existing case studies show that respect towards local values is ih_ i` nb_ e_sm niq[l^m [ jlid_]n’m mo]]_mm (m__ [fmi m_]ncih 8.3.3). Fil nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefiif, this would mean STRP planners and implementers should seriously consider the socio-cultural values as have been identified in the results section of this thesis. Spatial visualisation (as has also

‚Si]ci-]ofnol[f p[fo_m i` _]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m ch nb_ q_mn_lh B[pc[[hmefii`‛ K. J[hmm_h MS] nb_mcm, ESA Glioj W[a_hcha_h UR

been applied in this study in the form of participatory mapping) provides for valuable additional input in socio-cultural impacts analysis, and is therefore highly recommended.  Local involvement and participation; as has also been acknowledged by the Katoomba Group (2006), higher success of a project can be generated through strong participation of locals in the planning, design, implementation and monitoring of activities. In addition, local participation can possibly bring valuable local knowledge, being an important input in project planning and implementation. Hence, for STRP, the setting up of participatory development programs, as well as consultation planning (stakeholder meetings) for instance should be seriously considered as they would bring substantial added value towards making such project a success.  Equitable benefit sharing; mechanisms and management efforts that focus on equal (economic) benefit sharing amongst involved stakeholders can help towards avoiding that the rich-poor gap becomes bigger than it currently already is. For the western Baviaanskloof it does not only mean an equal sharing in monetary (profit) terms, but in other socio-economic terms such as employment. Opportunities for employment for the coloured communities should be equally divided amongst households and individuals to avoid jealousy and competitive behaviour, and to strive towards overall equality.  Ensure maintenance and improvement of livelihoods through well-coordinated organization of the restoration activity along with other socio-economic activities that go well with restoration. The case studies as explored in paragraph 8.3.3 indicated that the management quality of the project self and parallel projects or activities is crucial to a social success of a restoration initiative. For the western Baviaanskloof, a good coordination of upcoming tourism activities and maintained agricultural activities along with STRP implementation would probably help towards socio-economic success.  The provision of training, technical assistance and education for the involved stakeholders, not only to help towards the ecological side of implementation, but also to improve environmental knowledge and appreciation for the purpose of the project. This aspect has also been acknowledged by the Katoomba Group (2006) as an important aspect in restoration activities. For the farmers and communities in western Baviaanskloof, the objectives and goals as well as the process of STRP should clearly be communicated to them. Educational elements should be strongly developed in this matter as to increase the level of understanding about and towards STRP.

Hence, the ecological focus in restoration implementation should go along with specific social focus, as sole ecological success does not mean an overall success of a project. The mentioned aspects above could help envisage and plan the social process of restoration, of which the importance is being acknowledged by participants of the PRESENCE workshop (Earthcollective (eds), 2008): ‚S__cha iol [l_mnil[ncih] jlid_]n [m [ process will enable us to identify priorins []ncihm ch [ gil_ mnl[n_ac] q[s […]‛ (Earthcollective (eds), 2008).

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Annexes

Annexes A: background information on research context

Annex A1: Relations between study researches in the TAIF framework Annex A2: Different institutions involved in the subtropical thicket restoration

Annexes B: background information on conceptual framework

Annex B1: Ecosystem goods & services Annex B2: Typology of sociocultural values Annex B3: Ecosystem services and human wellbeing

Annexes C: background information on research methods & tools

Annex C1: Participatory Rural Appraisal Annex C2: Ecosystem services of Bapc[[hmefii`’m nbc]e_n \cig_ [jjfc_^ ch nbcm mno^s Annex C3: set-up of the questionnaires for the farmers

Annexes D: background information on collected data

Ahh_r D1: ]igjcf[ncih i` ko[fcn[ncp_ l_mofnm ^_lcp_^ `lig `[lg_l’m chn_lpc_qm Annex D2: compilation of results from qualitative interviews with coloured inhabitants Ahh_r D3: ion]ig_m i` n[\f_m ch `[lg_lm’ ko_mncihh[cl_ [m om_^ ch nb_ [h[fsmcm Annex D4: additional PDM results Annex D5: participatory mapping (sketching) exercises Annex D6: information on the Working for Water Programme Annex D7: thicket species and their cultural/traditional uses by coloured communities Annex D8: overview of socio-cultural valuation by farmers and coloured inhabitants of the western Baviaanskloof

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Annex A1: Relations between study researches in the TAIF framework

RemoteRemote SensingSensing && GeoGeo--InformationInformation SystemsSystems TransdisciplinaryTransdisciplinary AssessmentAssessment && ImplementationImplementation FrameworkFramework (TAIF)(TAIF)

Stakeholder and Expert Consultation

Monitoring, Management Effectiveness & Evaluation

Stakeholder and Expert Participation Decision Making Process & Implementation

Source: EarthCollective (2007b).

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Annex A2: Different institutions involved in the subtropical thicket restoration

Source: Noirtin (2008)

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Annex B1: Ecosystem goods & services

Source: de Groot (2002)

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Annex B2: Typology of sociocultural values

Source: Verschuuren (2005)

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Annex B3: Ecosystem services and human wellbeing

Source: MA, 2003

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Annex C1: Participatory Rural Appraisal

Below a list of common tools for PRA are listed; derived from Chambers (1994a)

 Secondary sources: such as tiles, reports, maps, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, articles and books;  Semi-structured interviews. This has been regarded as the “core” of good RRA (Grandstaff and Grandstaff, 1987). It can entail having a mental or written checklist, but being open-ended and following upon the unexpected. Increasingly it is using participatory visual as well as traditional verbal methods;  Key informants: enquiring who are the experts and seeking them out, sometimes through participatory social mapping;  Groups of various kinds (casual; specialist/focus; deliberately structured; community/ neighbourhood). Group interviews and activities are part of many of the methods;  Do-it-yourself: asking to be taught, being taught, and performing village tasks - transplanting, weeding, ploughing, field-levelling, mudding huts, drawing water, collecting wood, washing clothes, stitching, thatching. ;  They do it: villagers and village residents as investigators and researchers -women, poor people, school teachers, volunteers, students, farmers, village specialists. They do transects, observe, interview other villagers, analyse data, and present the results. This is a widespread element in PRA.  Participatory analysis of secondary sources. The most common form is the analysis of aerial photographs (often best at 1:SOOO) to identify soil types, land conditions, land tenure etc (Dewees 1989; Meams 1989; Sandford, 1989); satellite imagery has also been used (personal communication Sam Joseph);  Participatory mapping and modeling, in which local people use the ground, floor or paper to make social, demographic, health, natural resource (soils, trees and forests, water resources etc), service and opportunity, or farm maps, or construct three-dimensional models of their land (Hahn, 1991; Mascarenhas and Kumar 1991);  Transect walks - walking with or by local people through an area, observing, asking, listening, discussing, identifying different zones, soils, land uses, vegetation, crops, livestock, local and introduced technologies, etc; seeking problems, solutions and opportunities; and mapping and diagramming the zones, resources and findings (Mascarenhas, 1990); general types of transect walk include slope, combing, and loop. A seabottom transect has been conducted the Philippines (J. Mascarenhas, personal communication).  Time lines and trend and change analysis: chronologies of events, listing major remembered events in a village with approximate dates; people‟s accounts of the past, of how things close to them have changed, ecological histories, changes in land use and cropping patterns, changes in customs and practices, changes and trends in population, migration, fuels used, education, health, credit and the causes of changes and trends, often in a participatory mode with estimation of relative magnitudes;  Oral histories and ethno biographies: oral histories (Slim and Thompson, 1993), and local histories of, for example, a crop, an animal, a tree, a pest, a weed (Box, 1989);  Seasonal calendars - by major season or by month to show seasonal changes such as days and distribution of rain, amount of rain or soil moisture, crops, agricultural labor, nonagricultural labor, diet, food consumption, types of sickness, prices, animal fodder, fuel, migration, income, expenditure, debt, etc;  Daily time use analysis indicating relative amounts of time, degrees of drudgery etc of activities, sometimes indicating seasonal variations;  Livelihood analysis - stability, crises and coping, relative income, expenditure, credit and debt, multiple activities, often by month or season;  Participatory linkage diagramming - of linkages, flows, connections and causality;  Institutional or “Chapati” or Venn diagramming, identifying individuals and institutions important in and for a community, or within an organisation, and their relationships (for examples see Guijt and Pretty, 1992);  Well-being and wealth grouping and ranking, identifying groups or rankings of households according to wellbeing or wealth, including those considered poorest or worst off (Grandin, 1988; Swift and Umar, 1991; Mearns et al. 1992; RRA Notes, No. 15 passim); often leading to the identification of key indicators of well-being.  Analysis of difference, especially by gender, social group, wealth/poverty, occupation and age. Identifying differences between groups, including their problems and preferences (Welboum, 1991). This includes contrast comparisons - asking one group why another is different or does something different, and vice versa (Bilgi, 1992);

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Annex C1 continued

PRA Continued….

 Matrix scoring and ranking, especially using matrices and seeds to compare through scoring, for example different trees, or soils, or methods of soil and water conservation, or varieties of a crop (Drinkwater, 1993);  Estimates and quantification, often using local measures, judgements and materials such as seeds, pellets, fruits, stones or sticks as counters, sometimes combined with participatory maps and models, matrices, card sorting and other methods;  Key probes; questions which can lead direct to key issues such as - “What do you talk about when you are together?‟ “What new practices have you or others in this village experimented with in recent years. 7” “What vegetable, tree, crop, crop variety, type of animal, tool, equipment. Would you like to try out?” “What do you do when someone‟s hut or house burns down?“;  Stories, portraits and case studies such as a household history and profile, coping with a crisis, how a conflict was or was not resolved;  Team contracts and interactions – contracts drawn up by teams with agreed norms of behavior; modes of interaction within teams, including changing pairs, evening discussions, mutual criticism and help; how to behave in the field, etc. (The team may be just outsiders, or a joint team with villagers);  Presentation and analysis - where maps, models, diagrams, and findings are presented by local people, or by outsiders, and checked, corrected and discussed;  Sequences: the use of methods in sequence - for example participatory social mapping leading to the identification of key informants or analysts, or leading to the sequence: household lists - wealth or well-being ranking or grouping – focus groups - matrix scoring and preference ranking. Sequences of analyses by experts on different stages of a process (e.g., men on ploughing, women on transplanting and weeding. . . ) etc;  Participatory planning, budgetting, implementation and monitoring, in which local people prepare their own plans, budgets and schedules, take action, and monitor and evaluate progress;  Group discussions and brainstorming, by local people alone, by focus groups of local people, by local people and outsiders together, or by outsiders alone;  Short standard schedules or protocols either for very short and quick questionnaires, or to record data (e.g., census information from social mapping) in a standard and commensurable manner.  Report writing without delay, either in the field before returning to office or headquarters, or by one or more people who are designated in advance to do this immediately on completion of an RRA or of a sequence of PRA activities.

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Ahh_r C2: E]imsmn_g m_lpc]_m i` B[pc[[hmefii`’m nbc]e_n \cig_ [jjfc_^ ch nbcm mno^s

Services provided by the thicket biome Functions and services Ecosystem processes ecosystem in Baviaanskloof Production functions Food Edible plants & animals  Wild fruits  Natural vegetation as food for livestock  Natual system as a facilitator to cultivate crops Medicinal resources Variety in biochemical substances in natural  Medicinal plants biota  Restorative/regenerative effects  Decreased need for health care services Water supply Filtering, retention and storage of fresh  Provisioning of water for domestic water (aquifers) and agricultural uses Regulation functions Carbon sequestration (air quality) Role of ecosystems in biogeochemical cycles  Influence on climate (regulation of (e.g. carbon sequestration) CO2)  Role of the ecosystem in providing good air quality Habitat functions Refugium function Suitable living spaces for wild animals and  Maintenance of biodiversity (e.g. plants Portulacaria afra, willowmore cedar, or kudu and black rhino) Information functions Aesthetic information Attractive landscape features  Physical appearance of wilderness in Baviaanskloof  Presence of scenic drives and routes Recreation Variety in landscapes with (potential)  recreational uses Cultural heritage Variety in natural features with cultural value  Cultural landscape  Cultural traditions  Traditional resource use  Socio-culturally significant species  UNESCO world heritage listing Inspirational & expression Variety in natural features with artistic value  Use of nature in books, painting, etc.  Use of nature in architecture, advertising, etc. Spiritual/ religious value Variety in natural features with spiritual and  Presence of sacred sites/ features religious value  Oral tradition and stories  Traditional healing systems Science & education (knowledge) Variety in nature with scientific and  Knowledge about traditional healing educational value systems  Scientific research  Eco tourism/ nature education  Bench marking for ensuring resource availability Sense of place V[lc_ns ch h[nol[f `_[nol_m nb[n acp_ [ ‘m_hm_  Story lines, generational history i` jf[]_’ p[fo_  Cohesion of family, social or cultural groups  Caring for country Peace & reconciliation Variety in natural features that support  Boarder crossing resource sharing peace and reconciliation values  Reconciliation between social and cultural groups  Increased social integration

Source: adapted from de Groot (2002); Verschuuren (2007)

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Annex C3: set-up of the questionnaires for the farmers

Interview Code: ______Date of interview ______Interview location ______

Interviewee Personal and Farm Information

Interviewee Name – ______Property Name(s) – ______

1) Can you identify your property on this map? 2) How many years have you lived on this property? ______years 3) What is the size of your farm? _____ ha 4) Who owns the farm? ______5) How many years have you owned this property? _____years 6) How many generations has this property been in your family? ______generations 7) How many years have you been farming? ______years 8) How many hours do you work a week? ____ 9) How many workers do you employ? ____ 10) Does the bulk of your income derive from on-farm or off-farm activities? Does this include tourism? 11) Land uses (rank by largest area and amount of years)

11a) Amount of 11b) Number of years 11c) Economic 11d) Reasons for this hectares or rank by this land use has been importance (Rank: 1 land use (tradition, largest area (1 being used being the most passion, economy or the largest) important) advised/fashion side activity, other) 1-mohair production 2-sheep farming 3-Boer goats 4-Ostriches 5-cows 6-aloe production 7-medicinal plants 8-water catchments 9-game – eco-tourism 10-cropping (list types + amount produced-year, hectare):

11-Fuel wood

12-Other land uses ------Could you indicate on the map which zone is important for the mentioned land uses?

Livestock questions

12) What size of your property do you use for grazing?______ha 13) How long have you been keeping livestock? 14) In case you would not keep your livestock, what would you have in your farm? 15) Have you changed the number or type of livestock you were keeping in the last few years? If yes, why? 0- Yes, not profitable anymore 1- Yes, land degradation makes it impossible to produce 2- Yes, other reasons (specify) 3- no 16) Could your farm maintain a higher number of livestock? 0- Yes 1- No Annex C3 continued

17) What is the maximum number of animals that you consider you can have in your farm?_____ 114

18) In case your farm could maintain a higher number of cattle, would there be enough food available for them (without the necessity of extra supplementary food)? 19) Is there any plant species from the bushveld that are relevant to feed your livestock? 0- Yes 1- No 20) What percentage of close bush and open pasture is ideal for the development of your pasture? What is best for you cattle: open spaces with patches of bushes or a higher density of bushes in a field? 21) Do you use any bush veld plant as forage (plants that you dry and then feed the animals)? 0- Yes (specify bush veld plant species) 1- No 22) If yes, when do you recollect it? 23) if yes, for which animals do you use it? 24) Could you indicate in the next table in which month your livestock graze free (spss) in the farm and in which periods the cattle in introduced in a plot with fences?

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec (a) Mohair (b) Boer goats (c) Sheep (d) Ostrich (e) Other

25) (Big table given at the end to be completed later) 26) Do you cut and store the plant growth in those plots to use them for the animals in case of necessity (emergency feed)? 0-Yes 1- No 27) If yes, when is it necessary to use that resource? winter time for sheep cattle- whole year for ostriches 28) If yes, what quantity do you store? 29) Do you sell the forage/ fodder? 0- Yes 1- No 30) If yes, what quantity do you sell? ____kg 31) If yes, at what price do you sell the forage/ fodder?______rand/ kilo 32) Do you buy fodder for you cattle? 0- Yes 1- No 33) If yes, has there been any increase in the amount of fodder you buy for your cattle in the last 10 years and why? 0- Yes, increase in the number of cattle 1- Yes, less food available ------ more the necessity of extra food 2- Yes, productivity reasons to increase the growth/ size of your cattle 3- No 34) How many workers do you have working in the management of cattle?_____workers full-time 35) Could you indicate what is the cost/ hour-day per worker?______36) Do you need to hire extra workers for a specific period of the year like for example to shear? 0- Yes 1- No 37) If yes how many?____ 38) What is their salary per hour?_____

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Annex C3 continued

Socio-cultural questions 39) Which activities give you the feeling of fulfillment? Not at all Not really Neutral Quite some A lot of fulfillment fulfillment Family-based activities (a) Spending time with my family at my house (inside or in the garden) (b) Going on trips outside Baviaanskloof with my family (c) Doing activities with my family in Baviaanskloof (please specify activities) Individual activities (d) From my activities at the farm (please specify which activities) (e) Going for walks in my direct natural surroundings (f) Playing land-based sports (please specify) (g) Doing water-based sports (please specify) (h) Fishing (i) Hunting (j) Àdventure, off-road (quad) (k) Onb_l:…]s]fcha, …aif` NB: take care on how you ask these questions, start with how they enjoy their activities of farming, if they get fulfillment out of it; then ask about the time they have left to do other things, like spending time with family, etc ->and how they value it.

40) Could you indicate on the map which areas are important for the most important fulfilling activities you mentioned in the former question? (or indicate by mentioning a place name) 41) How often do you do the activities as mentioned in the table? 42) What are for you signs that your farmland is healthy? 43) Do you consider your farmland healthy at the moment? 0- Yes 1- No 44) Has farmland health changed over the years and if yes, how and why do you think that is? 0- Yes, negatively 1- Yes, positively 2- No 45) Have you experienced the situations as mentioned in the following table on your property over the pas few year?

(a) Increase of (b) Less growth (c) Less food (d) Less water (e) Hillside (f) Degraded soil floods of animals and available (plants) available erosion quality harvested products Positive negative

46) Have you received any information about how to control these phenomena and if yes, is it positive information? 0- Yes, positive info 1- Yes, negative info 2- No info 47) What are for you signs showing that nature/valley bushveld in Baviaanskloof is healthy (what shows you that it is healthy)?

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Annex C3 continued

48) For the next statements, indicate your level of agreement Totally Disagree to Neutral Agree to Totally agree disagree some extent some extent The valley bushveld: (and ask the same for the property) (a) helps me get rid of stress and fatigue (b) Is important to me because of its beauty (c) Is important to me because it allows me to enjoy recreation (d) Is important for my children to learn about nature (e) Provides me plants that I use for medicinal purposes (if yes, which and where do you find them?) (f) Contains plant species that are of special importance to me (if yes which and where do you find them?)

49) Do you do activities that involve art, music and/ or literature? 0- Yes 1- No 50) If yes, which are those activities?

Restoration/ conservation questions

51) What do you know about conservation/restoration activities in Baviaanskloof? 52) Wb[n ^i_m ‘]ihm_lp[ncih’ [h^ ‘l_mnil[ncih’ g_[h []]il^cha ni sio? 53) Have you heard about STRP? 0- Yes 1- No 54) If yes, What do you think about it? 55) Have you heard about STEP? 0- Yes 1- No 56) If yes, what do you think about it? 57) Do you think these activities or plans will influence you and your farm positively or negatively? 0- Yes, positively 1- Yes, negatively 2- No 58) In what ways/ what are your concerns?

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Annex C3 continued

59) Conservation/ Restoration Behaviour (10) yes Sort of no a) Have you removed any alien plants from your property in the last 2 years? 0 2 1 b) If yes, which plant species are those? c) If yes, why have you removed them? d) ….[h^ ^c^ cn chpifp_ _rnl[ ]imnm? 0 2 1 e)0 Have you undertaken any soil conservation or land rehabilitation measures for reducing 0 2 1 soil erosion in the last 2 years? e.g. filling dongas? In irrigated lands f) Have you undertaken any nature conservation activities to protect any areas in the last 2 0 2 1 years (e.g., surveys, restoration)? g) Have you planted any plants on your property in the last two years (spekboom)? 0 2 1 h) If so, what types of plants did you plant? i) Why did you choose these types of plants? j) Do you have any areas on your farm which you think would benefit from rehabilitation 0 2 1 work? (can you show them on the map?) slopes k) Would you ever consider rehabilitating these areas? If paid for it 0 2 1 l) Is it worth your while to rehabilitate these areas? 0 2 1 m) Have you undertaken any nature conservation activities for any animals in the last 2 years 0 2 1 (e.g., surveys, re-introductions)? leopards n) If bush encroachment is occurring on your property, do you actively attempt to manage it? 0 2 1 o) Do you run any ecotourism activities on your farm? 0 2 1 p) If so, what types of ecotourism activities do you run?

60) Attitude towards conservation/restoration of own property. Could you indicate the reasons for your answers? Strongly Neutral / Strongly Disagree Agree disagree unsure Agree 1) It is possible for me to consider conserving land that is 0 1 2 3 4 useful for agricultural production 2) Protecting intact areas of vegetation on my farm offers me 0 1 2 3 4 significant advantages 3) Restoring degraded areas of vegetation on my farm offers 0 1 2 3 4 me significant advantages 4) If my livelihood could be assured, I would reduce my production activities to undertake nature conservation and 0 1 2 3 4 restoration activities 2) useful for tourism and carbon market 3) add a value to my farm and gave me pleasure

Willingness to be involved in Nature Conservation/ restoration

61) Are you at the moment involved in any nature conservation or restoration program? 0- Yes leopards 1- No 2- Sometimes 62) Would you like to be involved in Nature Conservation/ Restoration action? 0- Yes 1- No 2- Maybe 63) What incentives would be useful in encouraging you to join a voluntary conservation agreement?

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Annex C3 continued

64) Indicate you interest in incentives in the following table:

Rank best Not at all Possibly Neutral / Very How interested would you be to receive each incentive? Interested incentive for you interested interested unsure interested a) Tax rebate 7 0 1 2 3 4 b) Rates rebate 0 1 2 3 4 c) Vegetation fencing subsidy 4 0 1 2 3 4 d) Soil erosion works subsidy 1 0 1 2 3 4 e) Financial payment (direct payment) 2 0 1 2 3 4 f) Targeted alien plant removal by Working for Water 5 0 1 2 3 4 g) Access to a support network of like-minded landowners 9 0 1 2 3 4 h) Signage for voluntary conservation agreement membership 0 1 2 3 4 i) Extension officer support 8 0 1 2 3 4 j) Access to scientific information and support 3 0 1 2 3 4 k) Access to eco-tourism support 6 0 1 2 3 4 l) Other 0 1 2 3 4 65) Concerning the table, could you rank the best incentive for you?

66) Indicate the level of agreement in the following table: Strongly Neutral / Strongly Disagree Agree disagree unsure Agree a) I qiof^ ]ihmc^_l l_^o]cha gs jli^o]ncih []ncpcnc_m (_p_h c` I q[mh’n i``_l_^ ch]_hncp_m qbc]b 0 1 2 3 4 offset my losses from reduced production b) I would consider reducing my production activities (e.g., stocking rates) if offered appropriate 0 1 2 3 4 incentives which offset my losses from reduced production

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Annex C3 continued

Only for persons in the meeting:

67) After the meeting with Mike, what are you impressions about replanting spekboom and about the carbon market? 68) Would you be prepared to replant spekboom and enter in the carbon market? 69) As Mike mentioned, to enter in the carbon market it is necessary to change land use, stop rearing cattle and leave the land free of grazing to allow spekboom to grow and then obtain the benefits derived from Carbon market. To what extent would you be willing to change your land use? 0- Stop completely the Livestock activities in the suitable areas 1- Plants plots isolated of grazing to assess how spekboom develops and after evaluate the possibilities of Carbon Market 2- Other 70) Do you consider that, apart from the benefits derived from Carbon Market, enter in the STRP project would have other positives or negative consequences? 0- Yes, positive consequences 1- Yes, negative consequences 2- Yes, both positive and negative consequences 3- No 71) If yes, could you indicate which ones are the positive and/or negative consequences? Good for tourism, good for the water table

Sn[e_bif^_lm’ l_f[ncihmbcjm

72) Which organizations/ kind of people have you already/ are you working with? 73) Which organizations/ kind of people would you worked with?

74) Collaboration Willingness Index (13)

Willing to work with Rate your willingness to work with each Agency them? [a_h]s sio [hmq_l_^ ‚Y_m‛ ni qile qcnb Not Very Very yes No Low Mod. High sure Low High A National: DWAF 0 2 1 Provincial / Local Government B Eastern Cape Parks Board 0 2 1 C Dept. Economic Affairs, 0 2 1 Environment & Tourism D Local Municipality 0 2 1 E District Municipality 0 2 1 f Gamtoos irrigation board 0 2 1 G Other 0 2 1 Non-Government Organisations H Wildlife & Environment Society of 0 2 1 South Africa I Botanical Society of South Africa 0 2 1 J Wilderness Foundation 0 2 1 K Project Management Unit (PMU) L Landmark Foundation 0 2 1 M Earth collective 0 2 1 N Other 0 2 1

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Annex C3 continued

Willing to work with Rate your willingness to work with each Agency them? agency you answered ‚Y_m‛ ni qile qcnb Not Very Very yes No Low Mod. High sure Low High Research Organisations O Agricultural Research Council 0 2 1 P Rhodes University 0 2 1 Q Nelson Mandela Metropolitan 0 2 1 University (formerly University of Port Elizabeth) R University of Fort hare 0 2 1 S Other 0 2 1

Private Organisations T Your Conservancy 0 2 1 u A neighbouring Conservancy 0 2 1 V Your Farmers Association 0 2 1 W A neighbouring Farmers Association 0 2 1 X Your Industry group (please name it) 0 2 1 Y Private consultant 0 2 1 Z Other (please specify) 0 2 1

75) How many times in 2006 did you receive support from an extension officer? Which agency / organization? Rating Agency(s) Quality of support 1 Never 2 One time 3 Two times 4 Three times 5 Four times 6 More than four times

76) Quality of support

0 1 2 3 4 5 No visit from Poor Satisfactory Reasonable Good Excellent extension staff

77) Local Networks Are you a member of any local farming / business organizations? 0- Yes 1- No 78) If yes, How often are you involved (on average) in activities with these organizations? 79) On this map could you describe your relationship with each of your neighbors, using the following categories:

1 2 3 4 5 No Reasonable Excellent Poor relationship Good relationship relationship relationship relationship

80) Who Are Your Local Champions? nobody 81) Do you hold any leadership positions in any local groups, e.g. Farmers Association, conservancy, industry group, or local sporting organisation?

Annex C3 continued

82) Can you identify any influential, well- Does this person hold any Contact details

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respected people in your community? leadership positions? 1 2 3 Can you rank these persons according to their influence (1 for the highest influence)?

Interviewee Personal Information

85) e-mail: ______86) Tel: ______87) Landowner gender: Female / Male 88) Age: ______89) Landowner race:

(White) (White) Xhosa Coloured Other English Afrikaans

90) What language do you primarily use at home?

English Afrikaans Xhosa Other 91) What language is primarily used with farm staff?

English Afrikaans Xhosa Other

92) Marital status Single Married Separated Widowed Other or (please specify) Divorced

93) Gender and ages of children: 1)______5)______2)______6)______3)______7)______4)______8)______

94) Level of education completed:

Diploma Post- Other Junior High Did some Full MSc PhD graduate (please specify) school school University degree degree degree diploma

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Annex D1: compilation of ko[fcn[ncp_ l_mofnm ^_lcp_^ `lig `[lg_l’m chn_lpc_qm

Boetie Terblanché Boetie and his wife are quite interested in the STRP project, but are critical about it as well; they wonder why all nb_ l_m_[l]b cm îh_ ih mj_e\iig, \_][om_ mj_e\iig î_mh’n q[hn no grow everywhere (not in the flat areas in the valley) and there are a lot of other thicket species that seem to be forgotten with the STRP. Moreover: how is STRP going to manage to plant huge amounts of land with all the spekboom? Where do they labourers come `lig, qbi j[sm nb_g [h^ qb[n [\ion nb_ m_[mih[f qile (a_n [ fin i` j_ijf_ ni î nb_ di\ ch [ mbiln ncg_) ‚I ][h’n q[cn 20 s_[lm…‛. An nb_ `clmn `[lg_lm g__ncha ch S_jn_g\_l Bi_nc_ q[m kocn_ m]_jnc][f [\ion mno^_hnm ]igcha ni chn_lpc_q bcg: ‚R_m_[l]b ]ig_m [h^ ai_m [h^ q_ mj_h^ [ fin i` ncg_ [hmq_lcha ko_mncihm \on q_ îh’n \_h_`cn `lig nb_ l_mofnm nb_s `ch^ ion‛. Lo]ecfs, Bi_nc_ q[m mncff jf_[m_^ ni g__n om ìl [h chn_lpc_q [h^ a[ch_^ mig_ gil_ confidence in us through time. Boetie mentions he would be prepared to take all livestock of the land if needed for projects such as STRP, but then it should be something that assures his livelihood. His wife mentions however that she would feel quite a pity if they would need to get rid of their cattle. They are really proud of their cows and cn qiof^ \_ m[^ ni ‚m_h^ nb_g ni nb_ \on]b_l‛. Oh_ a_nm om_^ ni nb_ []ncpcnc_m ih nb_ `[lg; sio a_n [nn[]b_^ ni siol [hcg[fm [h^ \ocf^ [ l_f[ncihmbcj qcnb siol `[lgcha []ncpcns. Bi_nc_’m qc`_ [fmi g_hncihm ni i]][mcih[ffs ]ook for their labourers, and provide them with tea and coffee. About STRP she mentions that she would regret to b[pcha ni acp_ oj nb_cl fcp_mni]e; ‚Bon, c` q_ h__^ ni a_n lc^ i` iol [hcg[fm, q_ qcff…‛ Ih 1995, nb_s mn[ln_^ niolcmg; it was an opportunity whc]b [lim_ [m [ h_]_mm[ls _]ihigc] mc^_ []ncpcns h_rn ni nb_cl `[lgcha. Tb_s \ocfn ‘][p_’ accommodation which at the present provides them 60% of their income. Boetie shows us around on his farm, showing the cave accommodations which are mostly on the hilly side of his property; he mentions he likes to go nb_l_ \_][om_ h[nol_ fiiem [n cnm \_mn nb_l_. Bi_nc_’m qc`_ g_hncihm nb[n qcnb nb_ niolcmg nb_cl mi]c[f fc`_ ]b[ha_m and they need to adapt to the new situation. It is a busy life and on one hand it is nice to get to know/interact with niolcmnm, ih nb_ inb_l b[h^ sio îh’n a_n ni î nb_ nbcham [m go]b [m sio qiof^ q[hn ni (Bi_nc_m qc`_ fce_m ni qile ch nb_ a[l^_h [h^ mb_ fce_m a_ifias, j[chncha [h^ inb_l ]l_[ncp_ []ncpcnc_m). ‚F[lgcha cm [ q[s i` fcpcha, q_ love it hin ni \_ l_mjihmc\f_ ìl inb_l j_ijf_’m di\m…‛. F[lg_lm ch B[pc[[hmefii` ^_j_h^ ih _[]b inb_l \_][om_ nb_s [l_ mi cmif[n_^ [h^ mo]b [ ‚mg[ff ]iggohcns ih cnm iqh‛.

David Smith David mentions his family has a long history in the Baviaanskloof, and he would never want to move elsewhere. Dcm[^p[hn[a_m D[pc^ g_hncihm [\ion fcpcha ch nb_ B[pc[[hmefii` cm nb[n bcm ]bcf^l_h îh’n a_n go]b ijjilnohcns ni chn_l[]n qcnb inb_l ]bcf^l_h (nbcm cm qbs nb_s [l_ hin om_^ ni mb[l_ nb_ nism). D[pc^ ^c^h’n ehiq \_ìre that biodiversity in Baviaanskloof was so special, he is proud that it is internationally recognized now. About restoration/ conservation, David mentions that it concerns management. Management can have impact on ]_ln[ch nbcham. Cihm_lp[ncih: ‚mig_ j_ijle think that they have to leave an area without doing anything in it to ]ihm_lp_ cn, \on I îh n [al__. I nbche q_ b[p_ ni g[h[a_ cn.‛ A\ion STRP: ‚][h qile‛; \caa_mn jli\f_g: ‚biq ni a_n nb_ gih_s?‛, ‚qcff cn qile‛. Cihm_lp[ncih/ l_mnil[ncih g_[mol_m D[pid has been taking previously: stones from fields are picked up and put in eroded areas. Other stones are put to maintain the boarder of the river, in eroded places (keep the water in the bed). In free time, David likes to hunt (with tourists) on his game farming property, and on occasions he takes his family for camping at smitskraal (in Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve area).

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Kris Lamprecht When visiting Kris we find him playing cards with some of his labourers; Kris introduced us into his activities on his farm, the main activity being the keeping of ostriches; he showed us the whole process of the development of the chick ostriches in the eggs. The farm union exists to be able to speak together as one voice to stakeholders (Kris is chair person). There are 16 farmers and 70 owners that are member of the union (from the 70 owners, part concerns community farms). - For the farms, erosion is a serious problem, especially in the dry season - With ECPB, there exists a conflict with the re-introduction of rhinos - There are plans to extend Baviaanskloof farmer union to Patensie - 40 `[lg_lm qcnbch B[pc[[hmefii` [l_ ehiqh [m ‘bcjjc_m’ - Leopards are a big issue for sheep in Baviaanskloof, but farmers have agreed not to put traps anymore to conserve the leopard; compensation is being given to farmers when the leopard problem is really bad - Green label meat - Boer Smits: leopard tracking/catching - ECPB î_mh’n l_[ffs qile qcnb nb_ `[lg_lm ih f_ij[l^ cmmo_m _n]. nb_s qiof^ fce_ ni a_n mojjiln ìl sheep collars to protect them from leopards P_ijf_ [l_ chn_l_mn_^ ch nb_ mj_e\iig ijncihm \on îh’n ehiq go]b [\ion cn s_n. One major problem Kris mentions is that the river is growing to be deeper.

Thijs Cilliers Thys left most of the land for Private nature reserve (PNR); only 50 ha are dedicated for agricultural activities. Aalc]ofnol[f []ncpcnc_m g_[h 30% i` Tbsm’m ch]ig_. Niq[^[sm, b_ m_ffm [lioh^ 150-200 lambs per year, but he would like to increase the number to 500 lambs. According to Thys, indicators of unhealthy farm are erosion (qbc]b [fmi [jj_[lm [n mig_ j[lnm i` bcm `[lg [h^ b_ ^i_mh’n b[p_ `ch[h]c[f ][j[]cns ni mifp_ cn \s bcgm_f`) [h^ overgrazing. Besides the agricultural activities, Thys is working in tourism, 1200 ha of his property are dedicated for tourism activities. He has luxuruous accommodation in 6 stone houses. Furthermore, he has built a main building with kitchen and fire place and swimming pool with view to valley. According to Thys, tourists come to the area of Baviaanskloof because of its wilderness, quiet and peace. Furthermore, it is not area of malaria and also quite safe area (which was also mentioned by Willie). Thys would like to have his property incorporated to the nature reserve; he deals with Wayne and has contacts with ECPB. Thys also collaborates with Wilderness Foundation and local municipality. He perceives himself as conservationist. Regarding to restoration measures he has taken, in the flat areas which used to be used as fields, he took away the remaining wheat and seed indigenous grasses. According to Thys, the biggest damage is caused by overgrazing with goats and by neighbouring farmers who are not following the carrying capacity of the land. In fact, there are no restrictions if the carrying capacity is exceeded. Thys is keen to restore, but also sceptical about ][l\ih m_ko_mnl[ncih, b_ ^i_mh’n m__ chmncnoncih[f ][j[]cns [h^ qcffchah_mm. H_ qcff l_mnil_ nb_ ip_lal[t_^ [l_[m \s himself. He is also concerned about the fact, that after all, researches are forgotten and nobody is implementing the results of researches. Therefore, he is also sceptical about our research. He wants to see results! According to Thys, there has been already 10 years of talking about carbon sequestration, but any project has not been implemented yet. Thys recommended developing of pilot carbon sequestration project to persuade everybody and give evidence that this mechanism works. Thys does not know about STRP. At his farm, there are some parts which look better; on the other hand, it is difficult to see visible improvements of nature because the restoration period is too short (five years since he bought the farm). He feels that not so many areas at his farm need restoration, but from our point of view, many areas do demand restoration. He perceives waste management as serious problem in the area of Baviaanskloof.

Pieter Kruger

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Until 1997 the only activity included farming, and then Pieter started to change his use of land. Other activities he started to do next to farming included: - construction: building houses - tourism accommodation (from 1985) - restoration activities from land damaged by grazing animals (mohair goats); he had decided to stop with goat farming as they were damaging the bushveld (thicket) too much. Especially tourism is a growing market, the past 5 years visitor numbers have increased significantly. They have accommodation but also take tourists for hikes and game viewing (Pieter mentions he is not very fond of the quad biking, he always tells tourists to go to Chris if they want to do that). Pieter says that tourism is a good opportunity to adapt to something new (growing tourism industry but he also refers to the need for land use changes); since l_]_hnfs Pc_n_l b[m mn[ln_^ [ j[lnh_lmbcj qcnb ‘L_a_h^ fiâ_m’. Hcm \omch_mm ][l^ mbiqm nb_ jc]nol_ i` [ f_ij[l^ in nature. Sometimes Pieter reduces numbers of livestock for a certain period of time as land needs to be left for a while to recover. He also mentions that it is of importance to investigate how the natural system works so that farmers can adapt to a more sustainable way of landuse. About water and restoration: The natural flow of water in the area finds its way down from canyons in the mountains, at the foot of those mountains water spreads over an area in the valley, so called floodplains. These floodplains are what farmers are interested in as the water captured there can be used for irrigation of their farm f[h^m. Tb[n cm _r[]nfs qbs ch nb_ ‘70m `[lg_lm \ocfn mo\mc^ct_^ `[lliqm ni ][jnol_ nb_ q[n_l \_ìl_ _hn_lcha nb_ floodplains. A problem arising from that is that water will not be naturally cleaned by the floodplains; salt remains in the water and ends up in the main water stream. Farmers are still using this system now and -according to Pieter- they should change this by removing the farrows and allow the water to stream in its traditional way through floodplains again. Subsidies should be made available to support them and Pieter has been spending ]ihmc^_l[\f_ ncg_ [h^ _`ìln ch qlcncha f_nn_lm i` [jjfc][ncih ìl mo\mc^c_m (biq_p_l b_ b[mh’n mo]]__êd in getting any subsidies yet). Pieter was the first farmer in the area to notice and to suffer from these problems with water as he is the last farmer downstream; past years Pieter has been busy convincing his neighbours to remove the farrows, and some i` nb_g [l_ ch jli]_mm i` \_cha l_gip_^ [fl_[^s. Rcabn hiq, nb_ ][llscha ][j[]cns i` Pc_n_l’m land is higher than 10 years ago because of restored land; he mentions that aerial pictures and growth of spekboom are important indicators for restoration. Restol[ncih ni Pc_n_l g_[hm: ‚ni nls [h^ a_n siol _]imsmn_g [m cn q[m ch [ b_[fnbs mn[n_ qb_l_ cn ][h fcp_ [h^ fiie [`n_l cnm_f` qcnbion bog[h chn_lp_hcha‛. Rcabn hiq nb_l_ [l_ hi ch]_hncp_m ìl l_mnil[ncih, nbcm e__jm `[lg_lm \[]e [m nb_s îh’n m__ _]ihigc][f benefits from it, they need income assurance. In 1991 he started with ecosystem management, possibilities for Payment for Ecological Services would \_ cgjiln[hn. ‚I [g [ ]ihm_lp[ncihcmn gsm_f` mi cn cm j_lmih[f jf_[mol_ ni l_mnil_, hin _]ihigc]‛. During tb_ ’87 – ’91 j_lci^ nb_l_ q[m [ boa_ ^lioabn, eoô’m mn[ln_^ ni gcal[n_ ni nb_ [l_[, \_ìl_ nb[n ncg_ nb_s were not in Baviaanskloof. Pieter mentions he especially enjoys the moving of sheep over his land as he can overlook the whole area; also, he often walks around, learns form plants with children, does horseback riding and enjoys to see everything green. Pc_n_l’m qc`_ j[chnm, [h^ \inb b[p_ \__h ^cm]ommcha nb_ qlcncha i` [ \iie [\ion B[pc[[hmefii`. Tb_s chmn[ff_^ _f_]nlc]cns ch nb_cl f[\iol_lm’ biom_m. There is a huge global market emerging, we should feel fortunate to have the opportunity to help the carbon problem.

René van Rensburg: Farming has been an activity in all of his life, he enjoys it. In his free time he sometimes goes to Geelhoutbos for example. It is an ‚_rnl[ p[fo_ `il ]bcf^l_h‛ ni [jjl_]c[n_ h[nol_. Um_^ ni ai ni g[e_ ][gjcha ch nb_ p_f^.

Quintis Bezuidenhout Quintis used to do vegetable farming but he quit it three years ago as it was not a suitable farming activity for this area (the lcmem q_l_ nii bcab [h^ nb_ m__^ jli^o]ncih q[m hin l_fc[\f_); ‚niolcmg cm [ fin _[mc_l‛. B_`il_ b_ gip_^

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to Baviaanskloof Quintis used to work at a seed company at Markiesfontein; they decided to move to B[pc[[hmefii` [m nb_s nbioabn cn qiof^ \_ ‚[ jlcpcf_a_^ ijjilnohcns ni fcp_ ch mo]b [ \_[oncòf [l_[‛. Qochncm’ qc`_ cm [nn[]b_^ ni nb_ [l_[’m \ci^cp_lmcns [h^ ^_^c][n_m mig_ i` b_l ncg_ ni f_[lh [\ion nb_ [l_[’m h[ncp_ jf[hnm (‘nbcm cm [fmi h_]_mm[ls ìl niolcmg’). Qochncm hiq b[m 500 b_[^m i` mg[ff mni]e, which according to him is the maximum the [l_[ ][h b[h^f_, ‚sio îh’n q[hn ni g_mm oj siol `c_f^‛. Tb_s îh’n om_ nb_ `c_f^ ìl al[tcha [m cn cm nii ^[ha_liom taking into account the predators in the area. Last year Quintis sold 150 sheep to put money in shares. Quintis has sheep, and sometimes ostriches, and is planning to go into the bee-business (for honey and pollination services); every year for about 2/3 months the livestock grazes free in an area of 800 hectares, the 600 hectares which is on top of the mountain have not been used for 6 years but might be used in the future (it was not used because water needs to be pumped all the way up there). At this moment Quintis is not farming with ostriches, the income from that business is the highest, but the risks are also high (ostriches need a lot of care and are very vulnerable, plus prices for maize for feeding them are really high at the moment). If tourism gets big in the future in Baviaanskloof, Quintis might decide to change his economic activity into tourism. For the near future, Quintis is thinking about increasing his amount of sheep to 300 as there tends to become a shortage in meat for the world cup. For the tourism, Quintis wife is responsible; she sets the prices per night (which now is at 120 rand per person per night for the guesthouse and 40 rand per person per night for the campsite). There are about 200 tourists per year for the campsite, and the same amount for the guesthouse. Quintis and his wife both mention that it is great to be able and live in such a beautiful area, for the children it is also a great experience as they can play around; sometimes when the children are at home and family is visiting they go up their mountain to have a braai or picknick (Quintis showed us around up the mountain in his bakkie, it is obvious that no agricultural activity has occurred there for a long time as it looks very much less degraded). The only disadvantage of living in Baviaanskloof is that they are so isolated from everything; the children will have to go to boarding school and will only come home in the weekends. Two years ago, sewefontein community asked Quintis to come help him with management of their farm, but Quintis was too busy getting his own farm up and running that he had to deny the request. Problems in Baviaanskloof: there is the problem of soil erosion; the kloof (canyon) seems to come down. Port Elizabeth is hammering about water and is checking the farmers on their use of water. Being a proud partner of Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve means that you agree to go with the project, you agree that ECPBm []ncpcnc_m [l_ [flcabn. Tiolcmnm m__g ni fce_ nb_ ECPB [l_[’m gimnfs. R_mnil[ncih: STRP m__gm ni \_ ‚[ fiha n_lg pc[\f_ nbcha, p_ls aii^ c^_[, mo]b [ ]f_p_l jf[h, cn cm _r]_ff_hn ni b_fj companc_m l_ô]_ _gcmmcihm‛ Quintis wife knows to tell about alien plants in the area: these are blackwattle, hackia and Port Jackson. In their garden, they only have (alien) eucalyptus; she mentions she would love to learn about all the plants. In free time, Quintis mentions to work with tourists in the Baviaanskloof, enjoy nature with friends+family (go ojbcff ni b[p_ jc]ehc]em il \l[[c), b_ _hdism bcecha qcnb niolcmnm, ai `cmbcha qcnb Wcffc_ [n biom_ ch J_``l_s’m B[s (3 months of year (jun/jul/aug). There are Koô’m ih iqh jlij_lns; nbioab b_ cm hin [ `[h i` bohncha jl[]nc]_m, b_ does like the nice free meet.

Willie van Rensburg H[m [ h_q []ncpcns mch]_ nbcm s_[l: \ocf^cha biom_m ch J_``l_s’m \[s. H[m hin mn[ln_^ s_n nb_ niolcmg []ncpcns, \on qcff do it in the future (wants to have 4x4 routes on the property). Likes farming here, but difficult for children who have to go to boarding school during the week, it is far from shops, school; Children like also to live here. Baviaanskloof is a difficult area to farm- difficult to survive with only farming. Baviaanskloof is good for children to enjoy the wilderness and learn how to do things by themselves. ‚j_ijf_ m[s nb[n `[lg_lm ^_mnlis nb_ f[h^, \on c` q_ b[^ ^_mnlis_^ cn, cn qiof^ hin \_ qb[n cn cm hiq‛ `[lg_lm ^i not misuse the land but take care of it, according to Willie. The river system is in a bad state- It will cost money to repair it. He is concerned by the problem of management in the pas, with the alteration of the river streams. This management has made the river go deep. He mentioned to

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leave the water take its natural way back (break the little dams constructed to change the river bed) to make the flat area like wetlands again (a flood-plain- a delta). He thinks it is special that Baviaanskloof is a heritage site now, he never realized that nature here was so special. In free time Willie mentions to join picnics in the reserve once in a while, with family and friends.

Chnuganoo community farm Lois is around 60 or 70 years old, and has lived in the area all her life, she used to do perm culture, now she is an artist (painter) and astrologist (by mail); her husband makes mats and sells them on the market. Greta is originally from the Czech Republic and has lived in Baviaanskloof for 10 years now. For the rest, there are 6 more people living on the property who are all Afrikaans. The property compromises 650 hectares and is owned by long- ij_l[ncp_ nlomnm, qbc]b ^ih’n b[p_ [hs ]ihn[]nm qcnb nb_ 8 j_ijf_ fcpcha ih nb_ [l_[. Am mig_ b[p_ fcp_^ ih nb_ property fol 5 s_[lm hiq, nb_s b[p_ \_]ig_ ‘f_a[f mko[nn_lm’ [h^ nbom b[p_ [ f_a[f lcabn ni fcp_ ih nb_ jlij_lns. People that donate an amount of 10.000 Rand to the area are allowed to live there; the main focus of the people living on the property is to maintain their own livelihoods by growing their own crops. Every individual on the property has their own lives; they build their own houses and have their own vegetable gardens. Tyrell and Kermit are the persons that are growing native plants and trees in a nursery to plant them in areas on their property that need restoration. Now, the property has been without overgrazing for 18 years, dongas (holes in the soil) are decreasing now, little spekbooms are growing now and grewia even grows again. They have offered Matthew from PMU to do restoration work on their land but there is not anything done (they even offered to do alien plant removal themselves but got no support so they lost faith in organizations and institutions). The Wilderness Foundation is not able to sort everything out with them because there is the problem of ownership of the jlij_lns; ch nb_ g_[hncg_, hinbcha cm ^ih_ ch nb_ [l_[…. qbc]b cm `lomnl[ncha. Charity trustee: the farm is not supposed to make any profit, so if any profit is accidentally made then this should go into charity (community work e.g.). Water is a problem in the area, though the water supply to their farm is good, they have the water fountain from Sewefontein which they can use for 2 days every 20 days (Thijs uses it 8 days, then Sewefontein 10 days).

Farmers association meeting December 2007 More formal than other meetings, with guests (e.g. delegates from Dutch ministry of agriculture) and guest speakers (e.g. Landmark foundation); long discussions about the leopard programme indican_^ nb_ `[lg_lm’ willingness to join the programme, however there are some minor issues (one farmer after the meeting mentioned the importance of the leopard programme as it helps keep nature the way it should be with all the animals that naturally belong there). After the meeting there was the traditional braai, all farmers brought meat and everyone was invited to the barbeque.

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Annex D2: compilation of results from qualitative interviews with coloured inhabitants

Interviewee: Walter (farmer consultant at Sewefontein Community Farm) Walter is a young white farmer who functions as a consultant for the community farm Sewefontein. This farm has been a community farm for 6 years, before that it as a farm owned by white farmer. The community struggled with legal authorities to get the farm in their possession, in which they eventually succeeded. At this moment there are 75 legal owners of the land, some of the owners live and work on other farms in the area, and 20 families live on the farm property. There exists a trust of 12 people, which are chosen to make sure that all the beneficiaries get their benefits on the farm. Walter explains us that he has been managing/advising the farm for 2 years now, and the recently built business plan will determine whether he will get a new contract for the coming years. The business plan will be assessed by authorities, and if they decide it is viable the community will have a higher chance to receive support. As there are many old people on the farm who cannot work, there is a problem to get enough workers for nb_ f[h^. Ahinb_l jli\f_g m__gm ni \_ j_ijf_’m g_hn[fcns: [m nb_s [l_ hin om_^ ni iqh [ `[lg, nb_s îh’n oh^_lmn[h^ nb[n nb_s mbiof^ qile qcnbion l_]_cpcha [ `cr_^ m[f[ls; [fmi, nb_s îh’n oh^_lmn[h^ nb[n qb_h iqhcha their own farm, work will go on in the weekends. At the moment, there are 5 workers for the farm but there is no money in the trust to pay them so they complain about not getting salaries. The community has 500 goats, 200 sheep and 40 hectares planted with lucern (= alfalfa, food for sheep). Tb_ `[lg ]ihn[chm 150 b_]n[l_m i` [l[\f_ f[h^, ihfs nb_ f[]e i` mocn[\f_ msmn_gm [h^ f[]e i` g[hjiq_l î_mh’n allow an optimal use of the land. The farm however is blessed with fountains that pump 50.000 liters/an hour; the community shares this source of water with two other farms, and every 20 days they can use the water 10 days. People at Sewefontein really enjoy their goats, they love the meat (less fat than sheep meat) and buying goat meat on the market is really expensive; they know that goats overgraze the veld, 1000 goats would eat the whole veld, but livelihood depends on them and the sheep. The government gave 700.000 Rand for fencing, so they have divided land into 4 camps in which they have the livestock graze in each camp for a specific time. The reason why they like goats better than sheep is because goats have a higher monetary value and they are tougher animals than sheep (survive better because they eat everything). Government supports the communities in some things; they gave them 1500 Rand support to buy the farm, they give 7000 Rand for each leopard they catch and they give books and food for children to go to school. Young people that are able to find jobs go to the city. There is 10 hectares of land on which the trustees (all 75 of them) have their parts to produce their own vegetables; also, there is an organic garden.

General info from informal community interviews What community grow in their private gardens: - medicinal plants such as kattekruid, mint, groen amara - occasionally banana trees and lemon trees - flowers such as geraniums and roses, not always indigenous species (seeds obtained from Babes shop in Sewefontein)

Annex D2 continued

Sewefontein: - +/- 20 families living on the property - 75 shareholders all spread over Baviaanskloof

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- there is running water for every house - no electricity - biological toilets - one public phone near the road (no phone lines in the community because it is private property and the people would need to pay for the lines) - most houses are made of blouboswood, riet, bamboo and clay. - once a year there is a meeting for the whole community Saaimanshoek: - +/- 40 families - on average 6 people in one household - no running water in the houses expect in the church (teacher) houses - since approximately 6 years there is electricity - church leaders make decisions, of whom 5 live in Saaimanshoek; they are elected every 2 years - j_ijf_ îh’n e__j p_a_n[\f_ a[l^_hm, ihfs mb[l_bif^_lm i` S_q_ìhn_ch i]][mcih[ffs e__j p_a_n[\f_ gardens over there. - Important: church, hospital services improvement - Men mostly work on the land, women mostly do housework and on occasions they help on the field - Celebrations only include weddings, birthdays, church festivities (there is one annual church festivity for Sewefontein, Saaimanshoek and Coleskeplas). - ‚q_ qiof^ fce_ ni b[p_ nb_ f[h^ \[]e [m q_ b[^ cn \_ìl_; nb_ h_cab\iolcha `[lg_l b[m n[e_h cn `lig om [h^ cn cm hin _[ms ni a_n \[]e. Tb_l_ cm [fmi [ jli\f_g qcnb q[n_l‛ (qig[h 44 s_[lm if^, Saaimanshoek community). This touches upon the fact that Thijs –when he bought his farm 4 years ago- just decided to put a fence around his area, accidentally (or not) taking part of Saaimanshoek property with it. For Saaimanshoek it would mean taking steps to high court to get their piece of f[h^ \[]e, [h^ nb_s îh’n b[p_ nb_ `ch[h]c[f g_[hm ni []no[ffs î nbcm. About medicinal plants: - it is difficult to collect medicinal plants when there is drought, only when it rains plants will grow. - It is difficult to find medicinal plants as they mostly can be found higher uphill places, it takes climbing and walking to find them; this is why older people send younger people out to fetch them (that is how they learn) - Oondbossie, kattekruid, katjiedrieblaar are easy to find, the rest is not that easy - In the past plants were easier to find, now you have to go further than before to find the plants you need - Aalwijn, geelkop dagga, kattekruid, ghuna are endemic - Perdepis and rooiwortel especially are not easy to find About the spekboom: - it is nice because it will bring jobs Annex D2 continued

- it is good because many plants are dying now, it is becoming less green and the green should come back because it is more beautiful (a woman 71 years old)

Chnuganoo – Lois The church in Saaimanshoek owns some property, and people pay a little amount of rent to live there. There exists some conflict over ownership of land between Thijs and the community.

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Communities are loosing their knowledge of plants, the older people still know about it, but they take the ehiqf_â_ chni nb_cl al[p_m. ‚sioha j_ijf_ hiq q[hn ]igjon_lm [h^ n_f_pcmcih‛, [h^ nb_s q[hn di\m nb_s ][hhin a_n ch nb_ p[ff_s. Ih if^_l ^[sm j_ijf_ mojjfc_^ nb_gm_fp_m, om_^ ni aliq ìi^ nb_gm_fp_m; hiq nb_s îh’n anymore. Lois helps the women in communities and teaches them about permaculture, she talks with people about medicinal plants and says that she learns from them about plants.

Communities Sewefontein 5-11-2007 Sceptisism about STRP because they know what happened to Koleskeplas with ECPB, they are afraid someone will try to kick them off their land, they want to stay where they are. Ciggoh[f a[l^_h (^_ ‘jiiln’): jon [ `_h]_ [lioh^ cn \_][om_ siohamn_lm q_l_ p[h^[fctcha cn. Dc``c]ofn ni ]iff_]n g_^c]ch[f jf[hnm [m ^lsh_mm ^i_mh’n [ffiq jf[hnm ni grow; have to walk far to find plants. In communities, women do the housework and occasionally work on the field, there is no fishing and hunting activities.

Katrina and Gert Verbooj (Sewefontein): Life now is harder then before because people need to pay rent for the land to use it. After work time is spent with family, cakes are being baked Important to teach children about plants. Church important Hospital important Tourists –good opportunity Difficult issues in Sewefontein have to be dealt with during meetings Spekboom –good for future children and for jobs Monday washday W_^^cham [h^ \clnb^[sm [l_ ]_f_\l[n_^, hi nl[^cncih[f… Have a garden with flowers, fence around to keep animals out.

Jankie Kitters (Sewefontein) Wife and grandson (=/- 20) Lived in Baviaans for 11-12 years (before that in Willowmore). Does own cropping on community land; in past was difficult, but now gets pension so it is easier; future will be more difficult because he needs to use pension to pay for goats . Activities: marriage and birthdays are celebrated, no other activities Grandson is Working for Water; he likes the idea of spekboom because it brings work and Sewefontein is not doing well as a farm  landwork stands still, there should be a change to make things better. Annex D2 continued

Church is important. Nature back is great, for income, gives certain value to beauty of nature. Community tractor is shared. TV/Radio in the living room.

Comments from a family in Sewefontein: There is a pension system, which is good as it gives older people an income; with Sewefontein the people are better on their own right now, it is easier and safe as people have own properties and pension.

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Children learn on their own, with nature goes well.. medicein from field is important, focus more than on doctor because it is better. Difficult to find plants because takes climbing and walking to find them, so children and young people are sent out to fetch them. Spekboom is good, because many plants are dying now, it is becoming less green, would be nice to bring green back, beauty. -tv, radio Everyone paints houses in bright colours from inside, uses decorative or plastic plants/flower gardens in front of house near road, with flowers. Siderooms not painted and with curtains, what is visible seems to want to show that family is doing well. Monday washday Use community tractor. Use donkey carts and axes to work land.

Medicinal plants: Oondbossie, kattekruid, katjiedrieblaar, are easy to find - in the past plants were easier to find, now they need to go further to find

Klaasie 40 years Baviaans traditional healer –family blood People from everywhere visit Klaasie (from PE, willowmore) to be treated for illnesses. ‚40 s_[lm [ai I b[^ [ ^l_[g [h^ Gi^ nif^ g_ nbcm q[m gs ][ffcha, I f_[lh_^ [\ion jf[hnm `lig gs `[nb_l‛ (`l__fs translated from Afrikaans). People mostly come for stomach problems, soars and infections He sends his daughter into nature to find plants as he cannot go himself anymore.

Saaimanshoek: ‚q_ qiof^ fce_ ni b[p_ nb_ f[h^ \[]e [m q_ b[^ cn before, the neigbouring farmer has taken it from us and it is not _[ms ni a_n \[]e [f_a[f cmmo_m, gih_s ìl f_a[f jli]_ôl_m]. Tb_l_ cm [fmi [ jli\f_g qcnb q[n_l, cn cm ^lscha ion‛ (qig[h ch b_l 40m)‛  David built an illegal furrow in the river (which is public property and not his ownership), which made the waterstream to Saaimanshoek be cut-off. People cannot do anything, they would need a lawyer to get nb_cl f[h^ [h q[n_l \[]e [h^ nb_s îh’n b[p_ nb_ gih_s ìl cn. ‚sioha j_ijf_ gip_ ion ni `ch^ qile, nb_l_ cm ihfs [ `_q sioha j_ijf_ nb[n mn[s b_l_‛ (qig[h ch S_q_ìhn_ch, +/- 60 years old)

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Kermit (Chnuganoo) People were given houses in Willowmore to get away (ECPB) but there \nb_ q[n_l cm hin aii^, nb_s ][h’n aliq things and cannot a_n di\m. H_l_ nb_s ][h’n a_n di\m _cnb_l \on nb_s ehiq nb_ jf[]_, cn cm safe and there is good water.  David opened a bottlestore few years ago (permit paper advertisement) and other farmers were not happy with it. Then alcohol problem got really big amongst communities. S_q_ìhn_ch q[hnm ni a_n lc^ i` W[fn_l \_][om_ b_ î_mh’n g[e_ gih_s ìl nb_g… nb_ ]ifiol_^ j_ijf_ nbche nb[n white farmers can make easy success of a farm, but Walter cannot create miracles. Thijs was planning to cooperate with David an^ S_q_ìhn_ch ni \ocf^ ih_ \ca a[g_ `[lg \on mch]_ nb_s îh’n fce_ Tbcdm nb_s ^c^h’n q[hn to. 2-3 years ago department of environment and tourism/economics came to meet coloured people. Idea was to empower women and they offered financial support to them, they only should ask for help. The coloured people never asked for the support. The communities like to do what they know  grow pumpkin, potatoes, onions and \_[hm. Tb_s aliq inb_l nbcham ch ila[hc] a[l^_h \on hi ih_ cm chn_l_mn_^ ch cn mi nb_s îh’n m_fl, the vegetables aliq nb_l_ ìl hinbcha. P_ijf_ ch ]iggohcnc_m m[s nb_s îh’n bohn \on nb_l_ cm jiles jch_ nl[jm _p_lsqb_l_; ‚b[p_ you ever seen a tortes walking around near the communities? That is because they hunt them for food; far away in the mega rem_lp_ [l_[m sio qcff `ch^ nilnicm_m, \on b_l_ sio ][h \[l_fs `ch^ nb_g [hsgil_ […]. R_aof[lfs I [g n[echa jil]ojch_ nl[jm [q[s, fi][f j_ijf_ jon nb_g h_[l nb_ li[^ ni ][n]b nb_g [h^ _[n nb_g‛

About using medicinal plants/go to the doctor: Only 1 PDM group said to prefer going to the doctor instead of using medicinal plants.

Men at Bosdorp (also PDM) working for ECPB, use all the medicinal plants mentioned and even more, but some are hard to find. They cannot go into Sewefontein to collect plants because they would need permission from the trust (would take a long time as all the 75 owners would need to give agreement). All ECPB workers have worked for 17-23 years, and they all say it is [ aii^ ijjilnohcns ni qile qcnb h[nol_. Tb_s f_[lh [\ion ‘qb[n h[nol_ []no[ffs g_[hm’ [h^ nb[n nb_ h[nol_ ch Baviaanskloof is unique and has a high value. In weekends they work at home on Saturday and go to church on Sunday. They use medicinal plants mostly because doctor is too expensive. - you get a pension when you have an official statement from the doctor that you are ill (is for 6 or 9 months, or forever). In Sewefontein there is a lot of old people so many of them get pension. Medicines are collected from ECPB areas, they are permitted to take little amounts from the `c_f^. ‚mj_e\iig cm aii^ ni m[`_ao[l^ h[nol_ `il ]bcf^l_h, \on [fmi ni \lcha gil_ qile ni nb_ j_ijf_‛. M_^c]ch[f jf[hnm _[ms ni `ch^= a[hmc_, a__feij, \l[[g\im, kattekruid. Not easy to find is rooiwortel, perdepis, kwenkwebas (they are protected species. Use all medicine, important are gansies, rooiwortel, perdepis, braambos, aalwijn and kattekruid. Other plants they use are hotnotskoihoed, seldery and verveel. For firewood they mostly use doringboom. Not so dependent on nature, medicine remains important, water is most important.

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Interviewee: Cedric (contractor for a Working For Water team) 1 What do you learn before you start with Working for Water? Are there courses? People first learn about what is expected from them when employed in the Working for Water program, they are introduced into the program. Sometimes when people specialize they follow additional courses, but since the teams in Saaimanshoek are the teams that do the planting jobs they mostly dih’n h__^ ni ^i [^^cncih[f trainings. 2 Has this job changed your views about nature in Baviaanskloof? Yes! I love it that with this job we have the opportunity to work in nature. I think it helps us to appreciate more what nature has to offer. The spekboom makes the air clean and is good, it is also important that nature is there for my children. It is tough work planting the trees every day but it is for a good purpose. 3 Has your job made you more interested in the use/functionality of thicket plant species? Yes I always used medicinal plants but now I appreciate the nature more that provides me those medicinal plants, this project teaches me also how outside Baviaanskloof people say that the nature here is important, it is special that we can find so many useful plants here. 4 What do you think about the spekboom project? What good/bad things you think does it bring forward? It is a good project, gives people jobs and is good for nature and for the air. It is good because people working in this can spend more time in nature and appreciate it more.

Interviewee: Abbey Gail (former contractor of Working for Water team) In 2004 Abbey Gail worked as a contractor for Working for Water, she got fired one day when she (by own saying) had called off sick from work as she needed to take her baby to the doctor (Klaasie –tradional healer; the baby b[^ [ jli\f_g qcnb nb_ b_[ln ][om_^ \s nb_ mo^^_h ^_[nb i` bcm \o^^s al[h^`[nb_l, b_ b[^ ni nio]b nb_ \[\s’m chest to take the soar away). The management of the project ^c^h’n nbche b_l l_[mih q[m p[fc^ [h^ nif^ b_l nbcm, but she took the day off anyway which made her loose her job. A]]il^cha ni A\\_s G[cf j_ijf_ ^ih’n a_n _hioab ijjilnohcnc_m ni []no[ffs f_[lh [\ion qb[n nb_ mj_e\iig project is all about. A team gets some papers about types of plants and they learn about how the plants give fresh air (photosynthesis), but they are not actively taught, they should learn and read the papers themselves. Sometimes people take other courses as well, courses that teach more about how plants work and what types of plants are good or bad in the Baviaanskloof (alien plants, indigenous plants), only these courses are only available for few people, mostly people from Cambria. It would be nice to give people in Baviaanskloof the opportunity to learn more. People that can start in a Working For Water program are selected; the first selection went as follows: the heads of the communities had to appoint the people that could be most suitable for the job (according to behaviour, age, current employment, life situation). Then, those people had to make a test which determined whether their knowledge and ability to interpret were good enough to have them as an employee in the project. After the first selection things went different: the following selection rounds the contractors of the first round (leaders of the WFW teams –also people from the communities) were asked to appoint people they thought would be fitting in the program. Those contractors took their advantage and appointed friends and family as people for the next selection;

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fi][f ‘_h_gc_m’ q_l_ [pic^_^ [h^ ^c^h’n a_n [hs ]b[h]_ ni \_ m_f_]n_^. In cm hin [ `[cl m_f_]ncih [h^ ]l_[n_m [ fin i` jealousy, it has become a family business now. Abbey Gail has mentioned definitely to have learned about nature during her work at WFW; she says she got more interested in visiting the natural sites in Baviaanskloof and got the opportunity once to join a group of ECPB workers to the site of Smitskraal (a camping and picnic site in the middle of the reserve). Abbey Gail mentions: ‚[cn] g[^_ g_ l_[fct_ nb[n B[pc[[hmefii` cm \_[oncòf, [h^ qb[n h[nol_ cm mojjim_^ ni \_ fce_ ch [ff i` B[pc[[hmefii`‛ [h^: ‚Aff nbim_ jf[hnm [h^ [hcg[fm, cn cm \_[oncòf….. [ fin i` j_ijf_ b_l_ îh’n a_n nb_ ]b[h]_ ni pcmcn nb[n j[ln i` B[pc[[hmefii` [nb_ l_m_lp_], cn mbiof^ \_ _[mc_l ìl nb_g‛. Abbey Gail mentions to have taken her baby to the traditional healer (Klaassie) to treat the suffering of nb_ fcnnf_ ]bcf^’m b_[ln [`n_l [ mo^^_h ^_[nb i` cts favourite grandfather

George (employee working for water) A comment from George, one of the employees at Working for Water: ‚jf[hncha nb_ mj_e\iig cm aii^, \on qb[n [\ion nb_ inb_l jf[hnm?‛

Youngster (around 25 years old) Has been employed at Working for Water for 2 years: Before that he worked on the community farm. His father qilem ìl ECPB. ‚I fce_ nbcm di\ \_][om_ sio f_[lh gil_ [\ion h[nol_ [h^ nb_ [hcg[fm, sio f_[lh qbc]b jf[hnm îh’n belong here. If I walk around on Sewefontein now I can see the jf[hnm nb[n î il îh’n \_fiha b_l_.‛

Interviewee: Jan Magleties (one of the church leaders in Saaimanshoek) 1 As a church leader, which are your responsibilities and activities? The church leaders give permissions to outsiders of the community to visit, giver permissions for activities to take place, they take care of the community in terms of safety as well as that they should tell people not to smoke/grow/sell dagga (=marihuana) and not to drink alcohol. –drinking alcohol is prohibited on Saaimanshoek grounds as Saaimanshoek is a church property. 2 How are things organized in this community? Are there often meetings held between locals, committees or something else? A lot of announcements are done during the church services on Sundays in the church in Saaimanshoek. ; sometimes letters are sent to people to announce when something important is about to happen or to be organized. 3 Are there clear developments in the community within the past 10 years? Things have been changing, the municipality gave us electricity recently (+/- 6 years ago), and there are water holes being made at the moment as there has come up a problem with drought recently. Also, recently tv- jif_m b[p_ \__h _rn_h^_^ `lig S_q_`ihn_ch ni Pc_n_l Kloa_l’m `[lg. –in the evenings now at 7 everyone in nb_ ]iggohcns q[n]b_m nb_ mi[j ij_l[ ‘m_q_h^_f[[h’, hi-one will be found in the streets. Especially children also like to watch 50-50, a nature program. A lot of people are moving out of the area, especially people that are young and can still go where and when they want; they are not coming back as they find better jobs in other places (cities). Documents on numbers of people that move out or in are not existing, but some things that can easily be observed in this community is that it is becoming ‘if^_l’, sioha j_ijf_ gip_ ion.

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If there are people that want to come and live in Saaimanshoek they should first write a letter to the church asking for permission; the church will hold a meeting and will decide whether people can move in or not. 4 What kind of work do most people do in the community? Some people work for farmers, a lot of young people work for Working for Water (there are 2 teams of 6-12 people from Saaimanshoek, one team from Sewefontein), some people have a share in Sewefontein and do cropping there. A lot of people live on pensions. 5. What do you think about spekboom-WFW? It is a good project, gives people jobs and keeps them off the street and away from crimes; it keeps them busy. About: Medicinal plants  people mbiof^ hilg[ffs [me j_lgcmmcih ni ]iff_]n g_^c]ch[f jf[hnm, \on nb_s ^ih’n. P_ijf_ [me him for advice about what medicinal plants to use and where to find them. A lot of people collect medicinal plants ch ECPB [l_[m…

Interviewee: Principle of primary school Both children from Saaimanshoek and Sewefontein attend the primary school in Saaimanshoek, 5 days per week in the mornings. A local schoolbus picks the children up and drops them off at the schoolyard. Classes are similar to the Dutch primary school system: children start going to school at the age of 6 and finish primary school at the age of 12, there are 6 classes. After primary school children are able to go to secondary school in Willowmore, which is a town approximately 80 kilometres from Baviaanskloof. Until recently a lot of families in the ]iggohcnc_m ]iof^h’n [``il^ ni m_h^ nb_cl ]bcf^l_h ni m_]ih^[ls m]biif, \on mch]_ nb_ gig_hn nb_ aip_lhg_hn started to subsidize secondary school for the children, the amount of children going to secondary school increased highly and the principle mentions that nowadays a lot more children proceed to secondary school than before (the majority proceeds). The type of classes children take at Saaimanshoek secondary school: Literacy Numeracy classes 1-2-3 Life orientation Literacy/ communication (English) Mathematics Natural science (-physics, though not that much) Social science (history, geography) classes 4-5-6 Technology (theory, occasionally field trip to farm) Economic/business Agriculture Life orientation The principle mentions that there is no resources to include practical teaching in forms of excursions, children basically learn just about theories from the available books. The principle shows his desire to teach children more about practical things in life; he would like to be able to show them things visually or do practical assignments with them.

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- I ][g_ ni nb_ c^_[ ni acp_ nb_ ]bcf^l_h [ jl[]nc][f [mmcahg_hn, ni b[p_ nb_g g[e_ [ ^l[qcha [\ion nb_ ‘nbcha they like the most about livcha ch B[pc[[hmefii`’. I ihfs h__^_^ j[j_l [h^ ]ifiol j_h]cfm `il nb[n, \on nb_ jlch]cjf_ ]iof^h’n _p_h jlipc^_ nb[n. I ^c^h’n b[p_ nb_ ijjilnohcns [h^ _hioab ncg_ ni [ll[ha_ nb_ j[j_l [h^ j_h]cfm… mi nbcm [mmcahg_hn ]iof^h’n \_ ^ih_… ‚Cbcf^l_h mbiof^ f_[lh hin ni ecff nbcham [ch h[nol_], ni n[e_ ][l_ i` nb_cl _hpclihg_hn…..][h ECPB jlipc^_ f_[`f_nm il jimn_lm [n f_[mn ni b[ha ch nb_ ]f[mm liigm?‛ –principle Saaimanshoek. Classes are big and there are not enough (qualified) teachers to provide the children the quality of teaching they need. The principle mentions to ‚i`n_h loh [lioh^ \_nq__h nqi ^c``_l_hn ]f[mm_m ni jon nb_ ]bcf^l_h ni qile ih [mmcahg_hnm..‛

About medicinal plants  Medicinal plants are easy to get near the river of our properties (Sewefontein/Saaimanshoek), especially at the slopes  Braambos, swartstorm, gansie, perdepis are collected in ECPB areas  Aalwijn, kattekruid, geelkop, groen amara along river, aalwijn and geelkop along flat nature areas. Groen amara in garden and gansie as well. Perdepis also.  Besemplant: far away over the mountain at Saaimanshoek and downhill the other side of the mountain; also at beacosneck.  Riet can be found at water areas in Sewefontein.  Bloubos and kersenhout all around rugbyfield (entrance Saaimanshoek)  Vlaksalie near fountain at rugby field.  Swartstorm is found at the foot of hills and at damsedrif; used to burn to chase tokkelossie away.  Riicqiln_f/j_l^_jcm: nb_s [me j_ijf_ `lig ‘\im\io’ (=ECPB: \imîlj j_ijf_) ni n[e_ nb_m_ jf[hnm `lig state forestry areas as they are difficult to find in the private owned areas in Baviaanskloof.  Swartstorm, kwenkwebas, besemplant are found in fynbos areas Pruimhout in earlier years was one of the favourites for firewood; but now you can only find this wood at `[lg_lm’ jf[]_m and high on the hills. Kwenkebas is often taken by ECPB people for the people in Baviaanskloof. ‚Mimn i` iol g_^c]ch[f jf[hnm [l_ ìoh^ ih aip_lhg_hn jlij_lns‛.  Riet is being found at Golden Crust property (Rene van Rensburg)  Besemplant is found at nieuwekloof as well.  Other places where they look for wood: near the roads  Other places where medicine is found: state forestry areas. They need permission from Sewefontein if they need to get wood or other plants on their property. Riet cm ìoh^ h_[l W[fn_l’m jface, and also at Golden Crust farm.  Onb_l jf[]_m qb_l_ g_^c]ch_m [l_ ìoh^: mn[n_ ìl_mnls [h^ h_[l nb_ li[^m [m q_ff [m [n `[lg_lm’ properties (damsedrift, beacosnek). Other places where construction material, wood for tools and firewood are found: next to the roads.

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Food is for a small part cultivated in own garden, edible fruits are taken from direct natural surroundings and most of the food is being bought at the shop and/or organic farm at Sewefontein, or is bought during the monthly trip to the town of Willowmore.  Swartstorm: the wood is burned to chase the Tokkelossie away; this is a small dwarflike creature that comes along to put spells on people; it is found mainly in flat areas.  Stinkpatat, groen amara and gansie are grown in the garden. Pruimhout is found far on the hills. Doringhout is mostly found near rivers Rooiwortel/perdepis/braambos are found on the hill.  Baarbossie can be found near rivers  Witgatboom can be found on hills in Saaimanshhoek  Swartstorm can be found at steep cliffs and in damsedrift  Perdepis can be found at cambria and in koleskeplas  Geelkop can be found everywhere especially near river  Kershout can be found uphill Saaimanshoek  Katjiedrieblaar can be found on steep part of the mountain in Saaimanshoek  Kwenkwebas can be found in ECPB areas  Rooiwortel can be found far in ECPB areas  Kaggeltee: damsedrift, not anymore in Saaimanshoek, also in Nuwekloof (towards Willowmore)  Kopieva: river saaimanshoek  Stinkpatat: damsedrift  Bloubos: everywhere in Saaimanshoek  Besemplant: high up in mountains  Stinkkruid: gardens  Ijsterhout: uphill in Saaimanshoek  Vleikalmoes: ECPB areas, occasionally in Sewefontein  Oondbossie: along river Saaimanshoek  Davidtjie: Saaimanshoek uphill Spanjool: uphill in kloofs

Female (57 years old) in Sewefontein Do you think your direct natural surroundings are in a healthy state? Why? Yes is healthy, there is fresh air, but she would like to see everything more green What is your point of view about conservation/ restoration of the valley bushveld? What do you think about the possibilities of STRP? She does not feel anything about the people who come here to speak because at the end everything is unreal. She would like to see one of those projects becoming true

Male and female (+/- 50 years old) in Sewefontein Can you see any changes related to your work? Have other work opportunities come up to you lately, or: do you think there will be changes in your work opportunities in the future? How do you feel about work related to tourism or nature conservation (mention working for water programme)? Now it is better. In the past they could not crop and they did nor receive money. Life in the farm is better for the children than in the cities with drugs and violence Annex D2 continued

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Are there special activities within your family or community that you can relate to religion, spirituality, tradition? Which are they and how important are animals and plants in these activities? (ask about the most important traditions/rituals) No she just go to the church on sundays and then Christmas when all the family ]ig_ [h^ nb_h nb_s g[e_ j[lnc_m, \[l\_]o_m… What kind of activities do you do with your family, friends or the community when you are not working? Where do you do these activities? (ask about sports etc. clubs). She goes the houses of her friends to talk, people come here, she goes to the fountain it is beautiful with the shadow and water What do you teach your children about nature? Specially about snakes and about medicinal plants Do you think that restoring the bushveld would give you advantages and/or disadvantages? If yes, which are those? It is good bring nature back. If people go on with the project it will create jobs for people and that is the main problem here the jobs. Could you indicate how far is it the place where usually you collect the medicinal plants? Is it in the farm so no too far, they go walking, when they are really sick go also to Klassie, the medicine expert of the valley.

Male (60 years old, Sewefontein trust member) What is your point of view about conservation/ restoration of the valley bushveld? What do you think about the possibilities of STRP (this question should be asked dependent on whether they have attended Mike’s presentation)? It is very positive if its bring jobs, money and new opportunities specially for the youth. Although he mistrust of this can of projects, quite often are lies, he ponted out that when he moved from Coleski to here Eleanor Mcgregor promised him a new house and jobs for her daughter and everything was a lie. Furthermore the new projects as Working for water barely arrives to Seweinfontein he does not know why so he does not trust to much on this kind of projects, people do not take into account them as they are poor. However this spekboom projects seems interesting but there is the necessity of more information

Male (66 years old) from Sewefontein How would you describe the differences in cultures in this area? What are differences between your community and the farmers surrounding you? There are differences with the blacks, they go to the bushes for rituals, they go for a few months to the bushes sleep there and then become adults. In coleski some people do that and also circumcision here not. Do you think your direct natural surroundings are in a healthy state? Why? Yes he likes a lot, specially the mountains where he finds all the plants necessary for him as for example medicinal plants, food for animals etc. In the farm he likes specially the fountain. There is a lot of water and water gives everything water gives life. Are there specific vegetation types or plant species that are important for your activities? If yes, which are those and for what are they used? Pruimboom: gives small fruit that he eats or use for medicines. There are also animals that he likes. The kudu it is good meat and he makes sausages (although on beforehand he said he did not hunt). Building material: reed, clay; every half year they repair the house.

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Male (+/- 60 years old), Saaimanshoek Do there exist historical and/or traditional stories about the valley bushveld or life in Baviaanskloof in general? If yes, which? The tockolosi. If the tockolosi disturb he goes for medicinal plants and burn staff. He does not see the Maleids, but maybe exist as people have seen. If your livelihood would be assured (in terms of financial security mostly) would you be willing to change your use of the land? (this would include e.g. reducing the amount of goats). Yes if brings more money, but a lot of things are lies so he would have to see that really works.

Expressions and quotes Denna (inhabitant of Sewefontein, 74 and one of the trust members): Thirthy or forty years ago an alien cactus – mexican origin (Opuntia ficus – indica (L.)) was declared a weed in Baviaanskloof as it was invading the area; Without consulting the local people the government of South Africa decided to get rid of this cactus by releasing a moth in Baviaanskloof which kills the cactus. As the local people used the fruits of the cactus as edible fruits, animal fodder and as a sugar source (sugar was very expensive in those days) they were not pleased to experience [ l_gip[f i` nb_ ][]nom ch nb_cl fcpcha [l_[. ‚… cm cn aicha ni \_ nb_ m[g_ qcnb nb_ mj_e\iig jlid_]n? Pf[hncha nb_ spekboom everywhere, cmh’n nb[n nb_ m[g_ [m b[pcha nb_ mj_e\iig _p_lsqb_l_? Tb_h qbs ^c^ nb_s l_gip_ nb_ ][]nom?‛ (nl[hmf[n_^ `lig A`lce[[hm) ‚Dolcha nb_ [j[lnb_c^ nb_ ]ifiol_^ j_ijf_ q_l_ hinbcha‛ ‚W_ îh’n \f[g_ nb_ `[lg_lm `lig hiq qb[n b[jj_h_^ ch nb_ j[mn [[j[lnb_c^]‛ Kermit (inhabitant of Chnuganoo community farm, +/- 35 years old): People [local communities] will not fight with the farmers about resources, they would have to take things to court and that would be too expensive. They just let the things happen the way th_s b[jj_h, îh’n ]ig_ oj ìl nb_gm_fp_m. Li][f j_ijf_ ]on ^_[^ \l[h]b_m i`` nl__m, \on îh’n l_[fct_ nb[n nb_ nl__ h__^m nbim_ \l[h]b_m ìl ]l_[ncha protective shade on its stem. Kermit mentions he showed local people where certain plants could be found, told them that seeds should be used for nursery (to grow the plants and replant them in the nature). A couple of days later those plants were gone, taken away. Herman is Davids brother who works at the police  they play local political games, David once took a police helicopter to chase wildebeest on his land. It started with Nature Conservation who just simply wanted to chase people out of Baviaanskloof. ECPB took over and decided to encourage (not chase) people to move out of Baviaanskloof by offering theg IDP biom_m ch Wcffiqgil_ [h^ ‘j_lg[h_hn’ di\m. Wcnb bcm holm_ls K_lgcn [nnl[]n_^ quite some people from the communities who were interested to help him, but as he is not able to pay for employees (his work is entirely voluntary) he only has one employee at the moment. He would love to make his nursery part of STRP, mentions he would be willing to dedicate himself to that. ‚jf[hnm [l_ l_[ffs cgjiln[hn [m g_^c]ch_, q_ b[p_ nb_g ch iol a[l^_h [h^ nbcm jf[hn [a[hmc_m il Sutherlandia frutescens] is very import[hn ch iol `[gcfs‛. (]igg_hn qcnb [ jc]nol_ n[e_h \s [ Sewefontein inhabitant, 21 years old) Translator Noel from Sewefontein/ Coleskeplas: ‚I qiof^ l_[ffs q[hn ni ai ni [ ohcp_lmcns ni f_[lh gil_ [\ion jf[hnm [h^ [hcg[fm, ihfs I îh’n b[p_ nb_ gih_s […] ô you know where I could apply for a job for ECPB or Wilecha ìl W[n_l mi I ][h ìffiq nb_ ]iolm_m nb_s jlipc^_?‛ Woman (mid forties, Saaimanshoek): ‚[n gig_hnm j_ijf_ ][hhin m__ om q_ ai ih aip_lhg_hn il `[lg_lm jlij_lnc_m ni n[e_ jf[hnm‛

139

Annex D3: outcog_m i` n[\f_m ch `[lg_lm’ ko_mncihh[cl_ [m om_^ ch nb_ [h[fsmcm

Totally disagree Disagree to Neutral Agree to some Totally agree some extent extent B[pc[[hmefii`’m h[nol[f surroundings: (a) help me get rid of stress 3 7 and fatigue (b) Is important to me because 1 2 8 of its beauty (c) Is important to me because 1 2 8 it allows me to enjoy recreation (d) Is important for my 1 1 9 children to learn about nature (e) Provide me plants that I 3 1 4 use for medicinal purposes (if yes, which and where do you find them?) (f) Contain plant species that 3 2 7 are of special importance to me (if yes which and where do you find them?) The numbers show the amount of farmers that responded with the corresponding answer; based on interviews with 11 farmers

Not at all Not really Neutral Quite some A lot of fulfillment fulfillment Family-based activities (a) Spending time with my family at 2 3 3 my house (inside or in the garden) (b) Going on trips outside 1 1 4 3 Baviaanskloof with my family (c) Doing activities with my family in 1 6 Baviaanskloof (please specify activities) Individual activities (d) From my activities at the farm 1 7 (please specify which activities) (e) Going for walks in my direct 1 2 1 6 natural surroundings (f) Playing land-based sports (please 4 3 1 specify) (g) Doing water-based sports (please 4 3 specify) (h) Fishing 4 2 (i) Hunting 4 1 1 (j) Àdventure, off-road (quad) 1 4 1 1 (k) Onb_l:……………. 2 The numbers show the amount of farmers that responded with the corresponding answer; based on interviews with 11 farmers

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Annex D3 continued

Have you experienced the situations as mentioned in the following table on your property over the pas few year? (a) Increase of (b) Less growth (c) Less food (d) Less water (e) Hillside (f) Degraded floods of animals and available available erosion soil quality harvested (plants) products Yes 3 1 5 4 No 9 5 5 3 4 7 Numbers in the table correspond with the amount of farmers that gave this answer to the specific question

Conservation/ Restoration Behaviour yes Sort of no Have you undertaken any soil conservation or land rehabilitation measures for reducing soil erosion in the last 2 years? e.g. filling dongas? Stones in irrigation so it can fill up again- not really a problem 7 1 1 of erosion Have you undertaken any nature conservation activities to protect any areas in the last 2 years (e.g., 4 2 2 surveys, restoration)? Have you planted any plants on your property in the last two years (spekboom)? 5 4 Do you have any areas on your farm which you think would benefit from rehabilitation work? (can 10 you show them on the map?) in valley, 900ha Would you ever consider rehabilitating these areas? 10 1 Is it worth your while to rehabilitate these areas? 7 Have you undertaken any nature conservation activities for any animals in the last 2 years (e.g., 6 1 surveys, re-introductions)? leopard Numbers in the table correspond with the amount of farmers that gave this answer to the specific question

Attitude towards conservation/restoration of own property Strongly Neutral / Strongly Disagree Agree disagree unsure Agree It is possible for me to consider conserving land that 1 5 5 is useful for agricultural production Protecting intact areas of vegetation on my farm 1 1 3 3 offers me significant advantages Restoring degraded areas of vegetation on my farm 4 4 offers me significant advantages water. Good food If my livelihood could be assured, I would reduce my production activities to undertake nature 3 8 conservation and restoration activities Numbers in the table correspond with the amount of farmers that gave this answer to the specific question

141

Annex D4: the Pebble Distribution Method

The following shows the set-up for the Pebble distribution method application in the communities, combined with a focus group discussion:

Group discussions amongst: 1) women (around 18-40 years old) 2) men (around 18-40 years old) 3) women (41-older) 4) men (41-older) 5) youngsters (younger then 18) 6) a mixed group

Possible general questions during group discussions (next to PDM, depends on time availability): - describe an average day in the community? - Could you describe the different responsibilities of persons in thcm ]iggohcns’m mi]c_ns? - What are the differences in activities between men and women? - How do you use the bushveld in your daily activities? - Why is the bushveld important to you? - What are for you signs that bushveld is healthy? - Do you use bushveld plants and animals for religious/ceremonial/traditional activities? If yes, which activities are those and which species do you use? - Do you think there are areas on your property that would need natural recovery? If yes, which areas are those and in what way do they need recovery? - What do you think about the nature recovery program with the spekboom? (ask the question only to informed people, or see if the program can be explained to them). - Would you be willing to dedicate specific areas of the community property to this recovery program? -> would you consider it as an economic opportunity? If yes, could you indicate which areas you would want to dedicate to the program? - How does the community work together? Do you share resources with each other? And how is that with neighbouring farms? - What do you think about tourism in the area? Do you consider it as positive for your community or is your community not planning to do anything with this activity?

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Annex D4 continued

PDM:

Importance:

Land type:

Food Medicine Wellbeing Constructionhouses Light construction(e.g. fencing) (sticks/brooms) Tools Firewood ornamental find To flora and faunafor religious/ traditional/ ceremonialuse Recreation Past Future Overall (presen private garden (individuals)

Collective nature areas community cultivated land livestock camps

(kraal) grazing areas bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) fynbos

River (sides)

Fountains (water sources)

Onb_l…..

Total per use 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 category =100

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Annex D4 continued

Importance:

Plant/animal

Medicine Wellbeing Constructionhouses Light construction(e.g. fencing) (sticks/brooms) Tools Firewood ornamental for religious/traditional/ ceremonial use Past Future Overall (present) species: Food

Plants

Gansies

Rooiwortel

Gwarrie

Pruimboom

Spekboom

Doringboom

Onb_l….

Total per use 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 category =100 Animals

Sheep

Goats

Chickens

Kudu

Springbok

Onb_l…

Total per use 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 category =100

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Annex D4 continued

The following tables show the information gathered during the 10 focus group sessions (44 people in total) in the coloured communities, using the Pebble Distribution Method.

Table 1: relative importance of thicket species, related to different indicators of socio-cultural importance

Medicine Food Construction houses Light construction and tools Firewood ornamental Cultural significance Overall (present) Importance to Aesthetic/ Spiritual Well- Traditional resource use Plant species Health religious religious being Gansies 7,4 8,8 Rooiwortel 8,2 4,2 Gwarrie 3,4 2,22 4,2 3,6 Pruimboom 0,2 96,67 1,6 31,6 9,6 Spekboom (p. afra) 3,33 0,2 Doringboom 1,6 8,2 67,33 52,8 15 Aalwijn 10,8 11 Kwenkwebas 4,4 4 3 Groen amara 7,4 3,6 Riet 53 1,11 14,29 4,29 5 Swartstorm 6,2 5,14 95,71 5 Geelkop Dagga 9,2 4,6 Kattekruid 8,2 6,4 Kaggeltee 4,8 2,4 Rooikareebos 0,2 Rodenbag 1 0,2 Perdepis 7,4 1,8 Kershout 1,2 1,4 11,2 5,14 1,8 Bloubos 1,2 34 24,44 4,6 Braambos 7,4 3 Other 10 1,8 4,9 0,2 71,43 4,4 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 (100) 100 (100) TOTAL (100) (60) (100) (90) (70) (70) Importance of specific thicket plant species for fulfilment of socio-cultural values; based on the practice of 10 sessions of PDM (pebble distribution method); given in percentages. The numbers between brackets in the TOTAL-bar are the percentages of the interviewees that responded to the question.

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Annex D4 continued

PDM session 1; Attendees: 4 women (3 housewives, 1 just started the job as community development worker); 23 and +/- 40 years old. -none of them have shares in Sewefontein

nt)

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (prese Food Gansies 4 3 Rooiwortel 4 3 Gwarrie 3 3 Pruimboom 22 4 Spekboom Doringboom 40 28 5 Aalwijn 6 4 Kwenkwebas 2 2 Groen amara 4 3 Riet 29 5 Swartstorm 4 50 2 Geelkop Dagga 6 3 Kattekruid 3 2 Kaggeltee 4 2 Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 4 2 Kershout Bloubos 21 4 Braambos 3 2 Other 3 10 50 1 TOTAL 0 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nb_ l_f_p[hn jf[hn mj_]c_m \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

onstruction onstruction

Medicine Construction houses Light c (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood ornamental Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 4 3 Collective nature areas 5 11 11 11 11 9 community cultivated land livestock camps (kraal) grazing areas bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 9 5 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 5 2 River (sides) 7 10 10 10 21 19 8 Fountains (water sources) 9 1 Other….. 9 9 9 2 TOTAL 0 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

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Annex D4 continued

PDM session 2; Attendees: 4 older men (49, 48, 55 and 59 years old), 2 of them employed at a nearby farm, all of them growing crops in Sewefontein all of them have a share in Sewefontein.

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 5 4 Rooiwortel 5 4 Gwarrie 3 3 Pruimboom 11 3 Spekboom Doringboom 50 39 2 Aalwijn 3 3 Kwenkwebas 3 3 Groen amara 5 3 Riet 33 2 Swartstorm 3 50 3 Geelkop Dagga 4 3 Kattekruid 3 3 Kaggeltee 3 3 Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 2 2 Kershout Bloubos 3 17 3 Braambos 3 3 Other 5 50 3 TOTAL 0 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nb_ l_f_p[hn jf[hn mj_]c_m \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood ornamental Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 7 7 Collective nature areas 3 30 30 30 5 7 community cultivated land livestock camps (kraal) 1 1 grazing areas bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 5 5 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain River (sides) 8 30 6 Fountains (water sources) 6 4 Other….. 25 TOTAL 0 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Numbers show tb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

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Annex D4 continued

PDM session 3; Attendees: 5 male youngsters between 16 and 22 years old (3 of them attending college in Willowmore, the other 2 finished secondary school, but no college -unemployed).

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 3 2 Rooiwortel 4 2 Gwarrie Pruimboom 50 8 16 6 Spekboom Doringboom 11 23 30 9 Aalwijn 3 3 Kwenkwebas 4 2 Groen amara 6 3 Riet 16 3 Swartstorm 4 2 Geelkop Dagga 6 2 Kattekruid 6 3 Kaggeltee Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 5 2 Kershout 7 4 3 Bloubos 8 15 3 Braambos 9 3 Other 12 50 2 TOTAL 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nb_ l_f_p[hn jf[hn mj_]c_m \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

resent)

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood ornamental Recreation Overall (p Food private garden (individuals) 4 4 8 2 2 Collective nature areas 3 5 11 7 16 12 community cultivated land livestock camps (kraal) grazing areas 4 5 1 bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 14 8 7 4 5 6 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 12 7 6 2 4 3 River (sides) 8 8 5 9 21 4 5 Fountains (water sources) 9 8 1 Other….. TOTAL 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nbe land types & uses, by the four attendants of the session

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PDM session 4; Attendees: 4 women from 4 different households within the community (67, 61, 70 and 62 years old); all housewives. no share in Sewefontein

structio

Medicine Con houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 3 2 Rooiwortel 2 2 Gwarrie 2 2 Pruimboom 50 9 2 Spekboom Doringboom 1 39 25 5 Aalwijn 3 3 Kwenkwebas 3 2 Groen amara 4 2 Riet 31 2 Swartstorm 3 2 Geelkop Dagga 2 2 Kattekruid 3 3 Kaggeltee 3 2 Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 1 2 Kershout 16 2 Bloubos 19 11 3 Braambos 3 2 Other 17 10 TOTAL 50 50 50 50 50 0 50 50 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nhe relevant plant species by the four attendants of the session

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood ornamental Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 4 7 2 Collective nature areas 6 20 23 6 18 18 community cultivated land livestock camps (kraal) grazing areas 6 1 bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 11 5 8 2 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 19 3 3 2 River (sides) 4 4 2 2 Fountains (water sources) 4 6 5 2 Other….. 4 12 1 TOTAL 30 30 30 30 30 0 30 30 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

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PDM session 5; Attendees: one brother and sister (both +/- 50 years old), one mother (29) with 2 children (8 and 5 years old), 2 uncles (65 and 68 years old). One household altogether, lived in Bosdorp (ECPB). Since a few years the family lives in Saaimanshoek and is unemployed.

no shares in Sewefontein community farm

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 3 2 Rooiwortel 2 1 Gwarrie 2 1 Pruimboom 50 1 16 10 Spekboom Doringboom 25 19 11 Aalwijn 4 2 Kwenkwebas 2 2 Groen amara 2 2 Riet 14 2 Swartstorm 5 2 Geelkop Dagga 4 2 Kattekruid 4 2 Kaggeltee Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 5 2 Kershout 15 Bloubos 27 25 5 Braambos 4 2 Other 12 9 50 2 TOTAL 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nb_ l_f_p[hn jf[hn mj_]c_m \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

namental

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood or Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 5 5 1 Collective nature areas 8 22 22 25 12 16 community cultivated land livestock camps (kraal) grazing areas bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 1 6 3 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 1 4 3 River (sides) 24 12 3 Fountains (water sources) 5 6 1 Other….. 23 2 8 8 5 6 3 TOTAL 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Numbers show the amounn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

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PDM session 6; Attendees: 3 men (24, 27 and 25 years old), all Working For Water employees; all living with their parents (not married); the families all have shares in Sewefontein

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 3 3 Rooiwortel 6 4 Gwarrie Pruimboom 20 3 Spekboom Doringboom 2 50 30 5 Aalwijn 3 2 Kwenkwebas 3 2 Groen amara 3 2 Riet 30 2 Swartstorm 4 50 5 Geelkop Dagga 4 4 Kattekruid 7 5 Kaggeltee 2 2 Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 4 3 Kershout 4 3 Bloubos 20 2 Braambos 2 1 Other 3 2 TOTAL 0 50 50 50 50 0 50 50 Num\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nb_ l_f_p[hn jf[hn mj_]c_m \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood ornamental Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 7 4 Collective nature areas 4 15 12 3 8 community cultivated land livestock camps (kraal) grazing areas 3 3 5 2 bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 6 7 6 5 4 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 9 7 6 4 River (sides) 5 8 5 3 Fountains (water sources) 4 15 3 6 6 5 Other….. TOTAL 0 30 30 30 30 0 30 30 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, by the four attendants of the session

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PDM session 7; Attendees: older couple (+/- 60 years old, exact age unknown), 1 child (34 years old, male employed at one nearby farm), 1 woman (31 years old, married to family son who is employed by farmer), 2 grandchildren (14 and

13 years old). They have a share in Sewefontein.

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 6 3 Rooiwortel 6 3 Gwarrie 3 10 8 Pruimboom 18 6 Spekboom Doringboom 22 8 Aalwijn 9 5 Kwenkwebas 3 1 Groen amara Riet 25 2 Swartstorm 4 50 2 Geelkop Dagga 3 1 Kattekruid 5 3 Kaggeltee 4 2 Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 4 2 Kershout Bloubos 25 2 Braambos 2 1 Other 1 1 TOTAL 0 50 50 0 50 0 50 50 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nb_ l_f_p[hn jf[hn mj_]c_m \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood ornamental Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 2 10 Collective nature areas 3 17 5 community cultivated land 3 3 livestock camps (kraal) 2 grazing areas 2 bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 8 13 5 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 6 5 River (sides) 3 5 Fountains (water sources) 5 Other….. 3 20 TOTAL 0 30 30 0 30 0 30 0 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

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PDM session 8; Attendees: Married unemployed couple 32 and 37 years old, two children 8 and 5 years old, grandmother (mother

of the woman) +/- 60 years old. Everyone lives together in one household. They have a share in Sewefontein

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 3 7 Rooiwortel 3 Gwarrie 9 Pruimboom 50 14 6 Spekboom Doringboom 3 10 35 18 7 Aalwijn 9 11 Kwenkwebas Groen amara 5 Riet 30 5 50 5 Swartstorm 50 6 Geelkop Dagga 8 4 Kattekruid 6 4 Kaggeltee 5 Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 3 Kershout 9 Bloubos 10 10 Braambos 3 Other 2 TOTAL 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nb_ l_f_p[hn jf[hn mj_]c_m \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

ood

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firew ornamental Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 3 5 Collective nature areas 3 11 7 6 11 17 6 community cultivated land 7 livestock camps (kraal) grazing areas 3 4 bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 30 5 8 6 7 4 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 6 8 1 River (sides) 5 4 6 8 Fountains (water sources) 5 11 5 6 11 13 8 Other….. TOTAL 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Numbers show the [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

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Annex D4 continued

PDM session 9; Attendees: 3 unemployed young women (one with a young child +/- 2 years old, all still living with parents): 19, 20 and 22 years old.

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 4 15 Rooiwortel 6 Gwarrie 3 10 Pruimboom 50 20 Spekboom Doringboom 2 20 20 20 15 Aalwijn 6 15 Kwenkwebas 2 14 Groen amara 2 Riet 20 15 Swartstorm 2 18 35 Geelkop Dagga 3 Kattekruid 2 5 Kaggeltee 2 Rooikareebos Rodenbag Perdepis 2 Kershout 2 10 18 Bloubos 3 10 20 Braambos 3 Other 6 TOTAL 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 Numbers show the [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ [gihamn nb_ l_f_p[hn jf[hn mj_]c_m \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_mmcih

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood ornamental Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 3 10 6 Collective nature areas 3 6 6 4 6 14 8 community cultivated land 6 4 1 livestock camps (kraal) 6 1 grazing areas 12 5 12 8 4 bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 12 9 8 9 4 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 6 8 2 River (sides) 10 8 9 6 8 2 Fountains (water sources) 4 8 2 Other….. TOTAL 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, \s nb_ four attendants of the session Annex D4 continued

154

PDM session 10; Attendees: 2 women 63 and 62 years old (trustee members), 3 men 61, 74 and 72 years old (members of the trustee), 2 young men 22 and 20 years old. All have a share in Sewefontein

Medicine Constructio houses n Light construction (fencing) tools and Firewood ornamental Traditional uses Overall (present) Food Gansies 3 3 Rooiwortel 3 2 Gwarrie 1 2 1 Pruimboom 40 12 8 Spekboom 10 1 Doringboom 21 33 8 Aalwijn 8 7 Kwenkwebas 1 Groen amara 6 3 Riet 37 2 Swartstorm 2 50 1 Geelkop Dagga 6 2 Kattekruid 2 2 Kaggeltee 1 1 Rooikareebos 1 Rodenbag 5 1 Perdepis 7 2 Kershout 2 1 Bloubos 13 29 1 Braambos 5 1 Other 1 1 50 1 TOTAL 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\uted amongst the relevant plant species by the four attendants of the session

Medicine Construction houses Light construction (e.g. fencing)and tools Firewood ornamental Recreation Overall (present) Food private garden (individuals) 8 2 8 3 Collective nature areas 5 4 12 3 community cultivated land 12 4 3 livestock camps (kraal) 1 1 1 3 grazing areas 3 10 20 3 bushveld (spekboom sites on slopes) 1 10 3 10 1 5 7 3 Fynbos (on top of the hill or mountain 1 5 3 10 1 5 3 River (sides) 2 4 8 8 4 13 3 Fountains (water sources) 8 10 3 Other….. 3 TOTAL 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Nog\_lm mbiq nb_ [giohn i` ‘j_\\f_m’ ^cmnlc\on_^ ni nb_ f[h^ nsj_m & om_m, \s nb_ `iol [nn_h^[hnm i` nb_ m_ssion Annex D4 continued

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T[\f_: R_mjihm_m ni nb_ ko_mncih ‚qbs cm B[pc[[hmefii` [ aii^ fcpcha [l_[?‛

Responses Percent of N Percent Cases Why live in quiet 10 11.5% 30.3% Baviaanskloof?(a) grew up here 21 24.1% 63.6% family is here 16 18.4% 48.5% beautiful area 7 8.0% 21.2% safe 7 8.0% 21.2% job is here 2 2.3% 6.1% clean air 8 9.2% 24.2% clean water 13 14.9% 39.4% plan to move 3 3.4% 9.1% Total 87 100.0% 263.6% NB: respondents were allowed to mention three reasons; some respondents only gave one or two reasons, others gave three.

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Annex D4 continued

T[\f_: R_mjihm_m ni nb_ ko_mncih ‚qbs cm B[pc[[hmefii` [ aii^ fcpcha [l_[?‛ ^cpc^_^ oj ni a_h^_l [h^ [a_ aliojm age Male/ female Total male female male aged 15-25 Why Baviaanskloof? quiet .0% 5.0% 5.0% grew up here 15.0% 15.0% 30.0% family is here 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% beautiful area 15.0% 5.0% 20.0% safe 5.0% 5.0% 10.0% clean water .0% 5.0% 5.0% plan to move 15.0% .0% 15.0% Total 55.0% 45.0% 100.0% aged 26-35 Why live in grew up here 22.2% .0% 22.2% Baviaanskloof?(a) family is here .0% 22.2% 22.2% safe .0% 11.1% 11.1% clean water 11.1% 22.2% 33.3% job is here 11.1% .0% 11.1% Total 44.4% 55.6% 100.0% 1 0 1 aged 36-45 Why Baviaanskloof? quiet 12.5% .0% 12.5% grew up here .0% 12.5% 12.5% family is here 12.5% 12.5% 25.0% clean water .0% 25.0% 25.0% job is here 12.5% .0% 12.5% clean air .0% 12.5% 12.5% Total 37.5% 62.5% 100.0% aged 46-55 Why Baviaanskloof? quiet 6.7% 6.7% 13.3% grew up here 6.7% 20.0% 26.7% family is here 13.3% 13.3% 26.7% safe .0% 6.7% 6.7% clean water 6.7% 6.7% 13.3% clean air 6.7% 6.7% 13.3% Total 40.0% 60.0% 100.0% aged 56-65 Why Baviaanskloof? quiet 6.7% 6.7% 13.3% grew up here 6.7% 13.3% 20.0% family is here .0% 13.3% 13.3% beautiful area 6.7% 6.7% 13.3% safe 13.3% 6.7% 20.0% clean water 13.3% .0% 13.3% clean air .0% 6.7% 6.7% Total 46.7% 53.3% 100.0% aged above 65 Why Baviaanskloof? quiet 15.0% 5.0% 20.0% grew up here 15.0% 10.0% 25.0% family is here 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% beautiful area 5.0% .0% 5.0% clean water 10.0% 5.0% 15.0% clean air 20.0% .0% 20.0% Total 70.0% 30.0% 100.0%

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Annex D5: participatory mapping (sketching) exercises

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Annex D5 continued

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Annex D6: information on the Working for Water Programme

Invasive alien plants (IAPs) are the single biggest threat to plant and animal biodiversity with the potential to cause the extinction of indigenous plants and animals. In addition, invasive alien plants impact on water supply by depleting this scarce resource to sustain themselves and by contributing to soil erosion, leading to siltation and lowered water quality and increasing treatment costs. The Working for Water (WfW) programme was conceived by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) to tackle the problem of invasive alien plants. The programme is funded by the Poverty Relief fund and persons employed in the programme are drawn from communities surrounding the area in which work is being undertaken. The programme stipulates that women must comprise 60 percent of the work force. The objectives of the WfW programme are:  Hydrological: To enhance water security and to promote equitable access to water, and its efficient and sustainable use and supply;  Ecological: To improve the ecological integrity of natural systems;  Social: To optimise the social benefits by developing a community-based public works programme that invests in the marginalised-sectors of society;  Natural Resources: To restore the productive potential of land by removing alien vegetation, and to promote the sustainable use of natural resources; and  Economic: To realise the economic potential which can be derived from clearing, using and adding value to this vegetation.

Source: http://www.umgeni.co.za/Work%20for%20Water53.aspx

Working for Water has been accused, even by `lc_h^fs ]lcnc]m, i` ‚nlscha ni m[p_ nb_ qilf^ ih [ mchaf_ \o^a_n.‛1 It is certainly one of the most ambitious programs of its kind. Indeed, there is nothing in the world quite like it, and it is widely seen as a model for combining ecological, economic, and social goals elsewhere. Working for Water, which employed 32,000 people on a budget of $66 million last year, has become a test case for the restoration of natural, social, and human capital in a developing country. WFW is one of the examples most often cited by a new _hpclihg_hn[f fi\\s Glioj nb[n [^pi][n_m nb_ ‚l_mnil[ncih i` h[nol[f ][jcn[f‛ (RNC). This lobby seeks to unite economists and ecologists, drawing on both disciplines to make innovative and urgent arguments for sustainable om_ i` nb_ _[lnb’m resources.

Source: Woodworth (2006)

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Annex D7: thicket species and their cultural/traditional uses by coloured communities

African name of plant Latin name Parts used/ purpose of use Goeghoems/ Ghuna Carpobrotus delicious  Leafs are used to wash babiem’ mi[l gionbm (qb_h n__nb [l_ ]igcha nblioab)  Chewing the leafs helps to stop diarrhoea and helps with stomach problems Swartstorm Cadaba aphylla  A tea is made of the seeds to treat headaches and air in stomach  Tb_ qii^ cm \olh_^ ni ]b[m_ ‘niee_fimmc_’ away  Occasionally this plant species is used to treat strokes Riet Phragmites australis  The whole plant is used for the construction of walls  Used as decoration in the church or at home (the plant is given colours) Besemplant Restio The whole plant is used to make brooms Kaggeltee Cliffortia ilicifolia A tea is made from the leafs to treat women pains Geelkop dagga Leonotis ocymifolia A tea is made from the leafs to treat chest pains Groen amara Artemisia absinthium (popular) A tea is made from the leafs to treat stomach cramps Kattekruid Ballota africana To treat stomach ulcers (when possible used together with stinkkruid) Kopieva Bulbine abyssinica Back ache and flu Perdepis Clausena anisata Leafs are used to treat flu Perboonbas Schotia afra Mashed bark is used to make a tea to treat bronchitis Kwenkwebas Pittosporum viridiflorum  Parts of the bark are made into powder to make tea for the treatment of stomach aches  Leafs are put in the ears of young children to treat ear infections Rooiwortel Bulbine latifolia The root is boiled and a tea is made to treat kidney pains and back pains Gansie Sutherlandia  The whole tree is used to treat Diabetes frutescens  Combined with Teucrium trifidum and Coriaceus lichen it makes a tea to treat cancer Pruimboom Pappea Capensis  The fruits are eaten  The leafs are used to make a tea to treat flu and coughing  The best wood to make a fire because the coals last long Aalwijn Aloe Ferox  Pills are made from the liquid of the leafs (mixed with flour) and is used for the stomach (aches, constipation, to clean stomach) and to clean the blood. It is also occasionally used to treat colds.  Te leaf of the aloe is put in the water used for livestock to prevent ticks Doringhout Acacia Karoo  Wooden parts are used for firewood  Bark is used to make tea and treat soar tonsils  Used for fencing and the frames of the houses Kiesieblaar Malva parvifolia Leafs are used to rub on soar skin Klipblom Coriaceus lichen The parts are boiled and people chew the substance for treating toothaches and/or headache Stinkkruid Oncosiphon piliferum The leafs are used to make a tea for treating maagzweer Oondbossie Conyza scabrida  A tea is made from the leafs to treat flu  The leafs are put on the chest  The liquid of the leafs are put on the forehead to treat headaches

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Stinkpatat Cyphia A tea is made to treat stomach aches and stomach air Davidtjie Cissampelos capensis Powder made from the root is used together with the root of rooiwortel to treat back aches Watmalwa Clean woman parts after birth is given (used together with Vaatbossie) Vaatbossie Used together with Watmalwa Mierpas Back ache Vlaksalie Salvia repens  A n_[ cm g[^_ `lig nb_ f_[`m ni nl_[n nb_ qig[h j[lnm, [h^ ni nl_[n \[\c_m’ mnig[]b jli\f_gm  Occasionally this species is used for decoration or taken for its pleasant odour Bloubos Diospyros lycioides  Wood is used to build houses  When there is no reed this species is used for fencing and sweeping Gwarrie Euclea undulata  Tea is made from the leafs to treat flu and cold (for babies the leafs are put on the chest to treat cold)  Firewood Kershout Pterocelastrus tricuspidatus  The wood is used as firewood  Liquids of the leafs and bark are used to wash hair and face Tjessieblaar The leafs are used to wrap around wounds Stinkpatat The leafs are used to make a tea for treating maagzweer Katjiedrieblaar Teucrium trifidum  Woman aches and stomach aches are treated with a tea made from the leafs (occasionally together with Hermannia althaeoides)  Tuberculosis is being treated with a tea from mashed bark and leafs, mashed ostrich eggs and the sprouts of Olea europaea (subsp. africana Mill)  Together with Kaggeltee (Cliffortia ilicifolia) this plant species serves as a fertilizer for women Braambos Pegolettia baccaridifolia Ears, fever, stomach, tuberculosis Rooikareebos Rhus lancea The leafs are used to make a tea for the treatment of kidney problems, and to treat prostate problems Spanjool Withania somnifera The leafs are boiled and mashed, and put on infections Vleikalmoes Dietes  The root is put in water, and the substance is used to treat stomach problems  Used to treat oedema Ysterhout Dodonaea angustifolia  Branches and leafs are used to treat the flu for babies  Together with the leafs of Pappea Capensis and Euclea undulate a tea is made to treat lung diseases, especially asthma Baarbossie Hermannia althaeoides Katdoring Asparagus suaveolens Together with Teucrium trifidum a tea is made out of the leafs to treat tuberculosis, cancer and woman pregnancy Witgatboom Boscia oleoides  N_p_l om_^ `il `cl_qii^ [m nb_ mgie_ cm ^[ha_liom [h^ \lcham ‘\[^ fo]e’ Spekboom Portulacaria Afra  Food for goats  ‘Sh[]e’  Mashed leafs are put on burned skin Bloekomboom Eucalyptus Building material Kurkey Bark of the tree is used to treat prostate problems Willeals Mentha longifolia L. A tea is made to treat amongst others coughs, colds, asthma and headaches

Harlemensies Lachenalia haarlemenis The leaf of the plant is baked with flour, the mixture is put on burn wounds

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Annex D8: overview of socio-cultural valuation by farmers and coloured inhabitants of the western Baviaanskloof

Farmers Communities

status of status of status of

indicator indicator

Perceived Perceived Perceived

Importance Importance

Appreciation Appreciation Cultural (information) services of the thicket ecosystem A) Aesthetic A1 Physical appearance of wilderness ++ + ++ + +/0 + A2 Presence of scenic drives and routes + + + NI NI NI B) Knowledge & education B1 Knowledge about traditional healing systems NA NA NA ++ NI ++ B2 Scientific research ++ NI +/- NI NI NI B3 Eco tourism/ nature education + NI + + 0/- + B4 Bench marking for ensuring resource availability +++ NI +/- + NI NI C) Cultural heritage C1 Role in cultural landscapes ++ NI ++/- ++ NI ++/- C2 Cultural traditions (activities) ++ NI ++ ++ NI ++ C3 traditional resource use NA NA NA +++ ++ +/-- C4 Socio-culturally / traditionally significant species NA NA NA + + + C5 UNESCO world heritage listing NI NA + NI NI NI D) Spiritual/ religious values D1 Presence of sacred sites or features + NI +/0 ++ NI ++ D2 Oral tradition & stories NA NA NA + NI NI D3 Traditional healing systems NA NA NA ++ NI ++ E) R_f[r[ncih [h^ _hdisg_hn i` ‘`l__ ncg_’ E1 Suitability/capacity to provide for (traditional) recreational activities ++ NI ++ + NI + F) Inspirational & expression F1 Use of nature as motive in books, film, painting, music ++ NI ++ NA NA NA F2 Use of nature in architecture, decoration, advertising etc. ++ NI ++ NA NA NA G) Sense of place G1 Story lines, generational history ++ NA ++ ++ NA ++ G2 Cohesion of family, social or cultural groups ++ ++ NI ++ ++ NI G3 Caring for country ++ ++ NI + NI NI H) Peace & reconciliation H1 Boarder crossing resource sharing +++ ++/- NA +++ ++/- NA H2 Reconciliation between social and cultural groups ++ ++ NA ++ ++/- NA H3 Increased social integration + + + NI NI NI Production services of the thicket ecosystem I) Food I1 Suitability/capacity of natural system to provide for harvesting of wild edible NA NA NA +/0 NI NI fruits I3 The use of the natural system to cultivate crops (subsistence farming) NA NA NA +++ + +++ J) Water supply J1 Provision, and the filtering, retention and storage of fresh water for domestic +++ +/- +++ +++ ++/-- +++ and agricultural uses

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Annex D8 continued

Farmers Communities

status of status of status of

indicator indicator

Perceived Perceived Perceived

Importance Importance

Appreciation Appreciation K) Medicinal resources K1 Suitability/capacity of natural system to provide health services NA NA NA +++ ++/- +++ K2 Restorative and regenerative effects on people such as decreased level of ++ NI ++ NI NI NI stress and mental fatigue K3 Decreased need for health care services and medication NA NA NA ++ NI ++ Regulation services of the thicket ecosystem L) Air quality L1 Role of the natural system in regulation of CO2 + NI + NI NI NI L2 Role of the natural system in providing good air quality NI NI NI ++ ++ ++ Habitat services of the thicket ecosystem M) Refugium services M1 Continuous suitability and capacity of the natural system to maintain + NI + +/0 NI +/0 biodiversity M2 Suitability/capacity of natural system to support lives of livestock and wild +++ NI +++ +++ +++ +++ animal species that can be hunted or fished V[fo[ncih i` ‘ch^c][nilm i` mi]ci-]ofnol[f cgjiln[h]_’ \s \inb `[lg_lm [h^ ]iggohcnc_m. +++ = p_ls go]b/bcab, ++ = much/high, + = relatively much/high, 0 = neutral, - = relatively little/low, -- = little/low, --- = very little/low. NB: some indicators are differently valued amongst individuals which is indicated with both positive and negative valuations. Based on Best Professional Judgement.

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