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Mapping Natural Language Commands to Web Elements

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Mapping Natural Language Commands to Web Elements Mapping natural language commands to web elements Panupong Pasupat Tian-Shun Jiang Evan Liu Kelvin Guu Percy Liang Stanford University {ppasupat,jiangts,evanliu,kguu,pliang}@cs.stanford.edu Abstract 1 The web provides a rich, open-domain envi- 2 3 ronment with textual, structural, and spatial properties. We propose a new task for ground- ing language in this environment: given a nat- ural language command (e.g., “click on the second article”), choose the correct element on the web page (e.g., a hyperlink or text box). 4 We collected a dataset of over 50,000 com- 5 mands that capture various phenomena such as functional references (e.g. “find who made this site”), relational reasoning (e.g. “article by john”), and visual reasoning (e.g. “top- most article”). We also implemented and an- 1: click on apple deals 2: send them a tip alyzed three baseline models that capture dif- 3: enter iphone 7 into search 4: follow on facebook ferent phenomena present in the dataset. 5: open most recent news update 1 Introduction Figure 1: Examples of natural language commands on the web page appleinsider.com. Web pages are complex documents containing both structured properties (e.g., the internal tree representation) and unstructured properties (e.g., web pages contain a larger variety of structures, text and images). Due to their diversity in content making the task more open-ended. At the same and design, web pages provide a rich environment time, our task can be viewed as a reference game for natural language grounding tasks. (Golland et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2013; Andreas In particular, we consider the task of mapping and Klein, 2016), where the system has to select natural language commands to web page elements an object given a natural language reference. The (e.g., links, buttons, and form inputs), as illus- diversity of attributes in web page elements, along trated in Figure1. While some commands refer with the need to use context to interpret elements, to an element’s text directly, many others require makes web pages particularly interesting. more complex reasoning with the various aspects Identifying elements via natural language has of web pages: the text, attributes, styles, structural several real-world applications. The main one is data from the document object model (DOM), and providing a voice interface for interacting with spatial data from the rendered web page. web pages, which is especially useful as an as- Our task is inspired by the semantic parsing lit- sistive technology for the visually impaired (Za- erature, which aims to map natural language utter- jicek et al., 1998; Ashok et al., 2014). Another ances into actions such as database queries and ob- use case is browser automation: natural language ject manipulation (Zelle and Mooney, 1996; Chen commands are less brittle than CSS or XPath se- and Mooney, 2011; Artzi and Zettlemoyer, 2013; lectors (Hammoudi et al., 2016) and could gener- Berant et al., 2013; Misra et al., 2015; Andreas and alize across different websites. Klein, 2015). While these actions usually act on We collected a dataset of over 50,000 natural an environment with a fixed and known schema, language commands. As seen in Figure1, the Phenomenon Description Example Amount substring match The command contains only a substring of “view internships with energy.gov” ! “Ca- 7.0 % the element’s text (after stemming). reers & Internship” link paraphrase The command paraphrases the element’s “click sign in” ! “Login” link 15.5 % text. goal description The command describes an action or asks “change language” ! a clickable box with 18.0 % a question. text “English” summarization The command summarizes the text in the “go to the article about the bengals trade” 1.5 % element. ! the article title link element description The command describes a property of the “click blue button” 2.0 % element. relational reasoning The command requires reasoning with an- “show cookies info” ! “More Info” in the 2.5 % other element or its surrounding context. cookies warning bar, not in the news section ordinal reasoning The command uses an ordinal. “click on the first article” 3.5 % spatial reasoning The command describes the element’s po- “click the three slashes at the top left of the 2.0 % sition. page” image target The target is an image (no text). “select the favorites button” 11.5 % form input target The target is an input (text box, check box, “in the search bar, type testing” 6.5 % drop-down list, etc.). Table 1: Phenomena present in the commands in the dataset. Each example can have multiple phenomena. commands contain many phenomena, such as re- the workers to avoid using the exact words of the lational, visual, and functional reasoning, which elements by granting a bonus for each command we analyze in greater depth in Section 2.2. We that did not contain the exact wording of the se- also implemented three models for the task based lected element. Finally, we split the data into 70% on retrieval, element embedding, and text align- training, 10% development, and 20% test data. ment. Our experimental analysis shows that func- Web pages in the three sets do not overlap. tional references, relational references, and visual The collected web pages have an average of reasoning are important for correctly identifying 1,051 elements, while the commands are 4.1 to- elements from natural language commands. kens long on average. 2 Task 2.2 Phenomena present in the commands Apart from referring to the exact text of the el- Given a web page w with elements e1; : : : ; ek and a command c, the task is to select the element e 2 ement, commands can refer to elements in a va- riety of ways. We analyzed 200 examples from fe1; : : : ; ekg described by the command c. The training and test data contain (w; c; e) triples. the training data and broke down the phenomena present in these commands (see Table1). 2.1 Dataset Even when the command directly references the We collected a dataset of 51,663 commands on element’s text, many other elements on the page 1,835 web pages. To collect the data, we first also have word overlap with the command. On av- archived home pages of the top 10,000 websites1 erage, commands have word overlap with 5.9 leaf by rendering them in Google Chrome. After load- elements on the page (not counting stop words). ing the dynamic content, we recorded the DOM 3 Models trees and the geometry of each element, and stored the rendered web pages. We filtered for web pages 3.1 Retrieval-based model in English that rendered correctly and did not con- Many commands refer to the elements by their tain inappropriate content. Then we asked crowd- text contents. As such, we first consider a simple workers to brainstorm different actions for each retrieval-based model that uses the command as a web page, requiring each action to reference ex- search query to retrieve the most relevant element actly one element (of their choice) from the fil- based on its TF-IDF score. tered list of interactive elements (which include Specifically, each element is represented as a visible links, inputs, and buttons). We encouraged bag-of-tokens computed by (1) tokenizing and 1https://majestic.com/reports/majestic-million stemming its text content, and (2) tokenizing the attributes (id, class, placeholder, label, tooltip, aria-text, name, src, href) at punctuation marks and camel-case boundaries. When computing <a class="dd-head" id="tip-link" term frequencies, we downweight the attribute to- href="submit_story/">Tip Us</a> kens from (2) by a factor of α. We use α = 3 Text content: tip us tuned on the development set for our experiments. String attributes: tip link dd head The document frequencies are computed over Visual features: location = (0.53, 0.08) the web pages in the training dataset. If multi- visible = true ple elements have the same score, we heuristically Figure 2: Example of properties used to compute the pick the most prominent element, i.e., the one that embedding g(e) of the element e. appears earliest in the pre-order traversal of the DOM hierarchy. • String attributes. We tokenize other string at- 3.2 Embedding-based model tributes (tag, id, class) at punctuation marks A common method for matching two pieces of and camel-case boundaries. Then we embed text is to embed them separately and then com- them with separate lookup tables and average pute a score from the two embeddings (Kiros et al., the resulting vectors. 2015; Tai et al., 2015). For a command c and el- • Visual features. We form a vector consisting ements e ; : : : ; e , we define the following condi- 1 k of the coordinates of the element’s center (as tional distribution over the elements: fractions of the page width and height) and p (ei j c) / exp [s(f(c); g(ei))] visibility (as a boolean). where s is a scoring function, f(c) is the embed- Scoring function. To compute the score ^ ding of c, and g(ei) is the embedding of ei, de- s(f(c); g(e)), we first let f(c) and g^(e) be the scribed below. The model is trained to maximize results of normalizing the two embeddings to the log-likelihood of the correct element in the unit norm. Then we apply a linear layer on training data. the concatenated vector [f^(c);g ^(e); f^(c) ◦ g^(e)] (where ◦ denotes the element-wise product). Command embedding. To compute f(c), we embed each token of c into a fixed-dimensional Incorporating spatial context.
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