CHAPTER - 2 PROFILES OF INGREDIENTS USED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF FORMULATIONS OF THE BARK OF Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. FOR ANTIFERTILITY ACTIVITY a. Profile of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. b. Profile of Sesamum indicum Linn. c. Profile of shellac from insects Laccifer lacca Kerr. Profiles of ingredients
Profiles of ingredients used for development of formulations of the bark of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. for antifertility activity : Three ingredients were required for the present study viz; stem bark of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam., oil expressed from ripe seeds of different varieties of Sesamum indicum Linn, and shellac obtained from the female insects of Laccifer lacca Kerr breeding on a healthy host plant. Each of these ingredients is official in different pharmacopoeias and also finds mention in various standard texts. The following sections encompass an elaborate review of the traditional as well as contemporary literature available on them. a. Profile of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. is locally known as Bor (Marathi), Ber (Hindi) or Badari (Sanskrit). It is a common tree known to every nook and corner of Indian subcontinent due to its edible fruits. It has long standing history right from Ramayan and Mahabharat. Veda Vyas is known as Badarayan since he was residing in Badari grove. The site Badarinath a well-known pilgrimage center is named after "Badari" (Sane, 1996:34).
Monograph of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. stem bark (Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, 2001:96-97). Both the bark and fixiits of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. are official in Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Microscopic description of the stem bark : Stem bark shows a thick portion of rhytidoma, made up of about 25-30 alternate bands of cork and dead cells of secondary cortex and secondary phloem; cork consists of thin walled rectangular, about 5-6 layered, crushed, parenchymatous cells, mostly filled with dark brown pigment. Secondary cortex consists of round, oval and crushed rectangular cells; groups of stone cells, fibers and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate scattered throughout rhytidoma. Secondary phloem consists of sieve elements, phloem fibers, crystal fibers, phloem parenchyma, a few stone cells, and phloem rays. Phloem fibers are arranged in alternate bands with phloem parenchyma, which consists of rectangular thin walled cells, a few contain prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. The crystal fibers are divided into numerous chambers each
46 Profiles of ingredients
containing single prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate. Phloem rays are uni- seriate to bi-seriate, up to 10 cells in height, consist of round, thin walled parenchymatous cells, stone cells, mostly rectangular, occur associated in groups of 2-4 with bands of phloem fibers. Powder microscopy: It is reddish- brown, carries fragments of cork cells, phloem fibers with wide lumen and pointed tips, crystal fibers, phloem rays, rectangular stone cells and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Standards for identity, purity and strength of stem bark oiZizyphus mauritiana Lam. Foreign matter- Not more than 2% Total ash- Not more than 13% Acid insoluble ash- Not more than 15% Alcohol soluble extractive- Not less than 6% Water soluble extractive- Not less than 6% TX.C. of stem bark: T.L.C. of the alcoholic extract on silica gel plate using chloroform: methanol (95:5) shows under U. V. (366nm) a fluorescent zone at Rf 0.84 (light blue). On exposure to iodine vapour, two spots appear at Rf 0.80 and 0.84 (both yellow). On spraying with Dragendorff reagent followed by S% methanolic- sulphuric acid a spot appears at Rf 0.84 (orange). Constituents: Tannins, alkaloids. Properties and Actions: Rasa: Kas'aya (astringent) Guna: Laghu, Ruks'a (lightness, non-unctuousness or drying) Virya: Sheeta (cold) Vipaka: Katu (pungent) Karma: Visphotasamana (reducing eruptions), Stambhana (checking /arresting) Vranashodhana ( wound healing). Important Formulations: Nyagrodadhi Kwath and Chuma. Therapeutic uses: Tvakya (treating skin diseases), Raktatisara (treating blood dysentery), Vrana (wound healing).
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Fig. 2.1 : Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. located at Pune (M.S.) - Source tree Origin of the name : Zizyphus (an Arabic name Latinized) comes from the Arabic word Zizouf which means nut bearing lotus. Zizyphon is a Greek word for jujube or edible plum like fruit. Zizyphwn, the Latin word means the same. Linnaeus named it Rhamnus zizyphus but Lamarck gave the species its current name (Gandhi, 1991:368-370). History and mythological references : Yajurved mentions uses of fruits of Badari. In great epics, Ramayan and Mahabharat the fruits had important place even in social customs. In description of Chitrakut city, a number of fruit bearing trees have been mentioned including Badari. One more story from Ramayan describes the plant in following context: Sita had disappeared from the forest. Ram and Lakshaman looked for her anxiously but they did not know which direction to take. As they searched, they heard a small ill-kempt Ber tree call out to them and tell Ram that it saw Sita being carried away. While passing by that tree, it tried to catch her
48 Profiles of ingredients garment to stop her. But its branches were quite weak because of which the tree failed to do so and could succeed only in tearing her garment. Ram was pleased with its courage and blessed it with great strength to remain almost immortal. A famous story about Shabari, a tribal woman who was blessed by Ram also makes a detailed reference to the Ber tree as follows; Malini was the daughter of Gandharva king Chitravacha. She was cursed to be bom in the tribe of forest dwellers for the reason of being unfaithful to her husband Vitihotra. Lord Vishnu as Ram would take her curse away. She was rebom as Shabari near the forest hermitage of Sage Matang. She served his devotees and spent her days awaiting the arrival of Lord Ram. While hunting for Sita, Ram and Lakshaman came across her humble dwelling. Shabari was overjoyed at this honor and rushed inside her hut to find something to offer to the royal visitors. She had only a few fruits of Ber tree, which she offered to them (Gandhi, 1991: 368-370). In Maurya Sunga period one finds authentic data about fruits of Badari. In Kautilya's Arthashastra, there is a group of sour fiuits-Kola, Badari and Sauviraka. Patanjali, in his work Mahabhasya, mentioned various fiiaits including Badara, Kuvala and Karkandhu. During the Gupta and post Gupta period a good deal of literature was produced in various fields that included information about the plant of Badari. In Caraka Samhita, the contexts of fiaiit classes- Phalavarga have been arranged according to Rasa i.e. taste. The fruits of Badara and Kuvala have been described in the Amlavarga i.e. belonging to class of sour tasting fiuits. The variety Kola has been mentioned in preparation of Panaka (syrups). Kuvala and Badara are mentioned in the chapter of Mahakas'ayas. A grove of Badari trees at the foot of the Himalayas was chosen for the hermitage of the two great saints, Nara and Narayana, the latter being an incarnation of Lord Vishnu (Bal, 1997:275-287). Badara has been menfioned in Upanishads. The Rishies in Badarinath used to survive on fiuits of Badara. Sus'rta has also described properties of Bijamajja (endosperm) of certain fruits including Badari. In Sus'rta Samhita five varieties of Badara have been
49 Profiles of ingredients
enumerated viz: Badara, Kola, Karkandhu, Sauvira and Sincitikaphala. The fruits of Badara, Kola and Karkandhu are in decreasing order of size. Badara is cultivated and sweet. Kola is both cultivated and occurs wild with sweet and sour taste. Karkandhu is wild and has smallest and sour fruits. The powder of Karkandhu (Bairacuma) is used as Prasad in temple of Vaidyanatha Dhama (Bihar). Dalhana describes Sauvira as the biggest in size, sweet in both unripe and ripe stages. It grows in desert area and is known as Unnao in North West region. He also describes Sincitikaphala as the variety of Sauvira or Badara, which is very sweet, handful in size and grows in North Himalayan region. Thus, botanically these varieties can be described as follows, Badara- Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Kola- Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Karkandhu- Zizyphus numularia Burmf / Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. Sauvira/ Kuvala- Zizyphus jujuba Mill. Sincitikaphala- Zizyphus jujuba Mill. Gopaghonta- Ghonta/Kakoda is nonedible and it is Zizyphus xylopyra Willd. The Ber tree is a part of folklore in North India especially in Punjab. It is considered to be unlucky if planted within the house as it is supposed to make the inhabitants quarrel. The "Dukhbhanjani" or sorrow-removing tree of Golden Temple in Amritsar, which is revered by the Sikhs, is actually a 400years old Bor tree known as Ber Baba Buddha Sahib. It is the oldest Ber tree of India (Sharma, 1979: 21-22). The fruits from Rahuri, Ahmednagar were famous in the periods of Peshawa reign in Maharashtra (Paranjape, 1950: 392-392). Apparently the formal cultivation of this plant began when a Muslim contractor won an innam or the reward, when he presented a hybrid variety of the fruit to Raja Raghoji Bhonsale-II of Ahmednagar (Maharashtra). All these reports denote existence and utility of this tree since ancient times. Taxonomy: Zizyphus Class: Dicotyledon Subclass: Polypetalae Order/ cohort: Celastrales
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Family: Rhamnaceae Genus: Zizyphus Species: mauritiana Lam. Synonyms : Z. vulgaris Lam., Z. jujube Lam., Z sororia Roema Schultz. Sanskrit names: Ajapriya, Badara, Badarah, Badari, Balashta, Dridhbija, Dvipami, Ghonta, Giddanakha, Gudaphala, Kantaki, Karkandhuh, Karkamadhu, Kolah, koli, Kuvala, Kuvali, Madhurphala, mahadebara, Nakhi, Nripabadari, Nripeshta, Prithukoli, Phalashayashira, Rajabadara, Rajabadari, Rajakoli, Rajkola, Rajavallabha, Sauvira, Sincitikaphala, Soubira, Souvirabadaram, Sukshmapatrika, Srigalkoli, Svaccha, Sukrapriya, Sukshmaphala, Suphala, Tanubija, Ubhayakantaka. Latin name: Z. jujube English names: Chinese date, Chinese fig, jujube. Indian names: Assam : Bagori, Bayur Bengali: Kula Gujarati: Bor Hindi: Desi Ber Kannad : Boennumara Marathi: Bor Malayalam: Illantai, Lanta Oriya : Borakali Punjabi: Desi ber Telugu : Regu, Regi Tamil : Illandai Urdu : Ber Zizyphus belongs to order Rhamnales, which contains two families, Rhamnaceae and Vitaceae. The rhamnaceae family is of 59 genera and 900 species. The genera include Rhamnus (110 species), Zizyphus (170 species), Suitia (9 species) and Discaria (10 species). The constituents of rhamnaceae family include anthraquinones, anthranols and their glycosides, terpenoids, triterpenoid saponins and alkaloidal peptides in some genera. Zizyphus is a genus of glabrous shrubs or trees, commonly known as jujubes distributed in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions. It includes important medicinal plants. Some medicinally useful species found in India are Zizyphus jujuba Zizyphus fructus Zizyphus vulgaris Zizyphus lotus Zizyphus rugosa
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The genus could be grouped in two sections: Zizyphus with a glabrous body and deciduous fruiting branchlets and found mainly in the temperate zone, and section Perdurance which has at least two types of pilose organs and persistent fruiting branchlets and found mainly in tropical and sub-tropical zones. Flavonoid distribution in 59 Z mauritiana cultivars and wild species, Z numularia and Z mauritiana var rotundifolia was determined by Vashishtha et al. in 1989 in the leaves of 4-5 year old trees. Correlation between flavonoid composition and growth habit in Z mauritiana and its two wild types were also suggested. Liu (1990) reviewed the advances in the study on the distribution and sub genus division system of genus Zizyphus (Bose and Mitra, 2002:211, Trease and Evans, 2007: 28-29). Habit: It is a small deciduous tree with dense spreading globular crown. It can also occur as middle-sized, occasionally exceptionally giant tree. Habitat: The tree is found wild, selni -wild and cultivated in many parts of India & Myanmar. It is common all over India, cultivated in gardens or found wild in waste places. It occurs in open dry forests and also on poor soil and on rocky substratum (Nadkami, 2002: 1546-1547, Joshi, 2000:332). Distribution : It is indigenous and naturalized throughout India (Fig. 2.2). Occurs in outer Himalayas up to 1400m, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China, Africa, Australia and Afghanistan. (Agharkar, 1953: 231-234). In India, it is cultivated on an estimated area of 12000 hectares. Most widely cultivated in plains of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and U.P. also in Bihar, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, Assam (Bose, 2002:209-215).
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state wise disiibution of various cultivated species of Zyzphus
ASSAM • . • Dispui/iNAGALAND JiLJ (• l^phal AVAC^J MANIPUR
^S^MJZORAM
ARABIAN SEA
BAY OF BENGAL
J RNATAKA^ jigaloret 0 hennai t g LAKSHAOWEEP Port Blair _ „ - '(Madras/ "*^ PONDICHERRY r, MAKE\ r I ',Pjduchcheiy) (Pondichei?y; V. I TAMILNADIT- KARAIKAL ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS KERALO ^ (PondichBfly)
Map not to Scale Thiruvananthapuranr Fig. 2.2 : State-wise distribution of various cultivated species of Zizyphus.
Morphology of plant: Stem : The trunk is with blackish brown to dark brown bark. The irregular cracks in the bark form a sort of reticulum on the surface. The branches are armed with spines in pairs. One member of the pair is almost straight. Young branches are finely pubescent with brownish white tomentum, at length glabrous. Older branches are brownish in color and punctuated with lenticels. Intemode spacing is variable from 3cm-8cm. Bark: Bark is available in pieces of variable length, usually 0.6-1.0 cm thick, external surface is blackish gray, hard, rough due to deep furrows and fissures, it exfoliates in irregular scales and exposes inner brownish-red fibrous zones.
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Fig. 2.3 : Piece of collected bark of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (outer surface)
Fig. 2.4 : Piece of collected bark of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (inner surface).
Fig. 2.5 : Separated bark Fig. 2.6 : Powdered bark
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Leaves
Fig.2.7 : Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. - Twig
Leaves are alternate, distichous, stipular spines 1-2 mm, one of them is straight and the other one is hook-like. Petiole is tomentose, short (l-2mm approximately), grooved or channeled. Lamina is simple, asymmetrical, ovate, oblong to sub orbicular 3-5cm by 2-3cm approximately. Margins are entire, finely serrulate with three conspicuous veins spreading on the lamina. The veins are conspicuous on lower surface. Apex is rounded, obtuse or acute. Upper surface is dull green and almost glabrous while underside is densely white or tawny and tomentose.
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Flowers:
Fig. 2.8 : Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. - Flowers.
Flowers are 3.8-5.0 mm in diameter, greenish in colour and occur in dense axillary tomentose cymes or fascicles. Inflorescences are minute, almost sessile in short axillary clusters. Each flower has five sepals, which are triangular in shape and are minutely fragrant. Calyx is triangular and somewhat fleshy. Petals are five in number, free, sub spathulate and alternating with sepals. They arise from margin of the disc. Stamens are five in number and are placed opposite to petals. Styles are two. Ovary is embedded in the disc, is two celled and contains one ovule in each cell.
36 Profiles of ingredients
Fruits:
[Fruits cf Zizyphus mauritianaLam
Fig. 2.9 : Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. - Fruits.
Fruits are globular with l-5cm diameter, yellow or orange coloured at maturity. The single stone is embedded in buff coloured flesh that is sweet sour in taste. The stone has wrinkled surface.
Parts used : Bark, Leaves, Fruits and Seeds Cultivation practices : The Ber plants can be planted in Feb-March and again in Aug-September. Plants are irrigated after every 4-6 days at least during the first two months and every 10 days for another 3-4 months. Ber is widely cultivated throughout India (Table No.2.1). The cultivation of Ber has received a great impetus as a commercial crop in North India especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan because of its potential for high yields and excellent economic returns. It has least irrigation requirements.
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Table No. 2.1: Area under cultivation and production details of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. State Area( Hectors) Production (MT) Gujarat 13868 166416 Haryana 3154 34749 Maharashtra 37269 3540555 Peninsular 3000 24500 India Punjab 3000 22000 Rajasthan 988 9386
(Bose, 1987:211).
Soil: Because of its hard nature and tap root system this tree can be grown in a wide range of soil, including porous and infertile soils unsuitable for major fruit and other crops. It can be grown in alkaline soils characterized by high pH and sodicity. However, sandy loam soils with neutral or slightly alkaline pH are more suitable for good growth of plants. Climate : Ber is found growing under varying climatic conditions almost throughout India. However, temperature below freezing is injurious to the fruits as well as to young plants. Irrigation : Owing to very deep tap root system and xerophytic nature, the plant needs very little care and irrigation once established. It does not need any irrigation during period of fruit maturation. Propagation : The seeds of Z mauritiana Lam. are generally used for raising rootstock. Trees produced from seedlings yield fruits of inferior quality and of small size. Hence, vegetative propagation by cutting, layering and budding is an important method to raise the plantation (Bose, Mitra, 2002:209-215). Harvesting: The first crop is harvested within two-three years of plantation. Fruits mature after 22-26 weeks after fruit setting. Peak season for harvesting in North India is mid March-mid April. Ber trees are regular and heavy bearers. Sorting is carried out to remove culled, under-sized, under-ripe, over-ripe and bird-
58 Profiles of ingredients damaged fruits. Fruits are graded as large, medium and small size. The ripe fruits of Umran variety can be stored for three weeks in home refrigerator (0- 4.0 °C) in perforated polyethylene bags (Bal, 1997: 275-287). Plant diseases and pests : Powdery mildew, black leaf spot are the most common diseases while the grey hairy caterpillar, fruit fly, gall-forming eriophyde mites, tortoise beetles who damage foliage and parakeets are some major pests infesting the tree in various parts of the country (The Wealth of India, Supplement series, 1972: 422-423). Species and cultivars of Zizyphus : The genus Zizyphus belongs to family Rhamnaceae and consists of 40 species in tropical and subtropical regions of Northern hemisphere. There are more than 125 cultivars grown in India, which have been developed by selection in different regions. Zizyphus jujuba and Zizyphus mauritiana are two important species of Ber. Z. mauritiana is more common in tropical and subtropical regions while Z^ jujuba is found in temperate parts. Z jujuba commonly known as Chinese jujube, is a small upright tree (6-8m high) with bright green leaves which are glabrous on their under surface. This species is deciduous and has oblong or ovoid fruits. Z mauritiana commonly known as Indian Ber is a vigorous growing small spreading tree. The species is evergreen and the leaves are densely tomentose on their under surface. The fruits are round to oval and greenish yellow to reddish brown in color. Table Nos. 2.2 and 2.3 enlist six economically important species of Zizyphus and the commercial cultivars grown in India respectively.
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Table No. 2.2 : Economically important species of Zizyphus grown in India. Species Natural Economic uses distribution/cultivation Z. mauritiana Lam. Native of China, now Fruits edible, leaves used grown in Punjab, as fodder, and bark used Rajasthan, Bihar, Uttar for tanning. Pradesh.
Z numularia Burmf. Northwest India, Andhra Fruits edible and bark used (Z. rotundifolia) Pradesh. for tanning.
Z. oenoplia Mill. North India, Peninsular Fruits edible and bark used India. for tanning.
Z. rugosa Lam. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Fruits edible. Madhya Pradesh, Western Peninsula. Z sativa Gaertn. Punjab, Bengal. Fruits edible. Z xylopyms Willd. Madhya Pradesh. Host tree for lac producing insects, bark is used for tanning.
Table No. 2.3 : Commercial cultivars of Zizyphus grown in different states of India. State Early season Mid season Late season cultivars cultivars cultivars Gujarat Mehrun Ajmeli, Chameli, Randeri Haryana Gola, Safeda, Kaithili, Sanaur-5, Umran. Sandhura, Seo, Chonchal, Namaul. Muria, Mahrara. Maharashtra Shamber, Badami, Mehrun, Darakhi, Manuki, Guli. Kharki. Punjab Nazuk, Noki, Seo, Banarasi, Dandan, Umran, Ilaichi, Rohataki Gola, Kaithili, Sanaur-2, Selected Safeda, Pathan, ZG2, ZG3. Sandhura, Namaul. Walaiti.
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State Early season Mid season Late season cultivars cultivars cultivars Rajasthan Gola, Seb, Seo. Jogia, Mundia, Katha, Bagwadi, Tikadi. Maharwali.
Uttar Pradesh Narma, Varanasi, Muthia, Muriya Jogia, Aliganj. Delhi Gola, Banarasi Gola.
(Bose, Mitra, 2002: 209-215). Chemical constituents : Various chemical constituents present in the plant have been reported (Table No.2.4).
Table No. 2.4 : Chemical constituents reported in various parts of Zizyphus tree.
Plant Part Reported Chemical Constituents Reference Seeds Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, Joshi, 2000: 332. aminoacids, anthocyanins Seed oil-CIS unsaturated oil B-sitosterol Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2001:719.
Triterpene saponins-jujubosides A &B Dammarane saponins-jujuboside B Flavonoid -saponins Chemical Abstract 1988, 108,568q.
Zizogenin Phyto 1979,18,1758. Leucoanthocyanins, catechins, two Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1992:163- cytokinin like compounds e.g. Zeatin 164. Cyclic guanosine-3':5'-mono phosphate,carotene,citric,malic acids, folic acid, oleic acid 6'" sinapoyl-6"'feruloyl and 6"'-p- coumaroyl derivatives of spinosin Swertisin Ansari, 2000: 47-57. Vicenin, apigenin(flavonoid) 13- glucopyranosyl, B-glucopyranoside
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Fruits Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, amino Joshi, 2000:332. acids, anthocyanins
Alphitolicacids-pcoumaratesI,II,III Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2001:719. along with betulinic and alphitolic acid
P-coumroylate of maslinic acid. (3-o-cis-p-coumaroyl maslinic acid 3-o- trans p-coumaroyl maslinic acid)
Oleanolic, maslinic and betulonic acids as their methyl esters Zeatin and another cytokinin Chemical Abstract, 1981,94,205529s. Vit A, B2 , C, Ca, P, Fe and complex sugars Tannins Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, 2001:96-97. Ursolic and 2 -hydroxyursolic acid, pyrrolidone alkaloid-daechu alkaloid A, Joshi, 2000:332. Linolic, myristic and palmitic acids. B sitosterol, Stigmasterol ceabothic acid. The mineral composition of wild fruits, Mg, 227.0, Ca, 712.5; Zn, 1.55; Mn, 3.50; Cu, 0.60; Fe, 6.30; and P, 13.0% weight of mesocarp | Bark Leucocyanidine (betulinic and ceabothic Joshi, 2000:332. acid-wood), Leucopelargonidine Alkaloids-Hysodricanine A, mauritine H Rastogi, Mehrotra, 2001: 719. Betulonic acid, lupeol, B sitosterol, its acetate and betuline (stems) Tannin, Crystallizable-zizyphic acid Nadkami, 1976, 2002: 1366. Palmitoleic , vaccenic acids, zizyphus Chatteijee and Pakrashi, 1992:163- pectin A 164. reducing nonreducing sugars, ,niacin,ribloflavine,thiamine,vit C, Vit-P quercetin,alphitolic and maslinic acid and their p-coumaroyl derivatives Cyclopeptide alkaloids-amphibines B, D, F. Frangufoline, mauritines A-F and 13 member Cyclopeptide alkaloid. Novel triterpenes.zizyberanalic acid
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Wood Leucopelargonidine Leaves Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, Joshi, 2000:332. aminoacid, anthocyanins, Rutin Mauritines ABCDEF and frangufoline,amphibines B,D Alkaloids-yuziphine,yuzirin(Hydroxy Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2001:719. isoquinoline compounds) cocIaurine,isoboldine,norisoboldine,asi milobine,n-octacosanol,alphitolic acid and saponins composed of ebelin,lactone,glucose,arabinose and 6- deoxy -L-talose were isolated n-octacosanol,alphitolic acid Chemical Abstract, 1983,98,50447 Saponins composed of ebelin, lactone, V. glucose, arabinose and 6-deoxy -L- talose. Tannins Asimilobine,berbepine,coclaurine,isobol Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1992:163- dine,norisoboldine,protopine,eriodictyol 164. .quercetin-3-0-glucoside,3-0- diglucoside,3-0-rutinoside rhamnetin,rutin,Ziziphin The leaves on fresh basis contain carotenoids, 21.6mg/100gms, 9.3 protein, oxalate, 0.52, nitrate, 0.99, moisture, 55%
Proanthocyanidines and betulinic acid seem to be chemo taxonomically characteristic of Zizyphus species (Porchezhian, Jain and Ansari, 2000: 47-57). Uses and products available : The whole plant has multifarious uses. The wood is considered a valuable timber and used in construction of buildings and for making various agricultural implements. It also makes excellent charcoal. Thorny branches are often used for field fences. It is an excellent host plant for rearing shellac producing insects. Shellac production is an important practice in many states including Maharashtra (Bose, 2002: 590-615). Ber fruit is one of the most nutritious fruits. Ripe fhiit of Umran variety contains amino acids like aspargine, aspartic acid, arginine, glutamic acid, glycine, serine, threonine, alpha alanine, valine, methionine, leucine and isoleucine. Fully mature unripe fruits of Ber can be used for the preparation of murabbha, candy, pickle and chutney. Pulp of juicy varieties is used for
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squash, nectar, and beverage while ripe pulp is canned in sugar syrup or used to prepare jelly or candy. Ber butter can also be prepared. The leaves are used as fodder in the dry regions; Uses in folk, ethno and traditional medicine : Ayurved describes its use as Vatapittaghna (destroying Vata and Pitta), Deepan- increasing gastric fire, Anumolana-demulcent, Vranaropana- healing wounds, Dahasmaka -soothening and Pacana-digestive. The root is bitter, cooling, cures kapha, biliousness and headache. Decoction of roots is used in fever and root powder is applied to old wounds and ulcers. The bark is remedy in diarrhoea and also cures boils. Leaves are bitter, cooling, antipyretic and reduce obesity. They are used as plaster in sfrangury. Fruits are pectoral (remedy for chest diseases), styptic (having property of checking hemorrhage), they aid in digestion and purify blood. They are also aphrodisiac, cooling, anodyne (relieving pain), tonic, laxative and invigorating. The preparation made from fruits "JOSHANDA" is used in chest complaints. Kernels are sedative and are recommended as soporific and are prescribed to stop nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain in pregnancy. Badari is mentioned in old literature in tlie list of contraceptives (Ambasta, 1994:702). Ghruta cooked with the paste of Juniper communis Linn., trikatu i.e. Zingiber officinalis Roscoe. Piper longum Linn, and Piper nigrum Linn., Pishnika {Clerodendron inerme Gaertn.), Chhavya (Piper chababa Hunter), Chitraka {Plumbago zeylanica Linn.), Saindhav (rock salt), Jiraka {Cuminum cyminum Linn.), Pippalimula (Roots of Piper longum Linn.), Yavani (Trachyspermum ammi Linn.) along with juice of Kola {Zizyphus jujuba Lam.) fruits and radish (Raphanus sativus Linn.), milk, curd and pomegranate ( Punica granatum Linn.) is an excellent remedy for Vatagulm i.e. lumps causing obstruction. About three masa (3 gms) quantities of powder of jujube fruits along with three masa (3 gms) of old jaggery when consumed for a few days can effectively reduce bleeding (Raktapradara-menstrual discharge). The powder of dried jujube fruits along with jaggery is administered orally in the treatment of chicken pox. The paste /poultice made of leaves of jujube tree in sesame oil applied externally to dilated vagina to help regain its strength. Also, the foam
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formed by agitating the smashed leaves of Zizyphus jujuba Lam. with rice porridge is used externally to reduce body heat. The paste formed with rock salt and leaves of jujuba roasted in ghee are used as external application in the treatment of hoarse voice (Swarabhed). A paste formed by grinding nine leaves of jujuba tree and a few soap nuts along with curds is also recommended for treating dysmenorrhea. Leaves of jujuba coated with paste of pure Manasheel (Arsenic disulphide) in water are sun dried and then used in cigars for smoking. This is considered to heal severe cough (Mahakasa). Similar uses are mentioned in Unani system of medicine. A decoction made of barks of various trees including Badari {Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.), Bael {Aegle marmalos Corr.;, Palas {Butea monosperma Roxb and Koen) Wata {Ficus benghalensis Linn.), Pimpal {Ficus religiosa Linn.) and young leaves of Jambhul (Syzigium cumuni Skeels), Mango {Mangifer indica Linn.), Jasmine {Jasminum glandiforum Linn.), Kadamba {Neolammarckiana cadamba Miq.) and white Gunja (Abroma augusta Linn.) is a good remedy for treating menstrual disorders. The bark of jujuba tree and shellac reared from insects of Laccifer lacca Kerr breeding on jujuba tree are made into an aqueous decoction. This is recommended for oral consumption during three days of menses for preventing conception in women (Dhamankar, 1968: 560-562). Nyagrodadhi Kwath, a liquid formulation that contains bark of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. along with many other constituents has been prescribed as astringent for treating wounds and joining firactured bones. It is also useful for treating vaginal infections, obesity and diabetes insipidus. It is considered to be Garbhasthapak (supporting implantation), Garbhadhankarak i.e. supporting growth of fetus (Nadkami, 1976: 1316-1317). Reports of research work for antifertility : Gupta, Mazumder and Vamsi (2004:21-25) reported the antisteroidogenic activity for ethyl acetate extract of the bark of Zizyphus jujuba Mill, in adult female mice. They evaluated the anti fertility activity of the same by observing the effects on oestrus cycle, body weights, wet weights of ovaries, titers of steroidogenic enzymes and substrates. Their experiments indicated significant reduction in wet weights of ovaries and arrest of oestrus cycle at diestrus stage after 18 days of treatment. The elevated levels of ascorbic acid and cholesterol
65 Profiles of ingredients in ovaries and the inhibition of two key enzymes involved in ovarian steroidogenesis viz; glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) and 5 delta-3 beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (5 delta 3 beta HSD) supported their conclusion.
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other species of Zizyphus used for medicinal purposes: 1. Zizyphus sativa Gaertn. Synonym: Zizyphus vulgaris Lam., Zizyphus jujuba Mill. Assam: Bagori, Bayur Bengali: Kula Gujarati: Bor Hindi: Desi Ber, Kandiari, Sihjuli unab. Kan: Boennumara Marathi: Bor Malayalam: Illantai, Lanta Oriya: Borakali Reported chemical constituents: Seeds : Seed oil contains mainly Cig fatty acids, beta sitosterol, and phospholipids, seven alkaloids, dammarane type triterpene oligoglycosides A, C and acetyljujuboside B, spinosin, vicenin, apigenin (flavonoid), beta glucopyranosyl and beta glucopyranoside. Roots : Water insoluble fraction of the ethanol extract contains three triterpene esters; 2-0-protocatechuylalphitolic acid, 2 alpha hydroxypyracrenic acid triacetate and 3-0-protocatechuoylceabothic acid. Stem bark: 13 member cyclopeptide alkaloids, N-formyl cyclopeptide sativinine and frangufolin. Leaf: Bases, coclaurine, isoboldine, norisoboldine, norasimilobine. Alkaloids, Yuzuphine (I), Yuzurine (II), C-glycosides, cyclic AMP guanosine 3'5', monophosphate, quercetin 3-0-glucoside, diglucoside rutinoside, rhamnetin, eriodictoyl. Fruits : Stepharine N, neonucierine and asimilobine. Saponins I, II, III and jujuboside B, sugars, amino acids, minerals and volatile constituents.
2) Zizyphus slabrata Heyne
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Synonym: Zizyphus trinervia Roxb Sanskrit names: Vadari, Vatadalla 3) Zizyphus napeca Willd. 4) Zizyphus numularia Wight and Arn. Synonym: Zizyphus microphylla Roxb. Sanskrit names: Ajapriya, Bhubadari, Bhukamtaka, Bhukartaka, Bhurdari Balakpriya, Ghonta, Karkandhu, and Sukshmaphala. Hindi; Jharber Marathi: Junglebor Sanskrit name: Kakoli. Reported chemical constituents: Roots: Cyclopeptide alkaloids; nummularines D, E, F frangufolin, amphibine A, integerrenine, mauritine F, dimer lapachol saponins. Stem bark: Peptide alkaloids; nummularines G, H, K, M, N, B, O, T, R, S, cyclopeptide alkaloids; O, P, E, mauritine D, frangufolin, spirostane, nummularogenin, taxifolin, mamogeninsitosterol, stigmasterol and their glycosides, betulinic, ceabothic and oleanolic acid. Leaves: dammarane type saponins; zizynummin. 5) Zizyphus oenoDlia Mill. Synonym: Rhamnus oenoplia Lirm. Sanskrit names: Bahukantaka, Dusparsa, Karkandhuh, Karkhandu, Madhura, Srigolabadari, Srigalakoli. Hindi: Makai Bengali: Siakul Makoh. A scandent shrub found throughout India except in drier parts. The small reddish brown fruits are sweet. Reported chemical constituents: Stem bark: Peptide alkaloids zizyphine A, B along with abyssinines A and B. 6) Zizyphus xylopyrus: (Retz) Wiild. Sanskrit names: Ghonta, Ghontaphala, Gopaghonta. Marathi: Dagdibor, Ghat bori, Guti, Kanta gotti Hindi: Chittania, Ghout, Katber, Sitaber, Challe. Reported chemical constituents: Stem bark:
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Cyclopeptide alkaloids; mauritine D, nummularine B along with amphibine H and nummularine K. Fruits : Contain considerable amounts of tannins. 7) Zizvphus apetala Hkf.: A scandent shrub found in Northeastern hills. 8) Zizvphus funiculosa Buch Ham a scandent shrub found in Northeastern hills. The yellowish drupes contain scanty edible pulp. 9) Zizvphus incurva Roxb : A small tree found in Northeastern region. The small pea size drupes are edible. 10) Zizvphus rusosa Lam. : Dhaura, Toran, a climbing shrub found throughout India except in drier areas. The creamish white drupes are sub sweet. Synonym : Zizyphus glabra Roxb., Zizyphus latifolia Roxb. Hindi: Suran. Kannad: Mahigotte. Reported chemical constituents: The stem bark contains three flavonoids; kaempferol, quercetin and myrecetin along with rugoside A (triterpenoid saponin), jujugenin permethylate, rugosanine A, and B, Sativinine F, K( formyl cyclopeptide alkaloids ), isoquinoline alkaloid A, vanillic acid, betulinic acid, apigenin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, oleanolic acid, alphitolic acid and 2-alpha hydroxyursolic acid. The polar fraction of extract of bark contains 3-0-rhamnosides of kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin. Besides these, a few more species have been mentioned by different workers; 11) Zizvphus oxyphylla 12) Zizvphus laccifera, Zizvphus jujuba Mill. 13) Zizvphus hutchinsonii 14) Zizvphus mucronata Willd. 15) Zizvphus lotus, Jew thorn 16) Zizvphus mistol 17) Zizvphus hvsodrica 18) Zizvphus juazero Mart 19) Zizvphus jujuba var spinosa. 20) Zizvphus zevheri Sond.
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21) Zizvphus helvola Sond 22) Zizvphus lotus Lam. 23) Zizvphus spina Christi Willd 24) Zizvpuhs fructus Christi Willd. (Mohammad, 1997: 149-150, Singh and Arora, 1998: 74, Kirtikar and Basu, 2005: 588,Nadkami, 1976,2002: 1316-1317).
Reports of pharmacological actions of different species of Zizyphus : Various species of Zizyphus have been studied for phytochemistry and tested for different pharmacological actions. The following section takes a brief account of the published works. A) Anti- sweet /taste modifying activity. a) Suttisri et al. (1995) reported information on the phytochemistry and biological activities of more than 40 triterpenoid sweetness inhibitors that have been isolated from the leaves of three medicinal plants viz. Gymnema sylvestre R. Br., Zizyphus jujuba Mill. (Zizyphus sativa Gaertn.j and Hovenia dulcis. b) Yoshikawa et al. (1992) isolated three dammarane saponins, jujubasaponin IV-VI from the fresh leaves of Z jujuba Mill, collected from Japan in the month of October 1990. They elucidated their structures using chemical and spectral data. All these compounds exhibited an anti sweet activity in an experiment on the sense of taste (involving 3 tastees). B) Antifungal activity. Sarfaraz et al. (2002) demonstrated anti fungal activity of alcohol extracts of Zizyphus vulgaris Mill. (Zizyphus jujuba Mill) roots and Acacia concinna D.C. pods (obtained from markets in New Delhi) against Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis at concentrations of 1000 ug/ml and 2000ug/ml using Nystatin as standard antiftingal agent. Both these extracts exhibited moderate activity at lOOOug/ml as compared to the standard. At 2000ug/ml however, both extracts showed significant activity against C. albicans and C. tropicalis and moderate activity against A. flavus and A. niger as compared to the standard.
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C) Antibacterial activity: Wolfgang et al. (1999) reported new triterpenoids with anti-bacterial activity for Zizyphus joazeiro Mart. They isolated three known compounds from the stem bark viz: betulinic acid, ursolic acid and alphitolic acid along with three new derivatives of betulinic acid (esters) from dichloromethane extract. The compounds exhibited significant activity against Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12229 and Bacillus cents ATCC 10702 when compared with Chloramphenicol as the standard. D) Antifertility activity: Gupta et al. reported (2004) anti steroidogenic activity of ethyl acetate extract of the bark of Z.jujuba Mill, in the adult female mice. They evaluated the probable anti fertility activity of the plant material by observing the changes in oestrus cycle, body weight, wet weight of ovaries, titres of steroidogenic enzymes and substrates in the treated animals. The treated animals exhibited an abnormal oestrus cycle (arrested at diestrus stage) and significant reduction in the wet weight of ovaries. Also, the levels of cholesterol and ascorbic acid contents in ovaries were significantly elevated. There was also significant inhibition of Delta5-3-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and glucose -6- phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PDH), the two key enzymes involved in ovarian steroidogenesis in mice after 18 days treatment. E) Anti-obese activity: Ganachari et al. (2007) reported an anti-obese activity of the leaves of Zizyphus jujuba Lam. in dietary obese rats. They induced obesity in the experimental animals by feeding them for 40 days with cafeteria diet or atherogenic diet daily in addition to the normal diet. They monitored daily food intake, change in body weights, serum glucose levels, lipid levels and performed fat pad weight analysis on 41" day and found that the treated animals showed significant reduction in body weights. The anti-obesity effect of leaves was comparable to that produced by Sibutramine, an anti-obese drug.
F) Sedative/Anxiolytic/Beliaviour modifying activities: a) Lin et al. (2003) reported the anxiolytic effects of the alcoholic extract of Ting-Chih-Wan (TCW) a preparation which contained roots of Panax ginseng Linn, and Polygala tenuifolia Willd., seeds of Zizyphus
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jujuba Mill., Biota orientalis and a species of the genus Porta in mice using the black and white test (BWT) and the elevated plus maze (EPM). In the BWT, TCW (0.1-l.Og/kg p.o) increased the time spent in white chamber; total changes between the two chambers and decreased the time spent in the black chamber. TCW at the doses of 0.1-0.5-g/kg p.o increased the arm entries and the time spent on the open arms and decreased the arm entries and the time spent on the closed arms in the EPM. TCW (1.0 g/kg p.o) decreased horizontal activity and prolonged pentobarbital induced sleeping times. It also attenuated the anxiogenic effects of 5-hydroxytryptophan (5- HTP) and enhanced the anxiolytic effects of 9-para- chlorophenylalanine (PCPA), buspirone (BUS) and ritanserin (RIT) in the EPM. Thus TCW at 0.1 and 0.5 g/kg possessed an anxiolytic effect. b) Heo et al. (2003) screened 50 Korean traditional plants to measure the activation effect on enzyme choline acetyl transferase and attenuation of scopolamine induced amnesia in mice. The methanolic extract of Z. jujuba Mill, showed the highest activatory effect (34.1%) on choline acetyl transferase in vitro. The sequential fractionation revealed presence of oleamide which on isolation showed 65% effect. Oleamide administration (0.32%)) to mice significantly reversed the scopolamine- induced memory and/or cognitive impairment in the passive avoidance test and Y maze test. These results suggested that oleamide would be a usefial chemo-preventive agent against Alzheimer's disease. c) Shou et al. (2002) studied the inhibitory effects of jujuboside A (Ju A) a glycoside extracted from the seeds of Zizyphus jujuba Mill, var spinosa on the rat hippocampus in vivo and in vitro. They used the intracerebroventricular administration method for (i.c.v.) Ju A (in vivo) to detect its effect on paired pulse responses of dentate gyrus granule cells in urethane anaesthetized rats and the method of hippocampal slice bathing in Ju A {in vitro) to detect the effect on the responses of CAI pyramidal cells. The Ju A significantly decreased the slopes of excitatory post- synaptic potential (EPSP) and the amplitudes of population spike (PS) in the first responses of granule cells. It also decreased EPSP and PS in the response of CAI pyramidal cells. Their
72 Profiles of ingredients
experiments indicated good quantitative correspondence between in vitro and in vivo results. d) Nagasawa et al. (2001) studied the effects of 20 herbal products including those containing Zizyphus jujuba Mill, on 2 months old female and male Shin mice behaviour to evaluate effects of these herbs for effects on emotional activities of animals. The aqueous product from Zjujuba Mill, exhibited no response on food intake, body weight and organ weights. They have also discussed the significance of these findings from the viewpoint of effect of herbs on emotional roles. e) Peng et al. (2000) from Institute of Chinese Pharm. Sciences, China Medical College, Taiwan have investigated the anxiolytic effects of ethanol extract of seeds of Zjujuba Mill in mice. They administered the extract at 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg (p.o) to male mice, 30 minutes before the behavioural evaluation in the black and white test (BWT). At these doses the extract was found to increase the first time entry, total changes and time spent in the white chamber of BWT. The extract at dose l.Og/kg prolonged the hexobarbital induced sleeping time in mice and decreased the locomotor activity in rats. These results suggested that the extract may possess both anxiolytic and sedative effects depending upon the dose used. f) Ha et al. (1999) reported that methanol extracts of Cyperus rotundus Linn, and Zizyphus jujube Mill {Z.sativa Gaertn) inhibited binding of 3H flunitrazepam to the benzodiazepine receptors which caused enhancement of levels of GABA.These positive GABA shifts supported the strong possibility of agonistic activity oi Zizyphus jujube Mill, to benzodiazepine receptors. g) Han et al. (1993) investigated the sedative activity of four aporphine and nine cyclopeptide alkaloids (CPA) isolated from the seeds of Z. vulgaris Lam. var spinous and the fruits and stem bark of Z. Jujuba Mill, var inermis and Z jujuba Mill, var spinous in mice. They carried out assessment of the sedative activity employing a hexobarbital induced sleeping time method in mice and suggested the scientific basis for heat processing of this Oriental medicine.
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h) Nishizawa et al. (1991) evaluated the effects of "Kamikihi- To" (KMK) a traditional Chinese medicine containing Zizyphus jujuba Mill, as one of the ingredients on learning and memory performance in normal and memory impaired mice using step through and step down type passive avoidance tests. KMK at l.Og/kg (p.o.) exerted ameliorating effects on ethanol induced memory registration impairment in step through and step down tests. It also significantly improved memory retrieval disability induced by electroconvulsive shock (ECS) in the step through test at this dose. Moreover, KMK at 0.5g/kg p.o ameliorated memory consolidation impairment induced by ECS in step down test. These results are thus suggestive of amelioration of the impaired learning performance by KMK administration through its influence on memory registration, consolidation and retrieval, i) Kang et al. (1980) reported to have isolated three acylated flavone-C- glycosides, 6^^' spinapolyspinosin, 6'"- feruloylspinosin and 6'^'-p- coumaroylspinosin from the seeds of Zizyphus jujuba Mill. They have also reported sedative activity of these compounds in pharmacological tests. G) Antioxidant activity: a) Na et al. (2001) screened methanolic extracts of 139 crude drugs for anti-oxidant activity based on DPPH radical scavenging activity and lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity. They reported a relatively strong antioxidant activity for extract of fruits of Z. jujuba Mill. Var. inermis. b) Wang et al. (1991) evaluated antioxidant activity of aqueous extract of 6 kinds of common foods which are used in herbal drugs viz: fruits of Zizyphus jujuba Mill, Crataegus pinnatifida Linn. , fresh bulbs of Allium sativum Liim., fresh rhizomes of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and leaves of Citrus tangerine Linn, and green tea. All these extracts scavenged the oxygen free radical, inhibited lipid peroxidation of mice liver homogenate in vivo and in vitro, decreased hyaluronic acid depolymerization induced by oxygen and also inhibited the adenosine deaminase activity of mice liver homogenate in vivo. All these effects are suggestive of good anti-oxidant potential of these plant materials.
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H) Antinephritic action: Kim et al. (1996) carried out experiments to study whether Zizyphus jujuba Mill, and Codonopsis pilosula Benth. stimulate nitric oxide (NO) release in cultured endothelial cells and kidney tissues in vitro as well as in vivo (in rats) by measuring the conversion of (14C)-L-arginine to (14C) -citrulline, co product of the enzyme reaction of (14C)-L-arginine with NO. They treated confluent monolayer of endothelial cells and kidney homogenates with Z jujuba Mill, and C. pilosula Benth. (lOug/ml) and compared NO release with that by receptor dependent agonists, bradykinin, ADP and receptor independent calcium ionophore A23187 in vitro. In rat experiments, NO releases in glomeruli, cortical tubules and medullae and plasma rennin activity were assessed after i.p injection of lOmg/kg /day for 4 days. Z jujuba Mill, increased significantly the NO release in vitro and in vivo. It was similar to that by receptor dependant agonists; bradykinin and ADP cultured endothelial cells. However, Z jujuba Mill, did not influence the plasma rennin activity at all. Thus they concluded that this stimulatory effect on NO release in kidneys might contribute to the hypotensive effect and anti- nephritic action by increasing renal blood flow. I) Cytotoxic activity: a) Lee et al. (2003) reported to have isolated eleven triterpenoic acids fi"om the fhiits of Z jujuba Mill. They investigated in vitro cytotoxicities of these acids against K562, B16 (F-10), SK-MEL-2, PC-3, LOX-IMVI and A549 tumour cell lines by the sulforhodamin B (SRB) method. The lupane type triterpenes have exhibited strong cytotoxic activities. In particular, the cytotoxic activities of 3-0-p- coumaroyl alphitolic acids were better than those of non-coumaroic acid triterpenoids, suggesting that the coumaroyl moiety at the C-3 position of the lupane iypQ triterpene may play an important role in enhancing cytotoxic effects. b) Yamaoka et al. (1996) reported the natural killer activity augmentation by oral administration of polysaccharide fi^actiono f aqueous extract of friaits of Z jujuba Mill. IZ. sativa Gaertn.This traction (molecular weight approximately 43, 0000) was found to contain 54.7% carbohydrate, 61.8% uronic acid and 20.9%) protein. The sugar moiety
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was composed of rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, fiaictose, mannose, galactose, glucose and galactouronic acid in molar ratios of 28:59:11:9:7:32:20:100. J) Permeability enhancement activity: Eley et al. (2002) investigated the permeability enhancing activity of aqueous extract of seeds of Z jujuba Mill, and compared it with known enhancers belonging to alkyl glycoside class. The Z. jujuba Mill, extract was found to lower trans-epithelial electrical resistance across a cell monolayer more rapidly in a given time period than alkyl glycosides and it also allowed full recovery of cells in a relatively short period. K) Adjuvant and Iiaemolytic activities of saponins: Oda et al. (2000) investigated adjuvant and haemol3^ic activities of 47 saponins purified from medicinal and food plants such as Glycine max Merr., Dolichos lablab Linn., Trigonella foenumgraecum Linn, and Zizyphus jujuba Mill. Jujubosides from Z. jujuba Mill, showed strong adjuvant and haemolytic activities. They also suggested that the adjuvant activity of saponins does not relate with haemolytic activity. Comparison of the fiinctional groups of each saponins revealed that the acyl residue in saponins, the aldehyde group at carbon 4 in aglycone and branched sugar chains attached to aglycone were not essential for adjuvant activity. Moreover, saponins with an acyl residue or oxide ring moiety tended to show haemolytic activity. L) Enzymes inhibition activity: a) Su et al. (2002) performed bioactivity guided fractionation of petroleum ether and ethyl acetate soluble extracts of seeds of Z jujuba Mill, using a cyclooxygenase -2 assay as a monitor. They indicated that triglycerides and a fatty acid mixture of linoleic, oleic and stearic acids were the major active constituents. They also isolated a new pentacyclic lupane type triterpene derivative 3-0-[9(Z)- octadecenoyljbetulinic acid along with betulinic acid .They have evaluated all these isolates as well as pure linoleic, oleic and stearic acids for their inhibitory effects against both Cox -1 and Cox- 2 enzymes.
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b) Hwang et al. (2001) investigated inhibition of calmodulin dependent calcium ATPase and phosphodiesterase enzymes by various cyclopeptides and peptide alkaloids from Zizyphus species such as Z.vulgaris Lam. var spinosus and Z.jujuba Mill, var inermis. Their reports suggested that inhibitory activity of the various cyclopeptides and peptide alkaloids on Ca^^ATPase correlated well with their sedative activity. c) Nikaido et al. (1990) performed studies on Chinese herbal medicinal prescriptions with enzyme inhibitory activity. They have studied "Kanbaku-taiso-to" with adenosine 3\ 5'-cyclic monophosphate diesterase. They reported cAMP inhibitory activities for fractions obtained from the constituents of "Kanbaku-taiso-to" i.e. fruits of Z. sativa Gaertn, Glycerrhiza glabra Linn, and wheat when tested alone and in combination. M) Antithrombotic activity: Park et al. (2002) in their search for anti-stroke agents from herbal sources investigated in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo possibility of using 'Sunghyangjunggisan' which contains Z.jujuba Mill, as one of the ingredients as a novel antithrombotic agent. Sunghyangjunggisan showed significant protection from death due to pulmonary thrombosis in mice. Therefore, they concluded that the product could express the antithrombotic action when administered orally. N) Nutritional properties: a) Pandey et al. (2002) documented common anticancer herbs, vegetables of India with special emphasis on Chhatisgarh state. They reported Kcacia and Zizyphus as some of the promising food plants having anticancer phytochemicals. b) Sena et al. (1999) reported the findings of analysis of nutritional components of eight famine foods of Republic of Niger. They have found that the leaves of 7 plants including those of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. contain fatty acids, Vitamin E, carotenoids, selected minerals and amino acids.
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O) Immunomodulatory activity: a) Aliev et al. (2002) conducted experiments to study mutagenic activity of industrial environmental factors of chemical and textile enterprises. They investigated the possibility of correction of sterol and aniline induced mutagenesis with extracts of Unabi fruits {Z.jujuba Mill.) and combination of jujuba extract, jujuba fruits and germinating wheat seed extract in rats. b) Kulkami et al. (2001) presented an overview of immunomodulatory polysaccharides. They have discussed the details of their structural features and the possible mode of action. They have claimed the presence of anticomplementary and RES activating polysaccharides in plants such as Zizyphus jujuba Mill. , Arnica montana Linn, and Cinnamomum cassia Blume and suggested a tertiary structure of these polysaccharides to be responsible for their mode of action. c) Matsuda et al. (1999) isolated Protojujubosides A, B and Bl from seeds of Z jujuba Mill, var spinosa. They have also determined their structures on the basis of chemical and physiochemical evidence and reported potent immunological adjuvant activity for protojujuboside A and jujubosides A, B and C. d) Yoshikawa et al. (1997) reported presence of dammarane type triterpene oligoglycosides A, C and acetyl jujubosides B in seeds of Zizyphus jujuba Mill, var-spinosa. They determined the structures of all these compounds based on chemical and physicochemical evidence. They reported inhibition of the histamine release induced by antigen- antibody reaction from rat peritoneal exudate cells by Jujubosides A, C and acetyljujuboside B e) Zhumatov et al. (1996) listed the minerals present in triaits of M nigra Lirm. and Z.jujuba Mill /Z.sativa Gaertn .He found that the fruits of Z.jujuba were rich in Ca, K, Br, Rb, and La. In the experiments involving rats they demonstrated that systematic irrigation of oral cavities with 10% tincture of and cleaning teeth with pastes made from these fruits, normalized macro and micro element homeostasis of the solid tissues of the teeth. Hence, they proposed the use of these fruits for correcting the disturbed mineral metabolism in teeth.
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P) Phytochemical investigations: a) Shin et al. (2004) investigated clinically the effect of Kuibitang (KBT) on lipopolysaccharide induced cj/tokine production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) patients and healthy controls. KBT (Img/ml) significantly inhibited LPS induced tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), interleukin (IL 10) and transforming growth factor beta 1 production in PBMC of CFS patients. However, the KBT was found to significantly increase LPS induced gamma interferon production suggesting a novel activity of the KBT that regulate cytokines production related with CFS. b) Tripathi et al. (2001) isolated a new cyclopeptide alkaloid jubanine C together with the known alkaloids scutanine C and zizyphine A from the stem bark of Zizyphus jujuba Mill, and elucidated their structures by spectral analysis. c) Porchezhian et al. (2000) reported descriptions and data on habitat, chemical constituents, medicinal uses and biological activity of various Zizyphus species. d) Nakamura et al. (1999) isolated flavonoid glycosides, alpha glucosidase inhibitors from the leaves of Zizyphus jujuba Mill, var inermis Rehd. e) Mondal et al. (1999) have isolated a nor triterpenoid from the leaves of Zizyphus jujuba Mill. f) Kaushik et al. (1999) presented a review of cyclic and acyclic peptide alkaloids isolated from the plants of family Rhamnaceae and Sterculiaceae. g) Ashraf et al. (1993) reported biological and chemical evaluation of two species of Zizyphus (N. Rhamnaceae). They have discussed distinguishing botanical characteristics and chemical compounds present in ZJujuba Mill, and Z.vulgaris Lam. They have differentiated between these two species on the basis of presence of juzaic acid, betulinic acid, their flavour and taste. Phyto-analytical research: a) Pezzuto et al. (2003) have filed an US patent (No. 10/340934 dated January 13, 2003) for method of isolation of betulinic acid from the
79 Profiles of ingredients
aqueous methanol extract (80%) of the bark of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. They have partitioned this extract successively with hexane and ethyl acetate and collected the hexane, ethyl acetate and aqueous fractions of the extract. They demonstrated cytotoxic activity of ethyl acetate fraction (ED50- 3.7milimicrogram/ml) using cultured melanoma cell line, MEL-2.They have depicted the molecular formula for betulinic acid as C30H48O3 using high resolution mass spectral analysis and its melting point to be 292*^ C-293°C. The workers have also tested the antitumor activity of derivatives of betulinic acid using series of human melanoma cell lines, b) Ramados et al. (2001) have filed an US patent (No.-6264998 dated July 24, 2001) for their claim of a novel process for isolation of betulinic acid from bark of Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. on commercial scale. The method involves solvent crystallization technique without employing any chromatographic separation. They have confirmed the structure of isolated pure beta isomer of betulinic acid (98% purity) on the basis of spectral data.
Reports of pharmacological work and uses of other medicinally important species oiZizyphus: Zizyphus xylopyra Willd : Alcohol extract of the bark (0.2g/kg i. p.) indicated significant anfi nociceptive activity in rats one hour after administration. 50 % anticonvulsant activity was reported against supramaximal electroshock seizure in rats of either sex with pre-treatment using extract (0.2 g/kg i. p. one hour before). The same treatment markedly reduced carrageenan-induced oedema. Pre-treatment with 0.1-mg/kg i. p. one hour before increased phenobarbitone induced sleeping time of male mice suggesting CNS depressant activity. Amphibine H showed anti microbial activity against Gram-negative bacteria K. pneumoniae and E. coli. Nummularine K showed activity against both Gram-positive and Gram- negative bacteria. The alkaloids, amphibine and nummularine K also showed antifijngal activity.
80 Profiles of ingredients
Uses : Bark used in Bundelkhand, Chota Nagpur as tanning agent. The tree is one of the major hosts for the propagation of Rangeeni lac. Zizyphus sativa Gaertn : Use of fruit extracts showed normalization of micro and macro element homeostasis of solid tissues of the teeth. These extracts had inhibitory actions against insoluble glucan formation by glucosyl transferase from S. mutans. Neolignan (1) showed significant induction effect on release of endogenous PG12 from rat aorta. Seeds prevented kainic acid induced cell damage in cultured rat neuronal cells. Extracts of different plant parts (bark, leaves, and fruits) demonstrated anti mutagenic /desmutagenic action against mutagens like UV radiation, N-methyl N'-nitro-N- nitrosoguanidine. The aqueous exfract of fruits scavenged free oxygen radicals, inhibited in vitro and in vivo lipid peroxidation and in vivo adenosine deaminase activity in mice liver homogenate and decreased hyaluronic acid depolymerization induced by oxygen. Alcoholic extract of fruit exhibited anti allergic activity and inhibition of passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in mouse and rats. Fruit also has mild antihistaminic activity. Hence, it is used in Indian herbal preparation JOSHANDA. The fruit is a constituent of several Japanese herbal medicines such as Kakkon- to- ka-senkyu for clinical treatment of nasal inflammation, Shao-saiko-to and Saibokuto for treatment of inflammatory diseases of respiratory tract and hepatitis. The latter drug also exhibited inhibitory effect on development of colon carcinomas in rats. Uses : Drupes emollient, pectoral. Syrup of dried fruit used for bronchitis. Leaves anaesthetize taste buds on chewing. Bark used in healing wounds and ulcers. Seeds used as analgesic and anti convulsant in Korea and China. The alkaloid fraction has centralized action while glycosides have been reported to show potent immunological adjuvant activity. Plant may be used for autoimmune diseases due to anti mutagenic properties. Betulinic and oleanolic acid show sedative action. Zizyphus rugosa Lam: Bark extract at the doses of 0.1-l.O-g/kg i.p. produced dose dependent decrease in alertness and locomotor activity in mice thus suggesting CNS depressant action. It also demonstrated significant analgesic activity at doses 25.0-lOOmg/kg.
81 Profiles of ingredients
Polar fraction of bark extract produced hypoglycemia in rabbits. Cyclopeptide alkaloids rugosanin A and B showed antibacterial activity against Gram negative bacteria and antiftingal activity against Aspergillus niger. Triterpene saponins from bark exhibitedd CNS depressant activity, tranquilizing and analgesic activity in rats and produced no hepatotoxicity. Uses : Flowers with equal quantities of petiole of beetle leaves and half as much lime given in 4-grain pills twice a day is recommended for menorrhagia. Flowers and leaves together are also used in the treatment of tooth infection and diarrhoea. Zizyphus numularia Burmf: Alkaloid fraction from the bark possesses significant analgesic activity. Nummularine R and S at 10 micrograms exhibited antibacterial activity against Gram negative bacteria while frangufolin was active against both Gram positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Alkaloids demonstrated significant antiftingal activity verses Aspergillus niger but not verses Candida albicans. A dimmer of lapachol from root bark produced marked diminution in the germ cell population especially in later stages of spermatogenesis in rats therefore it might be considered as an antifertility agent. Ethanol extract exhibited both antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activities. Uses : Fruits cooling, astringent, used in bilious affections. Leaves applied to scabies and to treat boils. Tribal in Madhya Pradesh use bark to treat diarrhoea. Leaves are nutritious but harmftil hence can be given as 30% ration in crossbred rams hoggets. b Profile oiSesamum indicum Linn. Sesame i.e. "Til" can be traced back nearly to 3000 B.C. from ancient Indus civilizations. It was the first source of oil. Sanskrit name for the seeds is Tila, the oil extracted from the same is therefore called Tailam- "Tilat iti Tailam" It was much valued since it could remain in liquid state even at 0.0 *^ C.
82 Profiles of ingredients
Monograph of sesame oil, (British Pharmacopoeia, 2005: 1774-1776). Definition: It is the fatty oil obtained from the ripe seeds of Sesamum indicum Linn, by expression or extraction, then refined. Improved colour and odour may be obtained by further refining. It may contain a suitable anti-oxidant. Characters : A clear, light yellow liquid, almost colourless, practically insoluble in alcohol, miscible with light petroleum ether. It has a relative density of about 0.919. It solidifies to a soft mass at about ^.0 ° C. Identification : It complies with : A : The test for refractive index. B : TLC test for fatty oils. C : The test for composition of triglycerides. Tests : Refractive index: 1.470-1.476. Acid value : Not more than 0.6, determined on 10.0 g., not more than 0.3 if intended for parenteral use. Peroxide value : Not more than 10.0, not more than 5.0 if intended for parenteral use. Unsaponifiable matter: Not more than 2.0 determined on 5.0 g. Alkalme impurities : It complies with the test for alkaline impurities in fatty oils. Cottonseed oil: Does not produce reddish colour within 15 minutes when treated with a mixture of equal volumes of pentanol R and lOg/1 solution of sulphur R in carbon disulphide R and boiling in bath containing saturated sodium chloride solution R. Composition of triglycerides : Determined by liquid chromatography (HPLC) as follows; LLL: 7.0-19.0% OLL: 13.0-30.0% PLL: 5.0-9.0% OOL: 14.0-25.0% POL: 8.0-16.0% OOO: 5.0-14.0% SOL: 2.0-8.0% POO: 2.0-10.0%
83 Profiles of ingredients
Key: Fatty acid radicals are designated as; Linolenic-Ln, Linoleic-L, Oleic-0, Palmitic-P, Stearic-S. Water : Not more than 0.05 % w/w, determined on 5.0 g by semi-micro determination (if intended for parenteral use). Storage: To be stored in an airtight well-filled container, protected fi-om light. Refined sesame oil intended for parenteral use needs to be stored under an inert gas in an airtight container. Any part of the contents not used at once needs to be protected by an atmosphere of inert gas. Labelling : The label states : Whether the oil is obtained by expression or extraction. Where applicable, name and amount of added anti-oxidant. Where applicable, that the substance is suitable for use in the manufacture of parenteral dosage forms. Where applicable, the name of the inert gas used. Monograph of Sesame oil (The Pharmacopoeia of India, 1966: 648-649). Definition : It is the fixed oil expressed from the seeds ofSesamum indicum Linn. (Family Pedaliaceae) Description : A pale yellow liquid, odour slight, taste bland. Solubility : Slightly soluble in alcohol, miscible with chloroform, with solvent ether, with light petroleum (40°C- 60°C) and with carbon disulphide. Identification : When shaken with 1.0 ml of hydrochloric acid containing 1.0 %w/v of sucrose and allowed to stand for five minutes, the acid layer acquires a pink colour, which changes to red on standing (distinction from other fixed oil). Acid value : not more than 2.0 Iodine value : (Iodine monochloride method) 103-116. Refractive index : At 40 ° 1.465-1.4665. Saponification value : 188-195. Unsaponifiable matter : not more than 1.5%
Hd. Profiles of ingredients
Solidification range of fatty acids: The dry mixture of fatty acids of sesame oil solidifies between 20.0-25.0 °C. Weight/ml: At 25 °C 0.916-0.921. Cottonseed oil: Complies with test for the absence of cottonseed oil. Storage : To be preserved in a well-closed container, protected from light and excessive heat. Category : Solvent, pharmaceutical aid. Origin of the name : The name sesame and most of its pendants in present day European languages go back to Greek "Sesamon", which in turn was loaned, from an unknown language of Eastern Mediterranean. The source language belonged to the Semitic group as similar names are recorded in large number of Semitic languages. The name is probably reduplicated form of the root SMS fat, oil (Hebrew shemen-oil). In India, sesame is cultivated since Harappan period and there are two independent names for it, Sanskrit "Tila", is source of names in North India along with some South hidian names, e.g. Gujarati-tal, Bengali- til but also Telugu- tillu, Sinhala-tala and Dhivehi- tileyo. Yet some of the Dravidian languages feature an independent name exemplified by Tamil and Kannada, ellu, it reminds of Greek Elaia- olive hinting at a possible common origin for names of two locally important oil crops. English name gingili (which is now largely obsolete) and Portuguese name gergelim have their origin in the eariy colonial period. Their origin is Arabic juljulan. There are few cognate names e.g. Hindi gingili and Spanish ajonjoli. Other uncommon names in English are bene seed or benne from Wolof bene (Ram et al., 1990: 225-228). Historical references : Sesame is an ancient plant, one of the first recorded plants used for its seeds. Early Assyrians believed their gods drank sesame wine as prelude for creating the world. A drawing on an Egyptian tomb 4000 years ago depicts a baker adding sesame seeds to dough. Around this time the Chinese were burning sesame oil to make soot for preparing ink. Ancient Greek soldiers carried sesame seeds as energy boosting emergency rations. The Romans made a kind of humus from sesame and cumin. Sesame has been considered a symbol of good luck and signifies immortality to
85 Profiles of ingredients
Brahmins. The "Open Sesame" of Arabian nights fame, probably derived from the sound the ripe seeds make when they burst their pods, a popping noise that sounds like a lock spring opening (McGee, 2003:1-12). The original home of sesame is the Indian peninsula, where it has been cultivated since ancient times. It gradually spreaded westward. In middle ages it was grown in Egypt, Sicily and Cyprus.
86 Profiles of ingredients
Taxonomy: Sesamum indicum Linn. Class: Dicotyledon Subclass: Gamopetalae Series: Bicarpae Cohort: Personales Family: Pedaliaceae Synonyms: Sesamum orientale Linn. S. orientale Linn, is now considered to be indistinguishable as a species from S. indicum Linn. Common names: Arabic- Simsim, Sumsum, Juljulan. Zelzlane Afghanistan- Kunjit, Til Afghanistan- Kunjit, Til Armenian- Shushma, Hushmayi kut, Shushmayi good Assamese - Tisi Bengal - Bhadutil, Sumsum, Kala til, Rakta til, Til, Tel Bulgarian- Susam, Cycam Bom-Til, Tal, Krishna til, Barik til, Ashadi til (white), Kala katwa (black), Purbia (red) Can-Uruellu, Yellu Chinese-Zhi ma, Zi ma, zi Moa, Hu ma Croatian -Sezam Czech-seminko, Sezam, Sezamov Dutch- Sesamzaad English- Sesame, Gingelly, Sesamum Esperanto- Sezamo French-Sesame, Teel, Till Farsi- Konjed German-Sesom, Vanglo Greek- Sesami, Sousami Gujarati- Tal, Mittho tel Hindi- Til, Tir, Gingili Hebrew Sum sum, Shum Shum Indonesian- Wijen Italian- Sesamo Japanese- Goma. Sima Kannada-Ellu, Acchellu, Tila Kazak- Kunjit Korean- Chamggae, Chamkkae, Ssisaem, Ggae, Latavian-Sezama seklas Kumaon-Til, Bhunguru Malay- Bijan Marathi- Teel, Bariktil, Ashaditil, Zhilechatil, Malayalam- Karuellu, Chiteu, Ellu Nepali- Til Oriya- Rashi Polish- Sezam indyjski Portuguese- Gergelim, Sesamo Persian- Kunjad Punjabi-Til Romanian- Susan Russian- Kunzhut, Sezam Sindhi-Thirr
87 Profiles of ingredients
Sanskrit- Tila, Pavitra Papaghna, Pitratarpana, Puraphala, Putadhanya Jartila, Vanodbhava, Homadhyana, Snehaphala Tilaha, Tailaphala, Slovak- Sezam, Sezam indicky Spanish- Ajonjoli, Sesamo Swedish- Sesam Tamil-EUu, Yellu, Cheddie Telugu- Nawulu, Guwulu, Tillu Thai- Dee la, Nag Turkish- Susam Ukrainian- Sezam Urdu- Til Vietnamese- Cay vung. Me vung, Hac chima (Nadkami, 2002: 1127-1128, Kirtikar and Basu 2005:1857-1861). Habit: Sesame is basically the crop of warmer climate, though its cultivation extends also to cooler parts as in the Himalayas up to 1500 m altitude. It is erect, branched or unbranched, glandular, pubescent herbaceous annual that grows 1-2 meter in height. It is more or less with foetid unpleasant odour. Habitat: India is the largest producer of sesamum in the world, accounting for about 24% of world's total production. Next are China, Sudan, Mexico, Myanmar and Venezuela. It is also largely grown in many parts of Persia and Java as well as in the East coast of Africa, North and South America and West Indies (Bentley et al., 1998: 198). Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of sesamum, contributing about 28.7% in area and more than 20% in production of the crop in the country. Other important states are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Orissa. It is raised as a kharif crop in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Rajasthan (sown in June -July and harvested in October- November). In other states it is cultivated as rabbi crop and as irrigated summer crop (harvested in October-November). Morphology : It is an annual herb. Stem reaches about 1 m. height, erect more or less branched, bluntly angular and striate, smooth or shortly hairy in upper parts.
fifi Profiles of ingredients
Leaves:
Sesame piant with flower;:
Fig. 2.10 : Sesamum indicum Linn.- Leaves.
Leaves are numerous, alternate or sub opposite, exstipulate on long petiole, very variable in form, oblong, lanceolate or ovate, usually tapering at the base, sometimes rounded or even cordate, entire or irregularly toothed or cut into three more or less distinct lobes or even separate leaflets, smooth or slightly pubescent, prominently veined beneath uppermost linear and alternate, lower opposite often lobed or pedatisect, intermediate, usually ovate and gashed or toothed. Profiles of ingredients
Flowers:
Fig. 2.11: Sesamum indicum Linn. - Flowers.
Flowers are shortly stalked, solitary in the axils of the leaves, purple or whitish with purple or yellowish marks. They are sub-erect or drooping, 2.5-3.2 cm long, pubescent and resemble to those of foxglove Digitalis purpurea Linn. Calyx, very deeply cut into narrow, oblong, acute hairy segments. Corolla tubular, campanulate, about 3 cm. long, narrow below, shallowly divided into 5 blunt, short spreading, unequal lobes, the lower largest lobe is ovate forming a lip, pale pink, downy outside, smooth within, imbricate in aestivation. Stamens 4, inserted near the base of corolla, included, didynamous, the lower pair is longer; filaments smooth; anthers dorsifixed, 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary oblong, densely hairy, surrounded by a small fleshy disk, spuriously 4-celled, with numerous ovules on axile placenta, style filiform, shorter than the corolla, stigma bifid, the segments are flattened.
^ Profiles of ingredients
Capsules:
Fig. 2.12 : Sesamum indicum Linn.-Capsules.
Fruits are capsules 2.5 -3.00 cm long, oblong, quadrangular compressed with rounded angles, pointed, surrounded at the base by persistent calyx, erect, dehiscent from above downwards but rarely up to the base, falsely 4- celled. Capsules contain numerous seeds. Pericarp leathery, pale olive green, densely pilose, splits loculicidally from above into two valves through the false dissepiments, which continue to close the spurious cells. Capsules mature in 80-180 days when the stems are cut and hung upside down for the ripe seeds to fall out. Mechanical harvesting is also carried out.
91 Profiles of ingredients
Seeds
S ee ds of Ses amum iniiicum Linn-Black Fig. 2.13: Sesamum indicum Linn.- Seeds, black variety.
Fig. 2.14: Seeds, brown variety. Fig 2.15: Seeds, white variety. Profiles of ingredients
Numerous, horizontal, small (1/3 inch long) rounded, triangular or oval in outline, flattened, testa smooth, thick, varying in color, embryo straight, radical short, seeds are without endosperm. Macroscopic structure of seeds : The pear shaped seed is 2.5-3.0 mm in length and about 1.5 mm in width. Seeds may be black, brown or white with a smooth or slightly veined surface. Parts used : Entire seeds (either simply dried or dried and roasted), roots, leaves and oil. Cultivation : Soil: Sesame grows on a light, well-drained soil, which is capable of retaining adequate moisture. It thrives best on typical sandy loams. Water logging is highly detrimental to this crop. In India, the crop is grown on variety of soils ranging from sandy, semi-desert conditions in Rajasthan to the clayey fields in Andhra Pradesh and heavy black soils of Maharashtra. Climate : The plants grow luxuriantly and give best yields in the temperature range of 24-32.0 C. Temperatures higher than this at the time of flowering and fruit setting brings about premature shedding of flowers and reduction in capsule number and seed yield. Low temperature (below 12.0°C) at flowering results in production of sterile pollens or premature flower fall. Invariably the winter -grown plants are shorter in height and put up less vegetative growth compared with the kharif-grown crop. The crop season for sesame cannot be precisely defined (kharif, rabbi or summer). The main factors determining the cropping season are the availability of soil moisture for germination and subsequent growth and the major crop rotation pattern of the area. It is basically a short day plant and with a 10 hour day, will nonnally flower into 40-45 days but many varieties have become locally adapted to various light periods. Though a fairly drought -resistant crop, it is highly susceptible to moisture stress at the seedling stage. Once established, it comes up well with available soil moisture. Excess of moisture at seedling stage also brings about loss of plants due to damping off Incidence of heavy rains during period of growth makes the plants more susceptible to phyllody. The crop cannot withstand frost, continued heavy rains or prolonged draught.
93 Profiles of ingredients
Manuring : In India, sesame crop is not generally manured. When it is a component of multiple cropping patterns, the subsequent crop is heavily manured as sesame is an exhausting crop. Harvesting and yield : Sesame is harvested well before the plants are completely dry in order to prevent loss of seeds due to dehiscence of the capsules. When the plants have reached physiological maturity, they are cut at the base with sickle. The plants are thrashed on floor and the seeds are collected from floor and cleaned. Although India ranks first in area under sesame cultivation, the yield per unit area of sesame in India is the lowest. Diseases and pests : There are five fungal, two bacterial and two viral diseases of sesame that are important under Indian conditions. It is also attacked by 38 insect pests at various stages of its growth. Of these, sesame shoot webber, pod borer, gallfly, sphingid moth and hairy caterpillars are the most serious pests throughout India. Antigastra catalaunalis known as sesame leaf -roller, is a major pest and acute infestation completely destroys the crop. Species and varieties : So far about 36 species of sesame have been discovered and 20 of them occur in India (Sunderraj et al., 1980: 274-275). Sesame today is available in multitude of forms recognizable on the basis of maturity (early and late), season of cultivation (kharif, rabbi and summer), number of capsules per axil, number of seeds per fruit and seed colour. The cultivated varieties of sesame differ from each other in their flower colour and size, shape and arrangement of pods and also in the size, colour and maturity of seeds (Mohanty, 1979: 137-139). The commonly cultivated varieties are mostly black or white but various intermediate shades include, light black, ash, greenish brown, dark brown, light brown and dull white. The black variety is the most common and yields the oil, which is best suited for medicinal purposes. The white variety is richer in oil content. Sesamum radiatum Schum. is cultivated in parts of West Africa and its seeds may appear as an adulterant of Sesamum indicum Linn. S. radiatum seed is also brown, yellow or black in colour and has a very finely rugose, radially wrinkled surface. The radial walls of the testa epidermis are thickened on their inner halves. (Vaughan, 1970: 201-202).
94 Profiles of ingredients
Chemical composition of sesame seeds and hulls: Analysis of seeds grown in various parts of the world for their proximate % composition is as follows: Moisture 4.1-6.5, Ether extract 43.5-56.8, Protein 17.6-26.4, Crude fibre 2.9-8.6, Carbohydrates 9.1-25.3 Mineral matter 4.1 -7.4. Trace elements present in the seeds include iron, iodine, zinc, cobalt, nickel and molybdenum. Selenium may be present in the seeds grown in seleniferous soils (Table No.2.5).
Table No. 2.5 : Chemical composition of black and white sesame seeds (whole seeds, dehuUed seeds and hulls). Constituent White variety Black variety Whole De-hulled Hull Whole De-hulled Hull seed seed seed seed Moisture 5.4 6.2 4.2 5.2 6.1 4.1 Fat 50.2 54.1 10.2 49.8 53.5 9.9 Protein 19.8 21.1 8.0 20.0 21.5 8.1 Crude fibre 3.2 1.4 18.5 3.3 1.3 19.5 Carbohydrates 14.9 14.7 22.0 14.7 14.9 15.9 Mineral 4.8 2.3 22.8 5.2 2.6 24.2 matter
Oxalic acid 1.72 0.20 14.30 1.80 0.09 18.30 Calcium 1.06 0.19 9.75 1.21 0.06 12.10 Phosphorus 0.47 0.48 0.51 0.62 0.62 0.66
Note: (values in g/100 g material).
95 Profiles of ingredients
Vitamins : Sesame seeds are fairly rich in thiamine and niacin. 100 g of seeds contain Vitamin A ranging from 15-100 I.U but vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is present only in traces. B- vitamins are also present. Carbohydrates : The sugars present in alcohol extract of defatted seed meal are (% dry-matter basis) glucose 2.6, sucrose 0.57, galactose 1.1, planteose 0.1 and raffinose in traces. A tetrasaccharide fraction, probably a mixture of lychnose and its isomer named sesamose have been reported. The seeds also contain pentosans and possibly traces of starch. Proteins: The principal protein in the seeds is a globulin, which has been fractionated into a and p globulin. The a component has been isolated in crystalline form. The amino acid composition of proteins in sesame seeds has been reported (Table No.2.6). Table No. 2.6 : Amino acid composition of proteins in sesame seeds.
Amino acid De-hulled seed Expeller cake from White Black Black whole Black de- seed hulled seed Isoleucine . 4.7 4.9 4.7 4.0 Leucine 7.4 8.9 5.1 4.2 Lysine 3.5 3.2 2.5 2.4 Methionine 3.5 3.3 2.7 2.6 Cystine 2.1 2.0 1.2 1.2 Phenylalanine 6.3 6.2 4.8 4.4
Tyrosine 4.3 4.8 - - Threonine 3.9 3.6 4.2 3.2 Tryptophan 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.8 Valine 4.6 4.5 6.7 5.9 Arginine 9.0 9.5 13.0 12.5 Histidine 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.1
(Values in g amino acid/16 g N). From the above data, it is clear that there is no appreciable difference in the amino acid composition of proteins from black and white seeds.
96 Profiles of ingredients
Uses and products of sesame seeds : Seeds are used as a nourishing food due to their rich protein content and also as flavouring agent. The seeds are de-hulled for use as food and are also an ingredient of a large variety of sweetmeats and confections widely consumed in India. The oil from edible seeds of Sesamum indicum Linn, is traditionally esteemed due to its good keeping quality and high nutritional values while the oil cake is used as cattle feed. Forms of sesame oil: Oil is available in cold pressed and hot pressed, refined forms. Hot pressed oil is a preferred cooking medium in Southwest India and Myanmar. Refined sesame oil is very common in Europe and USA. Oriental dark sesame oil obtained by roasting seeds before pressing is common flavouring agent in China and Korea and used after proper dilution with bland vegetable oil. Extraction of sesame oil: Light coloured seeds are preferred for extraction. Traditional methods include, pounding in wooden mortar followed by treatment with hot water and use of ghani. Low and medium powered screw presses are common. Prior to processing in screw press; the seeds are subjected to cooking process, which decides recovery of oil, quality of oil and the oil cake (Wealth of India- Raw Materials and Industrial Products, 2003: 278-292). Table No.2.7 gives approximate yield of sesame oil from different varieties. Table No. 2.7 : Yield of oil from different varieties of sesame seeds. Variety of seeds % of oil obtained by solvent extraction Black 44.6-56.9 Red 45.7-55.5 White 44.0-58.2
In country ghani, yield of oil is 40-45% of weight of seeds (Nadkami, 1976: 1126-1129). Properties of sesame oil: Cold expressed oil is light yellow and has mild flavour and is odourless. Hot processed oil is darker and has more pungent taste. The commercial sesame oil thus varies in colour from light to deep reddish yellow depending on the colour of the seed processed and method of milling. Sesame oil shows positive optical rotation +0.93° -
97 Profiles of ingredients
1.44 °. The characteristics of oil from different varieties of sesame seed lie within the following ranges (Table No. 2.8). Table No. 2.8 : Physico-chemical properties of sesame oil. Property Range of values Specific gravity (at 20.0 "C) 0.917-0.922 Viscosity 40D 1.466-1.467 Acid value 1.00-4.00 Saponification value 186.9-195.0 Iodine value 104.0-118.0 Thiocyanogen value 75.0-76.2 Acetate value 1.1-9.8 Unsaponifiable matter 3.5-4.5
The official monographs as well as certain standard texts also have stated the standards for Sesame oil (Table No.2.9). Table No. 2.9 : Standards for sesame oil: Character Pharmacopoeia British Agarwal, Wealth of of India, Pharmacopoeia, 1997: 429- India (Raw 1966: 649-650. 2005:1774-1776. 455. Materials), (non-refined oil) (for refined oil) 2003: 278- 292. Appearance Clear, Pale Clear, light and color yellow yellow
Odor Slight Odourless ~ ~
Taste Bland ~ — ~ Solubility Slightly soluble Practically in alcohol, insoluble in miscible with alcohol, miscible chloroform, with light solvent ether, petroleum ether carbon disulfide and light petroleum ether 40-60°C). Specific At 25" C, 0.919 0.919 At SO^'C, gravity 0.916-0.921 0.915-0.919
98 Profiles of ingredients
Character Pharmacopoeia British Agarwal, Wealth of of India, Pharmacopoeia, 1997:429- India (Raw 1966: 649-650. 2005:1774-1776. 455. Materials), (non-refined oil) (for refined oil) 2003:278- 292. Refractive At 40''C, 1.470-1.476 1.4704- 1.4645- index 1.4650-1.4665. 1.4717 1.4665 Optical 0.93"-1.44" rotation
Solidification -4.0"C—6.0"C -4.0"C -4.0 to - 4.0-6.0 point 6.0°C
Acid value Not greater than Not more than 9.8 4.00-6.00 2.00 0.6 for oral use and not more than 0.3 for parental use. Iodine value 103-116 103-117 103-117 105-115 (iodine mono- chloride method)
Saponification 118-195 *"" 188-193 188-193 value Unsaponifiable Not more than Not more than 0.95-1.32 Not more matter 1.5 2% (5gm than 1.5 quantity)
RM value — ~ 1.1-1.2 — Presence of Absent Absent Absent Absent cotton seed oil Drying Semidrying "" Semidrying "•" property Peroxide value Not more than 10 for oral use and not more than 5 for parental use
Thioglycan 75.0-76.2 ~~ value •• "• Acetate value 1.1-9.8 ~ ~ ~
99 Profiles of ingredients
Character Pharmacopoeia British Agarwal, Wealth of of India, Pharmacopoeia, 1997:429- India (Raw 1966: 649-650. 2005:1774-1776. 455. Materials), (non-refined oil) (for refined oil) 2003: 278- 292. Moisture Oil from black — — ~ content seeds-2.0-5.2% and oil from white seeds 2.00-4.4%.
Microbial Salmonella, ~ ~ ~ status E.coli and Staphylococcus molds and yeasts negative, total coli forms 9/gram
Sesame oil renders green colour when gently shaken with a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitric acid and this property is not exhibited by any other oil. The oil is called as semi-drying oil and its contents of linoleic acid are lower than that of drying oils but higher than that of non-drying oils.
Chemical composition of oil: Oil contains oleic, linoleic acid, small amounts of stearic, palmitic and arachidic acid glycerides (Joshi, 2000:306). Sesame oil has relatively high percentage of unsaponifiable matter (1.5-2.3%). Oils from different varieties contain 0.35-0.54% total sterols; P-sitosterol also has been identified to be one of them. A small amount of phospholipids is also present. The major part of the phospholipid fraction is alcohol soluble lecithin; the rest consists of cephalin. The unsaponifiable fraction also contains sesamin (C20H18O6, m.p. 122.5°C). It can exist in three isomeric forms, sesamin, asarinin and epiasarinin, each of them existing in two enantiomeric forms. A related compound sesangolin has been isolated from wild species of Sesamum angolense. Sesame oil is characterized by two lignans, sesamin and sesamolin (approximately 300 ppm). Sesamolin is readily hydrolysed by mineral acids to give sesamol (3, 4-methylenedioxyphenol) and samin. During refinement of the oil, two phenolic antioxidants are formed, sesamol and sesaminol. The presence of sesamolin or tree sesamol gives a characteristic colour test unique for sesame oil when present
100 Profiles of ingredients even in traces. Oil is mostly composed of triglycerides of the singly unsaturated oleic acid (40%), doubly unsaturated linoleic acid (45%) and saturated fats (10%). The shelf life of oil is excellent due to presence of powerful antioxidants and absence of triply unsaturated fatty acids. Oriental sesame oil has characteristic flavour due to compounds which are formed only during roasting procedure, mainly 2- furylmethanthiol, guaiacol, phenylmethanthiol, furaneol, vinylguacol and other O or N containing heterocyclics. Pyrazines are the key aroma compounds of roasted sesame seeds The range of values for different acids in glyceride components of oils are: Myristic 0.1-0.3 Palmitic 7.8-9.4 Stearic 3.6-5.7 Arachidic 0.4-1.2 Hexadecanoic 0.0-0.5 Oleic 35.0-49.4 Linoleic 37.7-48.4 Lignoceric acid is present in traces. Oil exerts synergistic effect on the action of certain insecticides, like pyrethrins and rotenone. Uses of sesame: Leaves : An infusion made by adding one or two full sized fresh leaves to about half pint (approximately 300 ml) cold water is used in Southern states of North America as a demulcent drink in infant cholera and other bowel disorders of children. It is also used in catarrh and urinary infections. The leaves also are part of emollient poultices. In Australia, leaves are used in dysentery. In India the mucilage of leaves has been used for the same purpose (Bentley et al., 1998: 198). Fresh leaves are useful in catarrhal affections of kidney and bladder. A decoction of leaves and roots is employed as hair wash to promote hair growth. The mucilaginous juice of plant is used to destroy hair lice (Chopra et al, 1999: 225-226). Seeds: The seeds are considered emollient, diuretic, lactagogue and a nourishing tonic. They are said to be helpful in piles in the form of paste mixed with butter. A decoction of seeds is said to be emmenogogue and is also given in cough. Powdered
101 Profiles of ingredients seeds are used in amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea. Combined with linseed, the decoction of seeds is used as an aphrodisiac. A plaster made of ground sesame seeds is applied to bums, scalds etc. and the poultice of seeds is applied to ulcers. In India, the seeds are used for religious purposes, paying homage to forefathers. Uses of sesame oil: It is laxative in large doses and used for dietetical purposes in India. It is also used for cleansing and beautifying hair and skin. It is used in manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, perfumes and insecticides and in pharmaceutical products as vehicle for fat-soluble drugs, in antacids, ointment and parenterals. It is widely used as an ingredient of confectionery and margarine. The oil due to its exceptional physical and chemical stability is blended with other oils to improve their stability. It is used in tanning industry for oiling tanned animal skins and hides. Uses of oil cake : It is obtained as by-product of the oil milling industry and is highly esteemed as a livestock feed. It is also valued as poultry feed because of its high methionine content. Sesame seed cake may be used as a source material for proteins used in making glues. Culinary uses : Sesame seeds are used as a nourishing food due to their rich protein content and also as flavouring agent. The seeds are de-hulled for use as food. They are an ingredient of large varieties of sweetmeats and confectionary. In India, they are used to prepare Halva and Chatni and are sprinkled over cakes and breads. The seeds are traditionally esteemed for their oil, which is used, for cooking. In Syria and Lebanon, the oil is mixed with sumac and thyme to make the condiment ''zatar". It's a key ingredient of Middle East confection. Sesame in its ground form ''tahini" is widely used throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean. It is a flavouring agent for hummus, sauce and often mixed with lemon and garlic to make a bread dip, a popular Arab appetizer-"mezze ". In Mexico, the oil known as ajonjoli, is frequently used for cooking. In Chinese, Japanese and Korean dishes meat or fish is rolled in the seeds before cooking. Black sesame is an ingredient of gommasio, the Japanese tabletop condiment and other rice and noodle dishes (Gee, 2003:1-12).
102 Profiles of ingredients
Ayurvedic properties of sesame seeds: Rasa: Madhura (sweet) Anurasa: Kasaya, Tikta (astringent, bitter) Virya: Usna (hot) Guna: Guru, Snigdha (heaviness, unctuousness) Vipaka: Madhura (sweet) Actions and uses as per Ayurved : Sus'ruta prescribes the leaves in the treatment of snakebite and scorpion sting, but the leaves are not an antidote either to the snake or scorpion venom. Mucilage from leaves is used for treating dysentery and cholera infantum. Decoction from leaves and root is used as hair wash. Large doses of sesame oil may cause abortion. Seeds cause Kapha and biliousness. Seeds are rejuvenating tonic for Vayu Doshas. A decoction of leaves with linseed oil is used for treating cough. Seeds in the form of paste with butter are used for treating bleeding piles. Powder of seeds is used for amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea. Uses in folic, ethno and traditional medicine : Every part of the herb is used as diuretic in Cambodia while in Madagascar, every part of this plant is considered laxative and emollient. Roots : Roots are considered aphrodisiac, tonic to hair and enriching for blood. They are usefiil in sore throat, inflammation, scorpion sting, snakebite, strangury, bleeding piles, and spleen trouble. They are also used to cure menorrhagia and gout pain. Decoction of roots is said to have hair-washing properties. In Guiana, the roots are considered emollient. Leaves : A lotion made from leaves is used as hair-wash and is supposed to promote hair growth and make them black. An infiision of the leaves is much used in Southern America in all the affections requiring demulcent action. In case fresh leaves are not available, dry leaves and hot water are to be used for making infusion. The leaves are also used for making poultices. A decoction of leaves is used in the treatment of malaria. Leaves contain mucilage and are used in the treatment of dysentery and cholera.
103 Profiles of ingredients
Seeds : Seeds are acrid with a sharp bitter- sweet taste. They are oleaginous, indigestible, tonic, cooling galactogogue, diuretic, astringent to the bowels and aphrodisiac. They are considered to promote hair growth and are useful in treating diarrhoea, eye diseases, ulcers and piles. Seeds are considered laxative, emollient, nourishing, tonic, diuretic and lactogogue. They remove constipation. The paste of seeds with water is given with butter to treat bleeding piles. Poultice made of seeds is applied to ulcers. Seeds are also used as demulcents in dysentery and urinary distress in combination with other medicines. The decoction of seeds is considered to be emmenogogue; the same preparation sweetened with sugar is prescribed in cough. Compound decoction with linseed is used as an aphrodisiac. A plaster made with ground seeds is applied to treat bums and scalds. A powder made of roasted and decorticated seeds is called as Rahisee in Arabic and is used as emollient both externally and internally. In Ceylon, the seeds powdered with jaggery are consumed to purify blood. In the three states of Karnataka, Kerala and Gujarat the consumption of sesame seeds during pregnancy is thought to induce abortion. In treating amenorrhea and dysmenorrhoea, the administration of ten grains ( approximately 650 mg) of powdered sesame seeds three to four times daily combined with a wann hipbath containing a handful of bruised seeds is very beneficial (Bentley et al., 1998: 198). Oil from seeds : The oil is sweet, fattening, strengthening, useful in the treatment of cough, asthma and for curing burning sensation while micturating. Also useful in the treatment of diseases of the ears, for treatment of scabies, syphilitic ulcers, smallpox, gouty joints and inflammations (Unani). Oil is used in the manufacturing of sweets. It is also used for adulterating ghee, for manufacturing soaps and burning lamps. It gives clear light but bums more rapidly. Oil from black variety is used more for medicinal purposes. It is exclusively used for manufacturing Indian perfumes. Poor people consume the oil cake in the time of distress. Oil is used as demulcent in dysentery and urinary diseases. In Sri Lanka, the oil is used for cooling the body.
104 Profiles of ingredients
In Cambodia the oil is used internally as an emmenogogue in small doses and as an abortifacient in large doses. It is also rubbed over the abdomen to procure abortion and over the head to cure migraine and vertigo (Kirtikar and Basu, 2005: 1858-1861). In Guinea, the oil is applied to bums. It is also used to anoint the body. It forms a base for floral oils. This oil is used as an adulterant for olive oil in Europe. It is used in the form of liniment prepared with lime for treating ulcers and suppurating wounds. Equal parts of sesame oil and lime- water together make a popular dressing for bums and scalds. A mixture made of one seer (approximately 1000 ml) of sesame oil and one tola (about I2gm) each of camphor, sandalwood oil and cinnamon oil is a cure for headache. Oil is rubbed on eyelids or dropped in eyes. Intemally it is used for treating gonorrhoea. The oil cake with more than 305 albuminoids is used as cattle feed and for manures. Applying oil to the body and especially over the head is good for treating Vayu doshas. It also has antioxidant properties, soothes dry skin, ulcers and oozing wounds. A compound oil containing Aconite (8 parts), oil of Pongamia glabra Vent., Curcuma longa Linn., Berberis aristata DC, root of Calotropis R Br., Nerium odorum Soland., Valeriana hardwickii Wall., Acorus calamus Linn., Pterocarpus santalinus Linn., Rubia cordifolia Linn., Vitex negundo Linn., Aistonia scolaris R. Br. and sesame oil, each four parts, is recommended for use in psoriasis, prurigo and leucoderma. Medicated oil/ghee / sneha are prepared using sesame oil (the recipe for sneha is one part of herb paste to four parts of ghee or sesame oil to four parts of any decoction. They are cooked over a low flame for 4-8 hours until the water gets completely evaporated). Reports of research work : Literature available on traditional uses of sesame seeds or oil claim both of them as emmenogogue and also as abortifacient when given in large doses. However, no report is available based on phannacological screening to substantiate these claims. Jaeho et al. (1998) carried out a study to ascertain the potential for utilizing near infra-red (NIR) spectrophotometry as means of rapid and non-destmctive method to determine the constituents of sesame oil. They used both the grating type and fixed type devices to obtain the calibration of samples of sesame oils and could successfully
105 Profiles of ingredients apply the findings to the determination of the constituents to routine methods such as acid value determination and saponification value. A report is also available stating inhibition of lipid peroxidation in rat liver and kidneys by sesamolin (Myung et al.; 1998: 1018-1022). Use of sesame oil in inhibition of human colon cancer growth (in vitro) has been demonstrated. Other species of Sesamum.• 1. Sesamum tudicum: Leaves contain good percentage of mucilage and it is considered as an emollient. Oil will keep for many years without becoming rancid. 2. Sesamum prostratum: Grows on sand hills (dunes) along coastal areas. 3. Sesamum orientale var. Malabaricum: It is a wild variety in Western Ghats of Travancore, Malabar and South Canara. 4. Sesamum laciniatum 5. Guizotia abyssinica Case: Ram til. Annual herbaceous, erect, leaves opposite, long, petiole coarsely serrate, peduncles elongated, flowers large, bright yellow. It is cultivated in Mysore and its oil is substitute for sesame oil. The seeds are good diuretic, useful in dropsy, inflammatory disorders (Vaidya , 1982: 160-161).
106 Profiles of ingredients
Profile of shellac from the insects of Laccifer lacca Kerr. Shellac is the resinous protective secretion of the tiny female lac insect Laccifer lacca Kerr that is a pest on a number of plants, both wild and cultivated. It is the secretion of hypodermal glands or shellac glands that are distributed in the integument on the back of the insect. The natural function of shellac is to protect the motionless insect from adverse weather and natural enemies. Shellac insect flourishes best on trees containing gums and resins or which are rich in certain kinds of latex. This food plant influences the colour and quality of shellac produced. On contact with air the resinous secretion hardens and forms a continuous layer over branches of the host trees. In this condition, the substance is known as stick shellac (Fig.2.16). The granules of shellac are known as seed shellac (2.17). The granular shellac after drying and bleaching in the Sun is heated and caste into thin sheets. These sheets are broken into small flakes. Shellac and shellac dyes have been important export commodities of our country for the past several centuries. It is a versatile and an eco-friendly product (Metcalf and Flint, 1939; 39-40). Monograph of shellac (Indian Pharmacopoeia, 1996:677) Shellac consists of resinous substance prepared from a secretion that encrusts the bodies of a scale insect, Laccifer lacca Kerr (Family Coccidae). Category : Pharmaceutical aid (tablet coating agent). Description : Lemon yellow to brownish orange thin scales or hard, brittle masses; odourless or with a faint odour. Solubility : Soluble in warm ethanol (95%); practically insoluble in water, almost completely soluble in solutions of alkali hydroxides and of borax. Storage : Needs to be stored in well-closed containers.
107 Profiles of ingredients
STANDARDS: Identification : With a mixture of ammonium molybdate and sulphuric acid, produces green colour, which becomes lilac on standing for 5 minutes. Acid value : 50-70. Ethanol-insoluble matter : Not more than 2.0%. Colopliony : Contains no colophony. Arsenic : It complies with the limit test for Arsenic. Heavy metals : Not more than 20 ppm, determined on 1.0 g. Sulphated ash : Not more than 1.0 % determined on 0.5 g. Monograph of shellac (British Pharmacopoeia, 2005:1777) Definition : Shellac is purified material obtained from the resinous secretion of female insect Kerria lacca (Kerr) Lindinger. There are four types of shellac depending on the nature of treatment of crude secretion (seedlac). a. Wax containing shellac: obtained from seedlac; it is purified by filtration of the molten substance and/or by hot extraction using suitable solvent. b. Bleached shellac: obtained from seedlac by treatment with sodium hypochlorite after dissolution in a suitable alkaline solufion, precipitated by dilute acid and drying. c. De-waxed shellac: obtained from wax containing shellac or seedlac by treatment with a suitable solvent and removal of the insoluble wax by filtrafion. d. Bleached and de-waxed shellac: obtained from wax containing shellac or seedlac by treatment with sodium hypochlorite after dissolution in a suitable alkaline solution; the insoluble wax is removed by filtration. It is precipitated by dilute acid and dried. Characters: Shellac occurs as brownish orange or yellow, shining translucent hard or brittle, more or less thin flakes (wax containing shellac and de-waxed shellac). Shellac is practically insoluble in water, with ethanol, it gives a opalescent (wax containing shellac) or a clear solufion (de-waxed shellac and bleached de-waxed shellac), when warmed, it is sparingly soluble or soluble in alkaline solutions.
108 Profiles of ingredients
Identification : A. Examination by TLC using a suitable silica gel with a fluorescent indicator having an optimal intensity at 254nm. Test solution : The powdered shellac (0.25 g) is heated on a water bath with 2.0 ml of dilute sodium hydroxide solution R for 5 min, cooled and reacted with 5 ml of ethyl acetate R and 2 ml of dilute acetic acid R slowly with stirring, the upper layer after filtration through anhydrous sodium sulphate R should be tested for presence of aleuretic acid. Reference solution . Accurately weighed 6.0 mg of aleuretic acid R is dissolved in 1.0 ml of methanol R and heated if necessary. B. The chromatographs are examined for presence of colophony. For wax containing shellac, in the chromatograph obtained with test solution, a more or less strong bluish-grey zone is visible, just above the zone due to thymolphtalein in the chromatogram obtained with the reference solution. For de-waxed shellac no such zone is visible. Acid value : 65-95, calculated with reference to the dried substance. About 1.0 g of coarsely ground substance is used and the end point is detected by potentiometry. Arsenic : The solution complies with limit test A for arsenic (3 ppm). Heavy metals : Complies with limit test D for heavy metals (10 ppm) using 2.0 ml of lead standard solution for 2.0 g of shellac. Loss on drying: Not more than 2% for unbleached shellac and not more than 6.0 % for bleached shellac, determined on 1.0 g of powdered substance by drying in an oven at 40.0-45.0°C for 24 hours. Storage: To be protected from light. Bleached shellac and bleached de-waxed shellac need to be stored at temperatures not exceeding 15.0 C. Labeling : The label indicates type of shellac.
109 Profiles of ingredients
Lac or shellac is official in British Pharmacopoeia (2005: \116-\111). It is defined as a purified material obtained from the resinous secretion of female insect Kerria lacca Kerr. It occurs as brownish orange or yellow, shining translucent, hard or brittle more or less thin flakes (wax containing shellac and dewaxed shellac) or a creamy white or brownish yellow powder (bleached shellac and bleached dewaxed shellac). It gives the test for identification of shellac and also gives specifications for acid value, arsenic and other heavy metals, loss on drying.
Fig. 2.16 : Twigs bearing shellac encrustation. Fig. 2.17 : Commercially available shellac Origin of the name : Lakh (shellac) means hundred thousand, indicating large number of insects involved in producing this resin. About 40000-200000 of these insects is required to produce one kilogram of shellac (Siddiqui, 2004: 332-337). History and mythological references : It was known since times of Mahabharata during which it was misused for assassination of Pandavas and their mother Kunti who were residing in a Lakshag ha i.e. a palace built out of shellac. From the time immemorial the shellac insects seem to have attracted the attention of naturalists. The earliest description is found in ' Atharva Veda' wherein it is termed as Laksha. Early in 250 A.D., Aeiian mentioned that there was an insect in India, which yielded colouring matter. References for commercial value of shellac insect are found in Ain-I- Akbari. The earliest scientific account of shellac insect was given by Kerr in 1782 and later by Glover. The shellac industry is very ancient, several years old. Shellac has been used as varnish since 1590. In 1709, Father Tachard described the insect that produces shellac (Metcalf and Flint, 1939: 39-40). The resinous secretion of shellac insect and
no Profiles of ingredients
the red colouring dye matter obtainable have been known in India since early times and was used in arts. Interest in shellac outside India dates back to the beginning of nineteenth century when shellac dye began to attract attention as an adjunct to cochineal dye {Dactylopius cocus). With the advent of aniline dyestuffs however, the importance of shellac dye declined. India held virtual monopoly of shellac production and accounted for nearly 85% of world's production of stick shellac till 1950. Taxonomy otLaccifer lacca Kerr : The generic name Laccifer was proposed and established in 1815 by Oken but it came into light only after being pointed out by Cockerell • in 1924.
Order: Hemiptera Family: Lacciferidae Subfamily: Coccoidea Genus: Laccifer Species: lacca Variety : Kerr Fig. 2.18 : Female insect of Laccifer lacca Kerr
Synonyms: Catena lacca, Tacchardia lacca, Coccus lacca, English- Lac, Shellac. Common Indian names: Sanskrit- Laks'a, Jatu, Vrks'amaya Hindi-Lakh, lah Bengali Gala Kannada-Aragu Gujarati- Lak Telugu- Kommolakh, Laks'a, Lukkah Tamil -Komburrki Malayalum-Arakku, ambalu Arebic-luk Farsi-lac (Sharma, 1980: 65-66). The family Lacciferidae constitutes a highly specialized and isolated group in the sub-family Coccoidea of order Hemiptera. Out of 65 species reported by Kapoor, only some of them produce shellac of commercial interest. This family is divided into two sub families, the Lacciferinae and the Tachardininae. The former sub- family is characterized by the secretion of true shellac and includes five genera, namely,
111 Profiles of ingredients
Laccifer oken, Austrotachardia chamb, Metachardia chamb, Tachardiella ckil and Austrotachardiella chamb. Distribution : There are fourteen species of the insect laccifer reported from India (Table No. 2.10).
Table No. 2.10 : Species of insects producing shellac Sr. No. Species Host plant Area recorded 1 L. albizziae Green. Croton caudatus Geiseler. and Darjeeling other plants
2 L. ambigua Misra. Croton caudatus Geiseler. and Jhansi other plants 3 L.chinensis Cajanus cajan Linn. Mill sp. and Assam Mahdihassan. others. 4 L.communis Ficus mysorensis Heyne. and Mysore Mahdihassan. others
5 L. ebrachiata Ficus elastica Roxb. Manbhum and Chamberlain. Bangalore
6 L. fici Green. Ficus religiosa Linn. Monghyr and Ficus benghalensis Linn. Coimbtore Butea monosperma Lam. (Taub) 7 L. indicola Kapur, Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Bihar Syn. L. indica Misra.
8 L. jhansiensis Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Jhansi Misra. 9 L. kydia Misra. Kydia calycina Roxb. Assam 10 L. lacca Kerr. A number of host plants All over India 11 L. longispina Misra. Cajanus cajan Linn. Mill sp. and Assam others. 12 L. mysorensis Shorea talure Roxb. and other Mysore Mahadihassan. plants 13 L. nagoliensis Schleichera oleosa (Lour) Oken. Bangalore Mahadihassan. 14 L. pusana Misra. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Pusa and Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.
112 Profiles of ingredients
The commonest and the most widely occurring species of lac insect is Laccifer lacca Kerr that produces the bulk of commercial lac (2.18) . The confusion prevails regarding the exact identity of each of the species. It is possible that many of the species mentioned are only strains or varieties of Laccifer lacca. Some of these species like L. albizziae Greea fSriLanka) and L. chinensi Mahdihassan (Thailand) occurring in India are also found in the neighbouring countries viz: Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Pakistan, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. Life cycle of the insect producing shellac : The shellac insects undergo various stages of growth, each one characterized by distinct anatomical and physiological features. Its life cycle transforms through the larval stage to adult insects that on maturity lay eggs.
•^ Fig. 2.19 : Life cycle of insect Laccifer lacca Kerr 1- Larva, 2- Male cell, 3- Female cell, 4-Wingless adult male insect, 5- Winged adult male,6- Adult female insect, 7-Mature female lac cell, 8-Male and female lac cells on Zizyphus species, 9-Lac encrustation on Zizyphus twig. Larva : A minute boat shaped, soft-bodied red coloured ovate in outline, with slightly more pointed posterior, 0.6 mm long and 0.25mm broad. The larvae emerge in large number at certain times of the year from the lac cells of female insects. A healthy female produces 300-1000 larvae. Larval emergence may continue for several weeks.
M3 Profiles of ingredients
The proportion of male to female in a brood lac varies in different crops and years but generally it is 1:3. The density of the settlement on shoots is usually 150-180 larvae/per square cm. A day after settling, the larva starts secreting resin from glands distributed under cuticle all over the body, except near mouth, two breathing pores and anus. Once settled, the larva does not move from its place. The cell of secretion increases in size with the growth of the larva. The larva moults thrice before reaching maturity. The duration of each of the three larval stages depends on environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and the host plant. Inside the cell, the larva casts the second moult and passes through prepupal and pupa stages. Pupa : During this stage the larva does not feed. After completion of the pupal stage, the adult male who may or may not be winged, emerges by pushing through the operculum. Adult males and females; The insect lives upon the plant juices sucked by its proboscis. The adult females loose power of locomotion but the males, at attaining maturity emerge from pupal cases, get a pair of transparent wings, mate with females and die shortly afterwards. The females produce small nipple like incrustation on the twigs of host plants, their bodies being apparently glued together by liquor which forms a cellular texture (Nadkami, 1976: 148-150). After the final or third moult the female is sexually mature and is fertilized by male whose life span is 62-92 hours after emergence. The female continues to secrete lac until the eggs are laid. Even the unfertilised female is as capable of producing lac and fertile progeny as the fertilized female. Egg: As the time for egg laying approaches, the body of the female contracts and wax filaments are secreted and shed in the vacated space possibly, to provide dry dressing and cushion, for future young larvae. Eggs hatch into larvae immediately after laying. The egg laying is affected by temperature (less than 15.0 °C is ideal). The female retains the vitality to lay eggs for 4-12 days.
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Strains of shellac insects : Two strains of the lac insects are commonly recognized in India, the "Rangeeni" and the "Kusumi". Each strain completes its life cycle twice a year but their seasons of maturity differ considerably. To produce one pound of Rangeeni and one pound of Kusumi lac under artificial inoculation 15,655 and 6,580 healthy females are required respectively. Kusumi lac is sold at a higher price on account of the superior quality of the resin (Table No. 2.11). Table No. 2.11 : Important strains of shellac producing insects.
Sr. Type of Month of Name of crop Month of No. strain inoculation harvest 1 Rangeeni June-July Katki October - November October-November Baisakhi June-July October-November Ari(Early Baisakhi) April-May 2 Kusumi June-July Aghani January-February January-February Jethwi June-July
(The Wealth of India, 2004: 1-12). Cultivation of shellac : It is primarily grown in Chota Nagpur and Santhal Paraganas of Bihar, Purulia and Bankura districts of West Bengal, eastern parts of Madhya Pradesh including Bilaspur, Raipur, Balaghat, Chindwara, Jabalpur, Surguja, Mandla, Rajgarh, Durg, Hoshangabad and Sahdol districts. In Uttar Pradesh, it is cultivated in Mirzapur, Lucknow, Varanasi, while in Orissa it is cultivated in Sambalpur, Bolangir, Dhenkel, Kalahandi, Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj and Sundergarh districts. Parts of Assam include Khasi, Jaintia hills, Garo hills, Mikir hills and Kamrup district. In Maharashtra, Chandrapur and Bhandara districts are leading in lac production (Agarwala, 1969: 174-175). Peasants in forest, sub forest and hinterland areas where suitable host plants exist, carry lac cultivation as a subsidiary occupation. Lac cultivation is initiated from broodlac which is the twig of host tree carrying lac encrustation with larvae about to emerge from mother cells, the twigs are cut, bundled and tied at convenient places on a fresh host plant, so that emerging larvae swarm and settle on nearby succulent shoots. The tying is done either longitudinally or laterally or the brood sticks may be interlaced among the branches of the host tree. Approximate weights of broodlac
115 Profiles of ingredients
required for inoculating one medium sized tree of following host trees are: Palas {Butea frondosa Lam. (Taub) 0.5-1.0 kg.; Bor (Z mauritiana Lam.) 1.0-2.0 kg. ; Khair {Acacia catechu Willd.) 1.0-2.0 kg. ; Kusum (Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oaken. 5-10 kg. After inoculation, control of pests and predators of the lac insects is essential for ensuring good yields. Host plants for shellac insect: Watt for the first time published a list of host plants of the common lac insect L. lacca Kerr and enumerated 56 species as occurring in India, Myanmar and SriLanka. Later, Roonwal listed 113 host plants fi"om Indian region, which included India, Pakistan and Myanmar. Mukhopadhyay made a further addition from plants distributed in different parts of India. Lac insects grow well on host plants that are grown in soil containing trace amounts of copper. There are well over 100 species of plants on which the lac insects have been recorded (Table No. 2.12). Several Ficus species yield Baisakhi crop and Khair (Acacia catechu Willd.) trees yield Katki and Aghani crops. The selection of host tree is vital. Trees should be quick growing and be able to withstand heavy infestation by insects (Agarwala, 1969:174-176). If broodlac from a particular host is used year after year, from the same locality and on the same host species, the quality of lac is likely to deteriorate. Hence, more than one kind of hosts are preferred e.g. Acacia catechu Willd. host for Rangeeni and Kusumi crops and can be alternated with Kusum (Schleichera oleosa Lour.). Other host trees include Acacia nilotica Linn. , Acacia arabica Willd. (Babool) Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (Sheesham) Ficus carica Linn. (Anjeer), Ficus glomerata Roxb. (Gular), Ficus religiosa Linn. (Peepal/PimpaV Mangifera indica Linn. (Aam), Shorea robusta Gaertn (Sal), (Siddiqui, 2004:332-337). The researchers at Indian Lac Research Institute (ILRI), Namkum (Zarkhand) have developed improved techniques for propagation of lac host plants and pest management on them. They also have identified and developed promising lac insect lines.
116 Profiles of ingredients
Table No. 2.12 : List of plants acting as host for shellac producing insects: Name of the host plant Family Area of distribution Albizia lucida Benth. Mimoceae Assam, Bihar Butea monosperma Lam. Fabaceae Central and South India Taubert Syn. Butea frondosa Koenig ex Roxb.
Ficus lacor Buch. Ham Syn. Moraceae North India, Madhya Ficus infectoria Roxb. Pradesh, Western Penninsula. Schleichera oleosa (Lour) Sapindaceae North India, Madhya Oaken Syn. S. trijuga Willd, Pradesh, Western Peninsula Pistacia oleaquosa Lour.
It is a host for Kusumi lac and produces finest quality lac.
Shorea talura Roxb. Dipterocarpaceae Kerala, Kamataka Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae Maharashtra, Madhya Syn. Z.jujuba Lam non Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Mill. Punjab.
Zizyphus xylopyra Willd. Rhamnaceae Maharashtra, Madhya chief host for Rangeeni lac. Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab.
(Krishnamurthy, 1993:519-523).
Harvesting of shellac and yield : Lac required for brood purposes is cut well in advance before larval emergence. Broodlac required for outstation dispatch is packed in bamboo baskets with capacity of 15-20 kg. Encrustations of lac not required for brood are separated from twigs by scraping. The scraped material, greenlac or sticklac, is spread thinly (10-15 cm deep) in a covered and well ventilated place and periodically raked until dried. The yield is 2-3 times the weight of broodlac employed for inoculating the host. In really good crops, it is 5-7 times (The Wealth of India, 2004: 1-12). The washed and dried lac is melted with a certain proportion of orpiment (yellow arsenic) and resin in bags of special cloth through which it is pressed. This molten lac is placed on a surface heated by means of hot water and spread into 3.0 mm thick sheet. It is further stretched out and made to yield a very thin paper like shellac. It is then sorted according to colour. Garnet lac is a dark coloured variety,
117 Profiles of ingredients
contains no arsenic as rule though it may have some percentage of resin. The seed lac when dried is mixed with yellow arsenic or resin or both. Resin is added to reduce the melting point as needed by various industries. The palest variety is the best and is known as orange shellac. The darker varieties like ruby/garnet diminish in value in proportion to the depth of colour. Lac should be stored protected from light and the bleached, de-waxed shellac at temperature not exceeding I5.0°C. Enemies of shellac insect: The natural enemies of lac insect can be classified into two categories; insect parasites, predators and non-insect enemies. Eight most common parasites of lac insect have been reported viz: Coccophagus tschirchii Mahd. , Erencyrtus dewitzi Mahd., Eupelmus tachardae How., Marietta javensis How., Parenchthrodryinus clavicornis Cam., Tachardiaephagus tachardiae How., Tachardiaephagus somervilli Mahd., Tetrastichus purpureus Cam. These parasites lay eggs inside the lac insects either in or on their body. The grubs on hatching out feed on the lac insect and the adult chalcids come out by biting a hole in the lac insect. Eublemma amabilis Moore, and Holcocera pulverea Meyr., the two species of moths and three species of Chrysopa are the most serious predators of lac insects (Teotia, 1964: 521-523). Beneficial insects : Some insects are indirectly beneficial to lac cultivation since they keep off parasites and predators away from lac insects. Some ants act as body- guards to the lac insects, while a few, destroy the larvae of lac pests. These beneficial insects may belong to the groups of chalcids, braconids, ichneumonids and bethylids. Their utility in controlling lac pests is limited, because their prevalence in proportion to enemy insects is small (The Wealth of India, 2004: 1-12). Forms of shellac : Based on the methods of collection and processing, various forms of commercial shellac are enlisted below. Stick shellac: Raw shellac, obtained by scrapping the shellac encrustations from the dry twigs, cut before emergence of new insects. It contains dead bodies of shellac insect, bark of host plant, dried leaves, dust and other extraneous impurities.
118 Profiles of ingredients
Seed shellac : The semi- refined product obtained after crushing, sieving and winnowing of stick shellac, followed by washing and drying. It contains sand, insect debris etc. Shellac : It is refined and is available as thin flakes. It is obtained by heat stretching; the heat softened seed shellac is freed from infusible materials. It is commercial grade and is graded based on its colour and wax content. Button shellac : It is also heat-purified shellac where the molten resin is cast into button shaped cakes instead of drawn into sheets. It is largely used for bonding mica splittings into micanite. Bleached shellac : White or bleached lac is the form that is used woridwide. It is obtained by treafing the alcoholic solution of seed shellac with activated charcoal or bleaching sodium carbonate solufion of seed shellac with sodium hypochlorite. De-waxed shellac : Shellac devoid of wax forms a clear solufion with spirit which is used extensively for coafing tablets in pharmaceufical industries (Siddiqui, 2004: 332-337). Kaud: The fine dust produced during sifting the shellac is known as kaud. General composition of shellac : Shellac is a mixture of resinous substances, a hard wax, sugar and pigment secreted by various coccids, particularly Tachardia, Gascardia and Lecanium (Table No. 2.13). The composifion varies considerably with the host plant. The pure shellac (shellac resin) is a mixture of hydroxy acids e.g. aleurefic acid C13H26O4 united to one another in the form of lactides or lactones (Wigglesworth, 1965: 546-548).
Table No. 2.13 : Chemical composition of different constituents of shellac. Constituent Chemical composition Standards/ Specifications Stick lac Resin 70-80%, sugars, proteins, It contains two fractions, soluble salts-2-4%, alcohol soluble fraction and 1-2%, wax- 4-6%, sand, woody alcohol insoluble fracfion in matter, insect bodies' and 8-12%, benzene containing esters of other extraneous matter and volatile alcohols C30-C36 and n-fatty oil in traces. acids C30-C34.
119 Profiles of ingredients
Constituent Chemical composition Standards/ Specifications Lac resin Esters-inter esters of hydroxy fatty Mol. Wt. 1000, acid derivatives. Acid value-59-75. Acids-Aleuretic acid which has Hydroxyl value- 255-280. many isomers, shellolic acid, two Saponification value-225-230. isomers of shellolic acid, two The resin can be fractionated isomers of dihydroshellolic acid, into soft and hard components two isomers of next higher by exhaustive extraction with homologue of dihyroshellolic acid, ether. The former constitutes kerrolic acid, butolic acid. 30% of original resin and is brown in colour. Both Colouring matter- a yellow dye- fractions can be further sub- erythrolaccin. fractionated by successive fractionation with organic Resin-One fraction of soft resin solvents. contains free acids and neutral On mild hydrolysis resin gives materials i.e. erythrolaccin. The aliphatic hydroxy acids, second fraction possibly comprises alicyclic hydroxy acids and of inter-esters of equivalent amounts polyesters. of aleuretic acid, an isomer of The composition of aleuretic acid and lacollic lactones. hydrolysate depends on host tree and time of collection of lac. Lac wax It is a by-product in the manufacture Melting point- 72-82"C, of de-waxed shellac and Density-0.971-0.982. commercially known as shellac wax. Contains esters, acids, alcohols, Acid value- 12-24.3. hydrocarbons and resins. It resembles Camauba wax. Saponification value- 79-126. Esters are ceryl lignocerate, ceryl cerotate, lacceryl lacceroate. Ester value-45.5-104.0. Alcohols are neocryl and lacceryl Iodine value- 6.8-8.8. alcohols Hydrocarbons are pentacosane and heptacosane.
Colouring Laccic acid is a component of water The dye is obtained by matter soluble red dye while the spirit and extracting stick lac with water alkali soluble yellow dye contains and sodium carbonate solution tetrahydroxymethyl anthraquinone and then precipitated with dye i.e. erythrolaccin. lime. The infusible dark coloured matter known, as kiri is the material left out within the cloth bag during processing of shellac from seed lac and is used for making sticks of sealing wax.
120 Profiles of ingredients
Applications and uses of shellac: Shellac can be used in the form of solution in some solvents or after blending with some other substances (Table No.2.14). Table No. 2.14 : Commercial applications and uses of shellac. Type of Applications industry Adhesives As gasket cement, optical cement, sealing wax, hot melt adhesive, adhesive for silicon chips and solar cells for making grinding wheels, polymer adhesive, coating of leather for adhesion to metal or plastic foils.
Cosmetics In hairsprays, lacquers, eye shadows, microencapsulated perfumes, lipsticks, nail polishes and mascaras.
Electrical Used as air drying and baking type insulating varnish, in electrical sockets, as protective coating for PCBs, for coating of spark plugs, in the form of laminated sheets and tubes due to high dielectric constant and tracking properties.
Food For coating of fruits, chocolates, lozenges, coffee beans for increasing their shelf life. Also as internal coating of food cans and for making non-toxic ink for marking foodstuffs.
Pharmaceuticals Extensively used for coating of tablets, micro encapsulation of vitamins, for sustained release applications of many drugs. In Ayurved and Unani systems of medicine formulations containing lac are prescribed for the treatment of bile disorders, fevers, osteomyelitis, and dropsy, obesity, as diuretic and in the treatment of inflammation.
Varnish and Useful as fiimiture polish, floor polish, heatproof and waterproof printing varnish, shellac red oxide primers and sealers in embossed printing.
Miscellaneous For filling ornaments, for fixing gold sheets on wooden logs, for embossing artistic designs, for polishing stones, encapsulation of fertilizers and pesticides for slow release, synthesis of perfumes, bioactive compounds like insect sex pheromones and plant growth regulators, for preserving archaeological and zoological specimens and for finishing playing cards, rubber cloth, silk and linoleum, for stiffening hats, for preparing glazed paper, water-proof inks, ammunition, bangles, wax crayons for optical frames, for coating and finishing earthenware.
(Siddiqui, 2004: 332-337).
121 Profiles of ingredients
Properties and uses in traditional systems of medicine. Properties in Ayurved: Guna-Laghu, Snigdha Rasa-Kasaya Vipak-Katu Veerya-S'eeta It suppresses Kapha and Pitta Dosh. Externally, acts as an astringent and binder. Internally it is considered to be anthelmintic and antipyretic, antitussive, antiseptic for skin diseases and blood purifier. Uses : In high fevers it is used in the form of medicated oil for anointing the body. Decoction of shellac is used in preparation of other medicinal oils such as Chandanadi Taila, Angarika Taila. Locally shellac is used as stimulant application for indolent fevers, scrofulous (glandular tumours and tuberculous tendency) and scorbutic (pitted) ulcers. A special formulation Lakshadi Taila is available for external use especially for anointing the body in chronic fevers. In mixed decoction form it is used for ulcers, lesions of thoracic cavity, dysuria. It is used in the form of medicated ghee in skin eruptions, eye diseases and fistula. Decoction of shellac is used for treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, and worm infestation. It is also used as an astringent for dilated vaginal passage. It is used for treating respiratory ailments especially hiccups and whooping cough, 5-10 gms internally (Sharma, 1980: 65). Actions and uses in Unani: Finely powdered shellac half tola (5.6 g) mixed with honey to prepare electuary (a confection) is given in haematemesis (vomiting of blood). It is a specific application for dental caries. It is applied to chest in remittent fevers accompanied by cough and dyspnoea. It is used in lumbago i.e. pain in lower part of back, myalgia, epilepsy, hysteria as an application to the nape of neck and spine. If applied to the body of pregnant women, the foetus grows faster (Nadkami, 1976: 148-151). Research work reports : Chakravorty and Roy (1980) studied the effect of shellac on the activities of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase in liver mitochondria. They injected rats with aqueous solution of alkaline extract of crude shellac for seven days (2, 4, 20 and 40 mg s.c.) and found that the larger doses i.e. 20 mg and 40 mg
122 Profiles of ingredients significantly reduced the activity of both these enzymes and caused decrease in lipids in liver. The dose of 40 mg could also decrease proteins significantly in the treated animals. No research report is so far available on anti fertility activity of shellac.
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