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Exosomes and Cell Communication: from Tumour-Derived Exosomes and Their Role in Tumour Progression to the Use of Exosomal Cargo for Cancer Treatment

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Exosomes and Cell Communication: from Tumour-Derived Exosomes and Their Role in Tumour Progression to the Use of Exosomal Cargo for Cancer Treatment cancers Review Exosomes and Cell Communication: From Tumour-Derived Exosomes and Their Role in Tumour Progression to the Use of Exosomal Cargo for Cancer Treatment Andrea Nicolini 1,*,†, Paola Ferrari 2 and Pier Mario Biava 3 1 Department of Oncology, Transplantations and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy 2 Unit of Oncology 1, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Pisana, 56126 Pisa, Italy; [email protected] 3 Scientific Institute of Research and Care Multimedica, 20099 Milan, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] † This author has retired. Simple Summary: Recently, within the research community, exosomes, transporters of bioactive molecules involved in many signalling pathways and cell-to-cell communication with the capacity to alter the tumour microenvironment, have been attracting increasing interest among oncologists. These molecules can play multiple roles, e.g., as useful biomarkers in diagnosis, modulators of the immune system, promoters of the formation of the pre-metastatic niches and cancer metastasis and carriers of substances or factors with anticancer properties. This review focuses on the use of exosomes as a novel therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. Particularly, it highlights the potential of exosomes as carriers of stem cell differentiation stage factors (SCDSFs) for “cell reprogramming” therapy, a promising research field on which we have reported previously. Here, the main characteristics of this treatment and the advantages that can be obtained using mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes Citation: Nicolini, A.; Ferrari, P.; up-loaded with the SCDSFs as carriers of these factors are also discussed. Biava, P.M. Exosomes and Cell Communication: From Tumour- Abstract: Exosomes are nano-vesicle-shaped particles secreted by various cells, including cancer Derived Exosomes and Their Role in cells. Recently, the interest in exosomes among cancer researchers has grown enormously for their Tumour Progression to the Use of Exosomal Cargo for Cancer many potential roles, and many studies have focused on the bioactive molecules that they export as Treatment. Cancers 2021, 13, 822. exosomal cargo. These molecules can function as biomarkers in diagnosis or play a relevant role in https://doi.org/10.3390/ modulating the immune system and in promoting apoptosis, cancer development and progression. cancers13040822 Others, considering exosomes potentially helpful for cancer treatment, have started to investigate them in experimental therapeutic trials. In this review, first, the biogenesis of exosomes and their Academic Editor: Donat Kögel main characteristics was briefly described. Then, the capability of tumour-derived exosomes and Received: 20 January 2021 oncosomes in tumour microenvironments (TMEs) remodelling and pre-metastatic niche formation, Accepted: 12 February 2021 as well as their interference with the immune system during cancer development, was examined. Published: 16 February 2021 Finally, the potential role of exosomes for cancer therapy was discussed. Particularly, in addition, their use as carriers of natural substances and drugs with anticancer properties or carriers of boron Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- neutron capture therapy (BNCT) and anticancer vaccines for immunotherapy, exosomes as biological tral with regard to jurisdictional clai- ms in published maps and institutio- reprogrammers of cancer cells have gained increased consensus. The principal aspects and the nal affiliations. rationale of this intriguing therapeutic proposal are briefly considered. Keywords: exosomes; oncosomes; cancer; exosomal cancer evolution; exosomal cancer therapy; exosomal cancer cells reprogramming Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li- censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and con- 1. Introduction ditions of the Creative Commons At- tribution (CC BY) license (https:// Exosomes are nano-vesicle-shaped particles secreted under physiological and patho- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ logical conditions by various cells, including cancer cells. They export nucleic acids, 4.0/). 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