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Influence of Biogenic Silica from Terrestrial Vegetation on Riverine Systems and Diatom Evolution

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Influence of Biogenic Silica from Terrestrial Vegetation on Riverine Systems and Diatom Evolution Influence of Biogenic Silica from Terrestrial Vegetation on Riverine Systems and Diatom Evolution by Beata Opalinska A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Masters of Applied Science Department of Earth Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Beata Opalinska 2014 Influence of Biogenic Silica from Terrestrial Vegetation on Riverine Systems and Diatom Evolution Beata Opalinska Masters of Applied Science Department of Earth Sciences University of Toronto 2014 Abstract Presently within the scientific literature no terrestrial biogenic silica models exist that compare by magnitude, processes transporting silica. Change in vegetation type has the potential to alter dissolved concentrations of Si in rivers and ultimately the oceans. Diatoms greatly depend on Si concentrations for growth, and as a result land cover change may have influenced onset diatom radiation during the Cenozoic. To expand our understanding of this cycle, a terrestrial biogenic silica model is proposed. This model accounts for biogenic silica production, dissolution and leaching through soils, as well as providing estimates for annual silica soil storage. A case study performed using the constructed biogenic silica model, showed an increase in oceanic DSi concentration during the Miocene (period of diatom diversification). However, this increase does not appear to have been sufficient to trigger global diatom radiation, suggesting multiple geographically isolated locations for this diversification. ii Acknowledgements Thank you to Professor S. A. Cowling for your assistance and guidance, as well as your ever constant insight into the Walking Dead series plot. Thank you to my committee, S. Finkelstein, U.G. Wortmann and C. Mitchell for your constructive input for this thesis. Thanks to Kimsa Dinh, Katie Schmidt, Anna Phillips, Veronica DiCecco and Sara Rhodes for all your motivational support and ice-cream/pie breaks. Vasa Lukich for your ability to keep me entertained when writing was not exciting enough, particularly with your familiarity of tumblr and Supernatural. Thanks to Gary Vinegrad for inspiring last minute panic and Jessica Arteaga for skating it out ;). Thanks to the physics gang (Josh Guerrero, Bob Tian, Bruno Opsenica, Sean Langemeyer and Eric Goldsmith) for overwhelming me with learning new boredgames (ha!) and fluid mechanics. Thanks to all of the 2013 and 2014 graduate students for your constant amusement and friendship. Finally, thanks to my family who let me crash with them all of my life, for those amazing lunches packed by my mom and clothes stolen from my sister. iii Table of Contents List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………... vii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………….. ix List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………... xi List of Appendices……………………………………………………………………………...... xii Chapter 1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………. 1 1.1 Terrestrial Sphere……………………………………………………………………... 2 1.1.1 Sources of Terrestrial Biogenic Silica…………………………………..... 3 1.1.2 Benefits of using Biogenic Silica…………………………………………. 4 1.1.3 Soil Silica Storage………………………………………………………… 5 1.1.4 Marine and Terrestrial Silica Dissolution Kinetics……………………….. 7 1.1.5 Ecosystem Mass Balance…………………………………………………. 8 1.2 Aquatic Sphere……………………………………………………………………...... 9 1.2.1 Marine Silica Cycle……………………………………………………….. 9 1.2.2 Diatoms, Frustule Formation and Dissolution……………………………. 10 Chapter 2 Model and Materials…………………………………………………………………… 13 2.1 Terrestrial Biogenic Silica Model……………..……………………………………… 13 2.1.1 Production Reservoir………….…………………………………………. 14 2.1.2 Dissolution Flux………………………….………………………………. 14 2.1.3 Leaching Coefficient...………………………………………..…………. 15 2.2 Model Materials…………………………………………………………………........ 16 2.2.1 Gauge Selection…………………………………………………………… 16 2.2.2 Drainage Area Extraction…………………………………………………. 16 2.2.3 Land Cover………………………………………………………………… 17 2.2.4 Soils……………………………………………………………………….. 17 2.2.5 Precipitation and NPP Data……………………………………………….. 18 Chapter 3 Result and Model Validation…………………………………………………………... 22 3.1 Watershed Characteristics…………………………………………………..………… 22 iv 3.1.1 Watershed Productivity…………………………………………………… 22 3.1.2 Precipitation and Discharge…………………………………………......... 23 3.2 Watershed Silica Fluxes…………………………………………………………........ 24 3.2.1 Biogenic Silica Fixation Flux……………………………………...……… 24 3.2.2 Biogenic Silica Dissolution……………………………………………….. 24 3.2.3 Biogenic Silica Storage Reservoir………………...……………...……… 25 3.3 Biogenic Silica Riverine Flux……………………………………….……………….. 26 3.3.1 Leaching………………………………………………………………….. 26 3.3.2 Riverine DBSi Estimation……………………………………………...... 26 3.3.3 Riverine DBSi Seasonal Variation……………………………………….. 27 3.3.4 Soil Influence…………………………………………………………….. 27 3.4 General Trends in Riverine Biogenic Fluxes…………..……………………………. 28 Chapter 4 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………. 37 4.1 Biogenic Si Contributions………………………………………………………....... 37 4.2 Conifer Anomaly……………………………………………………………………. 37 4.3 Phytolith Dissolution……………………………………………………………....... 38 4.3.1 Surface Area Size and Dissolution……………………………………….. 39 4.3.2 Aluminum Induced Reduction in Dissolution…………………………..... 39 4.3.3 Influence of Soil Acidity (pH)….………….……………………..…….... 40 4.4 Soil Silica Transportation to Streams……………………………………………...... 41 4.5 Wetland Silica Retention…………………………………………………………….. 42 4.6 Regional Implications……………………………………………………………….. 43 4.7 Vegetation Influence on River BSi………………………………………………….. 44 4.8 Sources of Errors……………………………………………………………………. 45 Chapter 5 Case Study………………………………………………………………………….... 48 5.1 Global Oceanic Biogenic Silica Input………………………………………………. 48 5.2 Methods……………………………………………………………………………… 49 v 5.2.1 Oceanic Si Estimation……………………………………………………. 49 5.2.2 Paleo-Land Cover Distribution…………………………………………… 50 5.3 Results and Discussion………………………………………………………………. 50 5.3.1 Eocene to Pliocene Land Cover Change…………………………………. 50 5.3.2 Eocene to Pliocene Oceanic Si Change…………………………………... 51 5.3.3 What this mean for Diatom Radiation……………………………………. 52 5.3.4 What this means for Grasslands as an Instigator…………..……………… 53 5.3.5 Silica Retention…………..………………………………………………. 53 5.4 Global Impact………………………………………………………………………... 54 Chapter 6 Conclusions and Future Direction of TBSi Cycles………..…………………………. 59 References……………………………………………………………………………………….. 61 Appendix I……………………………………………………………………………………….. 76 Appendix II...……………………………………………………………………………………. 86 vi List of Tables Table 1: Soil silica concentrations for various soil types, pH values and land covers. SiO2 is dissolved silica.……………………..…………………………………………………....12 Table 2: Modeled Si fluxes, pools and rate constants for terrestrial systems with respective calculations and variables. LF is the leaching factor, DF is the dissolution factor, NPP is net primary productivity, %BSi is percent biogenic silica as net dry weight, SiD is the average annual DSi, F is the soil water flow, mp is phytolith mass, SSA is the phytolith specific surface area.………………………………………………………………..……19 Table 3: Phytolith specific surface area (SAA) and mass used for grasslands, wetlands, coniferous and deciduous forests. …………………….…………………………………19 Table 4: Net primary productivity (NPP) and percentage biogenic silica net dry weight (%BSi) of total plant weight for four analyzed land cover types………………………………..29 Table 5: Average catchment parametric values used for the calculation of dissolved silica (DSi) fluxes for the four land cover types analyzed.........……………………………………...29 Table 6: Annual biogenic silica fixation rates from literature for wetland, grassland, coniferous and deciduous ecosystems.…………………………………………………………..…..30 Table 7: Annual biogenic silica dissolution rates from literature for grassland, coniferous and deciduous ecosystems.……………………………………………………………......….31 Table 8: Annual biogenic silica soil storage for wetland, grassland, coniferous and deciduous ecosystems.……………………………………………………………………..………..32 Table 9: Annual dissolved silica flux from wetland, grassland, coniferous and deciduous ecosystems.…………………………….………………………………………………...33 Table 10: Annual dissolved biogenic silica (DBSi) fluxes estimated using seasonality and calculated leaching rates, in relation to annual dissolved silica (DSi) flux for four ecosystems.……………………………………………………………………...……….34 vii Table 11: Modeled average catchment fluxes for each land cover type analyzed and corresponding coefficients………………………………………………………………………………………..35 Table 12: Global area coverage (in ha) by various land cover types from the Eocene to Pliocene…………………………………………………………………………………..56 Table 13: Total global flux of dissolved biogenic silica ( ) to oceans from the Eocene to Pliocene and resulting oceanic biogenic silica concentrations (Tsi). Using ocean a volume of 1.3 billion km3………………………………………………………………..56 viii List of Figures Figure 1: Dissolution rates of phytoliths and quartz as a function of pH. Taken from Fraysse et al., 2006.……………………..…………………………………………………………...12 Figure 2: Schematic of terrestrial biogenic silica model. Boxes in blue reflect dissolved silica, boxes in white reflect silica in solid state. Dotted boxes refer to dominating processes which influence the fluxes in the direction of the arrows. SAA refers to specific surface area………………………………………………………………………………..……...20 Figure 3: Map of the United Sates of American showing point locations of the twenty-six gauges studied and corresponding land cover. …………………………………………………..21 Figure 4: Depiction of relationship between precipitation, discharge and drainage for the twenty-six gauges analyzed. Showing
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