Does Echinoderm Research Deserve an Ethical Consideration?
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Does Echinoderm research deserve an ethical consideration? Tamara Rubilar1 & Augusto Crespi-Abril1,2 1. Laboratorio de Oceanografía Biológica (LOBio), Centro para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos (CESIMAR– CONICET), Boulevard Brown 2915, Puerto Madryn 9120, Argentina; [email protected]; [email protected] 2. Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco, Boulevard Brown 2930, Puerto Madryn 9120, Argentina Received 09-XII-2016. Corrected 04-III-2017. Accepted 20-VI-2017. Abstract: Traditional ethics reflection centers the discussion in conflicts that affect humans. According to epistemology-based ethics, facts are needed to include other living beings as object of ethical consideration. In this sense, huge efforts have been made to demonstrate that animal suffering is real. However, the ethical reflec- tion only reaches large vertebrates and some species of small ones, excluding invertebrates. However, a different approach (ethic-based epistemology) is equally valid and questions the assumptions of traditional ethics. This new insight does not demand facts to demonstrate that living beings should be considered ethically, since ethics should be first than epistemology (facts). Thus, all living beings should be treated with respect and a relation- ship based on empathy should be established. In this context, we discuss all the advances made in echinoderm research in the last 3000 years and the different uses humans made of these organisms. Finally we emphasize that, when studying echinoderms, a reflection about our behavior as researchers is necessary, and we encourage the use of ethically responsible research. Rev. Biol. Trop. 65(Suppl. 1): S11-S22. Epub 2017 November 01. Key words: Ethics; Echinodermata; antropocentric doctrine; non-antropocentric doctrine; 3Rs principle. ETHICS AND NATURE evolutionary and physiological considerations, using humans as a benchmark (Edelman & In general terms, ethics thinks on situ- Seth, 2009). The arguments to determine which ations that involves some types of conflicts. living being should be included into the field There are several kinds of conflicts in science, of ethical reflection are then supported by but not all of them deserve ethical reflection. scientific facts (Chandroo, Yue, & Moccia, The most accepted criterion to establish the 2004; Griffin & Speck, 2004; Ellwood, 2011; pertinence of an ethical reflection is if it affects Lewbart & Mosley, 2012; Mather, 2015). This humans in some way (Guariglia & Videla, approach has been described as epistemology- 2011). This point of view considers clearly that based ethics (Cheney & Weston, 1999; Weston, all humans’ beings are considered as subject 2009) and it assumes several points such as of moral concern (anthropocentric doctrine). that only human are the subject of ethics, and However, this is not the same for other living that ethical theories can be adjusted to retrofit beings (non-anthropocentric). In this sense, it all new ethical conflicts. However, Weston is difficult to determine which living beings (2009) has proposed the ethics-based episte- should be taken as object of ethical consider- mology approach. This approach focuses on ation. One approach is to establish if the living the most obvious assumption of all: that the beings satisfy criteria for sentience or con- world consists of a collection of more or less sciousness (capacity to have positive and nega- given facts to which we must respond. Ethics tive experiencies) which involve behavioral, then systematizes and unites these responses. Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 65(Suppl. 1): S11-S22, November 2017 S11 What would happen if actually, the necessary years ago) their basic characteristics have not relation is inverted? What if the world we changed (Telford et al., 2014). live in arises mainly from our ethical practice, Human knowledge regarding this Phy- rather than the epistemological practice? The lum goes far back to prehistoric times, since main assumption of the ethics-based epis- humans have consumed sea urchins throughout temology is that ethical action should come their history (Lawrence, 2007). They are rep- first (Cheney & Weston, 1999; Weston, 2009). resented in artwork dating back 4 000 years in Usually, to decide which organism is deserv- the “frescos cretenses”. Sea cucumbers have ing of ethical practice first it is necessary to also long been consumed and used for medici- know if they are conscious (Edelman & Seth, nal purposes in the eastern cultures (Brown 2009). However, we will have no idea which & Eddy, 2015). The most ancient description animals are actually conscious until we have of an echinoderm was performed by Aristotle already approached them ethically. Therefore, (350 B.C.E.), more than 2000 years ago, who we propose that it is first needed to establish a described in Historia Animalium the feeding apparatus of the sea urchins, today known as respectful relationship with them rather than a Aristoteles’ Lantern (Fig. 1A). However, Aris- facts-based relationship. totle knew the echinoderms as ostracoderms. However, 2 000 years had to pass until the ECHINODERM THROUGH nature interested the scholars of the times and 3000 YEARS OF HISTORY animals were studied again. In particular, the name Echinodermata was coined by Klein in Echinodermata is a Phylum of deutero- 1734 in its Naturalis dispositio echinoder- stomes that are exclusively marine inverte- matum (Figure 1B, C). Nevertheless, he only brates. They are diverse and widely distributed used it to refer to sea urchins and not all the in all marine environments and play crucial classes known today. Linnæus placed the gen- roles in each environment (Brusca, Moore, era Asterias, Echinus and Holothuria under the Schuster, 2016). The Phylum comprises group Mollusca in the 10th Edition of Systema approximately 7 000 species (Smith, 2005) and Naturae (1758). The term Echinodermata was from the Ordovician (around 495-440 million used again in 1792 by Brugiere who recognized Fig. 1. First descriptions of echinoderms through history. A) Cover of Historia Animalum by Aristotle, B) Cover of Naturalis dispositio echinodermatum by Klein, C) Drawing of sea urchin from Klein. Fig. 1. Primeras descripciones de equinodermos a lo largo de la historia. A) Portada de Historia Animalum escrito por Aristóteles, B) Portada de Naturalis dispositio echinodermatum escrito por Klein, C) Dibujo de erizo de mar hecho por Klein. S12 Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 65(Suppl. 1): S11-S22, November 2017 these animals as a distinct group of inverte- (Briggs & Wessel, 2006), sea urchins embryos brates, but sea cucumbers were not included. were still used as models organism. Hertwig However, later on Lamarck (1809) placed the (1876) discovered that the sperm entered the Echinodermata together with the actual group female gamete and that the binding of the Coelenterata in the Radiata groups of inver- two produced an embryo in the sea urchin tebrate. Over forty years had to pass until De Toxopneustes lividus. Since then, sea urchin Tornos (1839) and Salacroux (1840) used the embryos were accepted as the best model for term Echinodermata. Later on, in 1854 Leuck- embryonic research and have been used to art, argued that Echinodermata did not belong elucidate developmental issues such as mecha- with Coelelenterata due to its higher grade of nisms of fertilization, egg activation, cleavage, structure. Since that time Echinodermata has gastrulation and regulation of differentiation in been a single clade among the invertebrates. the early embryo, as well as models in numer- Species description of Echinodermata ous types of studies ever since such us nervous dominated the literature since the XIX cen- system development, development evolution, tury, first with species inhabiting the coasts of regeneration, etc (i.e. Boveri, 1901; Dolmatov, Europe (i.e. Frey & Leuckart, 1847), followed 1988; Briggs & Wessel 2006; McClay, 2011; by species from all around the world due to Garner et al., 2016; http://www.echinobase. the oceanographic expeditions. Since the XIX org) (Figure 2B,C, D). During the beginning of century oceanographic expeditions have not the XX century, sea stars were added as model stopped. It would be extremely extensive to organisms. Metchnikoff (1893) first observed name every one of the expeditions and the a cellular immune response in the bipinnaria papers produced from them, although the first’s larvae sea stars. After injury the ectoderm of ones are worth naming since they were pioneer. the larvae, mesenchymal cells quickly migrated The HMS Challenger and the Albatross were to the site of the injury. Moreover, he dis- followed by hundreds all around the world, covered that amoeboid cells had phagocytic recently also exploring the deep sea species, activities of (Metchnikoff, 1893). Despite this in addition to all the intertidal and shallow great discovery, the use of echinoderm larvae water species (i.e. Agassiz, 1881; Théel, 1882; as model organism in immunology did not Agassiz, 1890; Clark, 1902; De Morgan, 1913). start until the XXI century (Figure 2A) (Pin- Considering that for over 300 years echino- sino, Thorndyke & Matranga, 2007; Furukawa, derms have been collected all around the world Funabashi, Matsumoto & Kaneko, 2012; Ho, to describe species, determine their distribu- 2015). The ability to eviscerate and posterior tions and generate collections in museums it is regeneration of sea cucumber has made them possible to assume that