Hajj Outcomes: A Review of the Literature

Author Utomo, Sulistyo, Scott, Noel, Jin, Xin

Published 2016

Conference Title 26th CAUTHE Annual Conference. The Changing Landscape of and Hospitality: The Impact of Emerging Markets and Emerging Destinations

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Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au Hajj Outcomes: A Review of the Literature

ABSTRACT

Hajj (Islamic to Mecca) is the oldest Muslim pilgrimage. It is the fifth pillar in Islam and it is compulsory for all Muslims who are financially and physically able. Recently, the experience of Hajj has changed from a purely religious focus to providing one emphasising comfort and satisfaction. In the past, Hajj travelling was risky and involved difficulties such as limited transportation, infrastructure, and accommodation and it took months and even years to to Mecca. However, today’s technology makes travelling for Hajj from anywhere in the world simple and easy. In Indonesia, there are two Hajj travel packages being offered to pilgrims: regular Hajj and Hajj plus. The difference between these is the cost and services provided. Both packages, however, seek to provide satisfactory experiences including travelling by premium airlines and for Hajj plus, staying in five-star . This change in focus is reflected in the literature where Hajj satisfaction is the key focus of attention rather than the outcome of the pilgrimage itself. The aim of this paper is to highlight areas for research in the modern Hajj from Indonesia by providing a framework for examining the differences of psychological outcome between regular Hajj and Hajj plus.

Keywords: Indonesia, Hajj, pilgrimage, Mecca

Introduction

Hajj pilgrimage was first undertaken by the prophet Muhammad, the messenger of Allah and then became one of the five pillars of Islam. Therefore, all Muslims who are both healthy and financially capable must perform Hajj to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. (Ambroz & Ovsenik, 2011; Delaney, 1990; Eid, 2012; Gunlu & Okumus, 2010; Qur’an, 22:27-30). Hajj is held within five particular days (8th to 12th) in the month of Zul-Hijja, the last month of the Islamic lunar calendar. Because of this, the precise Hajj period will vary each year as measured on the Gregorian calendar (Gatrad & Sheikh, 2005). In Mecca, over these five days, pilgrims must follow a number of rituals sequentially. Briefly the rituals comprised walking seven times counter-clockwise around Ka’aba, then pilgrims must running back and forth seven times between Al-Safa and Al-Marwah hill, and once finished cutting off a lock of hair. After this is required to drink water from the well of Zamzam, and throw stones at pillars (called throwing Jamarat), symbolising the stoning of the devils at Mount Arafat. The next step is cutting another lock of hair or completely shaving for men. Finally, there are animal sacrifices to Allah during the Eid-al Adha celebration.

An individual planning to undertake Hajj may spend many years in preparation. Before leaving for the Hajj pilgrim must make sure to provide arrangement for his or her family, pay all debts and redress all wrongs and to write a will (Taylor, 2011; Timothy & Olsen, 2006). A woman who wants to go on Hajj must be accompanied by mahram (male relatives, such as: husband, brothers, father) otherwise she will be unable to perform Hajj (Gunlu & Okumus, 2010; Taylor, 2011). Hajj is the highest achievement for every Muslim. Once it is completed, male pilgrims will earn the title of Hajji female pilgrims, Hajja (Aziz, 2001; Gatrad & Sheikh, 2005; Lücking, 2014; Timothy & Olsen, 2006). For pilgrims however, it is not the title that is important; most important is the Hajj experience. Pilgrims believe that by praying inside the Grand Mosque and devoting their life only to Allah they can erase all the sins that they have committed in their life. This is because when someone prays inside the Masjid Al-Haram the benefits will be multiplied many times compared to praying somewhere else (Huzaifa, 2014).

Hajj is therefore a very important annual event for Muslims from all over the world. Each year between 3 and 5 million people gather in the city of Mecca. During the Hajj, pilgrims dress uniformly and follow the same rituals in a massive gathering, demonstrating that Muslims are all equal. The ultimate purpose of this pilgrimage is to allow pilgrims to demonstrate their strong belief in Islamic teaching and commitment to Allah (Hammoudi, 2006).

1 Performing Hajj is literally visiting the house of God, the house of Allah in Mecca, where the Grand Mosque of Masjid Al-Haram is located. Ka’aba is in the center of the Mosque. All Muslims wherever they are in the world face in the direction of Kaaba during prayer. Ka’aba is a cube in shape and it is 15 meters tall, 12 meters long and 10.5 meters wide (Long, 1979; Peters, 1994; Timothy & Olsen, 2006) . The Grand Mosque of Masjidil Al-Haram did not exist during the time of the prophet Muhammad, but the Ka’aba was already there. Later, the mosque was built around the original site of the Kaaba.

Hajj has also become academically important for those studying religion as well as tourism although sometimes overlooked by travel and tourism researchers (Aziz, 2001). Of particular interest is that Hajj is not just a journey, but also the experience of a lifetime where historically hardship was endured as well as religious passions. Some researchers suggest that Muslims should not call themselves a tourist when doing Hajj since it is the calling from Allah (Aziz, 2001; Jafari & Scott, 2014). For others such as Timothy and Olsen (2006) Hajj is the largest tourist gathering which has a traditional component of tourism (Aziz, 2001). As will be discussed below, the balance between religion and tourism within Hajj has changed with the advent of new forms of transportation and the economic growth of Islamic countries.

One of the reasons for this change in emphasis is the increasing number of pilgrims. This is because firstly, the Muslim population of the world is increasing. According to Grim and Karim (2011) from the Pew Research Center the Muslim population is projected to increase so that by the year 2030 it will account for 26.4% of the world population. Secondly, air transportation is getting cheaper. According to the United States Department of Transportation between 1995 to 2014 the annual domestic air fare declined up to 20% or more (Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2014), with a similar trend for international flight. This means that it is easier to get to Mecca and there is a less time involved. Thirdly, more Muslims can afford the expense to go for Hajj since countries like Malaysia and Indonesia are developing rapidly (Bernama, 2014).

The Hajj journey in the 1700’s, when the first written records are available was risky and difficult. Pilgrims had to travel through the desert with inadequate supplies of water leading to significant hardship. Travelling to Mecca could take many months from central Asia, eight months from Istanbul and 15-18 months or up to two years from Morocco (Coskun, 2012; El Moudden, 1990; Pearson, 1995).

In the late 1940’s, Southeast Asian Hajj pilgrims were transported from Malaysia and Indonesia by British companies using steam ships (Miller, 2006). These two countries provided the majority of customers as they had the largest Muslim populations (Miller, 2006). Travel to Mecca by sea could take up to six months and pilgrims had to prepare themselves physically for this difficult journey. They would say good bye to their family not knowing whether they would return home or die during the trip (Metcalf, 1990). Clearly, at this time the journey to Mecca for Hajj required tremendous dedication and sacrifice, earning its reputation as the journey of a lifetime (Coskun, 2012).

In contrast today, most Hajj pilgrims travel by air to Jeddah. Some 91.7% used this as their port of entry into Saudi Arabia in 2009 as indicated on figure 1 (Memish, 2010), with only 1.6% arriving by sea and the remainder (6.7%) by land. The number of pilgrims increased significantly between 2009 until 2012, and then decreased by 20% due to the construction and improvement of the Grand Mosque and other facilities used to perform Hajj rituals as shown on Table 1.

2 108,487 25,907 (6.7%) (1.6%)

1,484,818 (91.7%) Air Sea Land

Figure 1 Arrival of pilgrims in 2009 by mode of travel (N=1,619,212) (Memish, 2010)

Table 1 Number of Pilgrims (2009 – 2014) Year Local Pilgrims Foreign Pilgrims Total 2009 699,313 1,613,965 2,313,278 2010 989,798 1,799,601 2,789,399 2011 1,099,522 1,828,195 2,927,717 2012 1,400,000 1,700,000 3,161,573 2013 700,000 1,379,531 2,079,531 2014 700,000 1,389,053 2,089,053 Source: Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia (2013)

Hajj in Indonesia

Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country in the world (Jafari & Scott, 2014; Oktora & Achyar, 2014). Therefore, Hajj in Indonesia receives significant attention by the Indonesian government due to its economic and religious importance. Some 87% of the total population of Indonesia of 237,641,326 in 2010 are Muslims (Elisiva & Sule, 2015). Therefore, Indonesia receives the biggest Hajj quota from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. However, since the demand for Hajj is very high the waiting period to get the Hajj visa is very long and may be between 5-15 years (Oktora & Achyar, 2014). Alternatively, pilgrims can undertake Hajj plus with the advantage of a shorter waiting period as well as better service quality compare to the regular Hajj.

For about the last 20 years, Hajj travel in Indonesia has been available in two forms of packaging, regular Hajj and Hajj plus. The differences between these two are mainly in the services provided and the cost. Regular Hajj is offering the standard service such as staying in a regular accommodation which usually consists of 5 people in one room, and separate between males and females. On the other hand, the Hajj plus is staying in the five-star hotels with luxurious room services. Every year there are some improvements in these two packages which focusing on the pilgrims’ satisfaction (Umar, Adiswisastra, Murwani, & Sulityani, 2014). This results in increasing the Hajj cost. The cost of the regular Hajj is considered very expensive for Indonesians considering the annual per capita income is

3 USD 3,515 (Worldbank, 2014). Many Indonesians have to save many years to be able to go. The cost for the regular Hajj in 2014 was between USD 2,000 to 4,000 per person. Hajj plus was first made available in 1987 (Pusponegoro, 2008) to accommodate wealthy people who did not want to wait to obtain a visa. Hajj plus packages provide more luxurious services and are offered by private tour agents with the co-operation of the Indonesian government who provide a percentage of the total quota of visas to them. The minimum cost of the Hajj plus in 2014 was approximately USD 8,000 per person depending on the service provided (Elisiva & Sule, 2015). In addition, more expensive Hajj plus packages are also available that include extra trips to countries such as: Turkey, Egypt, Dubai, Singapore, Hong Kong, etc.

In accordance to the Republic of Indonesian Law No. 13 year 2008 Hajj pilgrimage is offered through two packages regular Hajj which is implemented by the Indonesian Government and Hajj plus which is implemented by the private sectors by the permission from the Ministry of Religion (Elisiva & Sule, 2015). There are approximately about 254 tour companies that handled the Hajj plus package in 2012. As mentioned above, in 2014 the minimum cost for Hajj plus was USD 8,000 (Elisiva & Sule, 2015). This minimum cost is set by the government to ensure the standard service quality for the Hajj plus. Some travel agents offer more expensive tours that include staying in five star hotels as well as side tours after completing Hajj pilgrimage. Despite the expensive price of Hajj plus, however, demand is growing and the number of travel companies handling Hajj plus is increasing as well. The advantages of Hajj plus as mentioned before are shorter waiting period, better services in terms of accommodation, food and transportation. Hajj packages offer different levels of prices to customers resulting in variations in Hajj satisfaction.

The government is involved in every aspect of the pilgrimage and has significant influence on its success. The Ministry of Religious Affairs controls Indonesian Hajj pilgrimage flights, accommodation, catering, , and other logistics (Ichwan, 2008). It is therefore of considerable concern in Indonesia that every year during the Hajj season numerous problems are reported impacting upon pilgrims’ satisfaction during their stay in Mecca and Saudi Arabia more generally. This situation means that there may be differences in the psychological outcome of pilgrimage between participants who undertake regular Hajj and Hajj plus packages from Indonesia. Interestingly, as will be described below research into the modern Hajj journey has focused on examining the quality of the services that leads to pilgrims’ being satisfied with this travel. This may be contrasted with research into outcomes from pilgrimage of a more spiritual or religious nature.

Literature Review

The tourism literature contains a number of studies that examine individuals who travel for spiritual purposes (Cohen, 1996; Gladstone, 2005; Nyaupane, Timothy, & Poudel, 2015; Timothy & Iverson, 2006). In the academic study of tourism, this study of pilgrimage and spiritual tourism is relatively recent (Haq & Jackson, 2009; Jutla, 2002; Phukan, Rahman, & Devdutt, 2012). One reason may be that many pilgrims do not consider themselves to be involved in tourism. However, other researchers claim that pilgrims behave similarly to tourists when the destinations are far from their home (Cohen, 1992; Santos, 2002), and consider that pilgrimage is “leisure with meaning” (Frey, 1998, p. 254). Today, researchers recognise that Hajj can be considered the largest gathering of tourists in the world (Ahmed, 1992; Nyaupane et al., 2015; Raj & Morpeth, 2007; Shinde, 2008).

Hajj has been categorised by other researchers as spiritual tourism including pilgrimage, religious, cultural or (Zhang et al., 2007). Certainly the study of pilgrimage is an interdisciplinary field and has been examined by diverse researchers leading to an unconsolidated literature (Collins-Kreiner, Kliot, Mansfield, & Sagi, 2006).

In tourism literature, Hajj, has been studied as an important tourism activity and Mecca as a popular destination (Ahmed, 1992; Ascoura, 2013; Aziz, 2001; Burns, 2007; Eid, 2012; Henderson, 2011; Jafari & Scott, 2014). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been improving and modernising its infrastructure in order to better accommodate 3-4 million pilgrims from all over the world during the Hajj season (Ascoura, 2013; Henderson, 2011; Johnson, 2010). Public facilities include transportation

4 infrastructure and toilets have been built to serve pilgrims. Additionally, airports, seaports and road networks modernised (Henderson, 2011). A range of apartments and hotels have been built from the modest to the luxurious.

In the business and tourism literature Hajj has been primarily examined in terms of service quality and customer satisfaction (Eid, 2012; Haq & Jackson, 2009; Jabnoun, 2003; Othman, 2003). Previous research has examined on how purchase of Hajj and Umrah packages relates to satisfaction, commitment and trust in Hajj and Umrah travel agencies (Oktora & Achyar, 2014). This research suggests that customer satisfaction will impact trust in the travel agents and therefore creates repeat businesses. Another study examines improving Hajj service quality and has developed a scale called HAJQUAL based on SERVQUAL (Jabnoun, 2003; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988). This research examines the importance of providing the best service quality for pilgrims. Service quality instruments for Hajj were developed and these instruments are helping Hajj agents to evaluate the service they provide and enabling future improvements (Eid, 2012; Jabnoun, 2003). These service quality instruments measure a variety of factors including human services, Makkah accommodation, Mina-Arafah accessibility, bathroom accessibility, bathroom cleanliness and accommodation outside Makkah (Jabnoun, 2003). From a marketing strategy perspective, Hajj may be considered as a product/service. One paper examines Pakistani pilgrims’ experience comparing those who live in Pakistan and Australia in terms of their expectations and their actual experience of Hajj (Haq & Jackson, 2009). This found significant demographic differences. Pakistani Muslims who live in Pakistan, were found to be more serious and think that Hajj is the most important event in their life (Haq & Jackson, 2009). They think that this spiritual journey is to fulfil the Islamic religious obligation. On the other hand, pilgrims who live in Australia are more open-minded and educated and more critical, they do not think that Hajj is only to fulfil their religious obligation but they are more likely to think that Hajj is a spiritual adventure and achievement. They are concerned more about “value for money” on the funds they have spent for undertaking Hajj (Haq & Jackson, 2009). Some were not happy with their Hajj experience because of the lack of services provided by the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Hajj. The paper reported that “today’s practice of Hajj is more money-making exercise for the Saudi Government and various international business operators involved, such as the airlines, hotels and fast food chains” (Haq & Jackson, 2009, p. 148). The different types of Hajj lead to a lack of equality since wealthy people can stay in five star hotels while others sleep on the ground. One respondent reported “I could not believe that the Hilton had its accommodation included in the vicinity of the Ka’ba, and people could join the prayers from the luxury of their five star rooms” (Haq & Jackson, 2009, p. 153).

In health literature most studies examine the large scale gathering in Mecca as a site for infectious diseases, injuries or even death (Abdalla, Al-Hamdan, Al-Hoqail, Bahnassy, & Saeed, 2010; Grist, 2008; Khan & McLeod, 2012; Memish, Stephens, Steffen, & Ahmed, 2012; Pane et al., 2013). Preparations are needed to prevent these problems and, for example, all pilgrims must be vaccinated against meningococcal disease before the visa can be issued in order to avoid an outbreak (Gatrad & Sheikh, 2005; Grist, 2008). Some 2-4 million people, in one place during five days can be a challenging situation for health and safety issues (Eid, 2012; Khan & McLeod, 2012). Furthermore, travelling to Mecca can be hard for pilgrims who may not used to the extreme heat (Gatrad & Sheikh, 2005; Noweir, Bafail, & Jomoah, 2008) or who may have dietary requirements (Alsafadi, Goodwin, & Syed, 2011; Shaikh-Omar, Header, & Bukhari, 2013).

From the sociological perspective researchers have categorised Hajj travel as pilgrimage, religious, special interest, cultural or experiential tourism (Delaney, 1990; Haq & Jackson, 2009; Long, 1998). Hajj is considered a formal, sacred pilgrimage (Cohen, 1992; Donnan, 1995). One impact of the Hajj among Muslim from around the world is a sense of togetherness. This annual gathering of Muslims from different nations and different languages has been found to increase perceptions of brotherhood and spirituality among pilgrims (Clingingsmith, Khwaja, & Kremer, 2009). Hajj helps in strengthening pilgrims Islamic beliefs as well as reducing inappropriate behavior such as profanity and other misconduct. Hajj increases tolerance in the Islamic world and beyond by the sharing religious values (Clingingsmith et al., 2009; Gothóni, 2014).

5 However, until now, there have been no empirical studies in any field directly related to the impact of Hajj pilgrimage on pilgrims’ religious outcomes such as commitment. This may be in part because of a divide between religious and psychological studies (Grover, 2012). This is despite the fact that the purpose of the Hajj is to increase religious commitment. Surprisingly, there has been little attempt to understand the consequences for pilgrims’ religious commitment of undertaking Hajj. In general there appears an assumption that their commitment to Islam must increase. However, modern Hajj experiences mean some pilgrims become more committed to Islam while “others return with consumer durables” (Donnan, 1995, p. 64). A recent provocative book written in Bahasa titled Ketika Makkah menjadi seperti Las Vegas (When Mecca becomes like Las Vegas) (Kusuma, 2014) considers that pilgrimage has been commercialised. One recent scholar, when asking pilgrims about their activities in Saudi Arabia, found that shopping is an important part of the trip (Lücking, 2014, p. 138).

There is little research about the impact of pilgrimage on pilgrims (Frey, 2004). One study has examined the effects of contemporary Camino de Santiago pilgrimage (the “Camino”) after returning home (Frey, 2004). These pilgrims are mostly nominally Catholic middle-class educated European. This study examined the transformation of the pilgrims’ daily life in the short and the long term. Pilgrims were found to have difficulty in articulating the motives for their journey. Some were seeking to escape from the daily routine; others wanted to get the Compostela, a certificate to confirm the completion of the journey. For others pilgrimage was transformational: “the pilgrimage for me changed me as a person, made me more confident, made me accept and love myself more and open up to new ideas and patterns” (Frey, 2004, p. 92).

Another study by anthropologist, Ann Gold, examined the return home of Rajasthani (India) Hindu pilgrims (Gold, 1990). Pilgrims claimed that benefits from the bathing ritual included improved health and physical rebirth (Buzinde, Kalavar, Kohli, & Manuel-Navarrete, 2014; Gold, 1990). Another study has chronicled the Buddhist belief that visiting holy places will give pilgrims wisdom as well as privilege to enter Nirvana (heaven) (Jutla, 2002). Sikhism does not have any sacred places for pilgrimage. However, Sikhs do visit religious sites to pray for health, happiness, and prosperity (Jutla, 2002) resulting in “spiritual satisfaction and reaffirmation of faith” (Jutla, 2002, p. 71).

Interestingly, however, the existing literature has not provided a theoretical psychological perspective on undertaking pilgrimage suggesting more research is required on the outcome of pilgrimage (Frey, 2004).

This study attempts to bridge the gap by examining the psychological outcome of the Hajj pilgrimage related to satisfaction with the experience and its effect on Muslim values or commitment.

Discussion and Conclusions

Hajj is a very important event for Muslims all over the world. It involves both hardship and enjoyment. In the past pilgrims who undertook Hajj were focused on their devotion and submission to God. The Hajj journey was very hard and dangerous, it could take years to arrive to Mecca and sometimes pilgrims never returned to their native land. The long journey was risky physically which could lead pilgrims to experience spiritual changes after returning home (McDonnell, 1990).

The modern Hajj, however, is much easier. People can travel quickly by air and stay in good accommodation, even in five star hotels. Hajj satisfaction has become a very important factor in the modern Hajj. The change in focus has been reflected in the literature.

Although, the main overt purpose of Hajj pilgrimage is purely Islamic religious obligation, increasingly, Hajj has been studied like travel to any other tourism destination. In the business literature, researchers have been concerned in examining the different packages being offered for Hajj pilgrimage.

Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country in the world. Thus, Hajj is in high demand, allowing some travel agents and the Indonesian government to generate significant income. The Indonesia Ministry of Religious Affairs along with private travel agencies provide Hajj tour packages to the

6 pilgrims. Hajj in Indonesia is divided by two packages, which are regular Hajj and Hajj plus. The difference between these packages is mainly in the services provided. Hajj plus is more expensive than the regular Hajj.

Surprisingly, in Indonesia the demand for Hajj plus is increasing due to a better Indonesian economy. Travel agents who handle Hajj plus are trying to improve their profits, thus, the competition among Hajj travel agents is fierce. Travel agents are increasingly seeking to attract Hajj plus travellers to travel to other destinations after the pilgrimage and to offer accommodation in luxurious hotels.

In conclusion, the focus of modern Hajj pilgrimage has changed. Pilgrimage appears not only to fulfil the travellers’ religious duty but also as a form of tourism. People are becoming more concern about the value of money they spend in relation to the services they obtain. This paper has identified a need for research in Indonesia concerning the psychological outcomes of Hajj. Is satisfaction becoming more important than the pilgrimage? In the previous business literature researchers are examining service quality. A new area of research is the impact of Hajj satisfaction to Islamic religious commitment once pilgrims return home. Thus, an important research question is whether the modern Hajj experience has been changed due packages provided by travel agents. Pilgrims are paying more money in order to have a better experience in Mecca. But is this simply impacting on their religious commitment? This research contributes both theoretically and practically, significantly to the Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs regarding the Hajj policy and practically to pilgrims through a better understanding of the impact of the pilgrimage on psychological outcome.

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