DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

IS PREY DEFAUNATION A POTENTIAL CAUSE OF CARNIVORE RANGE LOSS AND EVENTUAL EXTINCTION?

Hanna Svensson

Degree project for Master of Science (120 hec) with a major in Biology BIO717, Degree project in Evolutionary and behavioural ecology, 60 hec Second cycle Semester/year: Autumn 2017 - Spring 2018 Supervisor: Sören Faurby, Department of Biological & Environmental Sciences Examiner: Bengt Oxelman, Department of Biological & Environmental Sciences

Table of contents Abstract ...... 3 Introduction ...... 3 Aim of the study ...... 5 Method ...... 5 Results ...... 7 Defaunation ...... 10 Body mass relation to prey loss ...... 18 Discussion ...... 21 Prey loss ...... 21 Range overlap ...... 21 Could this be used as a new conservation strategy? ...... 22 Conclusion ...... 22 Acknowledgement...... 23 Popular science summary ...... 23 References ...... 23 Supplementary information ...... 26

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Abstract Defaunation, the loss of animals from ecological communities, have been emphasized as a likely threat to the conservation of carnivores. However, not much is known about the potential threat that defaunation presents to terrestrial carnivores that feed on mammals. Therefore, the aim was to explore this threat and if it’s a potential cause of carnivore range loss and extinction. A new diet database was generated in collaboration with Owen Middleton for the terrestrial members of the order Carnivora having mammals as a primary prey item, resulting in 20170 diet records collected from 566 published literature sources. For Felids (cat species) an existing diet database was used. To estimate the potential threat to carnivores from the loss of their prey, overlap range maps of predator and their primary and secondary prey species were created. These were compared to maps where prey species classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN were removed. Two carnivores experienced a 100% loss of their primary prey range, Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) and Sechuran Fox (Lycalopex sechurae). The Brown bear (Ursus arctos) with 48% loss and the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) with 46% loss experienced the second highest loss. It’s important to remember that these ranges only display the mammalian prey species of the carnivores and not the entire diet. The Striped Hyaenas diet consists of 88,76% of mammals compared to the 60,90% of the Sechuran Fox and 93,13% of the Dhole’s diet. For the omnivorous Brown bear only 38,51% of its diet is mammalian and it is therefore not as affected by the primary prey range loss as strict carnivores. Defaunation of primary prey will probably result in carnivore range loss and can be a cause for future extinctions.

Sammanfattning Defaunation, förlusten av djur från ekologiska samhällen har betonats som ett troligt hot mot bevarandet av rovdjur. Men inte mycket är känt om det potentiella hot som defaunation utgör för marklevande rovdjur som livnär sig på däggdjur. Därför var syftet att undersöka detta hot och om det är en potentiell orsak till minskat utbredningsområde och utrotning av rovdjur. I samarbete med Owen Middleton skapades en ny dietdatabas för de landlevande medlemmarna i ordningen Carnivora som har däggdjur som primärt bytesdjur, vilket resulterade i 20170 dietregistreringar hämtade ifrån 566 publicerade litteraturkällor. För kattdjur användes en befintlig dietdatabas. För att uppskatta det potentiella hotet mot rovdjur från förlusten av sitt bytesdjur, skapades överlappskartor för rovdjur och deras primära och sekundära bytesdjursarter. Dessa jämfördes med kartor där bytesdjur som är klassificerade som sårbara eller värre av IUCN togs bort. Två rovdjur hade en 100% förlust av utbredningsområde för deras primära bytesdjur, Randig hyena (Hyaena hyaena) och Sechuran räv (Lycalopex sechurae). Brunbjörn (Ursus arctos) med en förlust av 48% och Dhol (Cuon alpinus) med 46% hade den näst högsta förlusten. Det är viktigt att komma ihåg att dessa utbredningsområden endast visar delen av däggdjur i rovdjurens diet och inte hela dieten. Randig hyenas diet består till 88,76% av däggdjur jämfört med Sechuran rävs 60,90% och Dhols 93,13%. Den allätande Brunbjörnens diet består endast till 38,51% av däggdjur och är därför inte lika påverkad av minskade utbredningsområden hos dess primära bytesdjur som strikta rovdjur är. Defaunation av primärt bytesdjur kommer troligen att leda till minskning av rovdjurens utbredningsområden och kan orsaka framtida utrotningar.

Introduction Right now, we’re living in an ongoing global mass extinction (Barnosky et al., 2011) with biodiversity severely threatened by human activity, most of which are linked to mankind’s expanding ecological footprint, invading natural habitats for food production and living space, driving climate change and polluting the world’s oceans and rivers. Secondary threats come from

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alien invasive species introductions (Mooney and Cleland, 2001; Johnson, 2006) and any other alterations to functional ecosystems. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) have assessed the status for all species where data were available. The IUCN Red List is “widely recognized as the most comprehensive, objective global approach for evaluating the conservation status of plant and animal species.” (IUCN, 2017). Mammal decline is a global issue with almost one-quarter of the species (22.2 %) globally threatened or extinct, representing 1,219 species (Figure 1) (IUCN, 2018). Ceballos et al. (2017) found that of 177 mammals all species had lost 30% or more of their geographic ranges and more than 40% of the species have experienced severe population declines (>80% range loss).

Figure 1. Proportion of mammal species in different threat categories, graph from IUCN (2018)

The geographic range of species are often composed of numerous local populations interacting. Range loss occurs when local populations disappear from their natural habitat, leading to species becoming extirpated or “locally extinct”. Concentrating on range loss and the extirpation of these local populations can help guide and prioritize conservation efforts before population size drop to critical levels (Caughley, 1994). Even though a species is still common globally, studying range loss can identify where ecosystems are losing local populations of that species (Ceballos and Ehrlich, 2002) and thereby help find tools to prevent further loss before the species become

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globally threatened. Increases in species extinction risk are typically linked to the loss of individual populations and associated declines in geographical range (Ceballos and Ehrlich, 2002). Recently several carnivores have experienced substantial population declines, geographic range reductions, and fragmentation of their habitats (Morrison et al., 2007; Ceballos et al., 2015). 61% of large carnivore species (≥ 15 kg) are listed by the IUCN as near threatened, vulnerable or worse and are at risk of local or global extinction (Ripple et al., 2014). The conservation of large carnivores is important for maintaining the structure and function of diverse ecosystems (Ripple et al., 2014).

If one or several parts of the ecosystem is affected or changed the consequences could be catastrophic. Understanding the importance of predator–prey interactions for species diversity and community composition is a central theme in ecology. Sandom et al. (2013) discovered strong associations between predator and prey richness in a bottom-up direction at global and regional scales, predator richness was highly linked to prey richness. Krantz (1970) claim that prey diversity loss may partly account for the extinction of large carnivores. Healthy ecosystems depend on predators and conservation focused on these species as well as their prey has the potential to benefit a wide range of animals (Ripple et al., 2014). Ripple and Van Valkenburgh (2010) hypothesized that large carnivores, combined with humans hunting, are driving the decline of prey availability and prey richness through top-down pressure. This increase in top-down trophic pressure results in the decline of large carnivores and alters the herbivore community dynamics with further, potentially, cascading implications through the ecosystem (Estes et al., 2011). Prey loss threatens predator survival with cascading effects on the ecosystem and its effectiveness as predator loss leads to less interactions with remaining prey species (Ripple and Beschta, 2007; Manning et al., 2009; Oriol‐Cotterill et al., 2015) . Although prey loss is potentially an important threat to large carnivores not much effort has been made to assess the importance of prey defaunation as a threat to large carnivores (Ripple et al., 2014). Research emphasizing the effects of climate change, and other environmental factors on species richness (Field et al., 2009) as well as human impacts on biodiversity (Sanderson et al., 2002) is fairly common. Prey species threats are scarcely examined, yet, constitutes a potentially huge risk for the long-term persistence of carnivores (Sandom et al., 2017). Sandom et al. (2018) concluded that for large felids to have a secure future, the current decline in prey species must be prevented and ultimately reversed. Threatened and functionally extinct prey species can in the foreseeable future lead to the loss of at least one big cat species and potentially entire felid communities (Sandom et al., 2018).

Aim of the study Explore the threat that defaunation presents to carnivores and if the loss of prey species is a potential cause of carnivore extinction and range loss.

Method A new diet database was generated for the extant 116 terrestrial members of the order Carnivora (IUCN 2016-3) having mammals as a primary prey item. Mammals in the order Carnivora are often referred to as carnivores. This can be confusing, however, since in both popular and scientific usage "carnivore" also means simply "meat-eating" and can refer to all species eating meat. For clarity, the order Carnivora was the only one included in this database and are hereafter referred to as carnivores.

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All papers returned from a Web of Science search with the binomial name from one of the 116 carnivores combined with “AND diet” was reviewed for information about their diet. This resulted in carnivore diet data being collected from 566 papers. The dataset includes data on (1) species and taxonomic groups (genera, family, order) which have been recorded as prey; (2) a quantitative record of dietary importance of each recorded prey; (3) sample size; (4) where the record was made; (5) what type of sample; (6) the data collection method that was used; and (7) reference (supplementary Table 1). For all 116 carnivores studied a total of 20170 diet records was collected. Prey data were recorded at species resolution when possible. Where species level diet data were not available, the highest taxonomic resolution available was used (genus, family, or order). Where common names were used, they were matched to the IUCN species lists where possible. Failing that, an internet search was made in an attempt to assign the common name to a species or taxonomic group. Quantitative (frequency of occurrence, proportion of occurrence, or proportion of biomass consumed) diet data were recorded for each diet item reported. Diet data were collected by Hanna Svensson and Owen Middleton, university of Sussex. To ensure identical collection, a quality control of 10% overlap of data (60%-60%) was used. All data handling was performed in R. An estimate of total diet data quality for each carnivore was calculated as the total number of samples across all sites. A Carnivore was considered to have Very High data quality if it scored 10,000 or more, High if it scored between 1,000 and 10,000, Poor if it scored less than 1,000 and Very Poor where no quantitative data was recorded. 29 carnivores were recorded to have Very High quality data, 15 as High, 18 as Poor and 54 carnivores were recorded to have Very Poor data. To include as many carnivores as possible the species listed as Very Poor were given diet data from all carnivore species within the same genera when data was available. Of the total 20170 diet records collected, 11864 were mammal species, of these, 625 mammal species were listed as being carnivore prey at a species level. The remaining mammal records were on 134 genus level, 116 family level and 107 order level. Only species recorded on a species level were extracted and analyzed for this study. To estimate the relative importance of each mammalian prey species in each carnivore’s range a secondary database was created for the extracted data. In the secondary database, two strategies were used to assign prey to their categories depending on the quality of the carnivore’s diet data. For carnivores with Very High data quality, the mean of quantitative diet data was used for each prey species recorded. For carnivores with Poor and High data quality the maximum quantitative score was used. The relatively large number of sites for Very High data quality increases the probability of secondary prey-species being recorded as a primary prey-species. To deal with this, and because the larger number of dietary records allow it, the mean of the quantitative diet was used to assign dietary importance. This approach would be desirable for all carnivores to ensure the primary prey is a selective category of the most important prey-species; however, because of the limited diet data available for the other carnivores it was assume that the diet data available for them are representative of the carnivore’s typical primary prey. All mammal species recorded on a species level within each carnivore’s range were assigned to one of three dietary importance categories: primary prey (1); secondary prey (2); occasional prey (3). Prey species dietary importance were classified from their quantitative data, where primary prey were species that appeared in ≥20% of the diet samples from each literature source, secondary prey appeared in ≥5% and <20% of the diet samples, and occasional prey appeared in <5% of the diet samples (Kissling et al., 2014). Only primary and secondary mammalian prey on a species level were included in the analysis. Diet data for Felids (cats) was taken from Sandom et al. (2017) and included in the analysis.

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Range maps were created from raster layers taken from Faurby S (raw data from IUCN version 2016-3) for all of the carnivores. The carnivores overlap with each of its primary prey species were combined into one total prey range. Based on these maps a new set of range maps were created with the exclusion of primary prey classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN. This was repeated for all carnivores with their secondary prey species. From the range maps the area percentages of the overlapping regions were analyzed.

Results Table 1 show the proportion of different food types for the carnivores, felids not included in this table because this information was not available in the database from (Sandom et al., 2017). Even though food type data weren’t available the author stated that the diet database compiled for the 32 extant felids only included species that primarily prey on mammals (thus excluding Pardofelis badia, Pardofelis marmorata, Prionailurus planiceps and Prionailurus viverrinus), as identified by Kissling et al. (2014). Species that highly depend on mammals for their diet is the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) and the Red wolf (Canis rufus) with the mammalian portion of their diets reaching over 90% each. One carnivore, the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), relies entirely on mammals with the recorded food items consisting exclusively of mammalian species.

Table 1. The proportion of different food types for all carnivores (felids not included). Mammals: vertebrates within the class Mammalia, Plant: a living organism such as trees, bushes and grass, Bird: a warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrate with wings and feathers, Fish: a limbless cold-blooded vertebrate with gills and fins, Invertebrate: an animal lacking a backbone, Other: foodtype unspecified by sorce, Reptile/Amphibian: a tetrapod in the class Reptilia/ a ectothermic, tetrapod of the class Amphibia, Anthropogenic: trash and livestock

Carnivore binomal Mammal Plant Bird Fish Invertebrate Other Reptile/ Anthro- Total Amphibian pogenic Atilax paludinosus 26 11 12 15 39 (29,0%) 4 (3,0%) 26 (19,5%) - 133 - Cheetah (19,5%) (8,2%) (9,0%) (11,2%) Bassariscus astutus 1 (20,0%) 1 1 - 1 (20,0%) - 1 (20,0%) - 5 - Ringtail (20,0%) (20,0%) Canis aureus 358 52 94 11 42 (7,0%) - 35 (5,8%) 2 (0,3%) 594 - Golden Jackal (60,2%) (8,7%) (15,0%) (1,8%) Canis latrans 814 110 84 10 88 (7,5%) - 36 (3,0%) 21 (1,8%) 1163 - Coyote (69,9%) (9,4%) (7,2%) (0,8%) Canis lupus 1064 110 67 5 23 (1,7%) - 13 (1,0%) 13 (1,0%) 1295 - Gray Wolf (82,1%) (8,4%) (5,1%) (0,3%) Canis mesomelas 602 100 65 12 51 (5,7%) - 41 (4,6%) 13 (1,4%) 884 - Black-backed Jackal (68,0%) (11,3%) (7,3%) (1,3%) Canis rufus 39 1 - - - 3 (6,9%) - - 43 - Red Wolf (90,6%) (2,3%) Canis simensis 40 4 4 - - - - - 48 - Ethiopian Wolf (83,3%) (8,3%) (8,3%) Chrysocyon brachyurus 233 41 31 2 29 (7,8%) - 31 (8,3%) 4 (1,0%) 371 - Maned Wolf (62,8%) (11,0%) (8,3%) (0,5%) Civettictis civetta 2 (16,6%) 2 2 - 2 (16,6%) 2 (16,6%) 2 (16,6%) - 12 - African Civet (16,6%) (16,6%) Crocuta crocuta 193 1 7 1 3 (1,3%) 14 (6,3%) - - 219 - Spotted Hyaena (88,1%) (0,4%) (3,1%) (0,4%) Cryptoprocta ferox 29 4 3 - 3 (6,3%) - 8 (17,0%) - 47 - Fossa (61,7%) (8,5%) (6,3%) Cuon alpinus 339 4 13 - 3 (0,8%) 5 (1,3%) - - 364 - Dhole (93,1%) (1,0%) (3,5%) Cynictis penicillata 9 (15,2%) 4 2 - 39 (66,1%) - 5 (8,4%) - 59 - Yellow Mongoose (6,7%) (3,3%) Galictis cuja 49 4 9 3 7 (8,4%) - 11 (13,2%) - 83 - Lesser Grison (59,0%) (4,8%) (10,8%) (3,6%) Galictis vittata 49 4 9 3 7 (8,4%) - 11 (13,2%) - 83 - Greater Grison (59,0%) (4,8%) (10,8%) (3,6%)

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Carnivore binomal Mammal Plant Bird Fish Invertebrate Other Reptile/ Anthro- Total Amphibian pogenic Genetta abyssinica 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - Ethiopian Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta angolensis 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - Miombo Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta bourloni 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - Bourlon's Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta cristata 12 4 3 - 3 (10,7%) - 6 (21,4%) - 28 - Crested Genet (42,8%) (14,2%) (10,7%) Genetta Genetta 617 99 121 13 126 (11,1%) 26 (2,3%) 106 (9,3%) 20 (1,7%) 1128 - Common Genet (54,6%) (8,7%) (10,7%) (1,1%) Genetta johnstoni 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - Johnston's Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta maculate 24 6 8 - 4 (9,0%) - 2 (4,5%) - 44 - Large-spotted Genet (54,5%) (13,6%) (18,1%) Genetta pardina 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - Pardine Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta poensis 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - King Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta servalina 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - Servaline Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta thierryi 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - Hausa Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta tigrine 56 8 5 3 5 (5,9%) - 5 (5,9%) 2 (2,3%) 84 - Cape Genet (66,6%) (9,5%) (5,9%) (3,5%) Genetta victoriae 410 65 79 9 86 (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) 728 - Giant Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Gulo gulo 181 1 20 - - 4 (1,9%) - 4 (1,9%) 210 - Wolverine (86,1%) (0,4%) (9,5%) Herpestes 30 12 11 - 34 (28,1%) - 31 (25,6%) 3 (2,4%) 121 auropunctatus (24,7%) (9,9%) (9,0%) - Small Indian Mongoose Herpestes brachyurus 52 23 15 4 56 (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) 183 - Short-tailed (28,4%) (12,5%) (8,2%) (2,1%) Mongoose Herpestes flavescens 52 23 15 4 56 (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) 183 - Kaokoveld Slender (28,4%) (12,5%) (8,2%) (2,1%) Mongoose Herpestes fuscus 52 23 15 4 56 (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) 183 - Brown Mongoose (28,4%) (12,5%) (8,2%) (2,1%) Herpestes javanicus 26 11 6 - 35 (40,7%) 4 (4,6%) 4 (4,6%) - 86 - Javan Mongoose (30,2%) (12,7%) (6,9%) Herpestes ochraceus 52 23 15 4 56 (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) 183 - Somali Slender (28,4%) (12,5%) (8,2%) (2,1%) Mongoose Herpestes 52 23 15 4 56 (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) 183 semitorquatus (28,4%) (12,5%) (8,2%) (2,1%) - Collared Mongoose Herpestes urva 14 7 4 4 5 (11,6%) 1 (2,3%) 8 (18,6%) - 43 - Crab-eating Mongoose (32,5%) (16,2%) (9,3%) (9,3%) Herpestes vitticollis 52 23 15 4 56 (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) 183 - Stripe-necked (28,4%) (12,5%) (8,2%) (2,1%) Mongoose Hyaena hyaena 79 4 3 - 2 (2,2%) 1 (1,1%) - - 89 - Striped Hyaena (88,7%) (4,4%) (3,3%) Lycalopex culpaeus 138 10 22 - 6 (3,0%) 1 (0,5%) 9 (4,6%) 8 (4,1%) 194 - Culpeo (71,1%) (5,1%) (11,3%) Lycalopex fulvipes 201 26 45 - 24 (7,2%) 1(0,3%) 25 (7,5%) 8 (2,4%) 330 - Darwin's Fox (60,9%) (7,8%) (13,6%) Lycalopex griseus 44 5 15 - 10 (12,5%) - 6 (7,5%) - 80 - Chilla (55,0%) (6,2%) (18,7%) Lycalopex gymnocercus 17 10 7 - 7 (13,7%) - 10 (19,6%) - 51 - Pampas Fox (33,3%) (19,6%) (13,7%) Lycalopex sechurae 201 26 45 - 24 (7,2%) 1(0,3%) 25 (7,5%) 8 (2,4%) 330 - Sechuran Fox (60,9%) (7,8%) (13,6%)

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Carnivore binomal Mammal Plant Bird Fish Invertebrate Other Reptile/ Anthro- Total Amphibian pogenic Lycalopex vetulus 2 (40,0%) 1 1 - 1 (20,0%) - - - 5 - Hoary Fox (20,0%) (20,0%) Lycaon pictus 44 ------44 - African Wild Dog (100,0%) Martes Americana 356 32 47 17 26 (5,3%) 5 (1,0%) 5 (1,0%) 1 (0,2%) 489 - American Marten (72,8%) (6,5%) (9,6%) (3,4%) Martes flavigula 65 10 13 - 18 (14,0%) 2 (1,5%) 20 (15,6%) - 128 - Yellow-throated (50,7%) (7,8%) (10,1%) Marten Martes foina 452 106 97 6 85 (9,9%) 20 (2,3%) 55 (6,4%) 37 (4,3%) 858 - Beech Marten (52,6%) (12,3%) (11,3%) (0,7%) Martes martes 1136 195 236 6 190 (9,6%) 51 (2,5%) 158 (8,0%) - 1972 - Pine Marten (57,6%) (9,8%) (11,9%) (0,3%) Martes pennant 202 26 25 2 16 (5,4%) 8 (2,7%) 13 (4,4%) - 292 - Fisher (69,1%) (8,9%) (8,5%) (0,6%) Martes zibellina 93 10 12 5 2 (1,6%) - 2 (1,6%) - 124 - Sable (75,0%) (8,0%) (9,6%) (4,0%) Meles leucurus 8 (12,7%) 16 8 5 16 (25,4%) - 10 (15,8%) - 63 - Asian Badger (25,4%) (12,7%) (7,9%) Mellivora capensis 18 - 2 - 1 (4,5%) - 1 (4,5%) - 22 - Honey Badger (81,8%) (9,0%) Mustela Africana 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Amazon Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela altaica 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Altai Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela erminea 132 6 23 3 22 (11,3%) - 8 (4,1%) - 194 - Stoat (68,0%) (3,0%) (11,8%) (1,5%) Mustela eversmanii 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Steppe Polecat (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela felipei 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Colombian Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela frenata 9 (34,6%) 6 3 - 3 (11,5%) - 3 (11,5%) 2 (7,6%) 26 - Long-tailed Weasel (23,0%) (11,5%) Mustela itatsi 10 14 2 10 23 (33,3%) - 8 (11,5%) 2 (2,9%) 69 - Japanese Weasel (14,4%) (20,2%) (2,9%) (14,4%) Mustela kathiah 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Yellow-bellied (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Weasel Mustela lutreola 147 4 57 51 88 (19,8%) 7 (1,5%) 86 (19,4%) 3 (0,6%) 443 - European Mink (33,1%) (0,9%) (12,8%) (11,5%) Mustela lutreolina 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Indonesian Mountain (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Weasel Mustela nigripes 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Black-footed Ferret (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela nivalis 127 9 17 - 13 (7,2%) 3 (1,6%) 9 (5,0%) 2 (1,1%) 180 - Least Weasel (70,5%) (5,0%) (9,4%) Mustela nudipes 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Malay Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela putorius 97 8 28 8 26 (13,1%) - 31 (15,6%) - 198 - Western Polecat (48,9%) (4,0%) (14,1%) (4,0%) Mustela russelliana 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Sichuan Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela sibirica 8 (22,2%) - 7 - 10 (27,7%) - 11 (30,5%) - 36 - Siberian Weasel (19,4%) Mustela strigidorsa 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Stripe-backed Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela subpalmata 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Egyptian Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Mustela tonkinensis 429 37 111 37 135 (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 - Tonkin Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) Neovison vison 397 28 187 161 234 (19,1%) 23 (1,8%) 193 (15,7%) - 1223 - American Mink (32,4%) (2,2%) (15,2%) (13,1%) Parahyaena brunnea 93 4 2 - 5 (4,4%) 3 (2,6%) 3 (2,6%) 2 (1,7%) 112 - Brown Hyaena (83,0%) (3,5%) (1,7%)

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Carnivore binomal Mammal Plant Bird Fish Invertebrate Other Reptile/ Anthro- Total Amphibian pogenic Procyon lotor 42 9 16 8 22 (22,0%) - 3 (3,0%) - 100 - Northern Raccoon (42,0%) (9,0%) (16,0%) (8,0%) Speothos venaticus 9 (52,9%) 2 2 - 2 (11,7%) - 2 (11,7%) - 17 - Bush Dog (11,7%) (11,7%) Spilogale angustifrons 5 (27,7%) 1 2 - 5 (27,7%) - 5 (27,7%) - 18 - Southern Spotted (5,5%) (11,1%) Skunk Spilogale gracilis 4 (28,5%) 1 1 - 4 (28,5%) - 4(28,5%) - 14 - Western Spotted (7,1%) (7,1%) Skunk Spilogale pygmaea 11 - 11 - 11 (20,3%) 10 11 (20,3%) - 54 - Pygmy Spotted Skunk (20,3%) (20,3%) (18,5%) Taxidea taxus 40 1 4 - 9 (15,0%) - 6 (10,0%) - 60 - American Badger (66,6%) (1,6%) (6,6%) Urocyon 81 12 13 - 13 (10,0%) - 6 (4,6%) 5 (3,8%) 130 cinereoargenteus (62,3%) (9,2%) (10,0%) - Grey Fox Urocyon littoralis 13 8 3 - 22 (43,1%) - 4 (7,8%) 1 (1,9%) 51 - Island Fox (25,4%) (15,6%) (5,8%) Ursus arctos 409 312 11 6 130 (12,2%) 88 (8,2%) 3 (0,2%) 103 (9,6%) 1062 - Brown Bear (38,5%) (29,3%) (1,0%) (0,5%) Ursus maritimus 124 3 12 1 3 (2,0%) - - - 143 - Polar Bear (86,7%) (2,0%) (8,3%) (0,6%) Vulpes corsac 22 15 8 - 8 (12,1%) - 8 (12,1%) 5 (7,5%) 66 - Corsac Fox (33,3%) (22,7%) (12,1%) Vulpes ferrilata 14 3 3 - 4 (16,0%) - 1 (4,0%) - 25 - Tibetan Fox (56,0%) (12,0%) (12,0%) Vulpes lagopus 4 (21,0%) 2 5 2 2 (10,5%) 2 (10,5%) - 2 (10,5%) 19 - Arctic Fox (10,5%) (26,3%) (10,5%) Vulpes macrotis 148 1(0,4%) 24 - 28 (12,3%) - 21 (9,2%) 4 (1,7%) 226 - Kit Fox (65,4%) (10,6%) Vulpes pallida 2391 454 411 35 394 (9,5%) 111 229 (5,5%) 98 (2,3%) 4123 - Pale Fox (57,9%) (11,0%) (9,9%) (0,8%) (2,6%) Vulpes rueppellii 2391 454 411 35 394 (9,5%) 111 229 (5,5%) 98 (2,3%) 4123 - Rüppell's Fox (57,9%) (11,0%) (9,9%) (0,8%) (2,6%) Vulpes velox 147 13 16 - 20 (10,0%) - 3 (1,5%) - 199 - Swift Fox (73,8%) (6,5%) (8,0%) Vulpes vulpes 2124 415 361 33 329 (8,9%) 109 201 (5,4%) 89 (2,4%) 3661 - Red Fox (58,0%) (11,3%) (9,8%) (0,9%) (2,9%) Vulpes zerda 12 12 12 - 12 (17,3%) - 12 (17,3%) - 69 - Fennec Fox (17,3%) (17,3%) (17,3%)

Defaunation Mammals are the focus of this study and the range maps from IUCN are for species and not groups, therefor prey recorded above species level (i.e. genus, family and order) were excluded from the analysis. Diets consists of three building blocks primary prey (>20%), secondary prey (5-20%) and occasional prey (<5%) (Kissling et al., 2014). For this analysis occasional prey were excluded. Of the 498 mammal species recorded on a species level as primary prey of carnivores, 11% were classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN (Table 2). For secondary prey, 8% of the 787 mammals recorded on a species level were classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN (Table 2).

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Table 2. Carnivores and all of its primary and secondary prey species with their classification by IUCN (DD=Data deficient, LC=Least concern, NT=Near threatened, VU=Vulnerable, EN=Endangered, CR=Critically endangered)

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Atilax Aepyceros melampus Primary LC Microtus montanus Secondary LC paludinosus Odocoileus hemionus Secondary LC - Cheetah Odocoileus virginianus Secondary LC Antidorcas marsupialis Primary LC Ondatra zibethicus Secondary LC Capra aegagrus Primary VU Peromyscus perfulvus Secondary LC Eudorcas thomsonii Primary NT Sigmodon hispidus Secondary LC Gazella subgutturosa Primary VU Sus scrofa Secondary LC Kobus ellipsiprymnus Primary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Kobus vardonii Primary NT Urocitellus columbianus Secondary LC Lepus capensis Primary LC Urocitellus townsendii Secondary VU Litocranius walleri Primary NT Zapus trinotatus Secondary LC Madoqua kirkii Primary LC Canis lupus Alces alces Primary LC Nanger granti Primary LC - Gray Wolf Ovis orientalis Primary VU Bison bison Primary NT Phacochoerus africanus Primary LC Capra sibirica Primary LC Raphicerus campestris Primary LC Capreolus capreolus Primary LC Sylvicapra grimmia Primary LC Cervus canadensis Primary LC Tragelaphus imberbis Primary NT Cervus elaphus Primary LC Tragelaphus strepsiceros Primary LC Equus ferus Primary EN Alcelaphus buselaphus Secondary LC Glis glis Primary LC Kobus kob Secondary LC Marmota baibacina Primary LC Ourebia ourebi Secondary LC Marmota himalayana Primary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Tragelaphus oryx Secondary LC Ovis ammon Primary NT Canis aureus Microtus arvalis Primary LC Pseudois nayaur Primary LC - Golden Sus scrofa Primary LC Jackal Alticola roylei Secondary NT Sus scrofa Primary LC Apodemus rusiges Secondary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Capra ibex Secondary LC Arvicola amphibius Secondary LC Castor canadensis Secondary LC Axis axis Secondary LC Castor fiber Secondary LC Boselaphus tragocamelus Secondary LC Lepus arcticus Secondary LC Lepus capensis Secondary LC Lepus capensis Secondary LC Marmota caudata Secondary LC Lepus timidus Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Secondary LC Marmota caudata Secondary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Secondary NT Marmota sibirica Secondary EN Paguma larvata Secondary LC Martes martes Secondary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Tatera indica Secondary LC Ondatra zibethicus Secondary LC Canis latrans Aplodontia rufa Primary LC Ovibos moschatus Secondary LC - Coyote Paguma larvata Secondary LC Cervus elaphus Primary LC Rupicapra rupicapra Secondary LC Lepus americanus Primary LC Vulpes vulpes Secondary LC Microtus pennsylvanicus Primary LC Canis Antidorcas marsupialis Primary LC Sigmodon mascotensis Primary LC mesomelas Sylvilagus cunicularius Primary LC - Black- Thomomys umbrinus Primary LC backed Jackal Alces alces Secondary LC Pedetes capensis Primary LC Baiomys musculus Secondary LC Gerbilliscus brantsii Secondary LC Castor fiber Secondary LC Mus minutoides Secondary LC Cervus canadensis Secondary LC Raphicerus campestris Secondary LC Cratogeomys merriami Secondary LC Redunca arundinum Secondary LC Erethizon dorsatum Secondary LC Sylvicapra grimmia Secondary LC Heteromys pictus Secondary LC Tragelaphus angasii Secondary LC Ictidomys Secondary LC Tragelaphus strepsiceros Secondary LC tridecemlineatus Canis rufus Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Lepus californicus Secondary LC - Red Wolf Marmota monax Secondary LC Sus scrofa Primary LC Marmota olympus Secondary LC Ondatra zibethicus Secondary LC

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Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Procyon lotor Secondary LC Phaner furcifer Primary VU Canis simensis Arvicanthis abyssinicus Primary LC Tenrec ecaudatus Primary LC - Ethiopian Cheirogaleus medius Secondary LC Wolf Hypogeomys antimena Secondary EN Lophuromys Primary LC Microcebus berthae Secondary EN flavopunctatus Microcebus murinus Secondary LC Otomys typus Primary LC Propithecus verreauxi Secondary EN Tachyoryctes splendens Primary LC Cuon alpinus Axis axis Primary LC Arvicanthis blicki Secondary NT - Dhole Lepus starcki Secondary LC Capricornis sumatraensis Primary VU Stenocephalemys Secondary LC Hemitragus jemlahicus Primary NT griseicauda Rusa unicolor Primary VU Caracal aurata Mylomys dybowskii Primary LC Lepus nigricollis Secondary LC - African Muntiacus muntjak Secondary LC Golden Cat Naemorhedus goral Secondary NT Philantomba monticola Primary LC Pseudois nayaur Secondary LC Smutsia gigantea Primary VU Sus scrofa Secondary LC Sylvicapra grimmia Primary LC Cynictis Otomys unisulcatus Primary LC Neotragus batesi Secondary LC penicillata Rhynchocyon cirnei Secondary NT - Yellow Caracal Lepus tolai Primary LC Mongoose caracal Rhabdomys pumilio Primary LC - Caracal Mus minutoides Secondary LC Otomys irroratus Primary LC Felis Cricetulus migratorius Primary LC Otomys unisulcatus Primary LC margarita Pelea capreolus Primary LC - Sand Cat Procavia capensis Primary LC Dipus sagitta Primary LC Redunca fulvorufula Primary LC Lepus capensis Primary LC Rhabdomys pumilio Primary LC Meriones meridianus Primary LC Aepyceros melampus Secondary LC Rhombomys opimus Primary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Lepus tolai Secondary LC Pronolagus rupestris Secondary LC Felis nigripes Malacothrix typica Primary LC Tragelaphus scriptus Secondary LC - Black-footed Chrysocyon Clyomys laticeps Primary LC Cat brachyurus Mus minutoides Primary LC - Maned Wolf Dendromus melanotis Secondary LC Calomys tener Secondary LC Gerbilliscus leucogaster Secondary LC Necromys lasiurus Secondary LC Gerbillurus paeba Secondary LC Crocuta Kobus kob Primary LC Lepus capensis Secondary LC crocuta Felis silvestris Apodemus agrarius Primary LC - Spotted - Wild Cat Hyaena Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Kobus vardonii Primary NT Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Loxodonta africana Primary VU Arvicola amphibius Primary LC Aepyceros melampus Secondary LC Gerbilliscus brantsii Primary LC Alcelaphus buselaphus Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Connochaetes taurinus Secondary LC Microtus arvalis Primary LC Damaliscus lunatus Secondary LC Microtus cabrerae Primary NT Equus africanus Secondary CR Microtus Primary LC Equus ferus Secondary EN duodecimcostatus Equus quagga Secondary NT Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Eudorcas thomsonii Secondary NT Myodes glareolus Primary LC Giraffa camelopardalis Secondary VU Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Hippotragus niger Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Primary LC Kobus ellipsiprymnus Secondary LC Capra pyrenaica Secondary LC Ourebia ourebi Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Raphicerus campestris Secondary LC Mus minutoides Secondary LC Sylvicapra grimmia Secondary LC Mus spretus Secondary LC Syncerus caffer Secondary LC Sorex granarius Secondary LC Tragelaphus scriptus Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Cryptoprocta Lepilemur ruficaudatus Primary VU Galictis cuja Holochilus brasiliensis Primary LC ferox - Lesser - Fossa Grison Mirza coquereli Primary EN Lepus europaeus Primary LC

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Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Microcavia australis Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Myodes glareolus Primary LC Scapteromys tumidus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Akodon azarae Secondary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Ctenomys haigi Secondary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Eligmodontia typus Secondary LC Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Phyllotis darwini Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Phyllotis xanthopygus Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Reithrodon auritus Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Galictis vittata Holochilus brasiliensis Primary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC - Greater Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Grison Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Microcavia australis Primary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Mus musculus Secondary LC Scapteromys tumidus Primary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Akodon azarae Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Ctenomys haigi Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Rattus rattus Secondary LC Eligmodontia typus Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Phyllotis darwini Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Phyllotis xanthopygus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Reithrodon auritus Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC abyssinica bourloni - Ethiopian - Bourlon's Genet Genet Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Genetta Mus musculoides Primary LC angolensis cristata - Miombo - Crested Genet Genet Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Glis glis Primary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Genetta

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Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial - Common Glis glis Primary LC Genet Microtus agrestis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Mus spretus Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Sorex minutus Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC johnstoni Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC - Johnston's Rattus rattus Secondary LC Genet Sorex araneus Secondary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Glis glis Primary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC poensis Myodes glareolus Primary LC - King Genet Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Mus musculus Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Genetta Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC maculate Rattus rattus Secondary LC - Large- Sorex araneus Secondary LC spotted Genet Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC servalina pardina - Servaline - Pardine Genet Genet Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC

4

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Microtus agrestis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Sorex granarius Primary LC Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC thierryi Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC - Hausa Genet Gulo gulo Alces alces Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC - Wolverine Glis glis Primary LC Castor canadensis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Erethizon dorsatum Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Glaucomys sabrinus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Lepus timidus Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Marmota caligata Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Primary VU Sorex granarius Primary LC Gulo gulo Secondary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Lepus americanus Secondary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Oreamnos americanus Secondary LC Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Urocitellus parryii Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Herpestes Mus musculus Primary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT brachyurus Genetta tigrina Secondary LC - Short-tailed Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Mongoose Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Herpestes Mus musculus Primary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC flavescens Mus musculus Secondary LC - Kaokoveld Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Slender Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Mongoose Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Herpestes Mus musculus Primary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC fuscus Talpa europaea Secondary LC - Brown Mongoose Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Genetta tigrine Genetta tigrina Primary LC - Cape Genet Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mastomys coucha Secondary LC Herpestes Mus musculus Primary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC javanicus - Javan Genetta Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Mongoose victoriae - Giant Genet Rattus rattus Primary LC 5

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Nesokia indica Secondary LC Sigmodon alstoni Primary LC Herpestes Mus musculus Primary LC Zygodontomys Primary LC ochraceus brevicauda - Somali Brachyteles hypoxanthus Secondary CR Slender Cebus capucinus Secondary LC Mongoose Choloepus hoffmanni Secondary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Dasypus novemcinctus Secondary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mazama americana Secondary DD Herpestes Mus musculus Primary LC Mazama temama Secondary DD semitorquatus Tamandua tetradactyla Secondary LC - Collared Leopardus Oligoryzomys flavescens Primary LC Mongoose tigrinus Rattus rattus Primary LC - Northern Nesokia indica Secondary LC Tiger Cat Herpestes Mus musculus Primary LC Sooretamys angouya Primary LC vitticollis Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC - Stripe- Leopardus Cavia fulgida Primary LC necked wiedii Mongoose - Margay Rattus rattus Primary LC Cuniculus paca Primary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Didelphis marsupialis Primary LC Hyaena Capra aegagrus Primary VU Galea spixii Primary LC hyaena Gracilinanus microtarsus Primary LC - Striped Heteromys anomalus Primary LC Hyaena Mazama americana Primary DD Axis axis Secondary LC Ototylomys phyllotis Primary LC Bubalus arnee Secondary EN Sciurus deppei Primary LC Camelus dromedarius Secondary EP Sciurus granatensis Primary LC Funambulus palmarum Secondary LC Sylvilagus brasiliensis Primary LC Lepus nigricollis Secondary LC Zygodontomys Primary LC Rusa unicolor Secondary VU brevicauda Viverricula indica Secondary LC Leptailurus Mastomys natalensis Primary LC Leopardus Lagidium viscacia Primary LC serval colocolo - Serval - Pampas Cat Myosorex varius Primary LC Leopardus Akodon molinae Primary LC Otomys angoniensis Primary LC geoffroyi Otomys irroratus Primary LC - Geoffroy's Rhabdomys pumilio Primary LC Cat Mus minutoides Secondary LC Calomys musculinus Primary LC Lycalopex Abrocoma bennettii Primary LC Ctenomys azarae Primary VU culpaeus Holochilus brasiliensis Primary LC - Culpeo Lagostomus maximus Primary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC Mazama rufina Primary VU Eligmodontia typus Secondary LC Microcavia australis Primary LC Myocastor coypus Secondary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Leopardus Abrothrix longipilis Primary LC Caenolestes fuliginosus Secondary LC guigna Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU - Guiña Cuniculus paca Secondary LC Abrothrix olivaceus Primary LC Lagidium viscacia Secondary LC Dromiciops gliroides Secondary NT Octodon degus Secondary LC Geoxus valdivianus Secondary LC Phyllotis darwini Secondary LC Irenomys tarsalis Secondary LC Pudu mephistophiles Secondary VU Loxodontomys micropus Secondary LC Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC Phyllotis darwini Secondary LC Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT Leopardus Lagidium viscacia Primary LC Lycalopex Abrocoma bennettii Primary LC jacobita fulvipes - Andean Cat - Darwin's Fox Leopardus Alouatta guariba Primary LC Mazama rufina Primary VU pardalis Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT - Ocelot Caenolestes fuliginosus Secondary LC Bradypus variegatus Primary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Clyomys laticeps Primary LC Cuniculus paca Secondary LC Heteromys pictus Primary LC Lagidium viscacia Secondary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC

6

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Lepus europaeus Secondary LC Sylvilagus cunicularius Primary LC Microcavia australis Secondary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Primary LC Octodon degus Secondary LC Sylvilagus palustris Primary LC Pudu mephistophiles Secondary VU Martes Microtus pennsylvanicus Primary LC Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC Americana Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT - American Lycalopex Microcavia australis Primary LC Marten griseus Odocoileus hemionus Primary LC - Chilla Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Lepus americanus Secondary LC Eligmodontia typus Secondary LC Microtus xanthognathus Secondary LC Lepus europaeus Secondary LC Myodes gapperi Secondary LC Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT Odocoileus hemionus Secondary LC Lycalopex Abrocoma bennettii Primary LC Otospermophilus Secondary LC sechurae beecheyi - Sechuran Peromyscus maniculatus Secondary LC Fox Scapanus latimanus Secondary LC Mazama rufina Primary VU Sciurus vulgaris Secondary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Sorex cinereus Secondary LC Caenolestes fuliginosus Secondary LC Tamiasciurus douglasii Secondary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Secondary LC Cuniculus paca Secondary LC Martes Leopoldamys edwardsi Secondary LC Lagidium viscacia Secondary LC flavigula Lepus europaeus Secondary LC - Yellow- Microcavia australis Secondary LC throated Octodon degus Secondary LC Marten Pudu mephistophiles Secondary VU Niviventer confucianus Secondary LC Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC Martes foina Microtus agrestis Primary LC Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT - Beech Marten Lycaon pictus Aepyceros melampus Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC - African Wild Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Dog Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Tragelaphus angasii Primary LC Capra aegagrus Secondary VU Tragelaphus scriptus Primary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Tragelaphus strepsiceros Primary LC Lepus capensis Secondary LC Cephalophus natalensis Secondary LC Microtus savii Secondary LC Connochaetes taurinus Secondary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Secondary NT Kobus ellipsiprymnus Secondary LC Sorex granarius Secondary LC Phacochoerus africanus Secondary LC Sorex minutus Secondary LC Lynx Lepus americanus Primary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC canadensis Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC - Canada Lynx Martes martes Microtus agrestis Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Secondary VU - Pine Marten Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Secondary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Lynx lynx Capreolus capreolus Primary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT - Eurasian Lepus timidus Secondary LC Lynx Mus musculus Secondary LC Castor fiber Primary LC Myocastor coypus Secondary LC Cervus elaphus Primary LC Myodes glareolus Secondary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC Sciurus carolinensis Secondary LC Lepus timidus Primary LC Sorex coronatus Secondary LC Ovis ammon Primary NT Sus scrofa Secondary LC Pseudois nayaur Primary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Rangifer tarandus Primary VU Martes Didelphis virginiana Secondary LC Rupicapra rupicapra Primary LC pennant Glis glis Secondary LC - Fisher Lynx pardinus Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Erethizon dorsatum Secondary LC - Iberian Lynx Microtus pennsylvanicus Secondary LC Cervus elaphus Secondary LC Odocoileus virginianus Secondary LC Lynx rufus Aplodontia rufa Primary LC Procyon lotor Secondary LC - Bobcat Sciurus carolinensis Secondary LC Lepus americanus Primary LC Tamiasciurus douglasii Secondary LC Lepus californicus Primary LC Thomomys bottae Secondary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Martes Microtus oeconomus Primary LC

7

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial zibellina Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC - Sable Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Myodes rufocanus Primary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Myodes rutilus Primary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Alces alces Secondary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Lepus timidus Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Sorex caecutiens Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Sorex isodon Secondary LC Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Talpa altaica Secondary LC kathiah Mellivora Pedetes capensis Primary LC - Yellow- capensis bellied Weasel - Honey Myodes glareolus Primary LC Badger Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Gerbilliscus brantsii Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Africana Microtus agrestis Secondary LC - Amazon Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Weasel Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Mustela Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC lutreola Microtus agrestis Secondary LC - European Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Mink Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC lutreolina Sorex araneus Secondary LC - Indonesian Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Mountain altaica Weasel - Altai Weasel Myodes glareolus Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC nigripes erminea - Black-footed - Stoat Ferret Myodes glareolus Primary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Sorex araneus Secondary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC eversmanii Microtus arvalis Secondary LC - Steppe Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Polecat Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Mustela Microtus arvalis Primary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT nivalis Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC - Least Weasel Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC nudipes Sorex araneus Secondary LC - Malay Mustela felipei Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Weasel - Colombian Myodes glareolus Primary LC Weasel Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Primary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT

8

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Neofelis diardi Atherurus macrourus Primary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC - Sunda Sorex araneus Secondary LC Clouded Mustela Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Leopard putorius Macaca nemestrina Primary VU - Western Manis javanica Primary CR Polecat Muntiacus muntjak Primary LC Cricetus cricetus Secondary LC Nasalis larvatus Primary EN Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Nycticebus coucang Primary VU Myodes glareolus Secondary LC Presbytis hosei Primary VU Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Rusa unicolor Primary VU Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Sus barbatus Primary VU Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Sus scrofa Primary LC russelliana Neofelis Atherurus macrourus Primary LC - Sichuan nebulosi Weasel - Clouded Myodes glareolus Primary LC Leopard Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Axis porcinus Primary EN Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Macaca leonina Primary VU Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Macaca nemestrina Primary VU Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Manis javanica Primary CR Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Menetes berdmorei Primary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Muntiacus muntjak Primary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Nycticebus coucang Primary VU Sorex araneus Secondary LC Rusa unicolor Primary VU Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Sus barbatus Primary VU strigidorsa Sus scrofa Primary LC - Stripe- Neovison vison Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT backed Weasel - American Myodes glareolus Primary LC Mink Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Abrothrix longipilis Secondary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Arvicola amphibius Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Dromiciops gliroides Secondary NT Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Lepus americanus Secondary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Oligoryzomys Secondary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC longicaudatus Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Ondatra zibethicus Secondary LC subpalmata Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Secondary LC - Egyptian Otocolobus Alticola semicanus Primary LC Weasel manul Myodes glareolus Primary LC - Pallas's Cat Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Cricetulus barabensis Primary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Dipus sagitta Primary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Lasiopodomys brandtii Primary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Meriones unguiculatus Primary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Ochotona dauurica Primary LC Neomys fodiens Secondary LC Ovis ammon Secondary NT Rattus norvegicus Secondary LC Panthera leo Axis axis Primary LC Sorex araneus Secondary LC - Lion Mustela Chionomys nivalis Primary LC Connochaetes taurinus Primary LC tonkinensis Equus quagga Primary NT - Tonkin Eudorcas thomsonii Primary NT Weasel Giraffa camelopardalis Primary VU Myodes glareolus Primary LC Hippopotamus amphibius Primary VU Apodemus flavicollis Secondary LC Kobus kob Primary LC Eliomys quercinus Secondary NT Oryx gazella Primary LC Eutamias sibiricus Secondary LC Phacochoerus africanus Primary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Syncerus caffer Primary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Lepus saxatilis Secondary LC

9

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Loxodonta africana Secondary VU Madoqua kirkii Secondary LC Orycteropus afer Secondary LC Moschus berezovskii Secondary EN Phacochoerus aethiopicus Secondary LC Moschus leucogaster Secondary EN Potamochoerus larvatus Secondary LC Naemorhedus goral Secondary NT Rusa unicolor Secondary VU Nanger granti Secondary LC Smutsia temminckii Secondary VU Neotragus batesi Secondary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Ochotona rufescens Secondary LC Thryonomys Secondary LC Ochotona thibetana Secondary LC swinderianus Oreotragus oreotragus Secondary LC Panthera once Cuniculus paca Primary LC Otomys irroratus Secondary LC - Jaguar Ourebia ourebi Secondary LC Dasypus novemcinctus Primary LC Pelea capreolus Secondary LC Hydrochoerus Primary LC Pseudois nayaur Secondary LC hydrochaeris Raphicerus sharpei Secondary LC Myrmecophaga tridactyla Primary VU Redunca fulvorufula Secondary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Redunca redunca Secondary LC Pecari tajacu Primary LC Rucervus duvaucelii Secondary VU Tayassu pecari Primary VU Thryonomys Secondary LC Alouatta seniculus Secondary LC swinderianus Aotus trivirgatus Secondary LC Tragelaphus angasii Secondary LC Blastocerus dichotomus Secondary VU Tragelaphus eurycerus Secondary NT Dolichotis salinicola Secondary LC Tragelaphus spekii Secondary LC Galea musteloides Secondary DD Tragelaphus strepsiceros Secondary LC Myocastor coypus Secondary LC Panthera tigris Axis axis Primary LC Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC - Tiger Panthera Aepyceros melampus Primary LC Axis porcinus Primary EN pardus Bos gaurus Primary VU - Leopard Cervus elaphus Primary LC Antidorcas marsupialis Primary LC Muntiacus muntjak Primary LC Axis axis Primary LC Rusa unicolor Primary VU Axis porcinus Primary EN Boselaphus tragocamelus Secondary LC Capreolus capreolus Primary LC Bubalus arnee Secondary EN Cephalophus jentinki Primary EN Panthera Capra falconeri Primary NT Cephalophus natalensis Primary LC uncia Cephalophus ogilbyi Primary LC - Snow Cervus nippon Primary LC Leopard Elaphodus cephalophus Primary NT Capra sibirica Primary LC Eudorcas thomsonii Primary NT Pseudois nayaur Primary LC Moschiola indica Primary LC Alticola roylei Secondary NT Muntiacus muntjak Primary LC Bos mutus Secondary VU Nilgiritragus hylocrius Primary EN Equus hemionus Secondary NT Orycteropus afer Primary LC Hemitragus jemlahicus Secondary NT Oryx gazella Primary LC Ovis ammon Secondary NT Ovis orientalis Primary VU Ovis orientalis Secondary VU Procavia capensis Primary LC Parahyaena Damaliscus pygargus Primary LC Raphicerus campestris Primary LC brunnea Rhizomys pruinosus Primary LC - Brown Rhizomys sinensis Primary LC Hyaena Rusa unicolor Primary VU Equus quagga Primary NT Sylvicapra grimmia Primary LC Lepus capensis Primary LC Tragelaphus scriptus Primary LC Sylvicapra grimmia Primary LC Alcelaphus buselaphus Secondary LC Tragelaphus scriptus Primary LC Bos gaurus Secondary VU Tragelaphus strepsiceros Primary LC Boselaphus tragocamelus Secondary LC Aepyceros melampus Secondary LC Capra aegagrus Secondary VU Canis mesomelas Secondary LC Capricornis thar Secondary NT Ceratotherium simum Secondary NT Damaliscus pygargus Secondary LC Connochaetes taurinus Secondary LC Equus quagga Secondary NT Cynictis penicillata Secondary LC Hippotragus equinus Secondary LC Giraffa camelopardalis Secondary VU Hippotragus niger Secondary LC Hystrix africaeaustralis Secondary LC Hyemoschus aquaticus Secondary LC Oryx gazella Secondary LC Kobus ellipsiprymnus Secondary LC Papio ursinus Secondary LC Kobus kob Secondary LC Phacochoerus africanus Secondary LC Kobus vardonii Secondary NT Raphicerus campestris Secondary LC

10

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Pardofelis Menetes berdmorei Primary LC gracilis temminckii - Western - Asiatic Spotted Skunk Golden Cat Taxidea taxus Thomomys talpoides Primary LC Prionailurus Apodemus rusiges Primary LC - American bengalensis Badger - Leopard Cat Urocitellus columbianus Primary LC Crocidura pullata Primary DD Urocitellus townsendii Primary VU Maxomys whiteheadi Primary VU Geomys bursarius Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Ictidomys Secondary LC Niviventer cremoriventer Primary VU tridecemlineatus Rattus argentiventer Primary LC Urocyon Peromyscus maniculatus Primary LC Rattus exulans Primary LC littoralis Rattus rattus Primary LC - Island Fox Rattus tanezumi Primary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Lepus peguensis Secondary LC Ursus arctos Marmota himalayana Primary LC Tupaia glis Secondary LC - Brown Bear Prionailurus Tatera indica Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Primary VU rubiginosus Alces alces Secondary LC - Rusty-spotted Cervus canadensis Secondary LC Cat Cervus nippon Secondary LC Procyon lotor Odocoileus virginianus Secondary LC Cervus nippon Secondary LC - Northern Lepus oiostolus Secondary LC Raccoon Pseudois nayaur Secondary LC Sigmodon hispidus Secondary LC Urocitellus parryii Secondary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Ursus Pusa hispida Primary LC Puma Alces alces Primary LC maritimus concolor - Polar Bear - Puma Balaena mysticetus Secondary LC Cervus elaphus Primary LC Cystophora cristata Secondary VU Cuniculus paca Primary LC Delphinapterus leucas Secondary NT Dasypus novemcinctus Primary LC Erignathus barbatus Secondary LC Hydrochoerus Primary LC Pagophilus groenlandicus Secondary LC hydrochaeris Phoca vitulina Secondary LC Lagostomus maximus Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Secondary VU Lama guanicoe Primary LC Ursus maritimus Secondary VU Lepus europaeus Primary LC Vulpes Ochotona curzoniae Primary LC Odocoileus hemionus Primary LC ferrilata Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC - Tibetan Fox Pecari tajacu Primary LC Bos mutus Secondary VU Pudu mephistophiles Primary VU Marmota himalayana Secondary LC Vicugna vicugna Primary LC Pseudois nayaur Secondary LC Bradypus variegatus Secondary LC Vulpes Chaetodipus californicus Primary LC Choloepus hoffmanni Secondary LC macrotis Loxodontomys micropus Secondary LC - Kit Fox Ovis canadensis Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Sylvilagus audubonii Secondary LC Perognathus inornatus Primary LC Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC Dipodomys ingens Secondary EN Tayassu pecari Secondary VU Otospermophilus Secondary LC Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT beecheyi Puma Oligoryzomys flavescens Primary LC Peromyscus maniculatus Secondary LC yagouaroundi Vulpes pallida Alces alces Primary LC - Jaguarundi - Pale Fox Sigmodon hispidus Primary LC Capra sibirica Primary LC Didelphis marsupialis Secondary LC Chaetodipus californicus Primary LC Ototylomys phyllotis Secondary LC Dicrostonyx Primary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC groenlandicus Speothos Dasypus novemcinctus Primary LC Lemmus lemmus Primary LC venaticus Marmota himalayana Primary LC - Bush Dog Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Spilogale Peromyscus maniculatus Primary LC Microtus ochrogaster Primary LC angustifrons Ochotona curzoniae Primary LC - Southern Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Spotted Skunk Perognathus inornatus Primary LC Spilogale Peromyscus maniculatus Primary LC 11

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Pseudocheirus peregrinus Primary LC Rupicapra rupicapra Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Primary VU Antechinus stuartii Secondary LC Rattus villosissimus Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Rupicapra rupicapra Primary LC Arvicola amphibius Secondary LC Antechinus stuartii Secondary LC Blarina hylophaga Secondary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Bos mutus Secondary VU Arvicola amphibius Secondary LC Capra aegagrus Secondary VU Blarina hylophaga Secondary LC Capra pyrenaica Secondary LC Bos mutus Secondary VU Capreolus capreolus Secondary LC Capra aegagrus Secondary VU Chionomys nivalis Secondary LC Capra pyrenaica Secondary LC Cricetulus migratorius Secondary LC Capreolus capreolus Secondary LC Dipodomys ingens Secondary EN Chionomys nivalis Secondary LC Dipodomys ordii Secondary LC Cricetulus migratorius Secondary LC Lepus californicus Secondary LC Dipodomys ingens Secondary EN Lepus timidus Secondary LC Dipodomys ordii Secondary LC Macropus giganteus Secondary LC Lepus californicus Secondary LC Marmota marmota Secondary LC Lepus timidus Secondary LC Mastacomys fuscus Secondary NT Macropus giganteus Secondary LC Melomys cervinipes Secondary LC Marmota marmota Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Mastacomys fuscus Secondary NT Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Melomys cervinipes Secondary LC Microtus oeconomus Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Microtus tatricus Secondary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Microtus oeconomus Secondary LC Muscardinus avellanarius Secondary LC Microtus tatricus Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neotoma floridana Secondary LC Muscardinus avellanarius Secondary LC Onychomys leucogaster Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Secondary LC Otospermophilus Secondary LC Neotoma floridana Secondary LC beecheyi Onychomys leucogaster Secondary LC Perameles nasuta Secondary LC Otospermophilus Secondary LC Peromyscus maniculatus Secondary LC beecheyi Pseudois nayaur Secondary LC Perameles nasuta Secondary LC Pseudomys Secondary LC Peromyscus maniculatus Secondary LC hermannsburgensis Pseudois nayaur Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Pseudomys Secondary LC Sminthopsis macroura Secondary LC hermannsburgensis Sus scrofa Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Sylvilagus audubonii Secondary LC Sminthopsis macroura Secondary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Sylvilagus audubonii Secondary LC Thylogale thetis Secondary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Wallabia bicolor Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Vulpes velox Microtus ochrogaster Primary LC Thylogale thetis Secondary LC - Swift Fox Wallabia bicolor Secondary LC Blarina hylophaga Secondary LC Vulpes Alces alces Primary LC Dipodomys ordii Secondary LC rueppellii Geomys bursarius Secondary LC - Rüppell's Lepus californicus Secondary LC Fox Neotoma floridana Secondary LC Capra sibirica Primary LC Onychomys leucogaster Secondary LC Chaetodipus californicus Primary LC Sylvilagus audubonii Secondary LC Dicrostonyx Primary LC Alces alces Primary LC groenlandicus Vulpes vulpes Capra sibirica Primary LC Lemmus lemmus Primary LC - Red Fox Marmota himalayana Primary LC Lemmus lemmus Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Marmota himalayana Primary LC Microtus ochrogaster Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Ochotona curzoniae Primary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Pseudocheirus peregrinus Primary LC Perognathus inornatus Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Primary VU Pseudocheirus peregrinus Primary LC Rattus villosissimus Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Primary VU Rupicapra rupicapra Primary LC Rattus villosissimus Primary LC Antechinus stuartii Secondary LC

12

Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN Carnivore Prey species Prey level IUCN binomial binomial Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Arvicola amphibius Secondary LC Muscardinus avellanarius Secondary LC Capra aegagrus Secondary VU Myodes glareolus Secondary LC Capra pyrenaica Secondary LC Otospermophilus Secondary LC Capreolus capreolus Secondary LC beecheyi Chionomys nivalis Secondary LC Perameles nasuta Secondary LC Cricetulus migratorius Secondary LC Pseudois nayaur Secondary LC Lepus californicus Secondary LC Pseudomys Secondary LC Lepus timidus Secondary LC hermannsburgensis Macropus giganteus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Marmota marmota Secondary LC Sminthopsis macroura Secondary LC Mastacomys fuscus Secondary NT Sus scrofa Secondary LC Melomys cervinipes Secondary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Microtus arvalis Secondary LC Thylogale thetis Secondary LC Microtus oeconomus Secondary LC Wallabia bicolor Secondary LC Microtus tatricus Secondary LC

Carnivores with a highly versatile diet where their diet consist solitary of occasional prey are not included in the analysis. The results shown in Table 3 are the overlap percentiles for each carnivore with their prey species. The interpretation of the results focuses on decreases in overlap rather than the absolute overlap. The 0 in Table 3 display that there is no overlap between the carnivore’s range and any of its recorded prey from the database. Some of which can be explained by the fact that the carnivores with no available literature were assigned prey from close relatives, within the same genus, where data was available. Empty cells in Table 3 are carnivores with either no primary prey or secondary prey recorded in the database. A low current overlap can appear when the carnivore is wide-ranging and occurring in biomes not studied for this analysis, where the main primary prey in those areas may be different from the main prey in the studied areas.

Table 3. The proportion of range overlap between carnivore and their primary and secondary prey.

Carnivore Carnivore Range Range overlap prop. Range overlap Range overlap prop. Prey binomial mass (kg) overlap prop. primary prey. Species prop. secondary prey. Species decline (Faurby S) primary prey classified as secondary prey classified as Vulnerable listed as a (%) Vulnerable or worse (%) or worse excl. (%) threat by excl. (%) IUCN A B C D Atilax paludinosus 46,70 81,26% 81,26% 57,13% 57,13% Yes - Cheetah Canis aureus 10,35 37,60% 37,60% 67,44% 67,44% No - Golden Jackal Canis latrans 13,41 72,55% 72,55% 97,82% 97,82% No - Coyote Canis lupus 32,18 77,56% 77,56% 98,57% 98,57% No - Gray Wolf Canis mesomelas 8,50 43,25% 43,25% 91,20% 91,20% No - Black-backed Jackal Canis rufus 22,98 100% 100% 100% 100% No - Red Wolf Canis simensis 10,00 100% 100% 81,82% 81,82% No - Ethiopian Wolf Caracal aurata 10,65 100% 90,81% 35,68% 35,68% No - African Golden Cat

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Carnivore Carnivore Range Range overlap prop. Range overlap Range overlap prop. Prey binomial mass (kg) overlap prop. primary prey. Species prop. secondary prey. Species decline (Faurby S) primary prey classified as secondary prey classified as Vulnerable listed as a (%) Vulnerable or worse (%) or worse excl. (%) threat by excl. (%) IUCN A B C D Caracal caracal 13,75 68,85% 68,85% 57,75% 57,75% No - Caracal Chrysocyon 23,25 36,99% 36,99% 77,52% 77,52% No brachyurus - Maned Wolf Crocuta crocuta 63,00 55,69% 28,16% 89,82% 88,74% Yes - Spotted Hyaena Cryptoprocta ferox 9,50 100,00% 100,00% 55,68% 55,68% No - Fossa Cuon alpinus 12,76 84,33% 37,80% 97,74% 97,74% Yes - Dhole Cynictis penicillata 0,84 94,90% 94,90% 25,51% 25,51% No - Yellow Mongoose Felis margarita 2,53 69,61% 69,61% 22,03% 22,03% Yes - Sand Cat Felis nigripes 1,30 73,23% 73,23% 100% 100% Yes - Black-footed Cat Felis silvestris 5,50 24,41% 24,41% 19,01% 19,01% No - Wild Cat Galictis cuja 1,00 58,04% 58,04% 38,23% 38,23% No - Lesser Grison Galictis vittata 3,20 4,05% 4,05% 0% 0% No - Greater Grison Genetta abyssinica 1,65 0% 0% 100% 100% No - Ethiopian Genet Genetta angolensis 1,65 0% 0% 100% 100% No - Miombo Genet Genetta bourloni 1,75 0% 0% 100% 100% No - Bourlon's Genet Genetta cristata 2,50 91,67% 91,67% 100% 100% No - Crested Genet Genetta Genetta 1,80 3,33% 3,33% 43,62% 43,62% No - Common Genet Genetta johnstoni 2,23 0% 0% 100% 100% No - Johnston's Genet Genetta maculate 2,23 - - 44,85% 44,85% No - Large-spotted Genet Genetta pardina 3,10 0% 0% 92,19% 92,19% No - Pardine Genet Genetta poensis 2,25 0% 0% 100% 100% No - King Genet Genetta servalina 1,06 0% 0% 100% 100% No - Servaline Genet Genetta thierryi 1,40 0% 0% 97,60% 97,60% No - Hausa Genet Genetta tigrine 2,23 100% 100% 84,44% 84,44% No - Cape Genet Genetta victoriae 3,00 0% 0% 100% 100% No - Giant Genet Gulo gulo 17,01 99,82% 87,90% 100% 100% Yes - Wolverine Herpestes 1,85 99,01% 99,01% 0% 0% No brachyurus - Short-tailed Mongoose Herpestes 0,75 33,33% 33,33% 0% 0% No flavescens - Kaokoveld Slender Mongoose Herpestes fuscus 2,70 100% 100% 0% 0% No

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Carnivore Carnivore Range Range overlap prop. Range overlap Range overlap prop. Prey binomial mass (kg) overlap prop. primary prey. Species prop. secondary prey. Species decline (Faurby S) primary prey classified as secondary prey classified as Vulnerable listed as a (%) Vulnerable or worse (%) or worse excl. (%) threat by excl. (%) IUCN A B C D - Brown Mongoose Herpestes 0,75 93,98% 93,98% 0% 0% No javanicus - Javan Mongoose Herpestes 0,50 0% 0% 0% 0% No ochraceus - Somali Slender Mongoose Herpestes 3,50 100% 100% 0% 0% No semitorquatus - Collared Mongoose Herpestes vitticollis 2,58 100% 100% 0% 0% No - Stripe-necked Mongoose Hyaena hyaena 41,71 8,37% 0% 11,51% 11,48% Yes - Striped Hyaena Leopardus 3,94 34,75% 34,75% - - No colocolo - Pampas Cat Leopardus 3,59 82,75% 82,75% 91,27% 91,27% No geoffroyi - Geoffroy's Cat Leopardus guigna 2,23 93,44% 93,44% 90,16% 90,16% No - Guiña Leopardus jacobita 9,17 97,48% 97,48% - - Yes - Andean Cat Leopardus pardalis 11,90 92,09% 92,09% 96,21% 96,10% No - Ocelot Leopardus tigrinus 2,25 3,06% 3,06% 68,97% 68,97% No - Northern Tiger Cat Leopardus wiedii 3,25 95,97% 95,97% - - No - Margay Leptailurus serval 12,00 97,33% 97,33% 29,77% 29,77% No - Serval Lycalopex 9,83 44,76% 40,41% 91,05% 89,00% No culpaeus - Culpeo Lycalopex fulvipes 2,84 0% 0% 14,29% 14,29% no - Darwin's Fox Lycalopex griseus 8,28 61,57% 61,57% 62,31% 58,96% No - Chilla Lycalopex 4,00 13,33% 0% 66,67% 66,67% No sechurae - Sechuran Fox Lycaon pictus 22,05 93,58% 93,58% 92,46% 92,46% No - African Wild Dog Lynx canadensis 9,37 91,99% 91,99% 97,95% 86,92% No - Canada Lynx Lynx lynx 17,95 92,05% 92,05% 9,75% 9,75% No - Eurasian Lynx Lynx pardinus 9,40 100% 100% 100% 100% Yes - Iberian Lynx Lynx rufus 8,90 100% 100% - - No - Bobcat Martes Americana 1,25 98,10% 98,10% 99,15% 99,15% No - American Marten Martes flavigula 1,84 - - 41,26% 41,26% No - Yellow-throated

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Carnivore Carnivore Range Range overlap prop. Range overlap Range overlap prop. Prey binomial mass (kg) overlap prop. primary prey. Species prop. secondary prey. Species decline (Faurby S) primary prey classified as secondary prey classified as Vulnerable listed as a (%) Vulnerable or worse (%) or worse excl. (%) threat by excl. (%) IUCN A B C D Marten Martes foina 1,54 25,98% 25,98% 55,07% 49,31% No - Beech Marten Martes martes 1,30 71,72% 71,72% 100% 100% No - Pine Marten Martes pennant 4,00 - - 100% 100% No - Fisher Martes zibellina 1,13 99,19% 99,19% 99,41% 99,41% No - Sable Mellivora capensis 8,50 13,63% 13,63% 7,60% 7,60% No - Honey Badger Mustela Africana 0,54 0% 0% 0% 0% No - Amazon Weasel Mustela altaica 0,17 1,48% 1,48% 58,96% 58,96% Yes - Altai Weasel Mustela erminea 0,12 21,12% 21,12% 48,13% 48,13% Yes - Stoat Mustela 1,35 24,12% 24,12% 76,40% 76,40% Yes eversmanii - Steppe Polecat Mustela felipei 0,21 0% 0% 0% 0% No - Colombian Weasel Mustela kathiah 0,21 0% 0% 9,03% 9,03% No - Yellow-bellied Weasel Mustela lutreola 0,44 - - 16,54% 16,54% No - European Mink Mustela lutreolina 0,71 0% 0% 100% 100% No - Indonesian Mountain Weasel Mustela nigripes 0,85 0% 0% 0% 0% Yes - Black-footed Ferret Mustela nivalis 0,14 26,78% 26,78% 26,47% 26,47% No - Least Weasel Mustela nudipes 0,50 0% 0% 89,45% 89,45% No - Malay Weasel Mustela putorius 0,92 - - 99,25% 99,25% Yes - Western Polecat Mustela 0,14 0% 0% 60,00% 60,00% No russelliana - Sichuan Weasel Mustela strigidorsa 1,50 0% 0% 6,19% 6,19% No - Stripe-backed Weasel Mustela 0,09 0% 0% 100% 100% No subpalmata - Egyptian Weasel Mustela 0,14 0% 0% 0% 0% No tonkinensis - Tonkin Weasel Neofelis diardi 20,50 100% 100% - - Yes - Sunda Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa 20,50 100% 100% - - No - Clouded Leopard Neovison vison 0,95 0% 0% 96,05% 96,05% No - American Mink Otocolobus manul 3,50 49,30% 49,30% 50,79% 50,79% Yes - Pallas's Cat Panthera leo 161,50 97,38% 96,17% 99,80% 99,40% Yes

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Carnivore Carnivore Range Range overlap prop. Range overlap Range overlap prop. Prey binomial mass (kg) overlap prop. primary prey. Species prop. secondary prey. Species decline (Faurby S) primary prey classified as secondary prey classified as Vulnerable listed as a (%) Vulnerable or worse (%) or worse excl. (%) threat by excl. (%) IUCN A B C D - Lion Panthera onca 100,00 99,85% 99,69% 74,18% 74,18% Yes - Jaguar Panthera pardus 55,00 96,82% 84,36% 90,87% 83,20% Yes - Leopard Panthera tigris 162,56 84,57% 66,17% 39,17% 34,72% Yes - Tiger Panthera uncia 44,17 95,34% 95,34% 84,28% 81,52% Yes - Snow Leopard Parahyaena 32,20 100% 100% 100% 100% No brunnea - Brown Hyaena Pardofelis 11,50 26,67% 26,67% - - No temminckii - Asiatic Golden Cat Prionailurus 3,30 99,85% 99,85% 22,28% 22,28% No bengalensis - Leopard Cat Prionailurus 1,38 98,15% 98,15% - - No rubiginosus - Rusty-spotted Cat Procyon lotor 6,55 - - 89,72% 89,72% No - Northern Raccoon Puma concolor 51,60 98,08% 98,08% 85,60% 82,50% Yes - Puma Puma 7,87 19,11% 19,11% 59,50% 59,50% No yagouaroundi - Jaguarundi Speothos venaticus 6,00 98,56% 98,56% - - Yes - Bush Dog Spilogale 0,39 35,11% 35,11% - - No angustifrons - Southern Spotted Skunk Spilogale gracilis 0,52 91,47% 91,47% - - No - Western Spotted Skunk Taxidea taxus 7,11 35,65% 35,65% 43,97% 43,97% Yes - American Badger Urocyon littoralis 1,90 60,00% 60,00% 0% 0% No - Island Fox Ursus arctos 180,52 54,86% 6,89% 80,76% 80,76% No - Brown Bear Ursus maritimus 388,75 82,89% 82,89% 100% 76,84% No - Polar Bear Vulpes ferrilata 5,00 88,05% 88,05% 99,66% 99,66% Yes - Tibetan Fox Vulpes macrotis 2,05 12,50% 12,50% 95,83% 95,83% No - Kit Fox Vulpes pallida 2,80 0% 0% 17,82% 17,82% No - Pale Fox Vulpes rueppellii 2,87 0% 0% 54,21% 54,21% No - Rüppell's Fox Vulpes velox 2,20 82,20% 82,20% 100% 100% Yes - Swift Fox Vulpes vulpes 5,32 49,17% 45,60% 99,93% 99,93% No - Red Fox

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Body mass relation to prey loss The results presented in Table 3 indicate that the large carnivores (greater than or equal to 15 kg body mass) experienced more prey loss than small carnivores. Eleven of the 20 large carnivores experienced prey loss and of the 90 small carnivores (less than 15 kg) only nine experienced any prey loss, that’s 10% of the small carnivores compared to 55% of the large carnivores.

Figure 2. Range maps for predator (1) and their prey within the predator range (2). Range overlap for (A) all primary prey, (B) primary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded, (C) all secondary prey, (D)Secondary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded

Figure 3. Range maps for predator (1) and their prey within the predator range (2). Range overlap for (A) all primary prey, (B) primary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded, (C) all secondary prey, (D)Secondary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded

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Two carnivores experienced an 100% loss of their primary prey, Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) and Sechuran Fox (Lycalopex sechurae) (Table 3). As can be seen in Figure 2 and Figure 3, where purple is the predators range and the orange color show the range overlap between the predator and their prey. The range overlap is the combined range of available prey for each predator within its own range. It’s important to remember that these ranges only display the mammalian prey species of the carnivores and not the entire diet. The Striped Hyaenas diet consists of 88,76% of mammals compared to the 60,90% of mammals in the Sechuran Fox diet (Table 1). The database for the Striped Hyaena is only based on the Asian (non Arabic) populations. It may therefore experience a substantial range decline in these areas, but the decline may not happen in Africa.

Figure 4. Range maps for predator (1) and their prey within the predator range (2). Range overlap for (A) all primary prey, (B) primary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded, (C) all secondary prey, (D)Secondary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded

The Brown bear (Ursus arctos) lost 48% of its primary prey species range and is one of the two carnivores experiencing a relatively high prey range loss (Figure 4, Table 3). The other carnivore with a relatively high prey range loss is the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) with 46% of its primary prey range lost (Figure 5, Table 3). For the omnivorous Brown bear only 38,51% of its diet is mammalian whilst the Dhole is a strict carnivore with 93,13% of its diet consisting of mammalian prey (Table 1).

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Figure 5. Range maps for predator (1) and their prey within the predator range (2). Range overlap for (A) all primary prey, (B) primary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded, (C) all secondary prey, (D)Secondary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded

Figure 6. Range maps for predator (1) and their prey within the predator range (2). Range overlap for (A) all primary prey, (B) primary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded, (C) all secondary prey, (D)Secondary prey with prey classified as vulnerable or worse excluded The Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is really more of a marine species than terrestrial and it has the highest range loss for secondary prey species, 23,16%, and no range lost for its primary prey. Whilst secondary prey isn’t as important as primary prey is for the carnivores, the species still appeared in ≥5% and <20% of diet samples from the literature sources.

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Discussion Prey loss is a snowball already in motion. With it being one of the contributors to species extinction (Wolf and Ripple, 2016) it’s difficult to anticipate what further consequences this will result in. According to Hunter (2011) “a lion needs about 50 relatively large ungulates a year to survive. In a functioning ecosystem approximately 10% of the prey are of this size. To sustain a single lion for a year a population of 500 individuals are required. A lion pride consisting of 10 lions therefore requires a population of 5000 individuals (prey competition by other carnivores not accounted for)”. Is there enough prey to provide for this demand? If the answer is no, what are the consequences?

Prey loss Prey loss may not affect all carnivores as shown in the results, but it is still a concerning threat to those experiencing any kind of loss. The result in Table 3 combined with the fact that large carnivores is a highly endangered group with an uncertain future (Ripple et al., 2014) indicates that large carnivores have a higher risk of extinction due to prey loss compared to small carnivores. This is supported by the findings of Carbone et al. (2010). They found that a relatively small decrease in prey richness led to a five-to six-fold greater decline in the populations of large predators compared with the small predators. This is simply because large carnivores eat larger prey and larger herbivores are more likely to be threatened. Recently several carnivores have experienced substantial population declines, geographic range reductions, and fragmentation of their habitats (Morrison et al., 2007; Ceballos et al., 2015). 61% of large carnivore species (≥ 15 kg) are listed by the IUCN as near threatened, vulnerable or worse and are at risk of local or global extinction (Ripple et al., 2014). This trend is also shown by the results in this work and is highly concerning. The conservation of large carnivores is important for maintaining the structure and function of diverse ecosystems (Ripple et al., 2014).

Risk of secondary extinctions, the extinction of one species caused by the extinction of another species which it depends on (Borrvall and Ebenman, 2006), is the most alarming consequence of prey loss. It’s difficult to know the magnitude of the loss of one prey specie as ecosystems are highly complex systems. Hayward and Kerley (2008) presented that declining prey richness combined with habitat loss and fragmentation led to greater pressure on smaller felids as competition increased between the felids. One relatively small change could have catastrophic effects for several species.

Range overlap Carnivores that had no overlap with their prey as shown in Table 3 have multiple explanations. One explanation could be that the published literature, that the database is based on, could have taxonomy errors or that there are small taxonomic differences between my database and the obtained raster layers. Another explanation could be that the diet data obtained from the published literature are not equally distributed through the entire range of the carnivore, some areas are more studied than others. This have affected the results, in a way that is difficult to calculate. Some areas of the carnivores range are not applicable for their entire range, with prey species not occurring in all areas equally. Rare prey species may not be rightfully presented in the result due to the fact that they are not included in the diet of all individuals of a carnivore species. Lastly, but a more unlikely explanation could be that the carnivores range may have changed, and species thought to be out of its range is now accessible and prey species previously included in

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the diet is now out of range. It is important to take into account that for the carnivores that had very poor data quality, diet data were applied from close relatives i.e. within the same genus, therefor the applied prey may not be accessible and with that not preyed upon by the carnivore. How much prey loss can a predator sustain before it should be considered as a threat? This is an important but difficult question to answer. Is it the mere loss of prey that is a concern or the magnitude of the loss? Without putting any value or ranking of the different prey species. An essential piece to this difficult conservation puzzle is the conservation status of the carnivores. Carnivores classified as vulnerable or worse are already highly prioritized but when prey loss is added to the equation it might not be as easy to choose where to focus your conservation efforts.

Could this be used as a new conservation strategy? Large carnivores are associated with important economic and social human benefits due to their role as one of the main drivers of wildlife viewing tourism (Lindsey et al., 2007). For the public, poaching and climate change are heavily publicized threats to large carnivores whilst the threat of prey decline is not. I believe this is because prey loss or defaunation is not recognized as threat by the public and therefore will not catch their attention. Independent of the effects of climate or humans, prey loss is likely to be a crucial threat (Sandom et al., 2013) as the diverse predators dependent on mammals are linked to the diversity of mammalian species. Concentrating on range loss and the extirpation of these local populations can help guide and prioritize conservation efforts before population size drop to critical levels (Caughley, 1994). Even though a species is still common globally, studying range loss can identify where ecosystems are losing local populations of that species (Ceballos and Ehrlich, 2002) and thereby help find tools to prevent further loss before the species become globally threatened. When creating future conservation strategies across all taxa, the key is understanding the importance of different threats (Sandom et al., 2017) and their combined risk rather than just focus on one. Wolf and Ripple (2016) emphasized that conservation efforts aimed at ensuring a robust prey base will tend to be most effective for large carnivores with broad diets. This means that carnivores with a more narrow prey base will not be as effectively affected by this type of conservation effort. Even though the IUCN Red List is “widely recognized as the most comprehensive, objective global approach for evaluating the conservation status of plant and animal species.” (IUCN, 2017). It still lacks in data for several species and is not always up to date, but right now this is the only good organization aimed at conservation for all species and plants.

Conservation strategies are highly debated and there is ethical as well as practical issues even in the early stages with planning and implementing these strategies. The public have many opinions and are not willing to fund conservation efforts they don’t understand or see relevant. One of the main reasons for this is the lack of knowledge and I want to emphasize the importance of information and education about our planets fauna and flora. Before it is too late and these species become extinct. This is why I believe my project is so important and if I can help in any way, to try to stop this snowball from getting bigger and bigger, I will certainly do my best.

Conclusion The results show that defaunation present a threat to carnivores and that prey loss could be a potential cause for carnivore range loss and extinctions. It is recommended to include prey loss as a parameter when planning future conservation efforts. This type of analyses need detailed and reliable diet data. Future research studying species diets should be prioritized.

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Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor, Sören Faurby for all his help, without it this project wouldn’t be possible. A big thank you to the Antonelli lab group for your kind help with programming in R and for including me in your group. I would also like to thank Owen Middleton for his contribution to the diet database.

Popular science summary Killing prey kills predators Defaunation, the loss of animals from ecological communities, have been emphasized as a likely threat to the conservation of carnivores. Increases in species extinction risk are typically linked to the loss of individual populations and associated declines in geographical range(Ceballos and Ehrlich, 2002). However, not much is known about the potential threat that defaunation presents to terrestrial carnivores that feed on mammals. Therefore, the aim was to explore this threat and if it’s a potential cause of carnivore range loss and extinction. A new diet database was generated in collaboration with Owen Middleton for the terrestrial members of the order Carnivora having mammals as a primary prey item, resulting in 20170 diet records collected from 566 published literature sources. For cats an existing diet database was used. To estimate the potential threat to carnivores from the loss of their prey, overlap range maps of predator and their primary and secondary prey species were created. These were compared to maps where prey species classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN were removed. Two carnivores experienced a 100% loss of their primary prey range, Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) and Sechuran Fox (Lycalopex sechurae). The Brown bear (Ursus arctos) with 48% loss and the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) with 46% loss experienced the second highest loss. It’s important to remember that these ranges only display the mammalian prey species of the carnivores and not the entire diet. The Striped Hyaenas diet consists of 88,76% of mammals compared to the 60,90% of the Sechuran Fox and 93,13% of the Dhole’s diet. For the omnivorous Brown bear only 38,51% of its diet is mammalian and it is therefore not as affected by the primary prey range loss as strict carnivores. The results presented in Table 3 indicate that the large carnivores (greater than or equal to 15 kg body mass) experienced more prey loss than small carnivores, 10% of the small carnivores compared to 55% of the large carnivores. Risk of secondary extinctions, the extinction of one species caused by the extinction of another species which it depends on (Borrvall and Ebenman, 2006), is the most alarming consequence of prey loss. It’s difficult to know the magnitude of the loss of one prey specie as ecosystems are highly complex systems When creating future conservation strategies across all taxa, the key is understanding the importance of different threats (Sandom et al., 2017) and their combined risk rather than just focus on one. This type of analyses need detailed and reliable diet data. Future research studying species diets should be prioritized. Defaunation of primary prey will probably result in carnivore range loss and can be a cause for future extinctions.

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Supplementary information More tables and figures are available, as well as the entire database.

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