Businessman of NM Page 22

Home , Charles Bent, Department of New Mexico, Henry Connelly, Las Vegas Plaza, Manuel Armijo

Quarterly Publication of the Santa Fe Trail Association

volume 34 ♦ number 4 August 2020

New Mexico and the Cholera Epidemic of 1831-1833 Page 12

Career and Legacy of Manuel Armijo Page 14

Montgomery Bell: Businessman of NM Page 22

Hell on Wheels: Ellsworth, Kansas Page 26 On the Cover: The Plainsman by Ron Kil The Plainsman was the direct descendent of the frontiers- man of the eastern forests, the fabled long hunter, who hunted and trapped animals, and who fought Indians from the Eastern Seaboard to the Mississippi River. But changes were needed when the long hunter beheld the verdant prairies that rolled into the Great Plains and up against the Rockies.

To cover those vast open spaces, he became a horseman. To knock down grizzlies and buffalo, and for an edge against war parties, he traded his old Kentucky rifle for a plains rifle of .50 or .54 caliber. He learned to trap beaver, and hunted buffalo for the meat and hides. Later he guided emigrants, traded with the Indians he sometimes fought, and piloted freight wagons in long caravans over trails he helped blaze.

Correction: Ron Kil's painting, All Trails Lead To Santa Fe, featured on the May 2020 Wagon Tracks cover, was funded by the SFTA Last Chance Store, which has prints available. See more at www.lastchancestore.org.

About the Santa Fe Trail Association The mission of the Santa Fe Trail Association is to protect and preserve the Santa Fe Trail and to promote awareness of the historical legacy associated with it.

Wagon Tracks, the official publication of the Santa Fe Trail Association (SFTA), publishes well-researched and documented peer-reviewed articles relating to the Santa Fe Trail. Wagon Tracks is published in February, May, August, and November. Deadlines are the 10th of the month prior to publication. Queries are welcome. Complete submission guidelines are posted at www.santafetrail.org. Although the entire issue of Wagon Tracks is copyrighted in the name of the Santa Fe Trail Association, copyright to each article remains in the author’s name. Articles may be edited or abridged at the editor’s discretion.

2 Wagon Tracks August 2020 Quarterly of the Santa Fe Trail Association volume 34 ♦ number 4 August 2020

Contents

2 On the Cover: The Plainsman by Ron Kil

4 Insights from your President

5 Joanne’s Jottings Trail News

6-7 Rendezvous 2020, 2021 Symposium

8 Education, Jr. Wagon Master

9 In Memoriam: Ron Fox, Tony Juarez

10 Point of Rocks Closed to Public

11 SFTA/DAR Task Force Intro

21 Speakers Bureau

29 Membership Form A fandango is planned for the 2021 Symposium at Bent's Fort in 29-31 Chapter Reports Coloarado next September. Read the story on page 7. Illustration by Casimiro Castro y J. Campillo - Unknown source, Public Domain, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1565779 32 Town of Westport

12-13 14-21 22-25 26-28

New Mexico and the Career and Legacy Montgomery Bell: Hell on Wheels: Cholera Epidemic of Manuel Armijo Businessman of Ellsworth, Kansas of 1831-1833 New Mexico

by Robert J. Tórrez by Matthew Saionz by Doyle Daves by Dr. Michael L. Olsen

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 3 Insights from your President by Larry D. Short, President of SFTA

Mark, on a job well done. Remember main accessible to the citizens who to “Share” the posts on Facebook visit the Trail daily. with all of your friends. It is amazing what the outreach of a simple one- We are endeavoring to hold our time post on Facebook can be. Deb SFTA board meeting and workshop Goodrich amazes me with the strong on September 25 and 26, 2020, at effort she puts forth to make our Larned, Kansas. While Rendezvous 200th commemoration a memorable has been cancelled, we have im- year. portant business to conduct at our board meeting, as required by our The new Santa Fe Trail crossing bylaws. The meeting will be held in signs for Union County (Clayton), the Haas Building, which will allow New Mexico, have been ordered by for appropriate social distancing for the National Park Service, and the the safety and comfort of all our at- 22 signs will be installed within the tendees. The hotel costs for our board next month or so. Our thanks to the members and chapter presidents will New Mexico Highway Department be paid by SFTA for two nights from and the Commissioners of Union the NPS funds that were originally We are surviving! With all of the County in supporting this project by allocated for the Dodge City meet- cancellation of meetings and events providing the posts, hardware, and ings in April. Of course, anything due to the COVID 19 we still are the installation along their respective can change between this report and moving forward with our goals at rights-of-way. the actual event in September, and the Santa Fe Trail Association. Plans we will make the proper adjustments. continue to expand in new areas as On a sad note, the Point of Rocks Stay tuned! we approach 2021 and the commem- Historic District appears to no lon- oration of the 200th anniversary of ger be available for public access due As always, I want to keep an open the Santa Fe National Historic Trail. to the recent sale of the ranch. We line of communications with our Many hours of telephone and Zoom are endeavoring to reach out to the members and encourage you to conferences have been held to ensure new owner to determine if a satisfac- contact me with any questions, com- that next year will be a great one for tory resolution can be agreed upon ments, or suggestions. Remember not only our members but the nation. so that one of the most iconic sites this is YOUR SFTA. along the entire length of the Santa Our committees take their tasks seri- Fe National Historic Trail can re- Stay safe and healthy, and hope to see ously to ensure that the entire orga- all of you in September.  nization is running smoothly as we work our way through this pandemic that has engulfed the world.

I want to point out the tireless ef- Thank you, Rod Podszus forts of our Publications Co-chairs Christine St. Vrain-Fischahs and Rod initiated the SFTA weekly Mark Brooks, and the fantastic job eblasts and volunteered for over they have done with SFTA’s social eight years to keep members and the media campaigns. Christine devel- public informed via this social media oped the new santafetrail200.org web tool. The eblasts have an "open rate" site, and Mark coordinated with Rod of 44% vs. an industry average of Podszus to ensure that our eblasts 24%. Rod kept the news coming de- remain an effective tool for SFTA. spite moving to a state far away from Rod has worked tirelessly for the past the Santa Fe Trail. Thank you for several years developing eblast as a your willingness to dig deep to stay major conveyor of meetings, news, in touch and find all the news, and and events to members of SFTA and thank you for your love of the Trail. many other interested parties across the nation. Thank you, Christine and

4 Wagon Tracks August 2020 Joanne’s Jottings by Joanne VanCoevern, Association Manager

Mark Brooks, SFTA Board member age of the Trail will be given priority and Publications Committee co-chair, for inclusion in the program. Confer- has taken over as the editor of the ence sessions are ninety minutes in SFTA eblast. SFTA chapters and length. Most sessions will consist of members should send information on oral delivery of two or three papers or events or items of interest related to presentations, each approximately 20- the Santa Fe Trail to Mark at eblast@ 25 minutes in length, allowing time santafetrail.org. for a moderator's introduction and questions from the audience. Dead- A dedicated Facebook page for the line for submissions is September 30, year can be found by searching for 2020. Visit the Historical Society of “Santa Fe Trail 200th”. This page’s New Mexico website at www.hsnm. success will depend on how many org for updates, or contact the pro- people share the information and gram chair at robertjtorrez@gmail. “like” the page. com or (505) 836-9699 if you have questions.” Deb Goodrich, Chair of Santa Fe Although many meetings, committee Trail 200th, has been in contact with work, and chapter events have been Santa Fe Trail 200th Outreach events Bob Boze Bell at True West Magazine canceled or postponed due to COV- planned for May in Manhattan and about the Santa Fe Trail 200th and ID-19, the Santa Fe Trail Association Salina, Kansas, unfortunately were special articles. The National Cowboy remains very active and busier than cancelled due to COVID-19. At this & Western Heritage Museum, Okla- ever with routine activities. People are time we are looking forward to the homa City, will be having a special visiting our Geocaches on the Santa following events: Santa Fe Trail exhibit in 2021. Fe National Historic Trail GeoTour, September 4-6, 2020: Western Writ- committees are continuing work on The specially appointed DAR 200th ers of America Conference, Holiday their respective projects, and through Task Force has exciting plans for the Inn Rushmore Plaza in Rapid City, phone calls, email, or Zoom meet- Santa Fe Trail 200th and those will be South Dakota. Deb Goodrich will set ings, planning is continuing for future shared as they develop. The Task Force up an SFTA table with information meetings/events, including the Santa is being chaired by Patricia Traffas, about Symposium 2021 and a call for Fe Trail 200th. SFTA Board Member. See her article papers. She will be given time to ad- on page 11. The NPS National Trails Office, Santa dress the entire group to encourage Fe, has received funding for a fellow- new research and writing and stress The Symphony in the Flint Hills is that there are significant anniversaries ship specific to 2021 planning/coordi- going forward with planning for the nation. Ashley Wheeler’s welcoming in 2021, including the 200th anniver- 2021 Symphony event, to be held on sary of Mexico’s independence; 200th article is on the following pages. She the Santa Fe Trail in Morris County, is developing a “Core List of Facts” to anniversary of Missouri statehood; in June 12, 2021. At this time they are 2022 the 200th anniversary of first aid people who may be trying to write very optimistic that it will happen. articles/news announcements and to wagons on the Santa Fe Trail; and supply to people who inquire about The Historical Society of New Mexi- 2025 will also be significant with the the Santa Fe Trail 200th. Together, co’s 2021 New Mexico History Con- 200th of the Sibley Survey & Treaties we are developing a contact list for all ference is scheduled for March 25-27, with the Osage/Kaw; First Hispanic updates and announcements about the 2021, at the Hilton Santa Fe Historic merchants, etc. 200th. Plaza Hotel, Santa Fe, New Mexico. Oct. 2-3, 2020: Western Heritage Their announcement included: “The Awards at the National Cowboy & Under the leadership of Christine Historical Society of New Mexico in- St. Vrain, SFTA Board member and Western Heritage Museum, Oklaho- vites proposals for papers and presen- ma City. These awards honor individu- Publications Committee co-chair, the tations on any aspect of New Mexico, SFTA has launched a website spe- als who have made significant contri- the Southwest, or Borderlands history butions to Western heritage through cifically for the Santa Fe Trail 200th. are welcome. However, as 2021 is the Information is still being added, and it creative works in literature, music, bicentennial of the 'official' opening of television and film that share the great can be viewed at www.santafetrail200. the Santa Fe Trail in 1821, individual org. papers and full sessions related to the history, development, impact, and us- Continued next page August 2020 Wagon Tracks 5 Joanne, continued from page 5 Kansas Humanities Quick Grant Received for the “Santa Fe Trail stories of the American West. Deb Lives On!” Podcast Rendezvous 2020 in will have an opportunity to hand out Larned CANCELLED information and make contacts. SFTA has been awarded a $1,000 Quick Grant from Kansas Hu- The Rendezvous Planning Com- Outreach from Social Media remains manities for the creation of a podcast mittee has announced that Ren- very active, with correspondence titled "The Santa Fe Trail Lives On!" dezvous 2020 has been cancelled daily through our various platforms. which will feature the many stories due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On the University of New Mexico related to the history of the Santa Fe The committee consists of mem- Digital Repository we have 147 pa- Trail. The project manager for this bers from the three sponsoring pers (issues of Wagon Tracks). In June project is Deb Goodrich, Publicity/ organizations: the Santa Fe Trail 2020, there were 360 new downloads, SFT 200th Chair, who will record Center, Fort Larned National bringing the total number of down- stories and facts related to the his- Historic Site, and the Santa Fe loads of issues of Wagon Tracks to toric Santa Fe Trail. These Quick Trail Association. “Youth on the 6,615. Grants were made possible through Santa Fe Trail” was going to be a funding from Humanities Kansas A Taste of History update great topic. The current plan is to and the National Endowment for the present this program at Rendez- Humanities. In preparation for the Santa Fe Trail vous 2022. Hope to see you in two years! 200th, the Santa Fe Trail Association Initially, the podcast will be aired by invited Chef Walter Staib to bring our new media sponsor, Truckers Ra- the 15-time Emmy Award-winning dio USA, a web radio station operat- series, "A Taste of History," to film ing 24/7. The "Santa Fe Trail Lives segments on the Santa Fe National On" podcast will air in 5-7 minute Awards and Hall of Fame Historic Trail. Filming on the Santa segments. You can listen to the sta- Fe Trail at Olathe and Council tion at https://usliveradio.com/truck- Nominations Grove, Kansas, took place in No- ers-radio-usa-115266/. Future plans vember 2019 and was covered in the could lead to longer segments, pos- The SFTA Awards/Hall of Fame February 2020 issue of Wagon Tracks, sibly on additional platforms. A link Committee announces that nomina- pps. 8-9. will be created between our SFTA tions for 2020 have been received, website and the podcast.  and the results will be announced at "A Taste of History" began its elev- the Association's fall Board of Direc- enth season with the first episode air- tors meeting and via our media plat- ing on WHYY, Philadelphia’s PBS forms. Formal award presentations station, on July 4, 2020. The Santa October 10 is the and certificates of induction will be Fe Trail will be featured in episode submission deadline for the presented at the SFTA 2021 Sympo- five of season 11, which will air on November issue of sium Awards Banquet. PBS stations (you have to check with Wagon Tracks. your local PBS station to determine if they carry it and when it airs) and will be available on Amazon Prime in September. Information about order- Deb Goodrich Offers Online Course on the Santa Fe Trail ing Season 11 on DVD will be forth- coming, and will possibly be “on- Deb Goodrich will be teaching an 20, 27, and November 3 from 1p.m. demand” so if you are interested, let online course focusing on the Santa - 2:30 p.m. CDT. She will offer "The me know at manager@santafetrail. Fe Trail for Osher Lifelong Learning Plains Indian Wars" on Wednesdays, org. Seasons 1-10 are available on Institute this fall. October 21, 28, and November 4 at DVD for $29.95 and can be found at the same time. November times are https://giftshop.citytavern.com/dvd/ Deb has taught classes for Osher Central Standard Time. through the University of Kansas for Information on the episodes airing several years. Now that the classes are Designed to inform and enlighten, during season 11 can be found at being taught online, these classes are there are no tests and no credit of- www.atasteofhistory.org/season- available to a broader audience. fered. Visit the website for fee sched- eleven/ ule and more information: https:// She will teach an "Overview of the kupce.ku.edu/osher-home. Santa Fe Trail" on Tuesdays, October

6 Wagon Tracks August 2020 Fandango Planned for 2021 SFTA Symposium in La Junta, Colorado September 22-26

by Dorothy J. “Dotti” Russell And dance they did to the music of “the fiddle and bando- lin, or guitarra, accompanied in some villages by the tombé, A fandango, as defined by Meriam-Webster, means “a lively 5 Spanish or Spanish-American dance in triple time that is or little Indian drum.” Led by a bastonero who served as master of ceremonies, the men and women waltzed, slow usually performed by a man and a woman to the accompa- 6 niment of guitar and castanets.”1 Originating in Spain in waltzed, and danced the cuna, or cradle dance. 2 the early 1700s, by the 1800s in New Mexico fandangos Happily, at the 2021 Santa Fe Trails Association (SFTA) had become known as events where people gathered to en- Symposium the chance to relive the fandango is not lost. joy dancing. At the Saturday night banquet, a fandango is planned that Santa Fe Trail travelers and residents in Santa Fe and Taos, will bring back the tunes and dances from the 1800s. All and throughout New Mexico, attended fandangos held in too soon it will be time to head down the Trail, but hope- residences and business establishments. Josiah Gregg ob- fully with the music of the fandango still sounding in one’s served in his book, Commerce of the Prairies, first published memory. in 1844, that fandangos “are very frequent; for nothing is To learn more about the SFTA 2021 Symposium, Septem- more general, throughout the country, and with all classes ber 22-26 in La Junta, Colorado, commemorating 200 years than dancing. From the gravest priest to the buffoon—from of the Santa Fe Trail, go to www.2021sfts.com. the richest nabob to the beggar—from the governor to the ranchero—from the soberest matron to the flippant belle— 1 Meriam-Webster online dictionary at www.merriam-webster.com/ from the grandest senora to the cocinera—all partake of dictionary/fandango 3 this exhilarating amusement.” 2 “Fandango,” from Spanish Arts website at www.spanish-art.org/ spanish-dance-fandango.html In 1863 Joseph Pratt Allen wrote of the fandango in Santa Fe, “[t]hese entertainments take place nightly in some 3 Josiah Gregg, Commerce of the Prairies, ed. Max L. Moorhead (Norman: The University of Oklahoma Press, 1954), 170. Another part of the town….They are usually open to everybody—a term used for fandangos was baile (or ball), which Gregg noted was bright light on the roof or in front of the portalles [door- “generally applied to those of a higher grade.” way] indicating that one is going on.” He tells that some 4 David K. Strate, ed., West by Southwest, Letters of Joseph Pratt Allyn, places will also have billiards and gaming rooms along with a Traveler Along the Santa Fe Trail, 1863 (Dodge City, Kansas: Kansas a separate sala [room] where the “dancing takes place.” A Heritage Center), 128-29. typical room will have chairs along the sides with space 5 Gregg, 170. open in the middle for dancing.4 6 R. L. Duffus, The Santa Fe Trail (New York: David McKay Company, Inc.,1975), 169.

Ashley Wheeler Joins National Trails Office as American Conservation Experience Fellow

I am thrilled to join all of you to Trail sites on family vacations and stopping at historic for the 200th Anniversary of markers to learn more about sites. During this fellowship, the Santa Fe Trail. I’m Ashley I hope to get others excited about taking their own trips to Wheeler and I recently joined Trail sites. the National Trails office as an American Conservation I am passionate about historic places and their stories, Experience Fellow. Part of which is why I earned master’s degrees in both architecture my role is to help coordinate (Texas A&M University) and communication (Abilene events between sites along Christian University). Furthering my love for old places, I the trail, create a shared cal- am currently a Ph.D. candidate at Arizona State University. endar of events, develop bi- My dissertation research explores possibilities for critically centennial content, and assist engaged heritage practice through an analysis of the Na- with engaging younger, more tional Historic Preservation Act, the aesthetic discourse of diverse audiences at events. I know all of you have been the National Register of Historic Places, and the everyday working for years in preparation for the Bicentennial and I practice of a local heritage organization. am grateful to join you. You can reach me by email at Ashley_Wheeler@partner. As I grew up in the Texas Panhandle, the Santa Fe Trail nps.gov or phone 505-470-0015. was always nearby. I have fond memories of travelling

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 7 Education Committee Updates Junior Wagon Master Program Bibliography for SFTA Website Finds Printer for Booklets

by Janet Armstead by Janet Armstead, Program Director

The Education Committee got started with a bang. Shortly Who knew one little contact would be so important? Last after the St. Louis Symposium, work commenced on the January the State of Kansas held a “Trails Appreciation Day” SFTA website education bibliographies. Under the educa- at the state capitol. The SFTA was the only national trail tion tab, the adult bibliography was edited, added to, and represented. Many people associated with small trails vis- revised. The children’s bibliography, which had been two ited with the SFTA Education Committee members about lists, previously submitted but not used, were combined and how we could help their trail and vice-versa. We distributed revised. Both newly revamped lists were submitted and are several Junior Wagon Master Booklets, but there were no now posted. This will be an ongoing project, so if you know Freighter booklets left. One woman wanted the Freighter, of some good books which may not be on our list, please let and when told about our fundraising efforts, she said, “You me know. need to check out the prison printing shop in Hutchinson.”

Connected to the above activity, several changes were made THAT was the sentence that changed the JWM program. to the website. Again, under the education tab, the adult bib- The prison printing shop was checked out. Their bid was liography is now labeled as “adult/educators.” The children’s AMAZINGLY low compared to commercial printers. Their bibliography is labeled “children/youth.” product was every bit as good as what we’d had. As of now, late June, the Hutchinson Prison Print Shop has printed Chris Day, Marcia Fox, and I represented the SFTA at the 1,000 Freighter Booklets AND 1,000 Bullwhacker Booklets Kansas State Capitol in Topeka, on January 30th, 2020, for less than one printing of 750 booklets from a commercial Kansas Trails Appreciation Day. The day was highlighted printer. with a speech by Kansas Governor Laura Kelly thanking all of the trail volunteers for their hours of service to their vari- Spring is the time to restock the 21 sites that distribute the ous trails. My observations were this: SFTA was the only booklets. Because of the above mentioned printing, restock- national trail represented. We were thanked by many of the ing could begin. This was a strange year in that most sites other trail people for attending, and it became obvious that were still closed due to the COVID-19. Some places, partic- the smaller, shorter trails started thinking about how they ularly in Colorado, are still closed, as is one each in Kansas could “hook-in” to our trail or collaborate with our trail. This and New Mexico. Every other site has been restocked. We was the start of something. See the Junior Wagon Master are now very short of Cavvy booklets, and Scout won’t be far notes. behind. So, please keep those donations coming for printing of the Junior Wagon Master booklets. The committee has also moved that for the next budget session, Junior Wagon Master printing should be added to With funding in mind, the education committee has moved the budget. It is time that the organization support its own to have SFTA add money to the budget to support this vital program, one that is getting our trail and SFTA out into the program. When the association gets together again, this will  public, especially with families of trail enthusiasts. be on the agenda.

I have applied for a grant. If that works out, we will have all four booklets in good quantity for our 200th Commemora- tion year. Grants are “iffy” as some aspects of our program fit the grant requirements very well and some don’t. We will see. 

Opposite: Jordan Downey of Simi Valley, California, dis- plays her Junior Wagon Master patches and her collection of National Park Service badges. Her mother says, "My daughters Jordan and Rylan have enjoyed working on these detailed books while stuck at home during these interesting times. They love all the National Park Service Jr. Ranger programs and the Santa Fe Trail Jr. Wagon Master program, and finally were able to complete each of the four sections while learning and exploring all of the Santa Fe Trail."

8 Wagon Tracks August 2020 Partners with Purpose In Search of Nestor Armijo 2 X 2 X 2 In the May issue of Wagon Tracks, the image cited as Don Nestor Armijo on page 10 in the article “Nestor Armijo: The Capitalist from Las Cruces” is in fact Don Luis Terrazas of Chihuahua. Thank you, Andrew Gustafson of the Johnson County Museum in Over- land Park, Kansas, for pointing that out, based on your research regarding Terrazas. Luis Terrazas (1829-1923) The Santa Fe Trail Association began was a prominent Mexican merchant the task of preserving, protecting, and and governor of Chihuahua, who had promoting the Santa Fe National His- extensive commercial relations with toric Trail in 1986, and since that time Nestor Armijo. Images in the New has been researching and marking Mexico State University archives, the historic route. As a result, families which provided the photo, are neither from all over the world can now visit digitized nor labeled. Author Susan and follow the Santa Fe Trail. Calafate Boyle humbly apologizes with one of his distant relatives at one for the error and any confusion it has point and I'm thinking the photo was Our partners are the members of the caused. given to me by him. Unfortunately, I SFTA, trail property owners, and the do not remember his name, only he National Park Service. Trail owners The image at right is from Finda- was living in California with many and members contribute to the sup- grave.com/memorial/29142149/ of the other members of the Armijo port of the SFTA, and the NPS has Nestor-Armijo, posted on that site family. I remember him telling me been a generous partner of many ac- by Beverly Singleton. Ms. Singleton the "California Armijo relatives" only tivities. writes, “I was doing some research visit the grave site about once every 10 on the Armijo family at the time but years or so.” There is much yet to do in preserving cannot positively tell you how I came this important historic trail. You can across having the photo. It has been Can anyone help with the provenance follow exciting research news in our 11 years since posting the photo to the of this findagrave photo, or provide a award winning publication, Wagon findagrave web site. I recall speaking verified photo of Nestor Armijo? Tracks, which all members receive quarterly.

Help continue the exploration of one of America’s greatest historic treasures by becoming an SFTA partner. Con- tribute to the 2 X 2 X 2 promotion.

That’s 200 partners, contributing $200 prior to the commemoration of 200 years of the trail in 2021. There is much to be done before 2021 and In Memoriam we need your help. Each person who Ron E. Fox, 75, husband of SFTA Anthony “Tony” D. Juarez, 74, died helps meet the costs of the 200th unexpectedly on April 21, 2020, commemoration and trail work will Secretary Marcia Fox, of Wamego, Kansas, died unexpectedly Wednes- in Pueblo, Colorado. Tony’s great- receive a colorful lapel pin, shown great-great grandfather was Antonio above. day, April 22, 2020, in Manhattan, Kansas. They were married nearly 42 Chavez, a merchant from Santa Fe, who was murdered on the Santa Fe To contribute: BY CHECK- Made years. Online condolences may be Trail in the mid-1800s. Tony made out to the Santa Fe Trail Association written at campanellafuneral.com and many presentations about his ances- and mailed to the Association at 1349 memorials may be made to the Ron tor. Online condolences may be writ- K-156 Highway, Larned, KS, 67550 Fox Memorial Fund in care of Cam- ten at www.montgomerysteward.com, or ONLINE- www.lastchancestore. panella-Evans Mortuary in Wamego. and memorials may be made to the org/donations  Pueblo County Historical Society.

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 9 Point of Rocks National Historic District Closed to Public Access

mark of the “Point of Rocks,” as well as 10 miles of the historic Santa Fe National Historic Trail and had been occupied by the Stevens/Gaines family since 1898. It saddens me today to move this geocache location due to the landowner ownership change. The conception of this geocache location was on April 04, 2007, in which I am immensely proud of being a part of the actual setting of the container to the coordi- nates, with John Schumacher and Gary Gaines. The idea of a cache at the Point of Rocks was the brainchild of John Schumacher. John was the Mapping Marker Committee Chair for the Santa Fe Trail As- sociation and had the foresight of "what better means to get people out on the trail, than visiting trail locations with the use of Geocaching." This first geocache location was the birth of the Santa Fe Trail Associa- tion Geo Tour. The Point of Rocks has an estimated 300+ people a year average of visitation to the site, Photo: Ruth Friesen Photo: be it through geocaching or history seekers wishing Santa Fe Trail National Historic District to learn about our National history. Thank you to all at Point of Rocks, New Mexico who have visited, appreciated, and respected the historic site. It means so much! The geocache “Point of Rocks” has not come to an end, but will continue at After decades, the Point of Rocks National Historic District is not a new location near the actual historic site. I should currently available to public access. Faye Gaines sold the property have it relocated in 4-5 days with updated coordi- and has moved to Texas to live with her granddaughter, and SFTA nates. Again, thank you to all who have visited. has not been able to gain permission for access from the new owner. So, at this time the geocache has been disabled, and an alternate Trace Vanguard (geocache user, site is being considered. The Point of Rocks National Historic a.k.a. Jeff Trotman) – July 7, 2020” District is a rocky-sloped mesa with a spring at its south base. It af- fords visitors unspoiled, serene views of the Great Plains, Santa Fe For now, the bell is silent at the Point of Rocks Trail ruts, the grave of Isaac Allen who died in 1848, teepee rings, Ranch, and the Santa Fe National Historic Trail and 11 unmarked graves. It was near the Point of Rocks landmark geocache placed at this site has been disabled. The that the party of Santa Fe merchant James White was attacked entry on geocaching.com concerning the disablement and killed in October 1849 by Jicarillo Apaches and Utes, and his reads: “Sadly, the Point of Rocks Ranch has been wife, daughter, and servant were taken captive. Ann White and her sold, and currently SFTA does not have permission daughter were subsequently killed by the Indians during an Army from the new landowner for access to the Point of rescue attempt. The fate of the servant is unknown. Rocks National Historic District and/or the geocache location. For now, this cache has been disabled, This Certified Site of the Santa Fe National Historic Trail was a and we are looking for a new location to place this popular campsite for various Indian buffalo-hunting parties and site. We are reaching out to the new landowner, and, Santa Fe Trail caravans, as it offered a reliable source of cool spring if permission is not granted for the location at the water that was critical to travels through this arid land. Point of Rocks National Historic District, an alterna- tive site, near the Point will be chosen. For anyone Along with the loss of the geocache site, the public currently does traveling and needing the code word, just e-mail us not have access to the wayside exhibit, the shelter house built for and we will supply it. Let’s hope the new landowner visitors, or the newly placed DAR marker set for the Santa Fe Trail will be as gracious and hospitable as the previous 200th. The Point of Rocks is also featured prominently on interpre- owner, Faye Gaines, who allowed public visitation for tive markers throughout the region. decades."

Last Geocache Log from Point of Rocks (for now), Signed, the Santa Fe Trail Association Geocache dated July 7, 2020 Task Force, July 8, 2020. “[From] the Point of Rocks Ranch that contains the Historic land-

10 Wagon Tracks August 2020 Meet the Members of the SFTA/DAR Task Force by Pat Traffas

Members of the SFTA/DAR task force are Anna Mal- linson, Missouri; Charlotte Chesrow, Oklahoma; Merideth Hmura, New Mexico; Lynne Evans, Colorado: and Pat Traffas, Kansas.

Anne Mallinson is a semi-retired educator, an independent historian, and a charter member of SFTA. She has served on the board of several historical organizations and cur- State DAR formed a Bicentennial Committee, I jumped at rently is president of the Missouri River Outfitters Chap- the chance to be a committee member. Our committee has ter (SFTA). She is honorary regent of the Independence accomplished many things in our short existence and have Pioneers Chapter of the DAR. In her free time she writes, many more projects planned. Our best effort was to add a presents programs to civic groups, and plays music with DAR marker to the Cimarron Cutoff. None had ever been friends. placed on that important piece of the trail. I am looking forward to working with the Santa Fe Trail liaison commit- Charlotte Chesrow joined DAR in 2008 and was elected tee, as it is a logical means to give both DAR and SFTA Regent of the Samuel King Chapter in Edmond, Oklaho- growth and exposure opportunities.” ma, in 2020. She was introduced to the Santa Fe Trail when she met the NMSODAR State Vice Regent, who described Pat Traffas is a licensed Funeral Director and Embalmer in activities to honor the Santa Fe Trail and the marker being Kansas and Missouri. She serves on the Board of Directors placed at Point of Rocks Ranch in New Mexico. Charlotte for SFTA, chairs the SFTA/DAR Task Force, and serves as was named Commemorative Events chair for SFT and has co-chair of the Scholarly Research Committee for SFTA. attended SFTA events recently. “It is an honor to serve on She and a son, Levi, are members of the SFTA MRO the SFTA/DAR Task Force and I am looking forward to Chapter. Pat is an Honorary State Regent Kansas Society commemorating the 200th Anniversary of the Santa Fe DAR and Past Vice President General NSDAR and has Trail.” been a member of DAR since 1975. She is immediate Past President of the Oregon-California Trails Association and Lynne Evans is currently serving as the president of the is Vice President of the Kansas City Area Historic Trails Aurora Historical Society, as a Historic Preservation com- Association and a Board Member of the Missouri-Kansas missioner for the city of Aurora, Colorado, and sits on the River Bend Chapter of the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage board for the Aurora Museum Foundation. She loves DAR, Foundation. and is a member of Toll Gate Creek Chapter. After serving as chapter regent, Lynne was the state VIS committee chair. She is currently serving as the Colorado State Historian, chair of the State Records Management Committee, and the National VIS vice chair webmaster. After teaching high school English for Aurora Public Schools for 36 years, she retired. Lynne and her husband Bill now spend time pursu- ing activities they enjoy.

Merideth Hmura has been a member of DAR for over 30 years. She was Regent of Zia Chapter twice and is currently Vice Regent. The Zia Chapter was about to close due to aging membership when she became active. With the help of many people in New Mexico, the chapter changed from probable closure into a very lively, active group of ladies. She is very proud to be a part of Zia Chapter. “The Santa Fe Trail is one of those pieces of history that I have always known about, but not known its deep history, especially in regard to DAR. Several years ago I discovered that my third great-grandfather (on my mother’s side) was a wagonmaster on the Santa Fe Trail. I have not done very much research, but he is mentioned in several books and listed in the 1870 DAR marker placed on the Point of Rocks property Federal Census as a wagonmaster. When the New Mexico October 20, 2019, with DAR NM State Regent Diane Halverson and then-landowner Faye Gaines.

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 11 New Mexico and the Cholera Epidemic of 1831 - 1833

By Robert J. Tórrez delays in getting his goods to market, reportedly was effective in preventing although it is possible that since New the contagion.7 The James N. Leiker article on the Mexico had been well informed of the 1867 cholera epidemic along the Kan- cholera epidemic, Ronquillo, person- It may be of special interest to stu- sas frontier published in the May 2020 ally or through orders issued to the dents of nineteenth-century medical issue of Wagon Tracks prompted me to commanding officer of the escort that practices that correspondence of the recall a number of references found in had been sent to meet the caravan, period makes it clear officials re- the Mexican Archives of New Mexi- broached the issue with Bent. mained vigilant for effective antidotes co1 regarding the cholera epidemic of or medicines that would prevent or 1831-1833 that ravaged Mexico and The advance of cholera along the New ameliorate cholera’s deadly ravages. Texas, and which may have made its Mexican frontier had its origins as New Mexico’s Territorial Diputación way into New Mexico via commercial early as the fall of 1831, when a num- (legislative council), for example, de- caravans along the Santa Fe Trail. ber of communications from authori- veloped a special interest in an herb ties in Mexico warned that cholera they identified as “guaco” which was On 9 August 1833, Juan Felipe Ortiz, had been reported aboard certain ships said to be very effective in the treat- president of Santa Fe’s ayuntamiento recently arrived from Hamburg and ment or prevention of cholera. They (municipal council) reported to New the Baltic. Mexican authorities had al- asked the governor to send a sample 2 Mexico Governor Francisco Sar- ready quarantined ships arriving from of the herb to Mexico with delegate- racino of a meeting held to discuss the said ports and cautioned local of- elect Antonio Barriero when he trav- whether there was a need to quar- ficials to begin taking appropriate pre- eled south to assume his seat in the antine a caravan of North American cautions. New Mexican officials noted Mexican congress so it could be deter- merchants under command of Carlos receipt of these warnings in December mined if in fact it was as effective as (Charles) Bent in order to prevent or of that year and advised their superiors rumored. In the same correspondence reduce the danger of contagion from in Mexico they were prepared to re- Governor Abreu indicated he had per- cholera. Ortiz indicated the meeting port any cases of cholera that showed sonally been using guaco as a remedy could not achieve a consensus of what up in New Mexico.5 and would see that Barriero received a should be done, noting that some felt sample to take to Mexico.8 Later that the caravan should be held for the While there is no direct evidence year Governor Francisco Sarracino length of time required by law (the cholera in epidemic proportions responded to the governor of the law referred to is not stated) while reached New Mexico at this time, it State of Chihuahua who had asked others felt it should be delayed only is clear that the contagion ravaged Sarracino if he had any knowledge of 3 a few days or not at all. Ortiz asked through parts of Mexico and spread the herb “mariola” and whether it was Sarracino for his opinion on the mat- northward through Coahuila and used in New Mexico as a treatment or ter but the governor’s response has not Texas by 1832, where according to a remedy during the cholera epidemic. come to light. report by Stephen F. Austin, tens of Sarracino indicated he was not aware thousands were infected and at least of its use locally and asked his coun- 6 Although we do not know of Gover- 18,000 Texans died. terpart in Chihuahua to send some nor Sarracino’s response, it is likely the samples with the next mail pouch so caravan was not kept under quarantine There is no indication in any subse- he could determine if the plant was very long, if at all. A week before Or- quent correspondence with officials in found in New Mexico.9 tiz reported the meeting, Charles Bent Mexico that cholera spread into New had communicated with comandante Mexico at this time. In a 28 February None of these communications men- militar (commander of the presidio 1833 letter, Governor Santiago Abreu tions that New Mexico had been af- in Santa Fe) José M. Ronquillo reas- responded to officials in Mexico, fected by the cholera epidemic that suring Ronquillo that although some confirming he had received notices devastated Mexico and Texas. If New of the goods in his wagons may have of cholera in Chiapas and reported Mexico was in fact spared, it may have come from a ship that had transported New Mexico was aware of the need been due to the early warnings the some sick soldiers from New Orleans, to maintain standards of personal and territory had received and the various no one on the caravan arriving in New domestic cleanliness and had in place precautions local officials referred to 4 Mexico was ill with cholera. The rea- sanitation standards for hospitals, jails, in these earlier communications. The son Bent provided this reassurance to and public offices. In the same letter nature of these precautions may be Ronquillo is not clear. No doubt Bent Abreu noted that he had suggested reflected in the January 1833 Bando de would have been anxious to avoid the alcaldes should investigate the use Policía y buen gobierno prepared by the of “la planta o medalla de cobre” that

12 Wagon Tracks August 2020 Licenciado Antonio Barriero for the usually identified as the comandante general, the previous year to the position of asesor ayuntamiento of Santa Fe. These mu- comandante principal, or comandante militar. (consulting or legal advisor) but was soon nicipal regulations consist of several A few individuals, such as Manuel Armijo, thereafter elected to and was serving as the held both positions simultaneously. Alcalde de Primer Voto (first constitutional sections, including those regarding alcalde) for Santa Fe’s municipal council health and sanitation (Salubridad). 3. Juan Felipe Ortiz to Gefe Politico, 9 August 1833. MANM 1833: Governor’s when he prepared the Bando. He would These regulations stress the need to Papers, Communications Received from later serve as New Mexico’s delegate to the drain standing or stagnant pools of Within New Mexico, microfilm roll 16, Mexican Congress [1 March 1833 session, water, prohibit the fouling of rivers frame 311. Journal of the Diputación Territorial, 1828-1837. MANM: Legislative Records, and irrigation ditches, require regular 4. Carlos Bent to José M. Ronquiillo, 1 cleaning of public streets and plazas, Microfilm roll 42, frame 551; Lic. Antonio August 1833. MANM: 1833 Comandante Barriero to Gefe Politico (Abreu), 5 March proper disposal and burning of trash Principal Papers, Communications received 1833. MANM: 1833 Legislative, Diputación and rubbish, proper and prompt burial by Comandante Principal from within New Territorial, miscellaneous communications of cadavers, and the cleanliness and Mexico, microfilm roll 16, frame 487. received, microfilm roll 16, frame 543.] care of meats, grains, and flour pre- 5. Comisario Subalterino (New Mexico) to and is the author of Ojeada Sobre Nuevo- pared for human consumption.10 Director General de Rentas (Mexico), 31 México, published in 1832 while he served December 1831. MANM: 1831 Hacienda as asesor for New Mexico. See H. Bailey The final section of health regulations Records, Comisaría Substituta, letterbook, Carroll & J. Villasana Haggard, Three New requires the ayuntamiento to establish No. 20, Microfilm roll 14, frame 73. Mexico Chronicles (Albuquerque: The Quivira Society, 1942). a junta de sanidad (health or sanitation 6. See C. A. Hutchingson, “The Asiatic bureau/committee), and in a late 1833 Cholera Epidemic of 1833 in Mexico.” 11. Gefe Politico (Sarracino) to Secretaría letter to his superiors in Mexico, Gov- Bulletin of the History of Medicine 33:1 de Estado, 14 November 1833. MANM: ( Jan-Feb 1988), pp. 1-23, and J. Villasana 1833 Governor’s Papers, Communications ernor Francisco Sarracino acknowl- Haggard, “Epidemic Cholera in Texas, 1832- sent by Governor. Governor’s Letterbook, edged receipt of information regarding 34.” The Southwestern Historical Quarterly communications sent to Secretaría de the cholera epidemic and indicated 43:3 ( January 1937), pp. 216-230. Estado, Microfilm roll 16, frame 377. he had established juntas de sanidad 7. Santiago Abreu to Ministerio de as required by law in order to restrain Relaciones Interiores y Exteriores, 28 the estranjeros (foreigners) who had a February 1833. MANM: 1832 Governor’s Robert J. Tórrez was born and raised considerable impact on the spread of Papers, Communications Sent by Governor, in northern New Mexico. He received the disease.11 It may have been one of Governor’s Letterbook, No. 5 & 6, microfilm his undergraduate and graduate edu- these sanitation committees that de- roll 14, frames 661, 662. cation at New Mexico Highlands and bated whether to quarantine Charles 8. 5 March 1833 session, Journal of the UNM and served as the New Mexico Bent’s caravan that summer of 1833, Diputación Provincial. MANM: Legislative State Historian from 1987 until his and although the extant Mexican-era Records, 1828-1837, Microfilm roll 42, retirement in December 2000. In frame 551. The Diccionario de Mejicanismos archives have not revealed the quaran- addition to the more three hundred (Francisco J. Santamaría, Editorial Porrua, tine of other caravans for this period, Mexico 2005) indicates guaco is a plant that columns he has published under his it is possible others were quarantined is “abundant in all of tropical America.” Its “Voices From the Past” byline in and kept New Mexico safe from the leaves are considered effective against the Round the Roundhouse, he is the author cholera epidemic of 1833. bites of poisonous animals, rheumatism, and of dozens of scholarly and popular cholera. articles in regional and national publi- End Notes 9. Gefe Politico (Sarracino) to Governor cations and contributed to nearly two of the State of Chihuahua, 29 October dozen anthologies, including a recent article Copyright 2020 1833. MANM: 1833 Governor’s Papers, New Mexico history textbook for use 1. Calendar of the Microfilm Edition of the Miscellaneous communications sent in New Mexico schools. He has a spe- by Governor to officials in Chihuahua, Mexican Archives of New Mexico, 1821- cial interest in the judicial systems of 1846 (Santa Fe: State of New Mexico Microfilm roll 16, frame 411. The Diccionario Spanish, Mexican, and Territorial-era Records Center, 1970). This underutilized de Mejicanismos identifies mariola as a documentary resource consists of 42 rolls generic name for a species of guayule, a plant New Mexico, Spanish-Indian rela- of microfilm of the original Mexican-era that produces a resin but makes no mention tions, and land grant issues. He is an records held at the New Mexico State of its medicinal use. award-winning author of UFOs Over Records Center and Archives in Santa Fe, 10. “Bando de policía y buen gobierno…,” 2 Galisteo; New Mexico in 1876-1877: A New Mexico. Hereafter cited as MANM. January 1833. MANM: 1833 Legislative, Newspaperman’s View; Rio Arriba, A 2. Technically the position is usually referred Ayuntamiento proceedings, jurisdiction of New Mexico County (with co-author to as gefe politico, the political chief or Santa Fe… Microfilm roll 16, frame 584. Robert Trapp); Myth of the Hanging head of the civil government, but the term A translation of these regulations is found Tree: Stories of Crime and Punishment in Marc Simmons, “Antonio Barriero’s governor is utilized here for convenience. in Territorial New Mexico; and Voices Military command of the troops that 1833 Proclamation on Santa Fe City garrisoned the presidio in Santa Fe was Government,” El Palacio 76:3 ( June 1970), From the Past: The Comanche Raid of a separate position held by an individual pp. 24-30. Barriero had been appointed 1776 and Other Tales of New Mexico History. 

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 13 Governor, Trader, and Scapegoat for the American Conquest: The Career and Legacy of Manuel Armijo

By Matthew Saionz alleged that Armijo essentially set off the 1837 rebellion so he could emerge New Mexico’s 25-year tenure as part from the chaos in control of New of the young Mexican republic was Mexico.1 In his account of the Texan tumultuous, to say the least. Rapid Santa Fe Expedition, George Wilkins political turnover in Mexico City and Kendall described Armijo as a “second threatening Indian groups like the Robespierre, only requiring a field of Comanches surely left their mark on equal extent to make him equally an New Mexico. But the most important assassin, a murderer, and blood-thirsty development was the establishment tyrant. His power, I knew, had been and growth of the overland com- purchased by blood—I saw that it was merce over the Santa Fe Trail between sustained by blood.”2 The accounts of northern Mexico and the western Kendall and Gregg were published in United States, resulting in no less than 1844 and have been reprinted a num- the transformation of New Mexico, ber of times. Their books, along with for better or for worse. reports of other American and Eu- ropean traders or adventurers, helped Easily the most well-known nuevo- to construct a narrative of a villainous mexicano during this period was Armijo that was well consumed by Manuel Armijo. And for good reason. American audiences by the outbreak Armijo was born into a prominent of war in 1846. Americans were prob- family of the Albuquerque area and ably more familiar with Armijo than General and Mexican Governor of New ascended the ranks of the political and any other Mexican individual except Mexico Manuel Armijo (1793 - 1853?), date: economic elite. Thanks to the oppor- Santa Anna himself. 1845? Courtesy of the Palace of the Governors tunities afforded by the Santa Fe trade, Photo Archives (NMHM/DCA), negative # he emerged as a leading businessman, This campaign against Armijo was so 050809. highlighted by his sizeable herds of successful that many historians have sheep. He also served in several public uncritically absorbed it into their Some scholars have been much more roles, from alcalde of Albuquerque interpretations. The great western his- lenient in attempting to assess the to treasurer. Most notably, he thrice torian Ray Allan Billington, for one, legacy of Armijo. Yet, they often pair served as governor of New Mexico, outlined Armijo as a “mountainous otherwise interesting assessments with with his second and third terms com- man whose blue frock coat and flam- caveats about an alleged character flaw prising roughly eight of the final ten ing red sash compensated for a total 3 that counterweight any good stuff. years of Mexican New Mexico. In lack of either principles or courage.” Take for example Daniel Tyler, who such roles, he found himself at the Lansing Bloom, in his classic history struggled to grapple with Armijo in center of the era’s most iconic and of Mexican New Mexico, insisted that several of his works. After generally tense moments, none more so than the Armijo’s decision to retreat in August concluding that Armijo had a success- American invasion in 1846. 1846 had unfortunately earned him 4 ful career, he felt compelled to justify the “infamy accorded to a coward.” his decision to flee New Mexico: More than any other individual, Even Daniel Walker Howe, in his Armijo was charged with navigat- sweeping study of the cultural and ing the often-conflicting interests of Armijo was no paragon of bravery, economic changes of the antebellum virtue, or honesty. But he never pre- nuevomexicanos, Mexico City officials, United States (and therefore generally and Americans—an unenviable, if not tended to be so noble. His instinct unconcerned with the western bor- for self-preservation was strong and impossible, task. Many Americans, derlands), mentioned that Armijo was particularly after the ill-fated Texan uncompromising, and when the sce- accused of taking a bribe and, more- nario called for retreat, he moved with Santa Fe Expedition of 1841, tended over, that the governor “did seem flush to cast Armijo as tyrannical, conniv- 5 celerity. He recognized the unfavor- with money.” The trope of Armijo’s able odds at Santa Fe in 1846, and ing, and cruel, among other things. evildoings runs deep, and has been For instance, Josiah Gregg, no doubt he retired. If he took some American rolled into the conventional narratives coin with him, so be it. Undoubtedly an acquaintance of Armijo, dubbed of nineteenth-century U.S. expansion. the governor “Santa-Anna-like” as he he would have withdrawn anyway. Having done everything possible to

14 Wagon Tracks August 2020 rally his meager force, the only fea- In May 1827, Armijo received civil had evidently located the edict from sible course of action was to follow command of New Mexico from the the secretary of state, but Stanley’s his business interests south. One can outgoing governor, the decorated request indicates broader confusion only wonder if he deserves the cen- Col. Antonio Narbona.8 Having among trappers.13 Much of Armijo’s sure which history has heaped upon served as an officer in the militia difficulties stemmed from the fact him.6 and alcalde of Albuquerque, Armijo that conducting business in New had the credentials for such a role. Mexico had already become a largely Similarly, Andrés Reséndez smartly However, what Armijo was not illicit enterprise. This surge in contra- asserted that, whatever Armijo’s prepared for were the series of pend- band cases in the late 1820s was tied motives might have been in August ing disputes with American trad- to pressure from federal officials to 1846, it is important to understand ers and trappers. During Narbona’s make sure foreigners paid their due that there was broad nuevomexi- administration, Mexico City had and conducted themselves within the cano support for resistance. Still, finally begun to take steps to regulate bounds of the law (which was con- despite his clear-headed analysis, he commerce with the United States. stantly changing). That is not to say couldn’t help but suggest, “Armijo’s Following a ban on issuing trapping Armijo’s first term marked the end considerable pecuniary interests licenses to foreigners in the sum- of contraband activity. If anything, it undoubtedly played a part in his mer of 1824, the federal government marked the height of tensions, which 7 decision” to withdraw. Simply put, established the customs house and thereafter tapered off considerably historians continue to fall into the treasury of New Mexico in 1825 to as neither officials nor traders found trap of reducing their examinations monitor the entry and exit of goods, such a climate conducive to business. of Armijo’s decisions—a few of them limiting those of “illicit commerce.”9 certainly perplexing—to whether he National authorities required each While the standoff with Young was a good guy or a bad guy. When trader, whether Mexican or Ameri- emerged as the highlight of his first we feel obligated to mention that he can, to obtain a guía, or customs administration, Armijo showed his might have possibly been corrupted, passport, to conduct his business flair for the dramatic elsewhere. Per- we guarantee the perseverance of the within Mexico, while all foreign haps the most humorous moment “traitor” narrative. merchants also needed to procure involved a petty argument with Gov- passports, validated cargo manifests, ernor Narbona. After receiving his With that said, I propose mov- and even safe-conduct passes. New appointment, Armijo aimed to move ing into more fruitful territory and Mexican administrators also received into the Governor’s Palace. How- toward an understanding of what more detailed instructions on the ever, Narbona refused to vacate the lay behind particular moments or taxes they should levy on goods, building, citing that he would not be actions. What drove Americans which included various duties and departing for his new position in So- like Gregg, Kendall, and others to additional levies on gunpowder, to- nora for two months. Armijo several besmirch Armijo’s reputation? Why bacco, and exported gold and silver, times solicited assistance from the did Armijo assert his authority with with rates changing from year to year, treasurer without success in his effort Americans in certain situations and sometimes drastically.10 to evict Narbona, leaving Armijo es- not in others? If we can, for now, as- sentially homeless for a period while sume that Armijo didn’t take a bribe Into this new bureaucratic world he served.14 He, moreover, found from Kearny or American agents stepped Manuel Armijo, and im- himself in the middle of a strange in August 1846, then what moti- mediately a contraband case of his quarrel with Juan Bautista Vigil, the vated him to so suddenly ride south? own materialized. Ewing Young and alcalde and member of the Santa Fe More generally, how did Armijo, as his party had returned from trap- ayuntamiento.15 For reasons unclear, a governor, trader, and rico, work to ping on the Gila River in early May in June 1827 Vigil—a disgraced promote peace and prosperity in a 1827 and, perhaps savvy to the recent former treasurer and magnet for New Mexico jolted by U.S. commer- crackdowns, cached some furs at trouble—questioned the legitimacy cial expansion? In my view, if we can the house of a local in Peña Blanca. of the territorial legislature and the begin to comprehend the many criti- There soldiers confronted Young and integrity of several of its members cal roles that New Mexican officials his friends, resulting in the death of for being related. Things became so like Armijo had to fill during this don Luís María Cabeza de Baca.11 heated that at one session Vigil had turbulent period, some of their con- Armijo, just days after assuming of- to be forcibly removed for talking out tradictory actions make a bit more fice, issued a circular for Young’s of line. Armijo steadfastly defended sense. Armijo, having served during arrest and, meanwhile, American the body, while Vigil continued his the most crucial years, found himself Elisha Stanley began to badger trea- campaign into the next year, when pulled in different directions by vari- surer Agustín Durán to provide the he filed a formal complaint with ous interest groups. exact law that restricted the trapping federal authorities over the election of foreigners.12 By May 31, Armijo of a member to the legislature that

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 15 fall. Whatever the factors, Armijo Pérez’s decapitation, the rebels put himself at la Cañada only to be sum- resigned from his position in March the head on a pike as the centerpiece marily executed by firing squad.27 1829.16 His resignation is remarkable, for their celebrations in Santa Fe and Armijo had thus ended the uprising if only because governors typically taunted it.21 that Pérez could not do six months had to be ordered to relinquish their earlier. authority. Armijo eagerly left that Following the defeat of Pérez, popu- post for literally greener pastures lar revolt swept through the entire Did Armijo masterfully orchestrate around Albuquerque. northern district of Río Arriba. Very the rebellion so he could gloriously quickly, rebel leaders, collectively ride in and save the day? There is Over the next seven years, he again known as the “Cantón,” installed no evidence to suggest that. Be- served as alcalde and even had a brief their own governor, José Gonzalez, sides, the Plan de Tomé shows us stint as acting treasurer in 1836.17 and continued to incite other dis- the resolve with which Río Abajo But Armijo, like many other nuevo- satisfied nuevomexicanos. By early selected Armijo to restore order. As mexicanos, turned his attention to September, the residents of Taos had an experienced soldier, administrator, the trade with the United States. organized and “were advancing… and businessman, he had unsurpris- With other members of his family, to plunder in the capital and Río ingly developed a strong support base he became active in re-exporting Abajo.”22 The threat persuaded the in that region. At the helm of the imported American manufactured residents of Río Abajo—the southern army Armijo skillfully went to work. goods into the interior of Mexico. district of New Mexico that included Knowing that groups of Pueblo In- Most importantly, he became a ma- Albuquerque and valuable grazing dians had turned on Pérez and killed jor player in the sheep industry with land—to form a “liberating army.” much of his administration, Armijo flocks only rivaled by the holdings On September 8, prominent citizens and his allies desperately desired to of the Chávez or Otero families. In of Río Abajo met at the village of avoid another indigenous revolt like August 1835, he sent 4,400 sheep Tomé, where they established their the one in 1680. Their numbers and to Mexico City.18 Interestingly, in intent of opposing the Cantón and military prowess could determine August 1837---as unrest swept named Manuel Armijo the com- the fate of New Mexico one way across New Mexico---he dispatched mander of the force.23 Armijo ar- or another, and Armijo needed to another 4,800 sheep to the capital.19 rived in Santa Fe shortly thereafter make sure they stayed out of this The changing commercial landscape with 1,000 men and, on September fight. Indeed, the fifth article of the provided Armijo ample business op- 21, convinced the much larger rebel Plan de Tomé commanded that “the portunities and over this interlude army to dissolve without bloodshed pueblos remain peaceful and don’t period he cemented himself among and to turn over four leaders of the mix in the affairs of the Mexicans” New Mexico’s elite. Cantón.24 until they hear from Mexico City.28 As Armijo and his army chipped Armijo’s second and longest term Yet, despite the peace reached with away at the pockets of rebels, he con- as governor was thrust upon him one faction, general discontent re- tinued to be mindful of the Pueblos. unexpectedly late in the summer of mained in Río Arriba. Rumors of In anticipation of the decisive battle 1837. On August 7, Governor Al- another rebel army gathering in Tru- with Antonio Vigil’s forces in late bino Pérez marched north to Santa chas reached Santa Fe in October, 25 January, Armijo issued an assertive Cruz de la Cañada to deal with “los although an attack never came. Fi- circular to the Pueblos to remain at imprudentes” who had announced nally, in January 1838, much needed home.29 Armijo’s deft handling of their rejection of his administration reinforcements from Chihuahua 20 the situation proved successful and and taken up arms. Despite the arrived, along with federal dragoons Mexico City formally declared him advice of top aides, Pérez believed and Armijo’s official appointment military and civil governor of New he could talk reason into them. On as governor. On January 24, after Mexico once again. Still wary, Armi- the morning of August 8, he and Antonio Vigil, a known leader of the jo months later wrote to his superior his contingent of 200 men (he had northern rebellion, refused to sur- about distant rumblings of collusion disbanded the presidial troop) met a render himself and José Gonzalez, between Pueblos and other Indian force of nearly 2,000 at Black Mesa Armijo ordered the execution of the groups.30 near San Ildefonso Pueblo. Pérez’s four prisoners, insisting that they Indian recruits instantly joined the were “treacherous offenders of the Meanwhile, where northerners saw rebels, and several of his officers and nation.”26 Next, Armijo marched another Pueblo Revolt, federal of- soldiers followed suit. The belea- out to meet Vigil’s force at the pass ficials feared another Texas. Officials guered governor and his remaining of Pojoaque on January 27. Armijo’s immediately suspected an American- party fled south, but Indians of Santo army quickly routed the insurgents. inspired secessionist plot. In March Domingo Pueblo accosted them late Vigil reportedly died during the brief 1838, the Comandante General in that night near Santa Fe. Following battle, while Gonzalez surrendered Chihuahua angrily wrote Governor

16 Wagon Tracks August 2020 Armijo that the “treacherous North trade with them.”36 The scheme was States, but also actually had the ef- Americans” surely had “promoted nothing short of a disaster. Disori- fect of projecting his alleged malice the revolution in that department.”31 ented and undersupplied, the party backwards in time. Thus, the 1837 More extreme still, Mexico City was easily captured in September by revolt was his brainchild and the ear- believed that American insurrection- Armijo’s army. Rumors swirled that lier trouble with Young and trappers ists stood poised to undermine its Americans in New Mexico colluded was rooted in his desire for absolute authority throughout the northern with the Texan invaders. Ameri- power. In such ways that could only borderlands. One June 13, President can traders in New Mexico wrote befall him, Manuel Armijo’s clear- Anastasio Bustamante issued a de- Secretary of State Daniel Webster headed action and success in 1841 cree mustering an army of 60,000 complaining of the destruction of somehow managed to hurt him in men to “defend the Nation against their property and, in particular, the the long view of history. all foreign aggression.”32 But Armijo sternness of Armijo: “after having knew that American merchants had vanquished these Texians he would Armijo’s moment on top of the world been vital to the provisioning of his return with his troops and destroy all was short-lived. In 1842, Santa Anna army during the rebellion. Fearing us foreigners.”37 But praises and hon- led a moderately successful campaign for their lives, many Americans had ors, including the Cross of Honor, into Texas and, in response, Sam fled to Missouri or southward to were heaped upon Armijo for deci- Houston hired Charles Warfield and Paso del Norte when the rebellion sively fending off an invasion. Federal Jacob Snively to organize mounted began. Others, with too much invest- officials reiterated their support of parties and harass Mexican caravans 39 ed in their stores, decided to ride it him and, for a time, he was a hero. along the Santa Fe Trail. In April out. Even after they had contributed 1843, a company of the Warfield par- barrels of gunpowder and several The Texan Santa Fe Expedition, ty murdered Antonio José Chávez, a hundred pesos to his army, Armijo though thwarted, drove a wedge be- well-respected New Mexican trader, politely requested that the foreign tween the New Mexican officials and in present-day Kansas and plundered merchants continue to “subscribe the American merchant community. his wagons. The Texan raiders con- voluntarily” for the “benefit of this Foreigners increasingly protested that tinued along the trail and attacked Department.”33 customs officers were scandalous and the eastern settlements of New Armijo was tyrannical while federal Mexico throughout the summer be- After 1837, therefore, the specter of authorities suspected the swelling fore finally disbanding. The citizens Texas had cast a shadow over New American populations in Taos, Bado, and governments of Mexico and the Mexico. Yet trade resumed as usual in and Bent’s Fort. It is in the immedi- United States alike were outraged. 1838, although an economic down- ate aftermath of the expedition that Those responsible for the murder turn appears to have slowed traffic.34 we can trace the birth of the slander were tried in Missouri and hanged.40 Meanwhile, Mirabeau Lamar had campaign against Armijo, focused Mexico City closed the customs become president of the Republic of primarily on the maltreatment that houses in New Mexico and Chihua- Texas in December 1838 and sud- the Texan prisoners endured on their hua and demanded further action denly the visions of a great Texan march toward Mexico City. The by the United States.41 José María conspiracy held by officials in Mexico aforementioned Kendall depicted Bocanegra, the secretary of foreign City gained some legitimacy. Lamar Armijo and his military officers as affairs, angrily ranted to the Mexican was an ardent nationalist, insistent evil incarnate. According to Kendall, envoy in Washington, arguing that on finding a way to maintain Texan Armijo’s friends were: merely disarming the marauders and independence and enforce its ter- sending them home to Texas was ritorial claims to the Río Grande, toadies and sycophants whom equal to “cohabitation with the en- which meant roughly half of New he always has about him, and for emies of Mexico.”42 Mexico. In his inaugural address, he whose adherence he pays a good further asserted that Texas stretched round sum. He well knew that nine For his part, Armijo had suffered a “from the Sabine to the Pacific and tenths of his people inly hated and couple of rather embarrassing defeats away to the South West as far as the despised him, and were also in- at the hands of the Texan raiders. obstinacy of the enemy may render it clined for an immediate annexation Thanks to poor reconnaissance, he necessary for the sword to make the to Texas; he knew, too, that they had not gone out to pursue the Tex- boundary.”35 Believing that Texas was feared him, and that nothing but ans because he had feared he was 43 likewise situated perfectly to facilitate their extreme ignorance and timid- outnumbered. Americans, in partic- the “commercial intercourse of na- ity had prevented them, years be- ular, were quick to point out his fail- 38 tions,” Lamar sent an expedition of fore, from throwing off his yoke. ures, attributing them to sheer cow- 320 men in June 1841 to seize Santa ardice. Compounding these problems Fe and “secure to our citizens all of The character assassination not only were a handful of enormous land the benefits arising from the valuable hurt his reputation in the United grants he had awarded naturalized

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 17 foreigners.44 Yet there doesn’t seem to macy between Mexico and the United solution: a campaign against Utes. have been any indication that Mexico States was quickly deteriorating. While he awaited the go-ahead from City was prepared to move on from When news reached New Mexico that Mexico City, he had to figure out how Armijo, especially in such a conten- the United States had annexed Texas, to fund this war, as federal resources tious climate. Nevertheless, in January Armijo issued a stirring proclamation were unreliable. A glimmer of relief 1844, much like he had done in 1829, to his department in January 1846. came in March 1846, when a substan- he decided to resign, citing failing He indicated that the “sensation” of tial change in the structure of military health as the reason.45 troubles with the United States might command freed Armijo of Chihua- require the citizens to do their duty hua’s oversight and gave him total dis- In a move similar to what they had for Mexico but that, in the meantime, cretion in military actions and expen- tried in 1835 with Pérez, federal of- productive and amicable relations ditures.54 On July 20, the Minister of ficials decided to send Mariano should prevail.50 War authorized his request for the Ute Martínez de Lejanza, a career soldier, campaign.55 Chances are Armijo was to show a strong face as the new By and large, they did. But Armijo swiftly riding to Chihuahua by the governor. Martínez quickly proved did have his share of problems to deal time the letter reached New Mexico. he was not up to the task. He raised with. In the spring of 1846, Utes— duty rates on foreign goods and, in who had abandoned peace following The events of the summer of 1846 one of the more bizarre episodes of the incident with Martínez—and effectively negated whatever success the entire period, botched a delicate Navajos had intensified their raiding Armijo had achieved prior. Excite- peace with the Utes during a closed- of western and northern communities. ment for the arrival of what might door meeting.46 One can imagine Reports of depredations came pouring have been the largest trading caravan Armijo’s reluctance when Mexican into Santa Fe. The greatest volume of in the history of the Santa Fe trade officials managed to coax him out of complaints came from an unofficial quickly soured when the war between retirement one last time to govern the spokesperson of U.S. citizens in New Mexico and the United States began. department at the end of 1845.47 He Mexico, Charles Bent, who expected Then came the reports that a large was probably surprised to find both protection from the governor.51 Armi- American force was en route to seize nuevomexicanos and Americans re- jo likewise found himself embroiled in the department. Armijo sprang into ceptive to his return. Foreigners had an ongoing dispute between Ameri- action. Given all the speculation, it’s also received some other good news cans and well-known Padre Antonio worth briefly summarizing what we recently. Often taxed multiple times José Martínez. Martínez had been do know about the lead-up to Au- on the same shipment of goods as it waging a war for the hearts and minds gust 16. We know that Armijo was traveled through the Mexican interior, of the nuevomexicanos of Taos since expecting Mexican regulars to arrive they clamored to Congress for relief. foreigners began to gather there in the from Chihuahua to deal with Indian On March 3, 1845 they received it in 1820s. He singled out Bent, whom troubles and invading Americans. We the form of the Drawback Bill, which he took to represent the activities of know that in June he issued a procla- offered a rebate of a certain percentage Americans operating beyond the pur- mation to state his intention to resist of import duties paid on re-exported view of officials at places like Bent’s an invading force. We know in early merchandise.48 Americans in New Fort. Martínez charged that the Bents July he called the loyal citizens of New Mexico rejoiced upon hearing the and their allies knowingly traded arms Mexico to arms. We also know that news. The U.S. consul in New Mexico to neighboring Utes, Navajos, and Armijo convened a series of meet- appreciatively told Secretary of State Apaches and then encouraged them ings involving both civil and military James Buchanan that these drawbacks to raid New Mexican settlements. authorities during the weeks before will “largely increase the amount of Charles Bent, referring to Padre Mar- August 16, and we can gather that a our exports to that country and con- tínez simply as “the Priest,” frequently decent number were ready to fight (we sequent introduction of the precious ranted about Martínez’s accusations to don’t know the exact figures). We can metals through Santa Fe and this Manuel Álvarez, who then forwarded further ascertain that Armijo attempt- place into the United States.”49 the grievances onto his superiors.52 On ed to settle debts in the United States one such occasion, Álvarez informed (often pointed to as a bribe) and drew Armijo’s return thus actually symbol- James Buchanan of a sermon Mar- up a will. We know that Capt. Philip ized what looked to be an era of good tínez had given to the people of Taos St. George Cooke arrived in Santa relations and renewed prosperity in in which he “bitterly denounced the Fe on August 12 as Kearny’s emis- New Mexico. Mexico City knew it annexation of any part of this country sary, and that, over the next couple of had someone familiar and competent, to the U.S.” simply to encourage ani- days, Armijo met with Cooke, Manuel nuevomexicanos had a venerated na- mosity toward Americans.53 Álvarez, Henry Connelly, and James tive son, and Americans at the very Magoffin. We know that Armijo then least knew they had someone better The governor needed to appease both sent his forces to Apache Canyon on than Martínez. But, elsewhere, diplo- parties and thus proposed a unifying August 14 to take defensive positions,

18 Wagon Tracks August 2020 and two days later he and members figure out a way to pilot New Mexico would be a failure. of the department government joined through the sea of change. As we them there. Armijo held one more have seen, the job of governor often Armijo traveled from Chihuahua meeting with his officers and, after ap- required one to wear an impressive to Mexico City, where accusations parently hearing several voices in favor array of hats: advocate for nuevomexi- of cowardice and charges of treason of fighting, ordered his army to go canos, defender of Mexican national awaited him. He managed to avoid home. At some point on the 16th—it interests, friend of a noisy population imprisonment—even taking command is not clear if this was before or after of foreigners, and guardian against of a small detachment in Durango to the order to withdraw—he wrote Ke- powerful Indians. We have also seen ward off raiding Comanches—and arny explaining that he simply could that these roles rarely combined into returned to Albuquerque for a time not relinquish New Mexico east of the a synchronized agenda. In that sense, in 1848. Perhaps because of the treaty Rio Grande to Texas. We know that Armijo performed rather well, par- he again went south into Chihuahua Armijo then resigned his command ticularly during his first two terms in 1849. There Governor Angel Trías for a third time, rode south into Chi- when tense moments or even violence promptly jailed Armijo, but federal huahua with a squadron of dragoons, came to the fore. Even as Americans judges ordered his release. He spent and Kearny’s army marched into grew frustrated with officials and the rest of days in Lemitar, New Mex- 58 Santa Fe unopposed on August 18. regulations after 1841, Mexico City ico, in exile. He died in 1854. Finally, thanks to Marc Simmons, we appeared to become more comfortable know that while near Paso del Norte with the situation in New Mexico—a As they tend to do, Armijo’s perfor- days later Armijo received an offer lone beacon of good relations be- mance during pivotal moments has from Kearny to return to Santa Fe and tween Mexico and the United States. defined Armijo. In particular, his govern under the United States. He Strangely, it was during Armijo’s third humiliating defeat against raiders in flatly refused.56 and decisive term as governor when 1843 sullied his reputation in Chihua- the goals and demands of the various hua, where he was regularly mocked In contrast, we do not know what interests groups coincided around se- in the press thereafter. Similarly, the went through Armijo’s head on Au- curity from Utes and Navajos. Armijo maltreatment of the Texan prisoners gust 16 when he made an abrupt knew this and aggressively pursued a in 1841 served as the foundation for about face. We do not know whether resolution. mounting tensions with Americans Armijo moved his forces east simply in New Mexico as well as an emerg- with the hopes of receiving a large When trying to makes some sense of ing literary campaign in the United caravan that held goods he was ex- Armijo’s peculiar actions on August States peddling a narrative of a cruel, pecting. We absolutely do not know 16, it is useful to remember how his treacherous, and capricious Governor whether he took a bribe from Con- previous two terms had ended. His be- Armijo. Therefore, when he faltered nelly, Magoffin, or Cooke. Nor are we havior was patterned and actually not in August 1846, the groundwork was any surer that Armijo’s retreat to the so strange in the long view. Under du- in place for both American observ- interior was some sort of indication ress and expecting the worse from his ers and many authorities in Mexico of guilt for taking a bribe. And—my superiors, he withdrew from the public to easily pin the loss of New Mexico personal favorite—we do not know if eye, turned over duties to an acting on Armijo. His disloyalty was a fait he simply decided to cut his losses and governor, and put in for his resigna- accompli. We need to be careful about pursue business interests in Mexico.57 tion. Federal officials were unlikely to this discourse that remains with us in What is really curious is that Manuel remove him in either case, especially both American and Mexican accounts. Armijo’s legacy has largely been con- in 1843. Yet he stepped aside any- The “traitor” Armijo narrative—the structed from what we do not know or, ways. Perhaps he was ashamed that he embodiment of the “corrupt officials” worse, know not to be the case. couldn’t keep his administrators in or- narrative pervasive in Santa Fe trade der in 1829, or concerned that he had literature—perpetuates a stingy and So, what, if anything, can we make of dishonored New Mexico and the na- disturbing understanding of nine- him? On the one hand, he was en- tion with his defeats to Texan raiders teenth-century American expansion. tirely emblematic of a New Mexico in 1843. On August 16, maybe Armijo If Armijo was actually bribed, then transformed by the emergence of simply couldn’t bear the idea of losing Americans did achieve a “bloodless the overland trade with the United in battle to the United States, or the conquest” of New Mexico and, worst States. While many nuevomexicanos embarrassment he’d experience in his of all, nuevomexicanos did it to them- struggled in the new commercial homeland had he returned to Santa selves—their ignorance, infidelity, and landscape, Armijo’s career ascended Fe with his forces. Whatever the case, inferiority made manifest in one fell after 1821 and, through business and he decided he’d rather face charges of swoop. Armijo and New Mexico, in administrative positions, he solidified high treason in Mexico than either this sense, have served to justify what his rico status. On the other hand, he, come up short in pitched battle or sur- befell much of the continental West. more than any other individual, had to render New Mexico. Either outcome The “Manifest Destiny” of the United

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 19 States overwhelmed Mexicans, Indi- May 22 and May 27, 1827, MANM 6:1017- 1076. 1018, 1020. ans, and everything in between, peace- 32. Decree of the President, Mexico City, fully, with its markets and civilization. 13. Armijo to Durán, Santa Fe, May 31, June 13, 1838, MANM 24: 904. But we know that the American inva- 1827, MANM 6:1200. sion and occupation of New Mexico 33. “List of Gentlemen Who Have was anything but bloodless; it was lit- 14. Tyler, “New Mexico in the 1820s: Voluntarily Provided Help for the Troop,” 59 The First Administration of Manuel Santa Fe, September 8, 1837, MANM 24: erally an act of war. Nuevomexicanos Armijo” (Ph.D. Dissertation, Albuquerque, 89; Treasurer’s accounts, Santa Fe, 1837, made that very clear throughout 1847. University of New Mexico, 1970), 7-12. MANM 24: 668-670; 25: 1260-1261; Violence was stashed deep in the Manuel Armijo to Foreign Merchants, Santa arsenal of nuevomexicano resistance. 15. Bloom, “New Mexico under Mexican Fe, September 25, 1837, MANM 23: 670- Manuel Armijo knew that better than administration,” Old Santa Fe 1, no. 3 671. ( January 1914): 264-266; Tyler, “New anyone. Mexico in the 1820s,” 16-22. 34. Gregg, Commerce of the Prairies, 332.

Endnotes 16. Armijo to Durán, Santa Fe, March 21, 35. Mirabeau B. Lamar’s Inaugural Address, 1829, MANM 9:727-728. Houston, Dec. 10, 1838, in The Papers of Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar, 1798-1859, ed. 1. Josiah Gregg, Commerce of the Prairies, ed. 17. Armijo to Pérez, Albuquerque, April 12, Charles Adams Gulick, Jr. (Austin: A. C. Max L. Moorhead (Norman: University of 1837, MANM 23:341-342. Baldwin, 1922), 2: 320-321. Oklahoma Press, 1974), 95. 18. Guía nos. 4 and 8, 1835, Guía notebook, 36. Lamar to Congress, Houston, Dec. 21, 2. George Wilkins Kendall, Narrative of 1835-1840, MANM 21:274-275. 1838, in The Papers of Mirabeau Buonaparte the Texan Santa Fe Expedition (New York: Lamar, 2: 355-356; Instructions to Harper and Brothers, 1847), 1:306. 19. Guía nos. 29 and 35, 1837, Guía Commissioners Bound for Santa Fe, Austin, notebook, 1835-1840, MANM 21: 301, 303. 3. Ray Allen Billington, The Far Western June 15, 1841, in A Texas Patriot on Trail in Frontier (New York: Harper and Row, 1956), 20. Albino Pérez to José María Ronquillo, Mexico: Jose Antonio Navarro and the Texan 179. Santa Fe, August 2, 1837, MANM 23:626. Santa Fe Expedition, ed. Reséndez (Dallas: Degolyer Library & William P. Clements 4. Lansing B. Bloom, New Mexico under 21. Janet Lecompte, Rebellion in Río Arriba, Center for Southwest Studies, 2005), 25-28. Mexican Administration, 1821-1846, Old 1837 (Albuquerque: University of New Santa Fe 2, no. 4 (April 1915): 370. Mexico Press, 1985), 34; Albino Chacón, 37. U.S. Citizens to Daniel Webster, Santa “An Account of the Chimayó Rebellion,” Fe, September 16, 1841, New Mexico State 5. Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God trans. Lecompte, in Rebellion in Río Arriba, Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe, New Wrought: The Transformation of America, 100. Mexico (NMSRCA), Benjamin M. Read 1815-1848 (New York: Oxford University Papers, box 1, folder 9a. Press, 2007), 759. 22. José Caballero to the alcaldes of Río Abajo, Santa Fe, September 9, 1837, 38. Kendall, Narrative, 1: 308. 6. Daniel Tyler, “Governor Armijo’s Moment MANM 23: 662. of Truth,” Journal of the West 11, no. 2 (April 39. For a superb take on the action of 1972): 315-316. 23. Plan de Tomé, copy, Tomé, September 8, 1842, see Joseph Milton Nance, Attack and 1837, Fray Angélico Chávez History Library, Counterattack: The Texas-Mexican Frontier, 7. Andrés Reséndez, Changing National New Mexico History Museum, Santa Fe, 1842 (Austin: University of Texas Press, Identities at the Frontier: Texas and New New Mexico (CHL), Mauro Montoya 1964). Mexico, 1800-1850 (New York: Cambridge Collection, box 1, folder 10. University Press, 2004), 252. 40. For a brilliant analysis of the trial and 24. Diario del Gobierno de la República American outrage, see Marc Simmons, 8. Secretary of State Juan José Espinosa de Mexicana, vol. 9, no. 945, November 30, Murder on the Santa Fe Trail: An los Monteros to Antonio Narbona, Mexico 1837. International Incident, 1843 (El Paso: Texas City, April 3, 1827, MANM 6: 553 Western Press, 1987), particularly chapter 5. 25. Lecompte, Rebellion in Río Arriba, 64-67. 9. Manuel José de Zuloaga to Comisario 41. Manuel Dublán and José María Lozano. Substituto Juan Bautista Vigil, Chihuahua, 26. Circular of Manuel Armijo, Santa Fe, Legislación mexicana o colección completa de November 12, 1825, MANM 4: 208. January 24, 1838, MANM 24:1325. las disposiciones legislativas expedidas desde la independencía de la República (Mexico City: 10. For an overview of these commercial 27. Lecompte, Rebellion in Río Arriba, 67-75. Imprenta del Comercio, 1876), 4: 507. controls, see, Max L. Moorhead, New Mexico’s Royal Road: Trade and Travel on the 28. Plan de Tomé, copy, Montoya Collection. 42. José María Bocanegra to Juan Chihuahua Trail (Norman: University of 29. Armijo Proclamation, Santa Fe, January Nepomuceno Almonte, Mexico City, Oklahoma Press, 1958), chapter 3. 19, 1838, MANM 24: 1314-1315. December 6, 1843, Archivo Histórico de la Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, Mexico 11. Comandante Principal to Comandante 30. Armijo to Comandante General, Santa City (SRE), Archivo Embajada de México General Simón Elías, Santa Fe, June 6, 1827, Fe, May 7 and 8, 1838, MANM 24: 1257- en los Estados Unidos de América, 1805- MANM 6:1306-1308. 1260. 1925 (AEMEUA), leg. 28, exp 3, 200-201.

12. Armijo circular, Santa Fe, May 21, 1827, 31. José María de Arze to Manuel Armijo, 43. Simmons, Murder on the Santa Fe Trail, MANM 6:1122; Durán to Armijo, Santa Fe, Chihuahua, March 6, 1838, MANM 24: 65-68.

20 Wagon Tracks August 2020 44. The most famous (and largest) of these 6, RI 243; “The Conquest of Santa Fe,” and was the Beaubien-Miranda Grant of which Magoffin Papers, NMSRCA, Historical Armijo owned one-quarter interest at one Society of New Mexico Collection, box 1, point. See Lawrence R. Murphy, “The folder 44; Lecompte, “Manuel Armijo and Beaubien and Miranda Grant, 1841-1846,” the Americans,” Journal of the West 19, no. Speaker's Bureau Updated New Mexico Historical Review 42, no. 1 3 ( July 1980): 59-61; Leo E. Oliva, Soldiers ( January 1967): 27-47. on the Santa Fe Trail (Norman: University of The Santa Fe Trail Association Speak- Oklahoma Press, 1967); Reséndez, Changing er's Bureau offers a roster of speakers 45. Armijo to Ministro de Relaciones National Identities, chapter 8; Simmons, for public presentations on a variety of Exteriores y Gobernación, Letter book entry, “Trail Dust: After fleeing, Gov. Armijo Trail topics. This list is in the process Santa Fe, January 15, 1844, MANM 35: 417. rejected American officer,” Santa Fe New Mexican, December 6, 2013; Tyler, “Armijo’s of being updated. Funding for speak- 46. Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land: Moment of Truth,” 307-316. ers is available only through chapters Indians and Empires in the Early American of the Santa Fe Trail. Association. West (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 57. These are some of the “greatest hits” often 2008), 131-132. put forward by scholars and the public alike. If you would like to be considered It seems that the sources of the narrative that 47. Minister Luís Gonzaga Cuevas to the for the Speaker's Bureau, please send Armijo privately wavered and toiled over “Señor in charge of the Government of the the title(s) of your presentation(s), what he would do in the weeks leading up to Department of New Mexico,” Mexico City, August 16, particularly as Kearny’s emissaries a description of the topic(s), a short July 24, 1845, MANM 38: 55. “worked on him,” are the emissaries biography, your fee, and any mileage 48. Susan Calafate Boyle, Los Capitalistas: themselves. In particular, Magoffin’s claim limits to the Santa Fe Trail Associa- Hispano Merchants and the Santa Fe Trade submitted to the U.S. government for tion ([email protected]). (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico $50,000, some of which was plainly itemized Press, 1997), 47. to have persuaded officers—namely Diego Archuleta—to stand down is held up as 49. Manuel Álvarez to James Buchanan, indisputable evidence of Armijo’ treachery. Independence, June 18, 1845, Despatches See Magoffin Papers, Historical Society of from U.S. Consuls in Santa Fe, New Mexico, New Mexico Collection; Philip St. George RG 59, General Records of the Department Cooke, The Conquest of New Mexico and of the State, M199 (Despatches). California (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1878), 32; Álvarez to Buchanan, Santa Fe, 50. Armijo Proclamation, January 10, 1846, September 4, 1846, Despatches. See also NMSRCA, Sender Collection (microfilm) Tyler, “Armijo’s Moment of Truth,” 312-316. 2: 589-590. 58. Brian DeLay, War of a Thousand Deserts: 51. Charles Bent to Manuel Álvarez, Taos, Indian Raids and the U.S.-Mexican War February 24, 1846, NMSRCA, Read Papers, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 2: 73. 276; Lecompte, “Manuel Armijo and the Americans,” 60-61. 52. See, for instance, Bent to Álvarez, Taos, Truckers Radio US April 8, 1846, NMSRCA, Read Papers, 2: 59. This view of nuevomexicano violence, Partners with SFTA 82. especially the 1847 uprising, as an expression of broad patriotism for Mexico is echoed by 53. Álvarez to Buchanan, Santa Fe, February Truckers Radio USA is the newest 9, 1846, Despatches. Robert J. Tórrez in “Mexican Patriotism in New Mexico, 1821-1846,” in Telling New media partner with the Santa Fe Trail 54. Reference to order of March 5, 1846 in Mexico: A New History, ed. Marta Weigle Association in marking the historic Report of the Ministerio de Guerra y Marina, (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, trails bicentennial in 2021.  Mexico City, 1878, NMSRCA, Ward Alan 2008), 129-140. Minge Collection, Copies of Armijo Papers “Our hero truckers are following in in Beinecke Library (microfilm). the footsteps, and often along the 55. Ministro de Guerra y Marina to Armijo, Matt Saionz is a historian living in same trail, as our caravans of traders July 20, 1846, Mexico City, State Archives of Gainesville, Florida. He has an M.A. did in the past carrying much needed New Mexico, Beinecke copies. in history from Virginia Tech and is goods and supplies across the nation,” working toward the completion of his SFTA President Larry Short said. 56. Armijo proclamation, Santa Fe, June Ph.D. at the University of Florida. His TruckersRadioUSA.com is an internet 6, 1846, MANM 41: 277-278; Armijo to interests surround the Mexican-era District Prefects, Letter book entry, Santa Southwest, and he enjoys sharing his radio station based in Kansas with Fe, July 18, 1846, MANM 41: 232-233; research at public lectures and conferences. listeners all over the world. Country Armijo to Kearny, Canyon Camp, August and Western music star Rex Allen Jr. 16, 1846, Huntington Library, San Marino, is president of the company which California, William Gillet Ritch Papers, features traditional country music and Box 6, RI 232; Citizens of New Mexico to “Land Line Now,” the daily trucking President of Mexico, translated copy, Santa news magazine. Fe, September 26, 1846, Ritch Papers, Box

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 21 Montgomery Bell: Wealthy and Respected Businessman of New Mexico

By Doyle Daves tor for West Virginia.8 Elkins, who Montgomery Bell, a Missourian, came settled in New Mexico in 1864 after to New Mexico in 1867 and stayed brief service in the Union Army, was until his death in 1915. He became a in 1867 the U. S. district attorney for wealthy and respected citizen of Las New Mexico. He had returned briefly Vegas, active in civic affairs and local to Missouri to bring his widowed fa- politics. What makes his story un- ther to Santa Fe. During the long trip usual and special is that Montgomery to Santa Fe, Montgomery Bell became Bell was African-American and a acquainted with Elkins. By the time freed slave.1 In fact, as a freedman in of their arrival in New Mexico, El- the post-Civil War Southwest, Bell’s kins had offered Bell a position, as the achievements, financial success, and 1870 census reports that Bell (listed standing as a business and civic leader as “white”) was a servant in the Elkins have no parallels. household in Santa Fe.

Family Background Business Career and Sheep Man

Montgomery was born in Ray County While Bell worked for Elkins, he in western Missouri on March 3, 1845, learned to read and write, he became the second child and first son of Eli- fluent in Spanish, and began to under- jah and Martha Bell.2 The Bell family stand and adjust to the complex multi- is listed in a census record, the 1865 ethnic New Mexican culture and to Kansas state census,3 living in Atchison make friends. His later life makes clear some 75 miles west of Ray County. that he had no intention of remaining Thus, when they attained freedom, a servant. the Bells had moved away from Ray photo courtesy Las Vegas Citizens County, which had 475 slave owners Committee for Historic Preservation In the summer of 1870, Bell left and 2047 slaves in 1860,4 to an area of Elkins’s employ and set out inde- Kansas with little history of slavery. with another family where he is listed pendently to be a sheep man; he had saved enough money to purchase 350 as a servant, already independent of 9,10 According to the 1880 census for his family. In the summer of 1867, he sheep. He did not become a par- Atchison, Kansas, Montgomery Bell’s joined a wagon train headed for New tidario who tended sheep owned by father, Elijah, was the son of an Irish Mexico on the Santa Fe Trail to begin a wealthy patron for a share of the immigrant and his mother, Martha, a new life. At this time, Bell, 22, could increase. “Partidarios faced great risks was the daughter of a man born in not read or write and possessed no ob- to fulfill their contracts-the elements, France. Thus, both Elijah and Martha, vious skills to help establish himself in predators, sick animals, and mounting always listed as “mulattoes,” were chil- a new place where he had no family or debt. [Too often,] a partidario...became dren of European men and African friends. so mired in obligations to the sheep slave women.5 This record also indi- dealer that...he could not...ever extri- 11 cates Elijah was born in Kentucky and In 1903, George Gould,6 in writing cate himself.” Bell’s only cost was the Martha was born in Tennessee. It is about Las Vegas for the Atichison, To- purchase price of the sheep; grass was likely that they were originally held by peka and Santa Fe Railroad, undoubt- free on the open range and he could different slave owners. How, when, and edly interviewed Montgomery Bell. He manage a small flock himself without where they met is not known. Their reports that “On the 18th of June 1867, hired help. children, Rose, Montgomery, Joseph, he [Bell] arrived in Las Vegas, in com- and Arneda were born into slavery in pany with Pap [Philip Duncan] Elkins, Bell took his sheep to lush pasturage Missouri; Alice was born in Kansas along the Pecos River and Los Tanos [his son Stephen Benton Elkins] and 12 after their move in 1865. Mobelin McGhee and family, all be- Creek not far from the present town ing from Westport, Mo.” Stephen B. of Santa Rosa. Only a few years earlier, The Move to New Mexico Elkins, was a prominent man: he was a the area had been extremely dangerous. member of the alleged Santa Fe Ring,7 When military forces were diverted by Montgomery is listed twice in the the Civil War, Indian raids increased 1865 census for Atchison, Kansas, later New Mexico Delegate to Con- gress, and finally United States Sena- greatly; however, by 1870, when Bell with his parents and siblings but also began pasturing sheep, the army had

22 Wagon Tracks August 2020 re-engaged in protecting the eastern The 1882-1883 business directory for May 21, 1902). Montgomery Bell, act- and southern plains of New Mexico Las Vegas, five years before Mont- ing as a broker, purchased many goats and raids were less likely although still gomery Bell moved to Las Vegas, for the ranch. The Albuquerque Citizen an issue.13 lists “Plaza Grocers, 50 Plaza, H. C. reported ( July 22, 1898) that “Mont- Bell.”19 At the time of Bell’s move to gomery Bell is purchasing all the Bell remained in the Pecos Valley with Las Vegas, he had significant financial goats that the natives bring in from his sheep for 14 years. His timing was resources of his own and was very the country.” This appeal obviously excellent. Indeed, from 1870 to the unlikely to seek such a loan, especially did not produce enough goats as, soon early 1880s, the sheep population in not from Elkins who had moved to after, there is a report that “Montgom- New Mexico was growing steadily and West Virginia in 1876. ery Bell is back from northern Mexico “wool... remained sufficiently profit- where he has been buying goats for able... to sustain the industry.” In fact, When Bell settled in Las Vegas in the Onderdonk Livestock Company a sheep man “can make a profit...from 1887, it was a major trade center and, of Lamy.” (Santa Fe New Mexican, 20 his wool and have all the increase [in since the railroad’s arrival in 1879, September 21, 1898) Again, Bell did 14 flock numbers] in addition.” Luck- was growing rapidly; indeed it was not find enough goats as, almost im- ily for Bell and other sheep men, “In a boomtown. Montgomery Bell was mediately, he “left for Arizona on an 1877, a sharp rise in wool prices oc- now 42, he was an experienced busi- extensive goat buying trip.” (Las Vegas 15 curred.” nessman, having sold wool and sheep Daily Optic, September 24, 1898) for 14 years, he had financial resources Under these propitious conditions and he was known to local leaders, as Civic and Political Activities and, with few expenses other than his Las Vegas was the nearest trade center own upkeep, Bell could easily build during his sheep-raising years along Bell’s character and capabilities, ex- wealth by the sale of wool and weth- the Pecos. He clearly had options hibited in his business dealings, were ers. In 1884 when Bell sold his flock when he arrived in Las Vegas. well known and appreciated and he and liquidated his sheep business, the was drawn into the civic and political Emporia [KS] Gazette (December 18, Contemporary newspaper reports21 activities of Las Vegas. Contemporary 1915) reported that “he made a for- indicate that Bell became a buyer and newspaper reports indicate just how tune.” seller of livestock and land. The news- extensively Bell participated in the af- papers contain many legal notices list- fairs of the town: San Miguel County At age 39, Bell had been in New ing him as either a buyer or seller, usu- Sheep Raisers Association appointed Mexico 17 years and had progressed ally of a small real estate holding or of Montgomery Bell as inspector for Las from a house servant with few skills to a few animals. A typical transaction: Vegas (Santa Fe Daily New Mexican, an established independent business- Bell sold a pair of matched roan mules April 19, 1893). Montgomery Bell man with substantial personal skills to H. A. Harvey for his mountain re- was appointed Road Supervisor for and financial assets. Having liquidated sort (Las Vegas Daily Optic, September West Las Vegas (Las Vegas Daily Optic, his sheep business, he was prepared 16, 1905). While there are instances October 10, 1899). “The 52 bondsmen for new opportunities. Now financially where Bell’s transactions involved of Carlos Gabaldon, the defaulting secure and, after years of social isola- community leaders, many of his busi- county collector, have left the settle- tion, he chose a quite different experi- ness transactions were with relatively ment with the county in the hands of ence. He accepted a position where he poor people. Indeed, it was stated that Don Eugenio Romero, Ike Davis and “spent the next three years in Mexico, Montgomery Bell “was a friend of Montgomery Bell (Albuquerque Citi- as interpreter for an engineering the poor people. He was their money zen, May 17, 1900). Montgomery Bell 16 corps.” lender.”22 Bell faced risk in his dealing was one of seven elected as delegates and routinely enforced compliance in to the Republican county convention In Las Vegas for Life his transactions: many legal notices re- where he “gave a stirring address,” Following his sojourn in Mexico, Bell ported in the newspapers are of court (Santa Fe Daily New Mexican, October settled permanently in Las Vegas. proceedings about the enforcement of 10, 1902). Montgomery Bell served on Lynn Perrigo17 reports that, at this contracts. the federal grand jury (Las Vegas Daily time, “with money borrowed from Optic, May 1, 1905). A public meeting There is at least one business relation- in Las Vegas decided to experiment Stephen B. Elkins....he opened a store ship that differed significantly from in Las Vegas.” Marcus Gottschalk18 in the raising of sugar beets; Mont- Bell’s usual buying and selling in gomery Bell was named to oversee the amplifies, saying that, using money small-dollar deals. Charles S. Onder- borrowed from Elkins, he “opened up experimental planting (Santa Fe Daily donk, a wealthy Philadelphia busi- New Mexican, June 14, 1907). Bell & Co., Plaza Grocers on the west nessman, established a ranch at Lamy, side of the plaza in Las Vegas.” This New Mexico, where he pastured as story is, almost certainly, not correct. many as 20,000 goats (El Paso Herald,

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 23 Domestic and Community Life honorific “Don Montgomery Bell.” ficers from slave-holding states.26 In The Ilfelds, one of the most promi- 1866, the 57th and 125th infantry Montgomery Bell, for much of his nent business families of Las Vegas, regiments brought the first African- life, concentrated on his demanding gave “their support, confidence and American, “buffalo soldiers” to New business activities. In 1893 at age respect to the African-American Mexico where they served continu- 48, now well established in his com- businessman, Montgomery Bell.”23 ously for almost 40 years.27 After the munity and financially secure, Bell At the time of his death in Decem- Civil War and emancipation, “black married Mrs. Annie Moore of Wash- ber 1915, reports attest further to homesteaders and [discharged] Buf- ington, D.C. Following his marriage, his community standing: “[T]here falo soldiers ventured westward by Bell acquired a large, imposing home was not a white person who knew the thousands,” but few came to some two blocks north of the Las him, but respected him, and admired New Mexico. The 1870 U. S. census Vegas Plaza where he and Annie his many good qualities.”24 “White reports that of almost 92,000 New lived until she died in 1910. men, among the most prominent of Mexicans, 173 were “colored.”28 [Las Vegas], acted as pall bearers at Mainly, freedmen traveled to “where Almost nothing is known about An- the funeral of Montgomery Bell....” they knew others,” like Atchison, nie, how and where she met Mont- (Sierra County Advocate, December Kansas, where Bell’s parents had gomery, or where they were married. 17, 1915). settled.29 The best example of this The Las Vegas Daily Optic (September movement into New Mexico was 18, 1899) reported that Annie had While Montgomery Bell was re- the little farming community of left Las Vegas for Newport, Rhode spected within the Las Vegas com- Blackdom, 18 miles south of Roswell. Island, apparently for an extended munity, there is no evidence that he Blackdom was founded in 1903 by stay as she arranged to receive the and Annie were active socially. They ex-buffalo soldier, Frank Boyer, and Las Vegas Daily Optic while there. did give Christmas gifts to neigh- by 1920 had some 300 black resi- Newport was then a summer resort borhood children and, according to dents. It failed before 1930, owing to where the super-rich built huge, im- Fabiola Cabeza de Baca’s childhood lack of water and insect infestations posing mansions; what took Annie memories, “One of the best liked that destroyed crops.30 Inevitably, Bell there is not known, but the trip families [were the Bells]...and I have such communities attracted animos- 25 was surely expensive and attested to never known finer persons.” ity from non-black neighbors; the the Bell’s resources. southeastern New Mexico Ku Klux African-Americans Klan chapter threatened the com- Montgomery Bell was accepted and in Territorial New Mexico 31 treated as an equal by business and munity. civic leaders. The Las Vegas Daily A few African-American slaves were Most freed slaves had little or no Optic ( January 30, 1900), to show its brought into New Mexico before the education and possessed only farm respect, accorded him the Spanish Civil War, principally by military of- labor or household skills. The 1870, 1880, and 1900 census schedules for Las Vegas illustrate this. In 1870, 10 African-Americans were counted: 2 farm laborers, 4 cooks, a washer- woman, a barber, and a housewife. In 1880 there were twice as many entries but the jobs had not changed. Some advances are evident by 1900 with listings for railway porters, telegraph operators, a carpenter, and a bartender. For African-Americans in heavily Hispanic New Mexico, which never participated in the worst of reconstruction and Jim Crow segregation, life with a job and rela- tive independence was a significant improvement. Residence of Montgomery Bell, photo courtesy Las Vegas Not a Typical Freed Slave Citizens Committee for His- Montgomery Bell, apparently quite toric Preservation deliberately, made a strikingly dif-

24 Wagon Tracks August 2020 ferent choice than other freedmen. burgeoning Las Vegas. He behaved as trails/comanchero-trade.html, accessed July He did not chose to locate among if his race would not hold him back 2019. people like himself. Census records and it did not. Indeed, Bell proved 14. Jon M. Wallace, “Livestock, Land and reveal that the African-Americans that in the still wide-open frontier Dollars: The Sheep Industry of Territorial in Las Vegas lived in East Las Vegas that was New Mexico, a man could New Mexico,” 56, 92, 93, 95, https:// digitalrepositoryunm.edu/hist_etds/80, (New Town) otherwise almost entirely be judged primarily by his skills, accessed April 2020. inhabited by “Anglos,” recent arrivals trust-worthiness, and willingness to from the east. Bell, fluent in Spanish, contribute to the common good. The 15. William J. Parish, The Charles Ilfeld Company (Cambridge: Harvard University lived among the native New Mexican success Bell achieved has no analogy Press, 1961), 135. Hispanics of West Las Vegas (Old in New Mexico history. It is almost 16. Gould, Illustrated Las Vegas, 1903. Town). Bell may have had acquain- unimaginable; one can only admire his tances among other African-Amer- audacity, sagacity, and hard work that 17. Lynn I. Perrigo, Gateway to Glorieta, 168, icans in town, but he did not closely made it happen. 169. identify with them. 18. Marcus C. Gottschalk, Pioneer Merchants Endnotes of the Las Vegas Plaza (Las Vegas: self Unlike other freedmen, Bell quickly published, 2000), 50. abandoned life as a low-level work- 1. For the story of another successful ex- 19. Porter’s Directory of Las Vegas 1882-83, ing man dependent on an employer, slave associated with the Santa Fe Trail, see published in Las Vegas, 1882, 20. almost certainly of a different race, for William P. O’Brien, "Hiram Young: Black 20. Edwina Portelle Romero, Las Vegas Entrepreneur on the Santa Fe Trail," Wagon his livelihood. He chose to become 1835-1935 (Friends of the Las Vegas City Tracks, 33 No. 4, August 2019), 23-25. an independent businessman. In this Museum, 2018). course, Bell was helped by his novelty 2. George T. Gould, Illustrated Las Vegas, 21. Available on the Library of Congress 1903, as quoted in Joseph A. Lordi, Las as a lone black man in a New Mexico Chronicling America web site: Montgomery Vegas, New Mexico (Kennett Square, Pa: Bell, New Mexico. society commonly defined as tri-racial: Carolina Press, 2016), 121. the majority Catholic Hispanics, the 22. Fabiola Cabeza de Baca, We Fed Them 3. Ancestry.com, Kansas State Census Cactus (Albuquerque: University of New pueblo Indians and the recently ar- Collection, 1855-1925, accessed July 2019. rived, usually Protestant, “Anglos.” Mexico Press, 1954), 84. 4.“Callaway County,” Missouri Journal, www. The tensions and prejudices of this 23. Sophia Truneh, “The Ilfelds, A Family usgennet.org/usa/mo/county/callaway/ Story,” Southwest Jewish History, 3 (No. 2, established order had no category for Slavery/Slave Distribution1860.html, a man like Bell; this gave him space to Winter 1995) https://swja.library.arizona. accessed July 2019. edu/content/ilfeld-family-story, accessed July make his own way. As his wealth grew 5. It is possible that one or both of these 2019. and his business and civic activities slave women also were mulatto. 24. “Montgomery Bell Dead,” Emporia, were admired, Bell’s “differentness,” 6. Gould, Illustrated Las Vegas, 1903. Kansas Gazette, December 18, 1915. always apparent, did not preclude his 7. David L. Caffey, Chasing the Santa Fe business success. 25. Cabeza de Baca, We Fed Them Cactus, 822. Ring: Power and Privilege in Territorial New Glasrud, African American History in New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 2. A Well Lived Life Mexico Press, 2014). 26. For example: Captain James H. Carleton When Montgomery Bell, at age 22 8. “Stephen B. Elkins,” The West Virginia arrived at Fort Union in 1851 with his and two years after freedom from Encyclopedia, www.wvencyclopedia.org/ wife, Sophia and at least 2 slaves. Leo E. articles/2199, accessed July 2019. Oliva, Fort Union and the Frontier Army in slavery, chose to leave Kansas and his 9. Lynn I. Perrigo, Gateway to Glorieta the Southwest (Washington: National Park family for New Mexico, he, like many Service, Southwest Cultural Resources other freedmen, may have hoped to (Boulder, CO: Pruitt Publishing Company, 1982), 168. Center, Professional Papers No. 41, 1993), find “freedom and equality, and a life 188. devoid of Jim Crow segregation...”29 10. For quite a different, but almost certainly incorrect, account of Montgomery Bell’s 27. Tim Roberts and Scott Smith, Unlike most, Bell did not seek to entry into business, see Bruce A. Glasrud, “Buffalo Soldiers in New Mexico,” remain part of a community of freed- African American History in New Mexico newmexicoculture.org/guide/2018/winter- men. Instead, he chose to join, by (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico guide/buffalo-soldiers-in-new-mexico, himself, the complex New Mexico Press, 2013), 8. accessed May 2020. community. He learned Spanish and 11. David V. Holtby, Forty Seventh Star, New 28. 1870 Census, A compendium of the developed other talents: reading and Mexico’s Struggle for Statehood (Norman: Ninth Census ( June 1870), Population writing, and understanding the mores University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), 141. of the United States, Tables I and III, www.2.census.gov.Library/publication/ of New Mexico’s multi-ethnic soci- 12. Robert Julyan, The Place Names of New decennial/1870/population/1870- ety and the laws and practices that Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New 04.pdf#, accessed May 2020. governed the business world of the MexicoPress, 1998), 212. time. With this advantage, Bell joined 13. Jay W. Sharp, The Comanchero Trade and the hurly-burly, dynamic society of Trails, https://www.desertusa.com/desert- continued on page 28

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 25 Hell on Wheels: Ellsworth, Kansas

By Dr. Michael L. Olsen this fort housed 1,500 soldiers and Ellsworth that lingers in my memory Project Historian civilian employees. From 1865 until is the great danger from savage In- the arrival of the railroad in 1867, dians. . . . Nearly every day the con- "We have most unfavorable reports the Butterfield Overland Despatch struction gangs laying the railroad from Ellsworth as to wicked lawless- stagecoach line also maintained a sta- toward Denver were attacked by In- ness. The telegraph gives an account tion at Ellsworth on its through ser- dians.” Army troop detachments did of the hanging of two men by the vice to Denver, Colorado Territory. protect the crews and usually drove vigilance committee, named Johnson off the raiders, but “the Indians were and Craig. They were in the hands of Most historical accounts of Ells- able constantly to harass those lay- the officers of the law and taken from worth’s infancy express wonder that it ing the track, and occasionally would them by the mob." survived its first year. Indians raided venture close enough to kill a man or Weekly Caucasian (Lexington, sporadically, usually driving off herds two.” Otero laconically concluded, Missouri), October 19, 1867 of mules and oxen grazing just on the “But when all is said, it must be ad- outskirts of town. On June 8, 1867, mitted that a member of a railroad Location: Central Kansas, in the the normally placid Smoky Hill construction gang in those days was Smoky Hill River Valley; 215 miles River flooded, carrying off most of engaged in what might properly be west of Kansas City, 400 miles east of the tents, soddies, and temporary log called a hazardous occupation.” Denver, Colorado. structures comprising the community at that point. Then a month later, in THE TOWN Approximate distance remaining on July, a cholera epidemic struck both the old Santa Fe Trail: Via Cimar- Ellsworth and Fort Harker. Even Established: May 1867. The name ron Route–550 miles; via Mountain newspapers in New York City took reflects the former Fort Ellsworth, Route–600 miles. Ellsworth lay on notice, with the New York Herald on which was so designated for Second the Fort Riley–Fort Larned Military July 30, 1867, observing, “Twelve Lieutenant Allen Ellsworth, who Road, which joined the Santa Fe hundred people have fled from Ells- commanded the army detachment Trail at Fort Zarah on the Arkansas worth City during the last week. The that constructed and occupied that River. average mortality is about ten per temporary post in 1864. Ellsworth, Kansas, is pre-eminently day. Nine out of every ten persons Post Office: July 3, 1867 - present remembered as a “cattle town,” one of attacked dies in from two to fifteen the shipping points for herds trailed hours.” Nevertheless, Ellsworth persisted. The railroad moved on and Population: 1870 - 448; 1880 - 929; north from Texas. Although the 1890 - 1620 (U.S. Census reports). Union Pacific Eastern Division Rail- the cattle era waned, but it was the county seat of Ellsworth County and William Bell, an inveterate Eastern road (UPED, after 1869 incorpo- sportsman on an extended buffalo rated as the Kansas Pacific) arrived in developed as a thriving trade center for farmers and ranchers. hunt, briefly mentions Ellsworth 1867, Ellsworth’s “boom times” date in his travel account, New Tracks in from 1870 to 1875. Abilene, some THE RAILROAD North America. Passing through in 60 miles east, was the terminus for the spring of 1867, he remarked, the cattle trade from 1867 to about According to the Emporia News perhaps sarcastically, “We left Fort 1870, but the advancing agricultural of July 19, 1867, “The railroad and Harker . . . and, three miles beyond, frontier on the plains forced Texas telegraph were entirely completed to passed through Ellsworth, a won- cattlemen to use railroad facilities Ellsworth on the 15th, and through derful place, having seven or eight farther and farther west. passenger and freight trains now “stores,” two hotels, and fifty houses go to, and come from, that point.” of other kinds, occupied by nearly a Ellsworth’s location was determined Within three months, though, the thousand persons, and yet just one by the Smoky Hill River crossing of UPED covered the 65 miles west to month old.” the Fort Riley–Fort Larned Military Hays City, which then became its Road, a major route for U. S. Army railhead. Commercial Activity patrols headed out onto the plains and into Colorado and New Mexico. In his memoir My Life on the Fron- There are several contemporary ac- The army established a temporary tier, Miguel Otero, Jr., provides a rare counts of commercial activity in Ells- encampment at this site—Fort Ells- glimpse of the work and camps of worth during its brief months as the worth—in 1864 and then construct- railroad construction crews, in this UPED “end-of-track-town.” Sig- ed a permanent post—Fork Harker instance between Ellsworth and Hay nificantly, Otero, Sellar & Company, —nearby in 1866. By the late 1860s City. He recalled, “One feature of destined to become one of the major

26 Wagon Tracks August 2020 freighting and mercantile enterprises Hailkes, Robbins & Mathews, and limb of a cottonwood tree. The oth- in the Southwest, got its start there Vaugh & Sweezy—all “groceries and ers of the gang took the hint and hied at this time. Miguel Antonio Otero, provisions;” J. H. Bell, “tinware and themselves to other regions. . . .” But Sr., of New Mexico, and John Sellar, stoves;” Arthur Larkin, “hotel;” Geiger at least another decade of lawlessness a Scottish immigrant, joined forces & Co. “dry goods and clothing;” and ensued. and fortunes and from this point fol- Andrew Schmitt,“boots and shoes.” lowed the Kansas Pacific, the Denver He ends his directory by emphatically On to Hays City & Rio Grande and, most importantly, stating, “This was a wonderful growth the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe for less than three months.” The list The dates are revealing: the Union as these lines moved west. It became also, of course, presages Ellsworth’s Pacific Eastern Branch built into Ells- customary for Otero, Sellar & Co. to future as a cattle town and regional worth on July 19, 1867; it completed disassemble its store and warehouses trade center. Also, by the end of 1867, its tracks to its next railhead, Hays at any given railhead when the rail line Ellsworth had a tri-weekly newspaper, City, on October 14, 1867. Three years moved on, load the sections on flat- the Advertiser, which the editor of the later, on September 1, 1870, renamed cars, and reassemble them at the next Emporia News for December 12, 1867, the Kansas Pacific, it finished its link town, expanding their facilities each welcomed in his columns. to Denver, Colorado. time. Rivals such as Chick, Browne & Ellsworth Specific Bibliography Company also headquartered in Ells- Hell on Wheels worth for a time. Anderson, George L. Kansas West- An Epic Miguel Antonio Otero, Jr., whose of Western Railroad Building (San Marino, Trains of freight wagons from New memoirs are referenced above, was California: Golden West Books, 1963). eight years old when he lived just for Mexico and the Colorado plains, in Bell, William A. New Tracks in North particular, brought wool, hides, furs, the summer of 1867 with his family in America (New York: Scribner, Welford & and buffalo robes to the shipping Ellsworth. His recollections, then, are Co., 1870). docks at Ellsworth and then took on pointedly revealing as far as the dis- entire stocks of goods for Southwest ruptive social impact of the UPED in Charlton, John. “’Westward the Course of the three months it claimed the town Empire Takes Its Way: Alexander Gardner’s grocers, dry goods merchants, army 1867 Across the Continent on the Union Pacific as its railhead. Otero remembered, posts, townsfolk, sheep herders, and Railway, Eastern Division Photographic cattle ranchers—everyone from Colo- “Unquestionably, too, Ellsworth was Series,” Kansas History 20:2 (Summer 1997), rado to Arizona, New Mexico and a lively town. It seemed as if nearly 116-128. West Texas who depended on these every other house in the town was a Cutler, William G. History of the State of “imported” commodities. A com- drinking place, while gambling rooms and dance halls and other questionable Kansas (Chicago: A. T. Andreas, 1883) Full ment in the August 15, 1867, New text at www.kancoll.org/books/cutler York Tribune indicates the volume of resorts were most common. Shooting this trade. Commenting on how ship- scrapes were every-day occurrences, Dykstra, Robert R. The Cattle Towns: A Social ments west from Ellsworth had been and the nights were frequently made History of the Kansas Cattle Trading Centers interrupted for ten days by Indian at- hideous by drunken men firing off Abilene, Ellsworth, Wichita, Dodge City and pistols promiscuously . . . .” Caldwell, 1867-1885 (New York: Atheneum, tacks, the Tribune noted, “The United 1970). States Express Company have over It was also this summer that, seem- 1,000,000 pounds of freighting here Hults, Jan, and Sondra McCoy. 1001 Kansas for Western points, which is now be- ingly right on schedule once the rail- Place Names (Lawrence: University Press of ing loaded.” road arrived, “a set of roughs and cut- Kansas, 1989). throats . . . undertook to run the town, Oliva, Leo E. Fort Harker - Defending A further contemporary glimpse of and who, by their desperado deeds, sought to rule the people by establish- the Journey West (Topeka: Kansas State business houses is provided by the Historical Society, 2000). Kansas historian William Cutler, ing a ‘reign of terror.’ Two desperate characters, by the name of Craig and Otero, Miguel Antonio. My Life on writing in the early 1880s in his His- the Frontier, 1864-1882 (Albuquerque: tory of the State of Kansas. He says, Johnson, were the recognized leaders University of New Mexico Press, 1987). “Scarcely was the town site surveyed of this gang, and, like all such scoun- and platted, when buildings began drels, undertook to govern with a high Raynesford, Howard C. and Wayne C. Lee. to spring up like mushrooms, E. W. hand,” according to William Cutler Trails of the Smoky Hill (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Press, 1980). Kingsbury leading the way by build- in his History of the State of Kansas ing the first house, which was known (1883). A Vigilance Committee soon Snell, Joseph W., and Robert W. Richmond, as the “Stockade,” and which was used dealt with them: “one night Craig and “When the Union and Kansas Pacific Built in the double capacity of store and Johnson, after committing some of Through Kansas,” Kansas Historical Quarterly hotel.” Cutler goes on to list Lock- their depredations, were seized, carried 36:2 (Autumn 1966), 334-337. stone & Phelps, O. Hall, Coffin & to the Smoky, and there hung to the

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 27 Newspapers Dr. Michael L. Olsen holds a B.A. from Montgomery Bell, cont. page 25 Emporia News St. Olaf College, and the M.A. and 29. Darryl Lorenzo Wellington, New York Herald Ph.D. in American History from the “Black in Santa Fe, Small Population, University of Washington. He taught New York Tribune Overlooked Stories,” sfreporter.com/news/ for 30 years at New Mexico Highlands coverstories/2013/10/29/black-in-santa-fe/, The Weekly Caucasian (Lafayette County, University and for four years full-time accessed April 2020. Missouri) at Pikes Peak Community College in 30. Blackdom, The First All-Black Settlement Colorado Springs. He has published in New Mexico, rgis_unm.edu/blackdom/, This series of articles is a project extensively on the Santa Fe Trail and accessed April 2020. submitted to the National Trails has consulted with the National Park 31. In eastern and southern New Mexico, Intermountain Region (Santa Fe Service on projects related to the old which, after the Civil War, attracted many Trail NHT) Santa Fe, New Mexico, Santa Fe Trail.  from Confederate states, discrimination in 2019. Besides documenting the and segregation ended only in the 1950s impact of these towns on the demise and 1960s; this never happened in historic of the Santa Fe Trail, the project Hispanic areas. See Glasrud, African included highlighting the “rowdy” American History in New Mexico; Charles E. Becknell, Sr., No Challenge-No Change, Wild West aspect of each railhead, Growing Up Black in New Mexico (Kearney, hence “Hell on Wheels." NE: Morris Publishing, 2003).  [Wagon Tracks readers may want to go to www.kshs.org/km/items/ Doyle Daves received the Jack D. view/146, the Kansas Historical Rittenhouse Memorial Stagecoach Award in 2019 for his extensive writing about Society site, "Kansas Memories," Santa Fe Trail travelers. His articles have to view a stereograph "Crossing the appeared in previous issues of Wagon Smoky Hill River at Ellsworth, KS Tracks and can be found at www. 1867."] santafetrail.org.

The Douglas County Chapter donned their masks and created footpaths at the Black Jack Ruts. See the chapter report for full details. At left are Joe Hoelscher, Nick Pumphrey, Christi Darnell, and Linda Wright filling buckets with dirt. Photos: Roger Boyd.

At right, pouring fill dirt on the footpaths as needed are Sam Darnell, Roger Boyd, Carrie Deitz, and Zane Nowak. Bob Hey drove the skid steer up the trail with the buckets in front, compacting as he went.

28 Wagon Tracks August 2020 SFTA Annual Membership January 1, 2020 to December 31, 2020

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Chapter Reports

Chapters are listed in order from the beginning of Our fall meeting that had been scheduled for Sunday Septem- the Trail in Missouri westward. ber 27 is postponed to February 21. The program will be by Baker University Archivist Sara Decaro and her topic will be TO CONTACT CHAPTER PRESIDENTS, "History of the Baldwin City, Kansas, Area." 2020 is the Ses- PLEASE EMAIL THEM AT [email protected]. quicentennial for Baldwin City, but much of the celebration has Missouri River Outfitters been postponed to 2021. Independence, MO This spring and summer we have been making great progress President Anne Mallinson on the new footpath at the Black Jack Ruts. The ruts are located on the Ivan L. Boyd Memorial Prairie Preserve, which is owned MRO held a short ZOOM membership meeting online on by Douglas County. There are five prominent wagon ruts on the Wednesday, July 24, with information on login sent to members site that are up to four feet deep as they come down a hill. The via email before the meeting. site is 18 acres of which half is still unplowed native prairie. Dr. Roger Boyd has documented over 250 species of native plants The Treasurer’s report, minutes of the last meeting, updates on on the site during his tenure at Baker University. After the plans for the bicentennial, and information on the new website prairie is burned there are at least five other wagon tracks that were sent ahead of the meeting. Members voted on the chapter can be identified. The trail that is under construction is a collab- slate of officers as well as approved changes in the bylaws. orative effort organized by Dr. Boyd with the Douglas County Chapter of SFTA. Funding, advice, labor, or materials have been MRO has obtained ownership of the website provided by Douglas County Department of Public Works, www.3trailscorridor.com from the estate of the late Lou Austin. Kansas Department of Transportation, Kansas State Historical This outstanding website was developed by Lou to relate the Preservation Office, Douglas County Heritage Conservation information about our Trails sites along the 47-mile pedestrian Council (HCC), Freedom's Frontier National Heritage Area corridor that is under development in the greater Kansas City (FFNHA), Santa Fe Trail Association, and Cory Donnelly and area from the Upper Independence Landing on the Missouri Carole Wendler of the National Park Service office in Santa Fe, River to Gardner Junction in Kansas. The site is and will remain New Mexico. an important tool to educate those who travel and research the trails. Phase one of the project has been constructing a three-foot- Douglas County wide compacted dirt trail that is 1,250 feet long and loops around and through the major ruts. Once this is completed a Baldwin City, KS 350-foot-long compacted gravel trail five feet wide will connect President Roger Boyd the park loop road to the dirt trail. The gravel trail will be handi- cap-accessible and will have three interpretative signs developed

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 29 by NPS. The dirt trail is nearing completion at this time and 2020, at the Barton County Historical Society Museum, was the gravel trail should be in place by the end of the summer. canceled due to COVID-19. Our speaker, Jay Clark, founder [See Dave Kendall's drone video of the ruts at https://vimeo. and organizer of the Wichita Buffalo Soldiers, has agreed to com/418086098, "Black Jack Ruts: A New Access Trail Takes reschedule for next year. Shape."] Just because COVID-19 has put a damper on our programs The interpretative signs should be completed next spring, and doesn’t mean that Trail activities are not taking place! Rack a dedication ceremony will be held in June 2021. The Douglas cards describing the Quivira Chapter activities commemorat- County Chapter has received a $17,800 grant from HHC and ing the Santa Fe Trail 200th anniversary have been distributed a $3,000 grant from FFHA. Over 300 hours of volunteer labor to our area communities. In addition, the Quivira 200th An- have been contributed so far on the project. We look forward niversary website is active. The website lists Quivira Chapter to many visitors next summer. events and will also include participating community events and activities, as well as places to eat, go, see, and stay. Quivira Heart of the Flint Hills Chapter website santafetrail2021.com The Quivira Chapter Council Grove, KS Facebook page for the 200th anniversary is also active. Go to President Sharon Haun www.facebook.com/200thSantafetrailKansas/.

The COVID-19 has shut things down in the Flint Hills, The Quivira Chapter had reserved a booth at the Kansas State just like everywhere else. The SFT 200 committee work has Fair for both weekends. However, it sounds like the Fair may slowed down, but we had a recent meeting to discuss how we be canceled as the Fair Board has called another meeting due are going to adjust to the new world of face masks and social to the increasing numbers in cases. We will wait and see. distancing. Plans are still progressing for 2021. Our SFT sites Ralph’s Rut Interpretive Sign has been ordered from Pannier are open for outside and social distancing viewing, including Graphics. A delivery date for the sign has not been given but the wonderful new Rock Creek Crossing trail. We are seeing should probably be in the next two months. The cost is $1,184, many individual and small group SFT travelers. to be paid by the Quivira Chapter. The first half was due when the sign was ordered and has been submitted. Once we get the Stay safe and shut it down so we can enjoy the SFT 200 sign, we will work on getting it installed. events next year. New signs marking the trail will be installed by Barton County Cottonwood Crossing near Great Bend and the city of Ellinwood in the town of El- Hillsboro, KS linwood. SFTA President Larry Short helped coordinate the President Doug Sharp ordering of these signs. The signs were paid for by the National Park Service. Installation of these signs will help to further Our activities are at a standstill right now. However, recently mark the Santa Fe Trail. an area light plane pilot has flown and recorded his flight over the western Marion county trail at my request. We hope he Ken Embers and Britt Colle went out on a hot June 29 to will fly the entire Marion county trail in the not too distant locate one of the Turkey Creek tributary crossings on the Em- future. The video will make a great trail promotion piece for bers land southeast of McPherson. Ken would like to mark the trail enthusiast's gatherings. We hope to show the video at our crossing. At one time, Ken’s dad, Duane Embers, had kept the next chapter meeting, whenever that happens. area mowed and the crossing was visible. Now the trees and Quivira undergrowth have made the crossing hard to identify. More research is needed. McPherson, KS President Linda Colle On June 23rd Britt Colle met Rex Buchanan and Dave Ken- dall of Prairie Hollow Productions to help them tour some The Quivira Chapter program scheduled for Monday, July 27,

Dave Kendall toured with Joe Swanson driving the ATV and Britt Colle offering advice. Photos: Dave Kendall

30 Wagon Tracks August 2020 Quivira Chapter sites for Dave’s documentary on the Santa thing going in the fall. Fe Trail. Two sites were all they had time for in the Quivira Chapter as Rex and Dave stopped at Lost Spring on their Wagon Bed Spring way. You may have seen a segment of the Prairie Hollow Lost Lakin, KS Spring video posted on Facebook. The first stop in our area was President Linda Peters the Kaw Treaty Site, which of course we don’t know the exact Cimarron Cutoff location, just the general vicinity. Dave used his drone to record footage of the area while they discussed the site. Elkhart, KS President Jay Williams They moved on to the Little Arkansas Crossing area where they Bent’s Fort were fortunate to meet with Joe Swanson at Swanson’s Swales. Joe and his dog chauffeured the group around to all the sites— Lamar, CO Swanson Swales, Camp Grierson/Station Little Arkansas, the President Kevin Lindahl Stone Corral site, the former marker Cottonwood site and Fry Ruts. They also looked at possible locations for the source of the Are you longing to see your Santa Fe Trail friends and get out dolomite rock used in the construction of the Stone Corral. A on the Santa Fe Trail again? I know, the Bent’s Fort Chap- lot of Trail discussion occurred during their tour of the area. We ter members sure are! This has been such a crazy 2020. Who hope they will come back and tour more of our sites. would have known our planned treks and activities would have to be cancelled? Well, here is a bit of good news. As of today, Wet/Dry Routes our chapter event to be held at the historic Grand Theater in Great Bend, KS Rocky Ford August 8 has been approved. Even though we will President George Elmore be following the state and county health guidelines, it will be great to see everyone again—even if we will be doing safe social Hope that you are safe and doing well. This has been a dif- distancing. ficult time to hold our normal Wet/Dry chapter programs, and sadly we had to postpone the 2020 Trail Rendezvous. I have Also, as of today, our October chapter trek to Las Vegas, New been struggling with what to write during the COVID-19 Mexico, and the surrounding area is STILL ON. How about pandemic, now also as we watch the quickly-changing events that? This is going to be a fantastic weekend and lots of won- overshadowing the virus and shaping our nation’s history. We derful activities are planned, not to mention getting to lodge at do not want the events to divide us but unite us as we work the Historic Castenada Hotel and/or the Historic Plaza Hotel. together in our mission to preserve and promote the history of The itinerary and hotel rates can be found on the Santa Fe Trail the Santa Fe Trail. The trail’s history had tremendous cultural eblast and the chapter’s eblast. Though the Las Vegas weekend diversity with difficult times and loss of the traditional way of will be limited to chapter members, you are welcome to join us life for many. for the nominal fee of $15, our chapter membership dues.

We have the responsibility for honestly representing the Santa Many of our chapter members are involved in planning the Fe Trails history, including giving voice to all the people who 2021 Symposium to be held at Bent’s Old Fort. It has been used the trail and cultural perspectives that are not always well- interesting having our planning meetings via Zoom. It is always represented in history books. The trail had people in different fun to see committee members on the screen. We are very statuses in life from the wealthy to the poor trying to make thankful the Symposium wasn’t planned for this September. a living, different colors of skin, and different cultural back- Just a reminder that you can register for the 2021 Symposium grounds. The trail history includes brutality, unrest, injustices, as on the SFTA website via The Last Chance Store. well as spreading of diseases. It must have been a lot like today Corazon de los Caminos with the myriad of emotions and struggles with overwhelming feelings for everyone. Cimarron, NM President Doyle Daves As we study the trail, also consider the sweeping events taking place around us. We need to understand we are feeling and The year started off well and we planned an impressive series of sharing events that are difficult to talk about and, at times, to programs for 2020. Then, COVID-19 hit, our Governor took think about, just as the events around the trail were. We need action, and we have had to cancel all of our programs from to be proud of the rich trail history and not only study but tell March through September. We have made preliminary plans all the difficult aspects of the trail history. We must embrace related to the bicentennial of the Trail. We have committed to a this opportunity to be inclusive of all the stories of cultures program in Las Vegas for November 2021 to mark the meeting and aspects of all the people of the trail. As they found unity between William Becknell and Captain Pedro Gallegos that to survive the difficult years, we can learn from the past, to stay effectively began Trail traffic. In addition, we have contacted united, stay safe, stay strong, and let’s get through this together. officials in Raton, Clayton, Cimarron, and Wagon Mound The Wet/Dry Chapter is looking forward to starting our concerning the planning of SFT recognition events for 2021. educational and awe-inspiring programs experiences again in We had begun talks with the End of Trail Chapter about coor- October. dinating events in Las Vegas and Santa Fe. We anticipate that by fall we can resume planning. We look forward to an exciting Dodge City/Fort Dodge/Cimarron year along the Trail in 2021. Dodge City, KS End of the Trail President Bill Bunyan Santa Fe, NM Nothing happening here now. Hopefully we will get some- President Joy Poole

August 2020 Wagon Tracks 31 Santa Fe Trail Association 1046 Red Oaks NE Albuquerque, NM 87122 www.santafetrail.org

CHANGE SERVICE REQUESTED

Town of Westport

lithograph by Tom Phillips, 1970s, donated to SFTA by Jackson County Parks and Recreation

32 Wagon Tracks August 2020