International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019)

Index Sr. Title Authors Pg. No. no. Preface: International Research Conference 1 Editors -- on Innovations, Startups and Investments Health risks associated with the grinding J. M. Parmar, C.M. Patel, 2 1-5 process A.N. Shukla Calibration of Flex Sensor with Varied Vimalkumar A. Parmar, 3 Angles & Curvature Changes for Active 6-11 Kartik D. Kothari Rehabilitation Device Solar drying a viable tool for safety of Harshit P. Bhavsar, 4 12-18 Agriculture Produce: a Review Chetankumar M. Patel Performance analysis of biomass downdraft N. A. Kureshi, K. D. 5 19-23 gasification for different biomass feedstocks Kothari Hitesh P. Bohra, Dhaval 6 Lakh Seal Gun 24-29 A. Hudka, M. B. Vaghela Vinal G Virani, The State of Art in Boundary Layer Control 7 Ajitkumar N Shukla, 30-41 Over the Wind Turbine Blade Kartik D. Kothari Diagnosis of Fault in IEEE 14 Bus System Riaz Israni, Bharat 8 42-47 with Salient Pole Synchronous Generator Asodariya Business Model for Expansion of Electric Dhruv Jyotindrabhai Jani, 9 Vehicles and Sustainable Racing Culture in Ujwaldarshan, Sushmit 48-54 India Bafna, Kartik Jindal Development of Aluminium Based Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) using Amol S. Dayma, 10 55-61 Industrial and Agro Wastes as Chetankumar Patel Reinforcement-A Review Phytochemical Screening, Total Tannin Content and Antimicrobial Properties of V. B. Savalia, D.J. 11 62-68 Different Parts of Bombax Ceiba Linn. - A Pandya, N. R. Sheth Comparative Study Jayesh Dhalani, Bhushan Rapid Investigation of Sterols from 12 Chandegara, Vishal 69-72 Plumbago Zeylanica Stem Pathak A Review on Electrochromic Materials for Minal. A. Bhatt and 13 Smart Window Applications: Past, Present 73-78 Ashish R. Tanna and Future Methods of Measuring Intrinsic Foot Amit Sharma, Priyanshu 14 79-85 Muscle Strength:A Systemic Review V. Rathod Shivani Vyas, Priyanshu Designing And Testing Of The SNJP Rathod, Janvi Modh, 15 86-92 Behaviour Assessment Scale Nirali Koradia, Priyanka Jadeja A Review on Audience Behavior towards Nirav Mandavia, Nailesh 16 93-95 Movies Limbasiya Venture Capital Support for Research and A. A. Attarwala, C. S. 17 96-102 Innovation and Emerging Paradigms Balasubramaniam Funding Startup in India: Opportunity, Krishna Joshi, Chetna 18 103-109 Challenges and New Solutions Parmar Factors Affecting Creation of Campus Start- Sagar Tanna, Raashid 19 110-124 Ups: A Review of the Literature Saiyed

ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019)

Preface

On December 16th and17th 2019, RK University Rajkot organized ICOSTART 2019- a two-day international research conference and summit on Innovations, Startups and Investments with capacity building workshops by INTUIT and Ulster University, UK. Inspired by the vision of Shri. Khodidas bhai Patel, the founder and president of the university and actualizing his philosophy of industrialization, the KS Patel Centre for Entrepreneurship of RK University succeeded in bringing together researchers, innovators, startups and investors in an endeavour to precipitate a robust ecosystem and to put Rajkot on the global Innovation & Startup map.

The conference was co-organized along with Western Sydney University, Australia in partnership with International Centre for Technology and Entrepreneurship-iCreate and 100X VC- a SEBI monitored seed fund from Mumbai and was supported by Industries Commissionerate, Govt. of Gujarat, GUJCOST, SSIP- Govt. of Gujarat. Over 300 people participated in the conference. Besides India the conference attracted speakers and participants from Australia, Bulgaria, Philippines, Ireland, Sri Lanka and China. Sixteen best paper presentation awards were given away and four startups were adjudged best startups. The investors are now in talks with them for firming up the next steps. With participation ticker crossing 300 mark, we presume that the interest generated by this interdisciplinary event appears to be a good beginning.

Through this event RK University made a small contribution to realization of the goals of Startup India Policy, Govt. of India. The event would not have been possible without the involvement of management of RK University who actively led from the front especially Shri. Denish Patel -EVP- RKU and Shri. Mohit Patel, VP RKU, Dr. Mayank Pandya Director School of Science as well as faculty members and staff of various schools of the university and support from Industries Commissionerate, Govt. of Gujarat, Startup Gujarat Cell, SSIP- Govt. of Gujarat, GUJCOST- Govt. of Gujarat, GSBTM- Govt. of Gujarat, Western Sydney University- Australia, 100XVC- Mumbai, Zeolyt Ventures- Bengaluru and Inderscience Publishers.

The present volume of the conference proceedings has select full papers that were discussed in the conference and that went to a rigorous review process. We hope you find the published papers interesting and useful.

Dr. Raashid Saiyed Dr. Ashish Tanna Conference Chair Conference Convener ICOSTART 2019 ICOSTART 2019 Dean Head of Department Faculty of Doctoral Studies & Research School of Science RK University RK University

ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019)

Health risks associated with the grinding process †*J. M. PARMAR, †C. M. PATEL, ††A. N. SHUKLA †Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, RK University, Rajkot, INDIA ††PSIT-College of Engineering, Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow, INDIA *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The grinding process is a necessary finishing process in nearly all manufacturing units. It involves the use of abrasive material and cutting fluid but leads to many associated health risks arising due to the generation of dust and fumes at the workplace. This work reports the innovative way of labelling sustainable manufacturing by using the proxy indicator of associated health indicators of operator exposure to the grinding environment. Dust generated from the grinding process at the workplace mostly enters the lungs resulting in "dusty lung" thereby affecting the respiratory system. As a result, scar tissue formed in the inner surface of the lungs, contributing to severe chronic lung problems. The lung is not the only organ at risk, as few particles can get in the bloodstream and travel through the body to other organs such as the liver or kidney as well. This paper reports the analysis of a study done at Rajkot for a grinding shop using the Pulmonary

Function Test (PFT) and Peripheral Capillary Oxygen Saturation (SPO2). There is a clear link between duration of exposure to grinding environment and associated medical risk which begins as early as within the first 3 to 4 years without any significant external manifestation of signs. Considerable awareness programs as a start-up in all grinding units under health and manufacturing category needed. It will lead to an associated creation of value change marking the product as environmentally friendly. It shall be following sustainable manufacturing aspects of green manufacturing.

Keywords: Grinding Process, Health Risks, Pulmonary Function Test, Peripheral Capillary Oxygen Saturation

Introduction Grinding is the process of removing the metal using abrasives. The turning wheel bounded with abrasive particles behaves as multiple small cutting tools. Each particle cuts a small chip from the workpiece [1]. Grinding Processes are of two types (i) Dry Grinding and (ii) Wet Grinding. During the performance of the dry grinding process, the size of the material removed is too small, which enters the grinding operator's respiration. In the wet grinding process, cutting fluids used for a better-finished surface, but it produces haze, which is more hazardous for the grinding operator [2]. So, this study measures the risk associated with the grinding process on the health of the operators.

Cutting fluid Thermal damage occurs on the work surface in the grinding process due to heat generation. The cutting fluid used in the grinding zone to reduce the heat of production. The fluid reached this by lowering friction in the grinding area by its lubricating properties [3]. Also, it is useful to flush away chips during the process [4-6]. Cutting fluid is also known as metalworking fluid (MWF). The use of cutting fluids in the metal machining process provides, in addition to benefits, some negatives that are associated with air contamination of the work environment. Typical health risk experienced by the operators is respiratory. The operator is vulnerable to asthma, chronic bronchitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, cancer, and dermatitis [7].

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Hazards of Grinding Process Mainly four types of risk associated with the grinding process. 1) Noise, 2) Airborne particles, 3) Moving parts of handheld grinders and 4) Electricity [8]. This study mainly focusses on airborne particle and respiratory diseases. Airborne Particles: It can originate as dust from the metal grinding process. Some metal dust, such as aluminium, copper, are toxic and grinding discs can easily cause dust to enter the lungs causing short and long-term damage. Besides, it irritates the nose, throat and upper airways. Some particles can pass through the lungs depending on their size and type, damaging the lung tissue and causing serious health effects. These clouds of dust are invisible to the human eye which can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause chronic health problems that scare the lung tissue. This scare reduces the ability of oxygen to be transferred to the lungs [8].

Materials & Methods To perform this research author have taken ethical approval (RKU/SPT/2016/08/27, Dated 05/08/2016) from the ethics committee of the School of Physiotherapy, RK University (ECR/259/Indt/GJ/2016). Also, the School of Physiotherapy staff trained the author to perform this study. In this study, 100 subjects examined as per the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The consent of the organization was taken keeping the privacy of each subjects. Inclusion Criteria: 1. Subject work in grinding shop 2. Subject Age: 18 to 70 years 3. Gender: Male

4. The ratio of Forced Expiratory Volume in 1s to forced Vital Capacity (FEV1/FVC) > 70% predicted [2, 9]

Exclusion Criteria: 1. Smoking Habit 2. Asthma 3. Uncooperativeness during the performance [2, 9]

Spirometry is a tool to determine lung function. Peripheral capillary oxygen saturation (SPO2) determines the oxygen saturation in the blood.

Spirometry: Spirometry is an essential tool for measuring the level of lung function and response to treatment. It is useful for measuring occupational impact on the respiratory function of workers in various fields, such as agate grinding, welding, coal mining, chemicals, farming, etc. This test determines the main lung function parameter. It measures forced expiratory volume in 1s (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), the ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1s to forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) and peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) [2]. This performs by using pulmonary function test (PFT) apparatus. All subjects examined using the PFT (Model: RMS Helios 401, practical examination of lung function), weighing scale, measure tape, and SPO2 (Model: S Cure). The sterile mouthpiece placed in the subject's mouth to exhale and breathe normally during the PFT demonstration. They were then requested to put the mouthpiece in the mouth with the instrument and were asked to forcibly exhale to get a fair result of the test in at least three trials. The later subject requested to do slow manoeuvres.

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The entire trial done under the supervision of a trained technician. Each subject examined using the same instrument.

The values of FEV1, FVC, FEV1 / FVC, PEFR noted and analysed. At the same time, SPO2 measured to achieve oxygen saturation in the subjects' blood.

Fig. 1 Performance of PFT on a subject measuring health risk

Result & Discussion As there is no comparable study, so the result of grinding operators compared statistically to conclude the risk of grinding process on grinding operators.

Table 1 Age Division of Grinding Operators Particular Young Subjects Middle Age / Old Age Subjects Total Sequential Age, y 18 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 Subjects 51 31 14 3 1 100 Total 82 18 100

Table 1 shows the sequential of the age group in the study. This suggests that young subjects of 18 to 39 years of ages are 82 out of 100 subjects, while only 18 subjects are of middle age or old age, where there may be a chance of respiratory disease due to age itself.

Table 2 Lung Functions and Peripheral Capillary Oxygen Saturation Variables Variable Measured Range Acceptable Subjects

FEV1, L 1.59 – 4.15 95 FVC, L 1.59 – 4.59 12

FEV1/FVC, % 72.24 – 100 21 PEFR, L/min 110.4 – 645 47

SPO2, % 91 – 99 98

Table 2 shows the lung function and oxygen saturation of acceptable subjects. It shows that FEV1 found acceptable in only 95 subjects, while FVC found acceptable in 12 subjects. The joint effect is FEV1/FVC, which is the main factor to

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decide whether the disease is restrictive or obstructive, found satisfactory only in 21 subjects. On the other hand, PEFR found acceptable in 47 subjects. So, these results suggest that the subjects working in grinding shop facing a lot of health risk. No effect of SPO2 was found in almost all subjects.

Table 3: Experience of grinding Process Grinding Experience, y No. of Subjects ≥ 10 77 11 – 20 15 > 20 8

Table 3 shows that most of the subjects having less experience, i.e. less than ten years, while the average experience in years is 7.95. Majority of subjects’ lung functions are showing diminishing results, which is not a good sign. There are 15 subjects having expertise in the range of 11 to 20 years, while there are eight subjects who have more than twenty years of grinding experience.

Conclusion This study considers only airborne particles as a hazard of the grinding process. The three other risks i.e. noise, moving parts of hand-held grinders and electricity not considered as they are not as fatal as airborne particles. Also, they are not affecting the mass like airborne particles. This study concludes that forced expiratory volume in 1s (FEV1) is acceptable in 95 subjects, while forced vital capacity (FVC) is acceptable in only 12 subjects. The combined effect, which is the main criteria to decide respiratory decease is the ratio of forced expiratory volume in 1s to forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) is found acceptable in 21 subjects only. On the other hand, peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) found satisfactory in 47 subjects. There is no effect of peripheral capillary oxygen saturation (SPO2) as it found satisfactory in 98 subjects. The average age of the subjects is 30.52 years and majority 82 subjects are of less than 39 years old. Their average experience of the grinding process is 7.95 years, which is very low. So, there would be the hazardous effect of the grinding process on grinding operators’ health, as at a very young age, most of the subjects’ lung functions show a diminishing effect. This study can be further carried forward by limiting the grinding process and the material to be ground to know the exact impact of the grinding process on the health of the operators.

Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge the School of Physiotherapy for providing training using the instrument during the performance recording and support of the participants to complete the study.

References 1. K. Wegener, Grinding Machines, CIRP Encycl. Prod. Eng., 1–12 (2015). 2. J. Parmar, C. Patel, A. Shukla, Measuring the effect of exposure to grinding environment using pulmonary functions, Int. J. COMADEM, 22(4) (2019) 15-20. 3. R. A. Irani, R. J. Bauer, A. Warkentin, A review of cutting fluid application in the grinding process, Int. J. Machine Tools & Manufacture, 45 (2005) 1696-1705. 4. S. Ebbrell, N.H. Woolley, Y.D. Tridimas, D.R. Allanson, W.B. Rowe, Effects of cutting fluid application methods on the grinding process, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 40 (2) (2000) 209–223. 5. C.Y. Wang, X. Wei, Z.C. Pan, Y.X. Song, Effects of surfactant in stone machining, Key Engineering Materials 250 (2003) 194–199.

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6. J.A. Webster, C. Cui, Flow rate and jet velocity determination for design of a grinding cooling system, Technical Papers Supplement of the First International Machining and Grinding Conference, Dearborn, Michigan, (1995). 7. M. Schwarz, M. Dado, R. Hnilica, D. Veverkova, Environmental and health aspects of metalworking fluid use, Pol. J. Environ. Stud., 24(1) (2015), 37-45. 8. S. Boyle, S. Kelsey, Hazards of Grinding, S. Australia – Work Cover Corporation (1997). 9. J. M. Parmar, A. N. Shukla, Initial sample study on effect of grinding process on health of grinding operator using pulmonary function test & pulse oximeter, Proceedings of International Conference on Research & Entrepreneurship, Rajkot, India, 1469-1475 (2016).

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Calibration of Flex Sensor with Varied Angles & Curvature Changes for Active Rehabilitation Device †*Vimalkumar A. Parmar, †Kartik D. Kothari †Department of Mechanical Engineering, RK University-Rajkot, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The flex sensor is a sensor that gives sensory feedback in a radial direction. It has a very unique property of changing resistance while bending. It can be used vastly for medical purposes for biomedical devices. further, it has many advantages like a low price, long life, and robustness. Even after this many unique features, flex sensors sometimes represent lower sensitivity at small bending angles and non-uniform response. Furthermore, without an accidental avoidable algorithm, it is quite difficult to determine the exact data. The flex sensor needs to be calibrated carefully with various positions and varied angles. By doing this the perfect data acquisition can be done. Furthermore, the system can be used in several medical devices for active and passive rehabilitation. This paper focuses on the calibration of flex sensors to improve sensitivity, accuracy, and linearity to determine joint angles with better precision. For successful calibration of the sensors, a graphical model of various bend angles has been used to check the radial precision of flex sensors. The accumulated data will be checked graphically and electronically. Electrotonic data will be gathered by using the Arduino Board and PLX Daq software will be used to extract the data in the excel format. From the commercialization of flex sensors, they have been many kinds of research for small joints such as fingers or knee. With the proper calibration of flex sensor rehabilitation monitoring, the radius of curvature and sensory response can be analyzed accurately. Finally, a proper calibration process based on the inverse method of sensor characteristics will be used. That can be further used for fast calibration procedures and different joint angles. By accurate calibration, the perfect data acquisition can be done. Further, the system can also be used in several medical devices for active and passive rehabilitation.

Keywords: Flex Sensors, Active and passive rehabilitation, Sensory feedback

Introduction A patient suffering from the stroke disability will have a limited ability of function, unlike the normal one. A stroke suffering person has very limited grasping capacity due to the weakness and numbness of the nerves. The upper extremity fingers should be treated with rehabilitation exercises to refresh the functions required. The rehabilitation exercise therapy develops the elasticity of the various joint of the fingers. Active rehabilitation devices can measure all five fingers movement data at a time and it can be stored with respect to time for better use when needed. With inward and outward movement and inclination at various angles, all the data of the fingers can be easily recorded. During gripping any object generally, humans have two constraint modes: 1. Intra restriction and 2. Inter restriction, Due to the Complexity of the device module and physical restrictions between the links and various joints of the upper extremity. The inter mode constraint relates with the restrictions with the joints of the hand fingers, that creates upper extremity with a limited range of motion, and the intra constraint mode relates with the combined restrictions developed by the hand muscles, joints and the tendons that create the connected motion that develops by the joint ligaments and finger joints within the all fingers accept index finger. It’s tough to precisely inspect and record the perfect motion of the hand fingers while gripping any object. Thus, to precisely calculate and record the movement of the individual finger and the connected joint relation between the fingers while grasping is of complex integrity for the record of a human hand gripping record. Human upper extremity has a very complicated mechanism

6| ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) that combines Various Degree of freedoms, Multiple joints, and various bones and various complex gripping tasks can be completed by using the human hand. The human hand has a great advantage in the research of the gripping task. The overall mechanism description of upper extremity requires a procession of a variety of precise data that can result in a big value of determination, Thus Usually it simplified the task of the upper extremity that can result in developing that speed of the procession. For the simplification of the upper extremity model, parts with minimum force on the motion of the hand fingers that ca be easily avoided. To visualize the human hand and for successful analysis of the upper extremity flex, a sensor-based measuring system has been developed. The measuring system includes Arduino software that plots the finger movement graph and mathematical data that can be used for the characteristic of the hand fingers.

Fig. 1 Human Hand Structure

Fig. 2 Flex Sensor at 10 Degree Fig. 3 Flex Sensor at 48 Degree

Flex Sensor-based Finger measuring device Flex sensor-based measurement device is made from combining a computer system, Data glove, Flex sensor, and Arduino-UNO software. The synthetic glove has a flex sensor inserted in each finger with a cover of synthetic tape for safety purposes. The device can measure finger joint angles of the human hand by keeping the finger at a particular angle for the short span of the time. The data glove uses flex sensor units to measure joint angles of a hand by sticking one sensor unit on the span of a finger, and each sensor unit consists of a magnetic strip that collects the data radially from each point from the fingers. BY using the computer system visual projection, Receiving and processing of the actuation data can be recorded perfectly. The system is connected with the Arduino-Uno software that interacts with the flex sensors through Arduino Kit. Using the prescribed system each finger joint angles can be measured perfectly while it is moving in any direction. The mathematical data was recorded in the excel form by using the PLX-Daq software. The graphical and mathematical data has been validated to cross-check the finger movement data. Finally, the correct data will be transferred further to create a combined document for finger actuation.

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Methodology To measure the motion of the fingers there are various methods available, the existing methods can determine the flexibility of the finger. Majority of the systems includes different sensors and software module to collect the data. Certain systems measure the force an determine the value of the force as feedback, in actual the existing methods could not measure the flexion data properly and also the systems are too bulky that cannot be easily movable. In the modification of the existing systems available, the Selected system contains the exact ciliation of the flex sensor that was missing in the previous system.

Fig. 4 Process Flowchart

As shown in fig.4 Various flex sensors were combined by using encoders, resistors and electrical modules. Afterword sensors have been connected with the Arduino board final the system as compiled with the synthetic glove to make the system portable.

Fig. 5 System Block Diagram

As shown in fig. 5 Flex sensor-based devices can measure the data in active mode and passive mode. In the case of active mode, the direct connection between the human hand fingers and the flex sensor provides sensory signals that provide a certain value in radial movement. By converting this radial value in angular motion perfect flexion is determined. Further, in the case of the passive mode of rehabilitation, actuators can be used such that the actuation can be measured and can be reflected for the patient’s fingers.

Fig. 6 Glove for flex sensor

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Material Flex sensor used in the system is a flexible sensor that is 5mm wide and about 50 mm long. The application of this type of variable sensor can be in the flexion measuring o the upper extremity hand fingers, Augmented reality, image processing, and VR based modules. This model is created by the synthetic glove and the sensor has been included in the upper layer of each finger of the synthetic glove. The synthetic glove used in the system is 10 mm wide and 70 mm long. And the sensor is kept internally in the layer of the fingers. Also, the layer between the sensor and fingers has been kept to provide additional safety from the electrical parts in the case of accidental high voltage.

Fig. 7 Flex Sensor

As shown in the fig. 7 flex sensor includes a magnetic strip on the span o the sensor. That individual magnetic strip converts radial data and transfers the same by the Arduino module to the software. And data can be accumulated by using the graphical form by using serial plotter mode. General procedure Initially, various subjects were instructed to perform cetin gasping activities and gripping exercises such that the ability of an individual can be checked. After the completion of the predefined task two subjects were checked and the flex sensor-based device was given to individual subjects. Each subject started with the normal angle of flexion from the hand fingers. Then gradually angle of inclination was increased and each subject tied to perform the same. Some subjects avoided performing the high-intensity flexion movement. While some of the subjects performed all the tasks very easily. After the completion of the process, the overall data and progression were recorded by using graphical data and mathematical models. Afterward, some basic exercises were given as a self-rehabilitation program for all the subjects. The self-rehabilitation protocol was created by including home-based objects and general day to day tasks than any subject can perform repeatedly at home without any help from the therapist. After completion of the self-rehabilitation program, subjects were again instructed to perform the flexion movement. And data was recorded by using the flex sensor-based measuring device as shown in fig 8. Finally, the improvement was plotted and the data was validated by using pre data and post data.

Fig. 8 Arduino-UNO Software

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Results and Discussion The target of the proposed project was to calibrate the flex sensor data with pre-data and post data of the subjects that have been carried out while performing various flexion tasks. From the accumulated data it is very clear that the sensor has certain limitations due to the shape of the magnetic chip.

Table. 1 Resistance Values at various angles of finger

As well as the synthetic material used on the chip deflects the sensor that sometimes results in the decrement of the sensory data. And also, the sensory signals depend on the position of the fingers that how the subject is performing the flexion movements. From the results carried out from the Arduino software, it is quite clear that the measuring device needs to be created with a supporting system and glove needs to be modified for betterment o the overall process of the measuring system.

Conclusion Concerning the project work completed, The flexion values of the upper extremity hand finger motion have been collected quite precisely and accurately or individual subjects hand fingers. The flexion value from the sensor resistance value is about 13.4K ohm to 21.23Ohm. The uniform change in the hand fingers movement can be plotted in the mathematical and the graphical form. The mathematical data collected can be imported easily in the MS excel by using PLX Daq and the data can be useful for the further rehabilitation process.

Acknowledgments I am very much thankful to Dr. Chetankumar Patel for providing me the necessary support during my research work. I would also like to thank Mr. Vinal Virani for helping me in the process o calibration module of the flex sensors.

References 1. Laver K, George S, Ratcliffe J, Crotty M., Australian Occupational Therapy Journal,58 (2011) 2. P. Joshi, S. Gupta, International Journal of Scientific Research in Computer Science and Engineering, Vol.4, Issue.2, pp.10-14, (2016) 3. Donnan GA, Fisher M, Macleod M, Davis SM. Stroke. The Lancet, 371:1612–1623, (2008) 4. M. Bergamasco, B. Allotta, L. Bosio, L. Ferretti, G. Parrini, G. Prisco, F. Salsedo, and G. Sartini, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robot. Autom., vol. 2, pp. 1449–1454, (1994) 5. R. Zade, N. Khadgi, M. Kasbe, T. Mujawar, International Journal of Scientific Research in Network Security and Communication, Vol.6, Issue.6, pp.5-9, (2018) 6. M. Mihelj, T. Nef, and R. Reiner, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automat., Roma, Italy, pp. 4120-4125 (2007) 7. Y. Yong, W. Lan, T. Jie, and Z. Lixun, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Biomimetics, pp. 914-918, (2006) 8. https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/flex-sensor-hookup-guide/all 9. https://store.arduino.cc/usa/arduino-starter-kit 10. http://www.stroke.org.uk/information/index.html], 07 2007. 11. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4688009/

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12. https://synergypublishers.com/journal-of-rehabilitation-robotics/ 13. https://www.arduino.cc/en/main/software 14. https://www.choosebetterwindows.com/windows/advancement-inglass-technology 15. https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/pcb-basics/all

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Solar drying a viable tool for safety of Agriculture Produce: A Review †*††HARSHIT P. BHAVSAR, †CHETANKUMAR M. PATEL †Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, RK University, Rajkot, India ††Department of Mechanical Engineering, SAL College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract From various applications of solar energy solar drying of agricultural products and food is one of the old methods. In different countries Fatalities of fruits and vegetables during their drying are appraised to be less than 40% of production. Mechanical process dryer required energies which are limited to supply in future so the solar drying is the alternate of this with low cost and zero pollution. There are various problems occurs in traditional drying process like dust, insects, birds, small animal and bacterial or fungi infection as food remain open in traditional drying. Properly Designed & Manufactured low cost Solar Dryer are the best alternating to reduce the harvesting losses. Different types of solar dryer like direct, indirect with forced or natural convection are available according to efficiency, side and quality. A heat storage material is attached with the solar dryer to use the solar energy during night or low solar light which reject the use of extra attachment for heat storage. Recently new heat storage material discovered which used to maintain the constant drying process.

Key words: open sun-drying, mechanical Drying, moisture, food safety, cabinet dryer

Introduction To keep the various fruits and vegetables fresh without deterioration good Preservation is very important. Solar drying is to remove moisture product to manage the selected moisture content. Food drying is oldest methods we are following to store the product for long time and maintain the quality of food by removing moisture. Open sun drying is used in most countries usually to keep various agricultural products (Ex. Fruits, vegetables) Dr Pangavhane [4] studied the effect of drying in different condition, related to contamination by dust, bacteria, fungi and animal, birds. Solar dryer develops the quality of dried product and cut the crop loss. Thermal drying having concept of Energy transfer from surrounding atmosphere to dryer inside and evaporate the moisture from food and by the effect of energy moisture from inner part of food moves to solid surface and start evaporating. Raj Kumar P, Hale DV, Tiwari GN [6-8] have studied solar drying due to the heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation and this heat removes the moisture from food. Fudholi [9] acknowledged drying process (I) moisture removed from food in vapor from by high temperature air, flow of air and inside pressure related to dryer area. (II) Due to the internal pressure, air flow rate and physical solid structure moisture is transferred to product surface. Drying process depends on following parameters as below: • Physical structures of dryer • Drying air temperature and relative humidity • Solar isolation • Airflow rate • Solar isolation • Tray area and number of trays • Rehydration capacity • Types of Moisture Content

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The way by which energy used for drying process is as following four ways: (1) Natural dryers: material comes in direct contact of solar radiation. It’s an open process (2) Direct solar dryers: in close chamber material absorb the heat and then remove the moisture with high temperature (3) indirect solar dryers: collector collects the heat and transfer the heat to material in indirect way (4) Mixed-type solar dryers: closed chamber drying with combination of direct and indirect drying.

Advantages of solar dryer (1) Product can Protected from fungi, dust and insects. (2) Prevention of food from spoiling it. (3) Pollution free process by using Renewable energy source (4) Addition of heat storage material continue the drying process 24hr (5) Moisture removal & drying is high then the natural sun drying.

Agricultural Products Drying Solar dryer is a process in which due to high temperature air moisture from the product is removed with the mass transfer of product. Solar dryer reduces the relative humidity of air and increase the moisture removal rate from product by aggregate vapor pressure. High temperature air removes the moisture from air with proper air flow rate. Principle of solar drying process is shown in figure.

Fig. 1 Food drying

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Fig. 2 Grouping of Solar Dryer

Preceding Research Done on Solar Dryers  Direct solar dryers Direct solar drying is the normal process of drying the products. Product is directly open in atmosphere for drying. Direct drying needs more time to remove the moisture from product. For the open direct sun drying platform made of concrete of metallic plate. This type of drying method is useful for rice, grain and turmeric. Material is led on open- air floor for 10, 15 or 30 days. It is simple method of product drying. Fudholi et al. [9] revised solar dryer which in square shape and made from wood and metal structure. From wood it is easy to prepare dryer with different dimensions. Polythene sheet was used to shelter top surface of dryer. Polythene sheet was Transparent. Air holes were used in different sides for more air flow. Okonkwo [11] worked on passive solar drying system with Dimensions of drying chambers were 67cm x110cm x 21 cm. Pebble bed heat storage was used for heat storage. 71°C was Maximum absorber temperature during Evaluation of dryer. Temperature of chamber and Heat storage temperature was noted around 55°C. During that time ambient temperature was 34°C.

Fig. 3 Direct Solar Dryer

Gbaha [12] tested direct solar. It is mainly used for drying mangoes, bananas, and cassava. Direct Natural Convection solar dryer was developed for Farmers. Likened to open sun drying the efficiency of solar dryer was found higher.

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Singh et al. [13] domestic natural solar dryer reviewed. To provide air circulation in dryer with maximum holes with different small area. As a glazing on top of dryer transparent window glass was placed. Thermocoal type sheet was used as insulator in solar dryer. Mursalim [14] has evaluated and modified the design of natural convection cabinet solar dryer. Transparent cover was used at top and saw dust was used as an insulating material. 12 holes were provided at bottom of plate for Air circulation. Walls of drying chamber were prepared from plywood with rectangular shape.

 Indirect Solar Drying Indirect solar drying is improved drying technique of product drying. It is more capable process then other drying process. Bolaji [27] has used box type absorber collector for indirect solar drying. Black absorber plate, was inclined at angle of 20°. The maximum efficiency got in box type absorber system is between 60-65%. Average temperatures inside the collector chamber is 64°C and in drying chamber 57°C. Madhlopa [16] has prepared a solar dryer which works on a principle of psychometric and had a composite material absorber system. Used mangoes slices evaluate the performance of solar dryer. During noon hour’s rise in the temperature of drying air was up to 40°C.

Fig. 4 Indirect Solar Dryer

Sharma et al. [17] analyze a natural convection solar dryer based on multi stacked. Simple solar dryer made in square shape of two part from wooden block. Product placed on movable tray for drying process. Trays made from metallic wire. Analysis of dryer done by both the natural and forced convection Karim and Hawlader [18] done research on the flat-plate collectors. Collector structured with V Groove and no of fins. Output directs that the V-groove collector having higher efficiency than flat-plate collector. Efficiency of collector improved by providing double pass. Karsli [19] studied the performance of flat plate collector with heater. Collector with tubes and angle of 70 degrees. The results open that the efficiency depends on the intensity solar radiation and the structure of solar air collectors

 Mixed Mode Solar Drying It’s a close chamber drying method in which both direct and indirect drying done simultaneously. This drying system provides more drying. Bolaji and Olalusi [27] design and developed a mix mode solar dryer for food Preservation. They proved that within 15 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India

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3hr after 12.00 Noon time temperature inside drying box rise up to 72%. In this system drying rate and system efficiency were about 0.62kg/hr and 58%.

Fig. 5 Mix mode solar dryer

Forson et al. [30] designed a mixed-mode natural convection solar dryer. Which requires structure of product and atmospheric condition of crop and based on this shows the drying results. Shows that mix mode dryer is also very effective than natural traditional drying. Singh et al. [31] developed a natural convection solar dryer. A multiple shelf and having in-between heating, direct/indirect and portable solar dryer. It’s having main components, multiple rack, trays and glazing plate.

 Solar dryers with heat storage media Tiwari et al. [21] reviewed solar dryer which also used as water heater. Rock based storage used for energy storage. This storage system reduced the drying time. In /out Energy balance equation used with mathematical model for energy analysis. Bal et al. [23] has done a review of the solar drying systems with different parameters. Inclusion of PCM and without PCM for food – product drying. El-Sebaii et al. [24] fabricated solar dryer used for Grape drying. This was natural convection and indirect mode solar dryer. Heat storage done by using Sand. Different parameter of drying like moisture removal, relative humidity, rehydration capacity, temperature, flow rate, physical structure of product measured. Shanmugam and Natarajam [26] developed desiccant integrated solar dryer with forced convection. Dryer works during day time and night time also. By heated air more than 50% moisture was removed. Rest of moisture removed by desiccant process.

Conclusion Drying of Agricultural product is the main application of solar energy. Losses occurred in various Agricultural product in all the countries is up to 40%. Among all the types of different dryers indirect mode solar dryer having higher efficiency. Improvement and some design correction could give to healthier output of the drying system. Different heat storage material and phase change material are available which make the use of solar dryer during the night time. So, by using this material we can continue drying process for whole day. Now, the new Phase change material should be prepared with more heat storage capacity. Do Computer analysis and simulation also which provides the detailed report of efficiency of solar dryer with or without heat backup.

References 1. Mujumdar, A. S. An overview of innovation in industrial drying: Current status and research & development 16 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India

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essentials. Transport in Porous Media, p.3-18, 2007. 2. Zhang, F., M Mujumdar, A.S. Drying characteristics and quality of restructured wild cabbage Chips processed using different drying methods. Drying Technology, P.682- 688, 2011. 3. Can A. Drying kinetics of pumpkin seeds. 2000. International Journal of Energy Research; P. 65–75. 4. Sawheny RL, Sarsavadia PN. Design, development and performance Testing of a new natural Convection solar dryer. Energy; 27:579–90, 2002. 5. Yaldiz O, Erteken C, Uzun HI, Mathematical modeling of thin layer solar drying of Sultana grapes. Energy; 26:457–65, 2001. 6. Rajkumar P, Drying kinetics of tomato slices in vacuum assisted solar and open sun Drying methods. Dry Technol 25: 1349-1357, 2007. 7. Barnwal P, Tiwari G N, Grape drying by using hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (pv/t) Greenhouse dryer: an experimental study. Solar Energy 82: 1131-1144, 2008. 8. Chen HH, Hernandez CE, Huang TC, A study of the drying effect on lemon slices Using a closed-type solar dryer. Solar Energ 78: 97-103, 2005. 9. Fudholi A, Sopian K, Ruslan MH, Alghoul MA, Sulaiman MY. Review of solar dryers for Agricultural and marine products. Renewable and Sustainable EnergyReviews; 14:130, 2010.

10. Mojola O. Solar crop drying in a low humidity environment. International Journal of Energy Research 11(3):333–42, 1987. 11. W. I. Okonkwo and Okoye, E. C. Performance evaluation of a pebble bed solar crop dryer. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 2005. 12. Gbaha P, Andoh HY, Saraka J K, Experimental investigation of a solar dryer with natural convective heat flow. Renewable Energy, 29- 32:1817, 2007. 13. Singh P.P, Singh S, Dhaliwal S.S. Multi-shelf domestic solar dryer. Energy Conversion & Management; 47:1799–815, 2006. 14. Mursalim, Supratomo, Dewi Y.S. Drying of cashew nut in shell using solar dryer Science & Technology; 3(2):25–33, 2002. 15. Bolaji B.O. Development and performance evaluation of box-type absorber solar air Collector for crop drying. Journal of Food Technology; V3, I4:515–600, 2005. 16. Madhlopa A, Jones SA, Saka J.D.K. A solar air heater with composite-absorber systems for food dehydration. Renewable Energy; 27:27–37, 2002. 17. Sharma VK, Colangelo A, Spagna G. Experimental investigation of different solar dryers Suitable for fruit and vegetable drying. Renewable Energy;6(4):413–24, 1995. 18. Karim MA, Hawlader MNA. Development of solar air collectors for drying applications. Energy Conversion & Management 2004; 45:329–44, 2006. 19. Karsli S. Performance analysis of new-design solar air collectors for drying applications. Renewable Energy; 32:1645–60, 2007. 20. Sarsilmaz C, Yildiz C, Pehlivan D. Drying of apricots in a rotary column cylindrical dryer supported with solar energy. Renewable Energy; 21:117–27, 2000. 21. Tiwari GN, Bhatia PS, Singih AK, Goyal RK. Methodical studies on crop drying cum water heating system in Energy Conversion & Management; 38(8):751–9, 1997. 22. Jain D A. Modeling the system performance of multi-tray crop drying using an inclined Multi- pass solar air heater with in-built thermal storage. Journal of Food Engineering. 71:44, 2005. 23. Bal LM, Satya S, Naik SN. Review solar dryers with latent heat storage systems for Agricultural products. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews; 15:876–80, 2011. 24. El-Sebaii AA, Aboul-Enein S, Ramadan MRI, El-Gohary HG. Experimental Investigation of an indirect type natural convection solar dryer. Energy Conversion & Management; 43:2251–66, 2003. 17 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India

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25. S. Enibe. Performance of natural circulation solar air heating system with phase Change material energy storage. Renewable Energy; 27: 69–86, 2002. 26. Natarajam E, Shanmugam. Experimental study of regenerative desiccant integrated Solar dryer with and without reflective mirror. Applied Thermal Engineering; 27:1543–51. 2007. 27. Bolaji B.O, Olalusi A.P. Performance evaluation of a mixed-mode solar dryer. AU Journal of Technology; 11(4):225–31, 2008. 28. Tripathy PP, Kumar S. temperature reliant drying parameters for Potato cylinders and Slices in solar drying. Energy Conversion and Management; 49:2941–8, 2008. 29. Simate I.N. Optimization of mixed-mode and indirect-mode natural convection solar dryers. Renewable Energy; 28:435–53, 2003. 30. Forson F K, Nazha M A, Akuffo FO, Rajakaruna H. Design of natural Convection mixed-mode solar crop dryers: application of principles and rules of thumb. Renewable Energy; 32:2306–19, 2007. 31. Singh S, Singh P.P, Dhaliwal S.S. Multi-shelf portable solar dryer. Renewable Energy; 29:753–65, 2004. 32. J. C. Ehiem, S.V. Irtwange and S. E. Obetta. Design and Development of an Industrial Fruit and Vegetable Dryer; Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Agriculture, Umudike. Nigeria, August, 2009.

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Performance analysis of biomass downdraft gasification for different biomass feedstocks †*N. A. KURESHI, †K. D. KOTHARI †School of Engineering, RK University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Presently, various forms of biomass are available and exist in large quantities with low-cost availability in many areas of Gujarat. Biomass gasification is a thermochemical process of converting waste biomass into synthesis gas, a mixture of CO and H2. The most common worldwide downdraft gasifier is used for thermal applications and power generation, wherein the air is used as a gasifying medium. The paper describes the experimentation with a newly designed and developed downdraft gasifier. The waste material like cotton stalk, ground nutshell, sugarcane bagasse, and coconut shell waste are used as biomass for the generation of synthetic gas. The major objective of this study is to have a better understanding of the effect of different biomass feedstock on the synthetic gas composition from a downdraft gasifier. The Proximity analysis has been done for four different biomass feedstocks used in the research work. Investigation results are utilized in studying the fuel properties of different biomass feedstocks and its gasification feasibility for downdraft biomass gasifier. The calorific value of four biomass found for the Cotton stalk, groundnut shell, Sugarcane bagasse & Coconut shells were 4700 Kcal/kg, 4100 Kcal/kg, 3500 Kcal/kg and 4400 Kcal/kg respectively. Results comparison for all the four biomass waste has been expressed in terms of synthetic gas composition. Derived results show the composition by volume of CO and H2 for cotton stalk as 17.62% and 22.16%, for groundnut shell as 13.5% and 10.3%, for Sugarcane bagasse as 11.31% and 9.81% and coconut shell as 21.22 % and 21.2 %.

Keywords: Waste energy, Biomass analysis, Calorific value, Gas analysis

Introduction Consumption of fossil fuels is the source of environmental issues to a large extent. Due to the reduction of Conventional sources and the increasing demand for fuels, it is important to develop renewable resources for the production of energy security fuels and chemicals. Bio-based materials, including wood pellets and biomass, are among the most promising sustainable sources of energy to replace expensive fossil fuels that disrupt our environment and global climate. As one of the energy resources for the development of advanced biofuels, bio- based materials were introduced. Advanced biofuels from biomass feedstock such as agriculture, industrial and urban waste, each of which has a biological basis for the production of bio energy [1]. Biomass gasification, the complete conversion of biomass into a synthetic fuel by heating it with a gasification medium such as air, oxygen or steam, rapidly becomes the most promising method for generating electricity [2]. Gasification is a partial oxidation method for converting carbonaceous materials into a mixture of primarily H2 and CO (synthetic gas) with small amounts of CH4, CO2, N2, char, ash, tar, oils in a temperature range 973 and 1773 K [3]. In this test, a downdraft gasifier is preferred as it is known to produce high-quality synthetic gas with low tar content (0.015–3 g/Nm3) in the gas stream compared to an updraft gasifier (30–150 g/Nm3) [4]. Designed and manufactured a throat less downdraft gasifier and tested the effect of the equivalence ratio on the gasifier output fed by rice husk and rice husk-sawdust mixture. The gasifier's peak gross heating value was 3.21 MJ/Nm3 and 76.90 % for rice husk pyrolysis at an equivalence ratio of 0.20. The values were 2.18 MJ/Nm3 and 58.09% for blend gasification at an equivalence ratio of 0.15. Only limited works on wood sawdust gasification have been published due to the difficulty in processing producer gas using downdraft gasifiers. The pine sawdust was developed with an open-top throat less downdraft

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gasifier. Channeling and bridging during the gasification of the sawdust were considered as major problems. To solve the channeling and bridging issues, the sawdust was pelletized before being used as a feedstock for the downdraft gasifiers. However, the use of a pelletized feedstock, such as rice husk and sawdust, required additional processing costs for pelletizing biomass of low density [5]. The operation of a 30 cm diameter and 140 cm height downdraft gasifier using rice hulls as a source. Used feeding rates of 1.3-5.1 kg h-1 and rates of airflow 2.0-4.44 m3h- 1, corresponding to 26-55% of the stoichiometric amount needed for the complete process of combustion. It was found that the maximum temperature reached is between 570ºC and 820ºC. The peak yield of fuel constituents in the producer gas was reached at an AF ratio of 55% of that of the stoichiometric event. The gas obtained had a composition of 13.67% CO, 5.13% H2 and 2.42% CH4 [6].

Materials and Methods Proximate analysis was performed and Materials including locally available Cotton stalk, groundnut shell, Sugarcane bagasse & Coconut shells were manually collected from the Gujarat region. Selected biomass i.e. Cotton stalk, groundnut shell, Sugarcane bagasse & Coconut shells were converted into powder form. Pass this powder from 210 microns (70 meshes) sieve and collect this powder for further process. Take a 1-1.5gm sample of different samples of biomass for proximate analysis. Proximate Analysis The proximate analysis was performed using the following standard procedure: Moisture Content The biomass moisture content was measured using a dry oven process. The specimen with the known weight was initially held at + 108ºC in the oven until the constant weight was reached. The dry test of the oven was then calculated (ASTM D-3173). The sample's moisture content was measured using the following formula.

X2−X3 Moisture content (% wb) = * 100 1 X2−X1

Volatile Matter The dried specimen left in the crucible was covered with a lid and put in a muffle furnace that was held for 7 minutes at 900 ± 10 ºC (ASTM D-3175). The crucible was first cooled in the air, then inside the desiccators, and again measured. Percentage-based weight loss was reported as a volatile matter.

Y2−Y3 Volatile Matter (% wb) = * 100 2 Y2−Y1

Ash Content The residual sample in the crucible was heated for a half hour (ASTM D-3174) without a lid in a muffle furnace at 800ºC+10ºC. The crucible was then removed, then cooled in the air, then desiccated and measured. There was repeated heating, cooling and weighing until a constant weight was obtained. The ash was recorded as a percentage of the residue.

Z3−Z1 Ash Content (% wb) = * 100 3 Z2−Z1

Fixed Carbon Using the mass balance for the biomass test, the fixed carbon content was measured. Fixed Carbon (%) = 100 - % of (MC + VM +AC) 4

Where, FC= Fixed carbon, (%) MC= Moisture content, (%) VM= Volatile matter, (%) AC= Ash content, (%)

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Calorific Value of Biomass It's determined by a bomb calorimeter. A sample of air-dried biomass with a known mass is burnt in an atmosphere of oxygen in a stainless steel high-pressure vessel, known as a bomb. The bomb is then placed in a calorimeter outer vessel containing a known amount of water with a known temperature. The resulting heat of combustion is measured from the accurate measurement of the rise in the temperature of water in the calorimeter.

Calorific Value = (ퟐퟔퟎퟎ ∗ 푰풏풄풓풆풂풔풆풕풆풎풑풆풓풂풕풖풓풆) − ퟑퟎ

sample weight 5

Table 1 Calculated proximate analysis of selected biomass Sr. Biomass sample Average Average Average Ash Average Fixed Average No Moisture Volatile Matter Content (%) Carbon(%) Calorific Content (%) (%) Value Kcal/ Kg

1 Cotton stalk 11.41 70.56 0.10 17.93 3800 2 Groundnut shell 6.37 67.94 5.8 19.88 4100 3 Sugarcane bagasse 30.97 47.26 7.51 14.26 3500 4 Coconut shells 8.49 69.36 0.52 21.63 4400

The moisture content of these selected non-woody biomass products, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed carbon are measured as shown in table 1. The moisture content of Cotton stalk, groundnut shell, Sugarcane bagasse & Coconut shells were found to be 11.41%,6.37%,30.97%, and 8.49% respectively. Moisture content was found more in Sugarcane bagasse. The presence of moisture in the biomass affects product gas calorific value, heat input, gasifier performance and CO, H2 and CO2 concentration. The volatile matter of Cotton stalk, groundnut shell, Sugarcane bagasse & Coconut shells were found to be 70.56%,67.94%,47.26%, and 69.36%. The volatile matter is found more in Cotton stalk. The ash content in dry of a Cotton stalk, groundnut shell, Sugarcane bagasse & Coconut shells were found 0.10%,5.8%,7.51%, and 0.52% respectively. It was observed that fixed carbon was found highest in Sugarcane bagasse. The calorific value of Cotton stalk, groundnut shell, Sugarcane bagasse & Coconut shells were found to be 3800 Kcal/ Kg,4100 Kcal/ Kg,3500 Kcal/ Kg and 4400 Kcal/ Kg respectively. The cotton stalk calorific value was found to be 4400 Kcal/ Kg indicating good gasification characteristics since higher heat produced during combustion results in high temperatures in the reaction zone [7].

Experimental Setup and Procedure The design of the gasifier is based on empirical data and charts based on past experiences. Treatment of wastewater and disposal of the water used are the main challenges commonly faced in the existing downdraft gasification systems designs[8]. Downdraft gasifier having 8.10 kg h-1 biomass consumption capacity. Perforations are made to improve the movement of ash particles on the base plate in the reduction region. Coal was charged below the heart zone during start-up and other biomasses were manually loaded from the hopper having a capacity of60kg. Initial ignition was performed at the air inlets through the firing ports and within 5-8 minutes a continuous fire was observed. Air suction was created through water circulation through a gas outlet-connected venturi scrubber. Approximately 20-40 min was needed to attain full gas production capacity. Upon drying and pyrolysis at the top of the reactor, the biomass was burned in the oxidation area where the air was drawn in. Gaseous combustion products entered the hot charcoal bed reduction zone. The gases were further reacted to create a gas mixture of the fuel producer. The exiting hot gas at the bottom of the reactor went through the scrubber through which ambient temperature water was circulated. The cool gas-water mixture was then used to separate the char and tar particles together with water into the cyclone separator. The gas was further cleaned by passing through the sawdust filter and two bag filters successively. The samples are collected in the syringes of this producer gas exiting from the downdraft gasifier. A gas chromatograph is used to analyze sampled gas. Each biomass experimental run is carried out for 20 -40 min. Any remaining biomass and charcoal are removed from the gasifier at the end of the experiment.

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Fig. 1 Downdraft gasifier Gas Composition and Calorific Value Producer gas was found to have calorific value and volumetric percentage of its fuel components, along with gasification efficiency[9]. The calorific value of the biomass feedstock is determined for its gasification and gasification efficiency suitability. The proximate analysis provides the details of the amount of ash in the biomass. If there is less ash content in the biomass, it means the gas quality is good and the performance of the gasifier is also improved. The moisture content of the biomass increases the concentration of CO2 and H2 while the CO decreases and the production of CH4 do not affect. When wood is used as a feedstock in the downdraft gasifier, the total acceptable moisture content limit is 40% [10].

Table2 Influence of moisture content on product-gas compounds with Downdraft Gasifier[10]

Moisture content CO CO2 H2 CH4 Max Limit(%wb)

Increases Decreases Increases Increases No change 40

It is known that the temperature of the neck at 850 ° C gives a good composition of the fuel. As the air factor decreases, in most cases the amount of H2 increases. In the case of lignite, in the 19-22 mm range of particle size, the proportion of H2 and CO is higher with a slight reduction of CH4. This may be due to good gasification. As the middle part of the gasifier (Distillation zone) temperature rises from 525 ° C to 890 ° C, the percentage gas composition also rises for most gases except CO2 and O2 [11].

Results and Discussions

Table 3 Biomass Gas Composition

Biomass H2 (%) N2 (%) CH4 (%) CO (%) CO2 (%) LHV(MJ/m3)

Cotton Stalk 22.16 37.03 2.54 17.62 15.83 4.69

Ground Nutt Shell 10.3 52.9 2.1 13.5 11.2 3.55

coconut shell 21.2 39.4 2.1 21.22 9.77 3.91

Sugarcane bagasse 9.81 65.91 2.42 11.31 10.6 3.23

. This experiment observed that downdraft gasifier design compatible with the direct use of low-density feedstock such as cotton stalk, groundnut shell, coconut shell, and sugarcane bagasse, without pelletizing. . In this experiment single downdraft gasifier used for different biomass feeds and found variation in output

gas composition (in volume percentage) CO 11-18% percent, CO29-15%, H29-23%, and N237-66% with low methane traces. . The lower heating values of producer gas from various biomass are found to be 3.2 -4.7 MJ/m3.

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. The syngas was noticed to be produced after igniting the gases. A yellowish flame was observed indicating the production of these combustible gases. . It was found that the biomass with a lightweight in the gasification process was best for feeding. . It was observed that more value of moisture of biomass produces less parentage of carbon monoxide. Sugarcane bagasse with a moisture content of more than 30% contains poor-quality product gas and therefore low gasification performance. . The above study showed that cotton stalk was an excellent feedstock for gasification compares to other biomass, due to their fuel characteristics, which was comparable to wood. there were no problems during the operation.

References 1. M. Torabi et al., “We are IntechOpen, the world ’ s leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists TOP 1 %,” Intech, vol. I, no. tourism, p. 13, 2016. 2. M. N. Adams, “Performance analysis of downdraft gasifier for Agriwaste biomass materials,” vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1–179, 2010. 3. M. P. Morales, P. Mun, J. A. Ruiz, and M. C. Jua, “Biomass gasification for electricity generation : Review of current technology barriers,” vol. 18, pp. 174–183, 2013. 4. P. Prasertcharoensuk, D. A. Hernandez, S. J. Bull, and A. N. Phan, “Optimisation of a throat downdraft gasifier for hydrogen production,” Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 116, no. May, pp. 216–226, 2018. 5. A. A. P. Susastriawan, H. Saptoadi, and Purnomo, “Comparison of the gasification performance in the downdraft fixed-bed gasifier fed by different feedstocks: Rice husk, sawdust, and their mixture,” Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments, vol. 34, no. October 2018, pp. 27–34, 2019. 6. S. Akhtari, T. Sowlati, and K. Day, “Economic feasibility of utilizing forest biomass in district energy systems - A review,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 33, pp. 117–127, 2014. 7. D. Umesh and P. Sarsavadiya, “Physiochemical Properties of Cotton Stalk Biomass from Agricultural Residues,” vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 343–349, 2015. 8. P. Raman, N. K. Ram, and R. Gupta, “A dual fired downdraft gasifier system to produce cleaner gas for power generation: Design, development and performance analysis,” Energy, vol. 54, pp. 302–314, 2013. 9. R. N. Singh, U. Jena, J. B. Patel, and A. M. Sharma, “Feasibility study of cashew nut shells as an open core gasifier feedstock,” Renew. Energy, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 481–487, 2006. 10. S. Kumar and S. K. Shukla, “A Review on Recent Gasification Methods for Biomethane Gas Production,” Int. J. Energy Eng., vol. 6, pp. 32–43, 2016. 11. C. N. K. S. A. Darshit Upadhyay, B. R. N. Patel, “Review on 10KWe Downdraft Gasifier with Different Feedstocks,” Inst. Technol. Nirma Univ. Ahmedabad, pp. 8–10, 2011.

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LAKH SEAL GUN †*HITESH P. BOHRA, †DHAVAL A. HUDKA, †M. B. VAGHELA †Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lukhdhirji Engineering College, Morbi, Gujarat, India * Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The red sealing wax has its own importance in the government machinery as it is used for sealing the documents, evidence or government material. It plays an important role as far as the safety and security are concerned. Generally, for melting the wax still Candles are used. A lot time is consumed in melting the sealing wax (lakh) and it is also an inconvenient and clumsy process. The object is the develop an easier way for the whole process from melting of sealing wax (lakh) to stamping which can save time and which is more convenient to use.

Keywords: Hot melt adhesive applicator, sealing Gun, Electric Melt applicator

Introduction Sealing wax or lakh (lac) is a wax material of a seal which, after melting, hardens quickly forming a bond that which is difficult to separate without noticeable tampering. Sealing Wax is used to verify something such as a document is unopened, to verify the sender's identity. Sealing wax can be used to take impressions of other seals or stamps. Wax is used to seal letters from about the 16th century. It is used by Government to seal legal tenders, documents, in post offices to seal envelopes, to seal Electronic voting machines (EVMs) or ballot boxes and also used by income tax department to seal places. Sealing wax is available in the form of sticks, sometimes with a wick, or as granules. To apply seal; the stick is melted at one end (but not ignited or blackened), or the granules heated in a spoon, normally using a flame (Candles), and then placed where required. While the wax is still soft, the seal (Stamp) should be quickly and firmly pressed into it and released. This process of melting is not convenient and time consuming. Using our methodology, the whole process of melting to stamping can be made easy and convenient.

Problem definition More time is consumed in melting the sealing wax (lakh) and it is also inconvenient. Moreover, for government purposes still Candles are used to melt these wax strips which is not user friendly and is not convenient. As many as 6.81 lakh sticks of red sealing wax and over four lakh candles were used in Maharashtra state itself to keep the electronic voting machines (EVMs) secure after Lok Sabha elections 2019 [4].

Methodology To solve the problem stated above in our methodology is to design a portable and easy to use hand tool [3] i.e. lakh seal gun, which will be advantageous in two ways as it will include melting of lakh in an easy manner as well as it will help to apply stamp both in a single assembly.

Working Principle When the gun is plugged into the socket or turned on, after 50 to 60 Sec the heating element reaches to the temperature of 130 ⁰ C to 150 ⁰ C, this is the appropriate temperature for melting of lakh i.e. Sealing wax. Now at this stage the lakh stick has to be inserted in the feeding cylinder. To feed the lakh stick the feeding cylinder is connected to the trigger mechanism. As the lakh starts melting the melted lakh is to be applied at the appropriate place via nozzle by

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pressing the trigger. The trigger pushes the melted lakh out from the heating element towards the nozzle and feeds the new portion of lakh stick which is to be melted inside the heating element. For stamping, the required type of stamp is to be inserted in the stamping cylinder of the gun. Now the block inside the stamping cylinder is pulled backwards, this compresses the spring provided inside the stamping cylinder which will increase tension in the spring. As the block reaches its maximum travel in backward direction the lever automatically locks it down in that position and makes it ready to shoot on the melted wax. When the appropriate amount of wax is applied the push-button, provided in the stamping cylinder shown is pressed, which rises the lever mechanism, thereby releasing spring tension which pushes the block forward building appropriate amount of force required to shoot the stamp. This block strikes with the stamp transferring its kinetic energy to it and stamp is shot on the melted wax. In this way stamp is applied. The stamping sets up in the gun makes the task easy and faster as the task of stamping can be carried out simultaneously as soon as the melting process completes and the wax is applied at the appropriate place.

Design of lakh seal gun The design of lakh seal gun is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software.

Design of components of lakh seal gun The stamping mechanism consisting of tension spring and the lever mechanism, the heating element and the trigger feed are the main components of this gun. Stiffness of the spring plays the key role in generating the appropriate tension required to shoot the stamp. The design and function of each component of lakh seal gun are illustrated:

Body The body design for the lakh seal gun is shown in the Fig. 1. This design is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software keeping in mind the ergonomics principles. The body provides housing and supports all the other components of this gun. As it has to sustain a higher temperature it is made using nylon ’66 or Ethylene-vinyl acetate [2].

Fig. 1: 2D design of the Body

Heating element and Nozzle The Heating element and Nozzle design for the lakh seal gun is shown in the Fig. 2. This design is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software. The heating element helps in melting of lakh stick. As the gun is plugged into the socket the electrical resistance increases in the element and it starts heating. After 50 to 60 seconds the temperature of the

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heating element reaches 130⁰ C to 150⁰ C. At this temperature the lakh inserted in the feed cylinder where it’s some portion inside the heating element starts melting. This melted lakh is pushed out of the element using trigger feed cylinders through the nozzle. Nozzle facilitates the flow of melted lakh it is made of the same material to that of heating element.

Fig. 2: 2D design of nozzle and heating element

Trigger Feed The Trigger Feed design for the lakh seal gun is shown in the Fig. 3. This design is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software. The function of trigger feed is to give force in forward direction which pushes the lakh stick forward inside the heating element simultaneously pushing the melted lakh out from the nozzle. It provides the right force to push the lakh stick and melted lakh and is operated using trigger mechanism. It is made of the same material to that of body.

Fig. 3: 2D design of trigger feed

Trigger Mechanism The Trigger design for the lakh seal gun is shown in the Fig. 4. This design is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software. The function of the trigger mechanism is to provide force to the trigger feed cylinder which feeds the lakh stick forward and pushes the melted lakh out from the nozzle. To operate the trigger feed, the trigger as shown in Fig. 4 is pressed, which pushes the trigger feed cylinder. The trigger pulled back to its original position with the help of a small spring.

Fig. 4: 2D design of components of trigger mechanism

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Stamping cylinder The Stamping cylinder for the lakh seal gun is shown in the Fig. 5. This design is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software. The stamping cylinder is provided at the top of the gun assembly. As the name suggests, it houses the complete stamping mechanism i.e. Tension spring, stamping block and lever and push button mechanism. Also, it guides the stamping block.

Fig. 5: 2D design of stamping cylinder Fig. 6: 2D design of tension spring

Tension Spring The Tension spring design for the lakh seal gun is shown in the Fig. 6. This design is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software. Tension spring is the key component of this gun or the stamping mechanism [1]. It provides the appropriate force to the block to shoot the stamp. As the block is pushed backwards it compresses the spring until it gets locked by lever or reaches its maximum limit. This increases tension or internal potential energy in the spring and it is stored until the push button is pressed. Now when the stamp is to be shot the push button is pressed, which raises the lever and releases the block, thereby releasing the tension or internal potential energy stored in the spring which gives the force to block and it shoots the stamp with required force.

Stamping Block The Stamping block design for the lakh seal gun is shown in the Fig. 7. This design is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software. It is a solid cylinder-shaped block used to transfer the energy of spring to the stamp i.e. To shoot the stamp. It has a notch on top to facilitate the pulling of block backward to create tension in the spring.

Fig. 7: 2D design of stamping block

Lever The Lever design for the lakh seal gun is shown in the Fig. 8. This design is prepared using Solidworks 2016 software.

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The lever is an L-shaped element used to lock the stamping block to store the energy or spring tension and also facilitate the release of block when push button is pressed. Push button provided is pressed when the stamp is to be shot which raises the lever thereby releasing spring force via stamping block.

Fig. 8: 2D design of Lever

Assembly of components The components of lakh seal gun are assembled using Solidworks 2016 software. Fig. 9 shows the 2D design of the assembly of lakh seal gun. Fig. 10 shows the 3D model of the assembly of lakh seal gun.

Fig. 10: 2D design of assembly of Lakh seal gun

Fig. 11: 3D model of assembly of Lakh seal gun

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Conclusion The lakh seal gun is user friendly, convenient and clearly gives better results when compared to the manual method of applying lakh being used. This gun is a portable tool which is easy to operate, handy and makes the process quicker compared to the manual method of applying lakh and stamping. Using this gun, human efforts can be reduced. This gun will be useful to the Government and particularly the use of this gun is will make the election process easier and errorless.

Acknowledgement The financial support received from SSIP Cell, Lukhdhirji engineering college, Under Student Startup and Innovation Policy (SSIP scheme) of the Gujarat Government is truly appreciable.

References Books 1. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery 1st Edition by R. L. Norton Articles 1. Kohan M.I. (1986) The history and development of Nylon 66 Patents 1. Hot melt adhesive applicator US patent US3774817A 2. J. PESARK., DEVICE FOR APPLYING SEALING WAX, Filed Nov 3, 1936, US state patent office, 2,118,415. 3. Gun for sealing with sealing wax US PATENT US6511242B1 4. Thomas L. Flanagan, Kilingworth, APPARATUS FOR APPLYING HOT MELT GLUE TO A SURFACE OF AN OBJECT, U S patent, 2,026,237. Web sites 1. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/lok-sabha/maharashtra/lok-sabha-polls-7-lakh-red- wax-sticks-to-be-used-to-secure-evms-in-maharashtra/articleshow/68643829.cms 2. https://blog.oureducation.in/properties-and-uses-of-nylon-66/

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The State of Art in Boundary Layer Control Over the Wind Turbine Blade †*Vinal G. Virani, ††Ajitkumar N. Shukla, †Kartik D. Kothari †School of Engineering, RK University, Rajkot-360020, Gujarat, India ††PSIT-College of Engineering, Kanpur-209305, Uttar Pradesh, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract With the continuous increasing use of wind energy as renewable energy, the aerodynamics of wind turbines has become a significant subject for wind turbine blade design. From the review of Wind Resource Assessment of Gujarat, carried out by the NREL, it has been observed that available wind power is not constant throughout the year. Even wind speed varies in a wide range within the time period of the day. So most of the time wind turbines are operated in off-design conditions. Off-design operation of wind turbines reduces the performance of the wind turbines, causes blade flatter and increases blade noise because of undesirable changes in the angle of attack of various blade sections. Even with the pitching blade, it is not possible to achieve optimum distribution of the angle of attack over the full span, because the variation of flow angle along the span, due to change in the rotational speed of the rotor or change in wind speed, is nonlinear and non-uniform. Many methods have been proposed by the researchers, to improve the off-design performance, to reduce blade noise and to reduce the flow-induced vibration of wind turbine blades. This paper presents the state-of-the-art in control of flow boundary layer over the wind turbine blade, discusses the advantages and disadvantages of various methods, to avoid flow separation in off- design operation, and outlines the current implementations in this field.

Keywords: Wind Turbine, Off Design Performance, Flow-Induced Vibration, Flow separation, Boundary layer Control

Introduction Increased in energy consumption increases our dependence on foreign sources, and the impact on the environment and the danger of global warming. Wind energy has great potential to lessen our dependence on traditional resources like oil, gas and coal and to do it without as much damage to the environment. Different surveys carried out by Indian Wind Energy Association suggests that only about 65% of the gross potential have been installed as on 31/3/2018. Still much of the available potential remain uninstalled. In wind turbine technology day by day new evolution is being introduced by researches, and there are great chances to install new project with better technology. Off design operation of any system always lead to performance degradation and system may behave abnormally. From the discussion in first chapter and review of wind resource assessment of Gujarat carried out by the NREL, it can be observed that most of time period over the year wind turbines are operated under off design condition. Part load operation of wind turbine reduces the output of wind turbine and causes blade flatter because of undesirable change in angle of attack of each blade section [1]. Many researchers are working for the identification and solution of this problems. Many methods have been proposed starting from optimised design for lower wind speed to complex control systems requiring external power. Some of them are commercialised too. All of these methods presented here have disadvantages too which are explained in literature review. Hence problem of efficient flow control over the wind turbine blade is still a challenge for the researchers.

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Methods of Boundary Layer control over the wind turbine blade Active pitch control Yuwei Li, et al (July 2012) have performed dynamic overset CFD simulations for the NREL phase VI wind turbine. In particular, two sequences of the experiment test cases are studied with complete turbine geometry, including the NREL phase VI blades, and approximate geometries for hub, nacelle and tower. RANS and DES models are used in the simulations, and extensive comparisons with experimental data are performed. They have observed the stall phenomenon at lower pitch angle and higher wind speed (Fig. 1). They concluded that the methodology can be used for more complex computations including active turbine control by varying the pitch angle and fluid-structure interaction [1]. Yusik Kim and Zheng-Tong Xie (February 2016) have studied the effect of free stream turbulence on the aerodynamic characteristics of wind turbine blade using Large-eddy simulations of flow over a pitching airfoil. It has been observed that large scale variations of wind direction due to very large turbulence eddies, the blades operate in a periodically oscillating condition result in dynamic stall of the blade (Fig. 2). For the pitching airfoil, the magnitudes of the maximum drag and minimum moment decrease with the in- crease of the free stream turbulence. This is mainly attributed to the suppression of separated flows in turbulent flows. The most evident impact of free stream turbulence on the lift coefficient occurs during the down stroke, i.e. an approximate 50% increase for a turbulence intensity 6% immediately upstream of the airfoil, compared to the smooth inflow flow. It has been also confirming that the free stream turbulence has a non-negligible impact on the flow around the pitching airfoil [2].

Fig. 1 Limiting streamlines on the suction side of the blade and selected sections (coloured with pressure) for 30 pitch angle [1]

Fig. 2 The instantaneous pressure at the middle section of the span [2]

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Yuwei Li, Tao Xing. et al (June 2011) have performed numerical stimulations on (NREL) phase VI wind turbine to investigate the effect of wind speed (5, 10, 15 and 25 m/s) at a fixed blade pitch angle of 30 and to investigate the effect of effect of angle of attack is evaluated by dynamically changing the pitch from -150 to 400 at constant wind speed of 15 m/s. In variable wind speed test at constant pitch angle it has been observed that flow separation and stalling occurs on suction side of the blade because of increased angle of attack on blade at off design condition. In variable pitch angle test with constant wind speed it has been observed that performance and power developed by the wind turbine falls when pitch angle is set away from the designed value. This loss of performance occurred because of stalling of blade at higher or negative angle of attack. Negative angle of attack of the blade arises as the flow angle does not change uniformly at all blade section with change in wind speed [5].

Active oscillating flaps Two oscillating flaps located close to the tip and at mid span (Fig. 3) are used to excite the unstable modes of the tip vortex system of a wind turbine blade. The two flaps are deflected in opposite directions such that the root bending moment of the wind turbine blade remains almost unchanged. To investigate the mechanism of how and to what extent the deflection of the flaps influences the tip-vortex system, Large-Eddy Simulations in the Arbitrary Lagrangian- Eulerian formulation in a rotating frame of reference are performed. The comparison of the flow without and with oscillating flaps shows that the tip-vortex core is displaced by approximately 5% of the rotor radius by the flap motion. The root bending moment and torque at the root of the blade with flaps vary sinusoidally [3].

Fig. 3 View of the flap layout at the tip and at mid-span and the comparison of the original and modified ClarkY profile [3]

C. J. Bai, F. B. Hsiao, et al (2013). have designed A horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade with 10,000 Watt power output has been designed using modified blade element momentum (MBEM) with the design considerations of rated wind speed, tip speed ratio and angle of attack those have been set to 10 m/s, 6 and 6°, respectively. Then they also developed the improved BEM theory including Viterna-Corrigan stall model, tip-loss factor and stall delay model to predict the performance of the designed wind turbine. The investigations of aerodynamic characteristics for the turbine blade were performed using commercial Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) code. The simulation results are compared with the improved BEM theory at rated wind speed of 10 m/s. The stall phenomenon has been observed at the blade section at r/R=21 %, which is at the region of blade root even at designed operating condition [4]. Authors have directed the researchers work towards the development of the methods for the control of flow over the turbine blades with the aim of improving aerodynamic performance. Specific applications such as tip shapes, control mechanisms and vortex generators and the flow structures on the surface of the blade need to be analysed in detail.

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Fig. 4 The streamline plots at r/R=90 %, r/R=51 % and r/R=21 % [4]

Boundary layer blowing and suction Two-dimensional numerical simulations of the cascade flow were performed by S. Fischer, H. Saathoff and R. Radespiel (2008) to clarity the application of jet in stator cascade of axial flow compressor at high inlet flow angles. The results show that pronounced entrainment effect the interaction of the jet with the flow upstream of the blowing slot delays the separation of the flow. For this reason, an operation range enhancement to higher inlet angles is enabled. Beyond this, the jet leads to an increase of the dimensionless pressure rise by about 9% (Fig. 5) [5].

Fig. 5. Streamlines on the trailing edge for β1 = 46◦ at varying pitch [5]

Fig. 6. Wool tuft visualizations for S814 profile, U=10 m/s; Re = 1.6X10e5 , a = 20 [16]

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The flow around the aerofoils is studied via numerical solutions of the 2D Navier–Stokes (NS) equations by H.D. Karaca, G.D. Ozen and C. Kasnako glu (2016). A standard computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver is extended to be able to measure desired feedback values and to apply a control input to the flow field (Fig. 7). The proposed modelling and control approach is based on first determining the measurement points and injection points on the aerofoil for the control input. The results show that the designed feedback control system can reduce the drag to lift ratio considerably as compared to the unactuated case [12].

Fig. 7 Closed-loop simulation results for NACA 23012. Controller is switched on at t = 250s [12]

Slotted airfoil design Rui Rong, Ke Cui, et al. (2015) have carried out a CFD stimulations on the blade of G4-73No.8D centrifugal fan with and without slot. The slotted technique on centrifugal fan blade with slots cut along the blades pressure side to suction side is adopted. Through the result analysis of CFD stimulations it has been concluded that slotted blade has a role of control and mitigation of boundary layer separation, improving blade aerodynamic performance [10]. Fig. 8 represent the comparison of flow pattern with and without slot.

Fig. 8 streamlines pattern of the flow field around airfoil [10]

Fig. 9 Velocity distribution for baseline geometry and different slot configuration (X=50%, ψ=60°, AoA=18°) [13]

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R. Belamadi, A. Djemili, A. Ilinca, and R. Mdouk (2016), have done 2D-numrical stimulation, based on CFD, to investigate the effect of slot position on aerodynamic performance of the wind turbine blade and to determine best configuration. Results show that increase in CL/Cd ratio is achieved only over a specific range of angle of attack. Airfoil efficiency for the final configuration is slightly less than baseline configuration at low angle of attack due to increase of drag forces by slot presence [13]. Velocity distribution for baseline geometry and different slot configuration (X=50%, ψ=60°, AoA=18°) is shown in Fig. 9. The effect of employing slotted aerofoil as turbine blade on the performance and starting characteristics has been investigated by Ahmed Etman, et al. (2019). The slot parameters; slot location, angle of inclination, and dimensions, were optimized for NACA 0018 aerofoil which is commonly used in Darrieus turbines (Fig. 10). The slotted aerofoil effectively delays the boundary layer separation, where at high angles of attack the slot allows part of high pressure flow to pass into the suction side of the aerofoil causing an acceleration in the flow due to the nozzle shape of the slot. Consequently, this minimizes the drag force and increases the lift force at high angles of attack. Hence, the slotted aerofoil achieves similar glide ratio to baseline aerofoil; however, the peak glide ratio covers wider range of angles of attack while using the slotted aerofoil [14].

Fig. 10. Velocity distribution for baseline geometry and slotted blade [14]

Aerofoil with wavy leading edge and wavy surfaces A numerical investigation of the effect of the wavy leading edge on hydrodynamic characteristics for the flow of rectangular wings with the low aspect ratio of 1.5 at one Reynolds number of 106, based on free stream velocity and the chord length C, has been carried out by H.S. Yoon and P.A. Hung (2011). Five different waviness ratios of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 at fixed wavelength of 0.2C and wavy amplitude of 0.025C have been considered for the analysis (Fig. 11). From the results it is concluded that wavy wings with the large waviness, presented a higher CL than the smooth wing [6]. Julien Favier, Alfredo Pinelli and Ugo Piomelli (2012), have performed direct numerical simulation on a NACA0020 wing profile in a deep stall configuration (α = 20 deg.), with and without the presence of the leading edge waviness. The influence of these streamwise structures on the boundary layer separation has been studied and a physical mechanism identified to explain the local reattachment observed downstream of the bumps. Moreover, a Kelvin–Helmholtz-like instability driven by the spanwise modulation of the streamwise velocity profile induced by

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the wavy leading edge, is proposed to be at the origin of the generation of the streamwise vortices which control the boundary layer separation [7].

Fig. 11 Top view of geometries of (a) the rectangular wing and (b) wavy wings with different waviness ratios [6]

Fig. 12 The Humpback whale jumping out of water. The pectoral flipper clearly exhibits tubercles on the leading edge [7]

High-order accurate numerical simulations have been performed by Alex S.H. Lau, Sina Haeri and Jae Wook Kim (2013) to investigate the effects of wavy leading edges (WLEs) on aerofoil–gust interaction (AGI) noise. From the result of the analysis it is justified that wavy leading edges have strong AGI noise reduction capability. It can be observed in Fig. 13. Different factors effecting the noise reduction capability of wavy wing have also been investigated in this work [8].

Fig. 13 CL~time signals and rates of change for three different leading edges [8]

Y.F. Lin, L.Zou, et al. (2013) have carried out three-dimensional large eddy stimulation to study the aerodynamic characteristics of two different modified NACA0012 airfoils A and B with different wavy surfaces (Fig. 14). Wavy airfoil-A has a sinusoidal waviness on upper and lower surfaces with a constant chord length, while wavy airfoil-B has sinusoidal variation in both of the leading and trailing edges as well as on the upper and lower surfaces along the

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span wise direction. It has been observed that airfoil-B demonstrates an advantageous aerodynamic effect on the control of loss of lift in the stall regime at higher angle of attack [9]. self-adaptive hairy flaps The wake-flow behind a circular cylinder is investigated edperimentaly by Sebastian Kunze and Christoph Brucker (2012), without and with flexible hairy-flaps at the aft-part of the cylinder. Analysis shows that, the hairy-flaps alter the natural vortex separation cycle in such a way that the vortices do not shed in a zigzag like arrangement as in the classical von Karman

Fig. 14 Instantaneous three-dimensional coherent structures (Q=3000) distributions at a=15 dg.: (a) NACA0012 airfoil, (b)wavyairfoil-A and (c) wavyairfoil-B [9]

Fig. 15 Illustration of the influence of the hairy flaps on the shed vortex location in the wake for Re > 14 750 [15] vortex street but in line in a row with the cylinder wake axis. It can be observed in Fig. 15. Thus, the wake-deficit is largely reduced. Furthermore, flow fluctuations are considerably reduced about 42% in stream wise and 35% in transversal direction compared to the reference case without hairy-flaps [15]. Christoph Brucker and Christoph Weidner (February 2014) have conducted an experiment to study the influence of the various configurations of self-

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adaptable hairy flap-lets located on the lower half of the wing and with chord-length c (dense rows of slender elastomeric flaps, L=0.05c, 0.1c, 0.2c) on the flow around an NACA0020 airfoil at low Reynolds number. It has been observed that due to self-adaptable hairy flaps, modification of the trailing edge flow occurs and increases bound circulation leading to increasing in CL. A proper arrangement of self-adaptable hairy flaps is capable of delaying the stall of airfoil (Fig. 16) [17].

Fig. 16 Comparison ofmeanflowpropertiesofNACA0020airfoilat α¼17.51 angle of attack [16]

Circulating aerofoil Circulating NACA0015 aerofoil with various surface treadmill speeds is investigated at different incident angles by Ahmad Sedaghat et al (2015). The computational results reveal that the lift increases while drag decreases in all cases. Results are represented in Fig. 17. The significant lift to drag ratio of 278 is obtained at dimensionless treadmill speed of 2 at incident angle of 10. The flow features around this circulating aerofoil, along with the need for additional experimental research, is described [11].

Fig. 17 Lift coefficient of circulating NACA0015 aerofoil against incidence angle at different treadmill speeds [11]

Blade tip injection Anas Abdulrahim, Ezgi Anık, et al. (November 2016) conducted an experiment to investigate the effects of tip injection on the performance and near wake characteristics of a model wind turbine rotor. Measurements show that injection has significant effects on the power and thrust coefficient variations as well as on the wake characteristics. For lower tip speed ratio (TSR) values (TSR<3.5), tip injection seems to have minimal effect on the power and thrust coefficient data and these trends are also supported by BEM simulation results. For TSR>3.5, tip injection starts to show substantial effects such that both the power and thrust coefficients of the model turbine increase with tip injection [18].

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Fig. 18. Measured power (left) and thrust (right) coefficient variations with TSR with and without tip injection [18]

Summary and Scope of further research Loss of power and at lower wind speed conditions due to flow separation over the part span or full span of wind turbine blade can be reduced by controlling flow separation and stalling. Researchers have also worked on flow control over the wind turbine blade and proposed different methods. T.K.Barlas and G.A.M.vanKuik (2009) have reviewed different existing methods to control the flow. These methods are flapped airfoil, flexible trailing edge, micro tabs, chamber control, active twist, boundary layer suction or blowing, synthetic jets and vortex generators discussed with literature review [4]. After 2009 other methods were also investigated. S.A.H.Jafari and B.Kosasih (2014), have demonstrated significant power augmentation of diffuser shrouded horizontal axis wind turbine compared to bare one with the same swept area of the diffuser for small power applications[13]. Y.F. Lin, L.Zou, et al. (2012) have observed that wavy leading edges have advantageous aerodynamic effect on the control stall at higher angle of attack[10]. H.D. Karaca, G.D. Ozen, C. Kasnako glu (2016) have carried out a CFD stimulation on NACA23012, ag13 and b737a aerofoils and demonstrated that the controller efficiently suppresses D/L ratio to a significant fraction of the uncontrolled scenario [28]. Christoph Brucker and Christoph (2014) Weidner have proven experimentally that due to self-adaptable hairy flaps modification of the trailing edge flow occurs and increases bound circulation leading to increasing in CL and proper arrangement of self-adaptable hairy flaps is capable of delaying the stall of airfoil [16]. Rui Rong, Ke Cui, et al. (2015) have shown that slotted blade of centrifugal fan has a role of control and mitigation of boundary layer separation, improving blade aerodynamic performance [20]. S. Fischer, H. Saathoff and R. Radespiel (2008) have studied that entrainment effect the interaction of the jet with the flow upstream of the blowing slot delays the separation of the flow on the stator blades of compressors [2]. Riyadh Belamadi, Abdelouaheb Djemili, et al. (2016) demonstrated advantageous effect of slot in the airfoil on the over a specific range of angle of attack [27]. Ahmad Sedaghat, Iman Samani, et al. (August 2015) have proven that the concept of generating Magnus lift from circulating aero foil surface is computationally valid and considerable lift at reduced drag force may be achieved [19]. M.R.H. Nobari, E. Mirzaee, M. Nosratollahi (June 2016) have demonstrated advantageous effect of tip plats on power output of the HAWT [21]. Chi-Jeng Bai, Wei-Cheng Wang (May 2016), have directed the researchers work towards the development of the methods for the control of flow over the turbine blades with the aim of improving aerodynamic performance. Specific applications such as tip shapes, control mechanisms and vortex generators and the flow structures on the surface of the blade need to be analysed in detail [11]. Flow separation on the blade causes the reduction in lift coefficient of the section airfoil, efficiency and power of the wind turbine. This phenomenon of flow separation of shows dynamic behaviour leading to fluctuation of aerodynamic force and vibration of the wind turbine blade [34]. In certain condition of coupling between flow fluctuation frequency and wind turbine structural natural frequency, blade flutter [14] or resonance may occurs leading to sudden failure of blade, rotor or support structure of wind turbine. To maintain optimum angle of attack at each section of the blade pitching mechanism is used. But using this mechanism achieved change in pitch angle is uniform over the span of the blade while variation of flow angle along the span due to change in rotational speed of the rotor or change in wind speed is nonlinear and non-uniform. Thus optimum distribution of angle of attack over the span cannot be maintained by uniform change in pitch angle at off design operation. Flow angle ∅ and pitch angle θ are given by following relations.

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푉 (1 − 푎) tan ∅ = ∞ 푢(1 + 푎`) 휃 = ∅ − 훼

Where V∞ is free stream velocity, a is axial induction factor, a` is tangential induction factor, u is blade speed and α is angle of attack [18].

Fig. 19 Relation between flow angle and pitching angle of the blade

Fig. 20. Variation of flow angle with wind speed over the span of blade

Thus some part of the blade may have higher and some part of the blade may have lower angle of attack leading to uneven variation of lift coefficient along the span of the blade. The part of the blade, especially higher thickness near root region of the blade, subjected to higher angle of attack and lower relative Reynolds Number. This condition always leads to boundary layer separation on suction side and sometimes on pressure side of the blade too [11]. A detailed analysis of flow and flow control over the wind turbine blade is required to be carried out to propose an efficient and economical method which can Improve the off design performance of wind turbine specially in high wind conditions, minimize flow induced vibration leading to increase in overall life of the wind turbine systems and Reduces axial thrust.

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References 1. Y. Li, K. J. Paik, T. Xing, and P. M. Carrica, “Dynamic overset CFD simulations of wind turbine aerodynamics,” Renew. Energy, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 285–298, 2012. 2. Y. Kim and Z.-T. Xie, “Modelling the effect of freestream turbulence on dynamic stall of wind turbine blades,” Comput. Fluids, vol. 129, pp. 53–66, 2016. 3. X. Huang, S. M. Alavi Moghadam, P. S. Meysonnat, M. Meinke, and W. Schröder, “Numerical analysis of the effect of flaps on the tip vortex of a wind turbine blade,” Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow, vol. 77, no. May 2018, pp. 336–351, 2019. 4. C. J. Bai, F. B. Hsiao, M. H. Li, G. Y. Huang, and Y. J. Chen, “Design of 10 kW horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade and aerodynamic investigation using numerical simulation,” Procedia Eng., vol. 67, pp. 279– 287, 2013. 5. S. Fischer, H. Saathoff, and R. Radespiel, “Two-dimensional RANS simulations of the flow through a compressor cascade with jet flaps,” Aerosp. Sci. Technol., vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 618–626, 2008. 6. H. S. Yoon, P. a. Hung, J. H. Jung, and M. C. Kim, “Effect of the wavy leading edge on hydrodynamic characteristics for flow around low aspect ratio wing,” Comput. Fluids, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 276–289, 2011. 7. J. Favier, A. Pinelli, and U. Piomelli, “Control of the separated flow around an airfoil using a wavy leading edge inspired by humpback whale flippers,” Comptes Rendus - Mec., vol. 340, no. 1–2, pp. 107–114, 2012. 8. A. S. H. Lau, S. Haeri, and J. W. Kim, “The effect of wavy leading edges on aerofoil-gust interaction noise,” J. Sound Vib., vol. 332, no. 24, pp. 6234–6253, 2013. 9. Y. F. Lin, K. Lam, L. Zou, and Y. Liu, “Numerical study of flows past airfoils with wavy surfaces,” J. Fluids Struct., vol. 36, pp. 136–148, 2013. 10. R. Rong, K. Cui, Z. Li, and Z. Wu, “Numerical Study of Centrifugal Fan with Slots in Blade Surface”, Procedia Eng., vol. 126. pp. 588 – 591, 2015. 11. A. Sedaghat, I. Samani, M. Ahmadi-Baloutaki, M. El Haj Assad, and M. Gaith, “Computational study on novel circulating aerofoils for use in Magnus wind turbine blades,” Energy, vol. 91, pp. 393–403, 2015. 12. H. D. Karaca, G. D. Özen, and C. Kasnakoğlu, “Nonlinear modelling and control of the flow over aerofoils using CFD simulations,” Simul. Model. Pract. Theory, vol. 67, pp. 29–43, 2016. 13. R. Belamadi, A. Djemili, A. Ilinca, and R. Mdouki, “Aerodynamic performance analysis of slotted airfoils for application to wind turbine blades,” J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., vol. 151, pp. 79–99, 2016. 14. O. S. Mohamed, A. Ibrahim, A. Etman, A. Abdelkader, and A. Elbaz, “Numerical Investigation of Darrieus Wind Turbine with Slotted Airfoil Blades,” Energy Convers. Manag. X, p. 100026, 2019. 15. S. Kunze and C. Brücker, “Control of vortex shedding on a circular cylinder using self-adaptive hairy-flaps,” Comptes Rendus - Mec., vol. 340, no. 1–2, pp. 41–56, 2012. 16. J. S. Chawla, S. Suryanarayanan, B. Puranik, J. Sheridan, and B. G. Falzon, “Efficiency improvement study for small wind turbines through flow control,” Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments, vol. 7, pp. 195–208, 2014. 17. C. Brücker and C. Weidner, “Influence of self-adaptive hairy flaps on the stall delay of an airfoil in ramp-up motion,” J. Fluids Struct., vol. 47, pp. 31–40, 2014. 18. A. Abdulrahim, E. Anik, Y. Ostovan, and O. Uzol, “Effects of tip injection on the performance and near wake characteristics of a model wind turbine rotor,” Renew. Energy, vol. 88, pp. 73–82, 2016. 19. T. K. Barlas and G. A. M. van Kuik, “Review of state of the art in smart rotor control research for wind turbines,” Prog. Aerosp. Sci., vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 1–27, 2010. 20. N. Karthikeyan, K. Kalidasa Murugavel, S. Arun Kumar, and S. Rajakumar, “Review of aerodynamic developments on small horizontal axis wind turbine blade,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 42, pp. 801– 822, 2015.

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Diagnosis of Fault in IEEE 14 Bus System with Salient Pole Synchronous Generator †*RIAZ ISRANI, †BHARAT ASODARIYA †School of Diploma Studies, RK University, Rajkot-360020, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract This technical paper includes the consequence of fault in standard IEEE 14 bus system. When fault occur in the transmission line of IEEE 14 bus system, all the parameters of synchronous generator will be affected. In this paper we inspect a salient pole synchronous generator which is connected to bus number 2. When line to ground fault occurs in the transmission line near to bus number 2, load angle and real power of salient pole synchronous generator will scare for short time duration due to high inertia constant. It is also described as transient stability. Firstly, we compute total generation and connected fixed load capacity of the IEEE 14 bus system. The standard IEEE 14 bus system includes one slack, one synchronous generator and three synchronous condensers. With change in the nature of fault, the effect of fault remains same but value of hesitancy may vary with time. During fault time, line frequency is also scared. This paper includes total diagnosis approach during fault condition. At the time of fault, fluctuation in load angle of synchronous generator can be controlled by the help of inertia constant and can be calculated by the help of swing equation.

Keywords: IEEE 14 bus, Salient pole synchronous generator, load angle, inertia constant

Introduction Main function of electrical power system is to transmit power from generation to load. During the transmission of power, it is mandatory to maintain power quality and transmission efficiency. When any type of fault occurs on power system, line parameters may change, which depends on type of fault. On the other side, during the fault near to generator, some of the parameters of generator will also change.

Fig. 1 Types of faults in power system

Information of electrical faults: There are various types of faults which can occur in power system as per figure 1. Effect of fault in power system depends on the type of fault and time duration of the fault. Due to fault occurrence, the continuity of power supply may disturb and in some cases, serious damage may happen in power system [1]. There are many causes for electrical fault like, Equipment failure, human error, weather condition, smoke of fires etc. However, fault limiting devices (like, Circuit breaker, relay, lighting arrester etc.) are used to reduce the effect of fault [2, 3].

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In the power system, open circuit type fault occurs less, compared to short circuit fault. Second name of open circuit fault is series fault. In power system, two types of fault occur frequently which are: symmetrical fault and unsymmetrical fault [4]. Symmetrical fault occurrence range is only 2 % to 5%. For unsymmetrical fault, percentage fault occurrence ranges from 65% to 70% for line to ground (L-G) fault, 15% to 20% for double line to ground (L-L-G) fault & 5% to 10% for line to line (L-L) fault [3, 5, 6]. This paper reflects on IEEE 14 bus system which operates on 60Hz frequency and 138 KV bus voltage. In this system, we consider salient pole synchronous generator on bus 2. When L-G fault occurs near to bus 2, the parameters of generator and transmission line may get disturbed. Information of IEEE 14 bus system: IEEE 14 bus system has one slack bus, one synchronous generator, three synchronous condensers, 11 loads and 14 buses. In this system, four PV buses and nine PQ buses are present. This system works on 60Hz supply frequency and each bus has 138 KV potential. [7]

Fig. 2 Single line diagram of IEEE 14 bus system

In above system, total generation capacity is 272 MVA and total load capacity is 259MW. The IEEE 14 bus has three synchronous condensers which are mainly used for maintaining reactive power into the system. In this system, slack bus has negative value of reactive power and all transformers are having 100 MVA capacity of star connection. [7] PSCAD simulation of IEEE 14 bus system without and with fault These PSCAD simulations, consider the base value of power as 100 MVA and the base value of voltage as 138 KV. Now let’s see the simulation of IEEE 14 bus system as below [7] In below system, all transformers are star to star connected and star point is grounded. In the bus 2, synchronous generator of 40 MVA capacity is connected. All generators rotate at synchronous speed. Output frequency of all generators is 60Hz. In this simulation, synchronous condensers are connected on bus number 3, 6 and 8. Now, this simulation is designed with all transmission lines having standard values of resistance (R), reactance (X) and susceptance (B). [8] [9] Also consider that length of each transmission line is 100 km. In this simulation, line to ground fault occurs between line 2 to 4 and salient pole synchronous generator is connected on bus no.2 of IEEE 14 bus system. Let’s see simulation of IEEE 14 bus system with fault on transmission line 2-4.

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Fig. 3 Simulation of IEEE 14 bus system

Fig. 4 Simulation of IEEE 14 bus with fault

As per above simulation, line to ground fault occurs at 1.5 seconds which lasts for 0.2 second duration [9]. Frequency of salient pole synchronous generator depends on speed where its synchronous speed is 600 r.p.m. with 12 pole machine. Thus frequency is 60Hz [10, 11]. PSCAD simulation result of IEEE 14 bus system without and with fault Firstly, we assess all output parameters of synchronous generator connected on bus number 2. All power parameters are monitored in per unit values. These parameters are in normal condition, without fault in transmission line [11]. Thus no fluctuations are observed. Let’s see all related parameters of synchronous generator on bus 2.

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Fig. 5 Real & Reactive power on generator 2 without fault

Fig. 6 Frequency and Load angle on generator 2 without fault

Fig. 7 Voltage on generator 2 & Load angle of synchronous generator with fault

During line to ground fault, load angle becomes unstable [12]. Fault time duration is 0.2 seconds only; however, load angle becomes stable after 15 seconds (because of inertia constant). This can be calculated by following swing equation [13, 14].

풅ퟐ휹풎 / 풅풕ퟐ = (푷풎−푷풎풂풙 풔풊풏휹) / 푴 = 푷풂 / 푴

Where, M = Inertia constant, Pm = Input mechanical power, Pmax = Maximum power,

Pa = Acceleration power, δ = Load angle

Fig. 8 Real & Reactive Power of synchronous generator at fault

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Fig. 9 Frequency and RMS voltage of synchronous generator at fault

Fig. 10 Output Current & Voltage of synchronous generator at fault

Conclusions By performing this simulation, it is clearly understood that before occurrence of fault on IEEE 14 bus system, all parameters of synchronous generator are stable including real power, reactive power, supply frequency, RMS voltage and load angle. When fault occurs in IEEE 14 bus system, output parameters of same generator turn into unstable state for short period. Later on, all parameters become stable again, but load angle and real power require more time to become stable from unstable condition, due to inertia constant.

References 1. D P Kothari & I J Nagrath “Modern Power System Analysis,” Forth Edition, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, pp. 210-236, 2008. 2. Paul M. Anderson, “Analysis of Faulted Power Systems”, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 1995. 3. Miroslav D. Markovic, “Fault Analysis in Power Systems by Using the For-tescue Method”, TESLA Institute, 2009. 4. Jun Zhu. “Analysis of Transmission System Faults the Phase Domain”, Texas A&M University. Master Thesis, 2004. 5. Asaduzzaman Nur, M. H. S., Muhit, M. S., and Md Khaled Hossain, “Fault Analysis & Electrical Protection of Distribution Transformers”, Global Journal of Research in Engineering, 2014. 6. Li, J.; Zhao, Z.; Shu, B.; Han, X.; Ma, X.; Bian, B.; Li, J.; Liang, Z. “Fault Analysis for 110 kV HTS Power Cables”. IEEE Trans. Appl. Superconductor, pp. 1-5, 2014. 7. “IEEE 14 bus system knowledge base," https:// hvdc.ca/knowledge-base/read, article/26/ieee-14-bus-system/v:, accessed: 2016-08-03. 8. Kundur, Prabha, Neal J. Balu, and Mark G. Lauby. “Power system stability and control.” Vol. 7. New York: McGraw-hill publication, India. pp. 318-346, 2003. 9. P.K. Iyambo, and R. Tzoneva, “Transient Stability Analysis of the IEEE 14-Bus Electric Power System” Member, IEEE Trans. on Power System, pp 142-158, 2012. 10. IEEE/CIGRE Joint Task Force on Stability Terms and Definitions, “Definition and Classification of Power

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System Stability”, IEEE Trans. on Power Syst., Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 1387-1400, May 2004. 11. Ankit Jha, Lalthangliana Ralte, Ashwinee Kumar, Pinak Ranjan Patil, “Transient stability analysis using equal area-criterion using simulink model”, Department of Electrical Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela, 2015-16. 12. Hadi Saadat, Book: “Power System Analysis”, WCB McGraw-Hill, India, pp-392-403, 1999. 13. C. Cecati, H. Latafat. “Time domain approach compared with direct method of Lyapunov for transient stability analysis of controlled power system”, International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion IEEE, pp.695-699, 2012. 14. P. Kundur, G. K. Morison, L. Wang. “Techniques for on-line transient stability assessment and control”, Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting IEEE Xplore, 1, pp. 46-51, 2011.

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Business Model for Expansion of Electric Vehicles and Sustainable Racing Culture in India †* Dhruv J. Jani, †Kartik Jindal, ††Sushmit Bafna, †Ujwaldarshan †School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT Vellore, India ††School of Chemical Engineering, VIT Vellore, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract India’s aim to increase sustainability for the future, has seen the Government of India's efforts to set six and half million electric vehicles in India by 2020. This implores a gradual shift of the automobile industry from conventional engines to electric vehicles backed by depletion of fossil fuel resources and an environmental mindfulness. These push us to see the immense potential in the Indian electric motorsport market and to support our aim of a greener racing and entertainment experience. The objective here is to discuss the feasibility of an electric vehicle racing market in India with respect to formula student electric racing teams in India, namely Team Ojas, based in Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore. This paper discusses the marketing strategies that can be adapted to sell electric racing cars in Indian market with customer-centric and business-centric approaches. In our efforts to make the electric driving experience accessible to all, we intend to provide our electric race car on majority of the pre-existing race tracks with different plans; rent & drive for immediate payment and racing experience, and subscriptions for monthly payment and racing experience.

Keywords: Rent & Drive, Subscription, Forecast, Formula Student

Introduction Going back in time to 1886, where the creation of the first motorcar was the biggest breakthrough in the Transport Sector. As time went by and technology advanced the idea of racing cars against each other, Motorsport was introduced and Racing became one of the most popular sports within a short span of time due to the thrill and rush involved. In recent years, the awareness of a cleaner environment has posed a problem to the combustion engine. The large amount of pollution caused by these engines is astonishing, thus the importance of alternative fuels is coming into picture, heralded by electric vehicles. Their popularity has grown over the years, and the development in technology has just supported their growth. electric vehicles have swept the automobile market and have accomplished various tasks at once: Sustainability of racing, pollution problems, commute of the public. We aim to bring racing to everyone out there and make it cheap and accessible to each and every part of our society. We want everyone to feel the thrill and excitement that a driver goes through while he is racing. We wish to indulge in the lifestyles of the common man and make it interesting and fun. Not only can we provide the adrenaline on the track but also off it, with our rooftop race track and top-class hospitality with our resto-bars and fine dining restaurants. We will set a landmark in the world, where the world can get an insight of the life of a race car driver. And along with this, there are several benefits of electric cars over conventional combustion engine cars.

Sustainable Production Plan The assembly line is U shape design. A Just in Time (JIT) method of manufacturing which reduces wastage of time and resources. The main aim of plant is not only to produce a car with zero CO2 emissions but to also have minimal carbon emissions during the actual production of the car itself, which can be achieved manufacturing of car in a green

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factory which incorporates various methods of limiting the use of fossil fuels and maximizes the use of sustainable energy sources like solar power etc. This leaves us with 2 favourable scenarios in the production of electricity 1)The availability of balance electricity produced 2)The availability of carbon credits due to being a green factory with very few carbon emissions The availability of balance electricity enables us to distribute the surplus electricity produced.

Table 1 Sources mentioned alongside the parameter No. of units generated from Solar Plant of 1,75,000 250 kW capacity [1] Yearly requirement of Electricity in the plant 60,000 (no. of units) [2] Spare Units 1,75,000-60,000 = 1,15,000 Setup Cost for Roof Top Solar On Grid ₹65,80,000.00 Plant [3] Avg. cost of sale of a unit generated by solar ₹4.25 panel [12] Revenue generated by selling excess units = 4.25*1,15,000 = ₹4,88,750.00

Fig. 1 Designed using SolidWorks

Fig. 2 Source: Twitter Link: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DSxdGjGW0AEhNsZ?format=jpg&name=small

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Market Segmentation and Trend Analysis The target is to make electric racing more accessible to the youth demographic alongside the group of amateur and professional racers. It is also our aim to provide an overall entertainment hub to experience the driver’s lifestyle. The sale of premium cars (above 25 lakhs) expected to hit 1 lakh units per year by 2020 [4]. India’s switch to electric vehicles will be rapid. 7.3 million electric vehicles are expected to be on roads by 2030 with an increase to 31 million by 2040 [5]. While racing is well-established in Europe or America, in India it is still a new sport. But it is fast gaining popularity especially among young people in urban India. With half of the population under the age of 25 - the potential for growth is huge [6]. F1 became the fastest growing sport brand on social media in 2017, heading the likes of Formula E, the Premier League, NFL and leading sports clothing brands such as Adidas, Puma and Nike. F1's social media platforms Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube now boast a total of 11.9 million followers, reflecting an increase of 54.9 percent compared to 2016 [7]. Potential Markets We have divided the potential markets into three segments mentioned as below:  Tier 1 and Tier 2 cities- The Human Development Index classifies the cities in India on the following parameters- demographics, infrastructure, finance and economy.  Electricity cost – It is obviously essential for an electric car to charge their batteries and hence we choose cities with lower electricity cost.

 Current CO2 emissions in the cities - cities already facing problems from pollution and smog etc. would possess faster growing customer bases and will also help curb the problems of air pollution sooner [8].

Table 4 Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.036

State City Tier Actual CO2 emission (Gg) Maharashtra Mumbai 1 3320.66 Maharashtra Pune 2 2307.94 Telangana Hyderabad 1 7788.02 Haryana Gurugram 2 2124.43

Delhi Delhi 1 10867.51 West Bengal Kolkata 1 1886.60 Karnataka Bengaluru 1 8608.00 Tamil Nadu Chennai 1 4180.28

Tamil Nadu Coimbatore 2 3091.67

Chandigarh Chandigarh 2 1983.87

Gujarat Ahmedabad 2 2273.72 Gujarat Surat 2 1983.87

Customer Segmentation  On the basis of Rent and Drive Karting: We want to reach out to all sections of society and make Electric Racing accessible to on and all. With this effort we would like to bring the karting experience to all sections and age groups of the world. o School Students: People who want to entrail on a journey of adventure and experience the feeling of fast vehicles, along with their schoolmates. These are a small part of the innovators section present in the society. Competitions like Emirates School Karting Championship are just motivating more school pupils to go karting, where teams of 3-4 people collaborate in a team of people aged 7-18 to utilize Team Skills [8].

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o College Students: People who are amused by danger and fast speeds along with trying out new things while in college. These people want to experience life to its fullest and are not afraid of taking up new challenges. They are the large part of the innovators section present in the society. o Adults: It is that section of society which consists of the people who always want new experiences from their life. They want to make their lives happening and exciting all the time and would love to experience a new version of karting with their friends. They require a day out from their hectic lives and this is one of the best concepts that they can experience with their colleagues.  On the basis of Go-Karting and Weekend Racing Industry: We wish to target the most popular race tracks to give our product the maximum reach possible to our potential customers. We want to give our customers a driving pleasure that they have never experienced before. o Amateur/Weekend Racers: People who are regular racing enthusiasts come to race tracks and test their skills. These racers want to have a fun-filled experience and experience the best performance from their go karts. These people deserve good karts to develop their skills and enhance them to take them to the next level of motorsport racing [15]. o Professional Racers: People who race day-in day-out and have excellent skills in racing deserve the best performance from their karts. To excel in competitions and beat their competitors so that they could get their team to the top of the leaderboard, they need top of the class technology to support them to their victories. These racers can opt for the Platinum package where they have all the benefits of the Elite package and also special care for fellow racers [15].  On the basis of potential customers at Ojas World: We would like to give a total entertainment package to our customers that visit us over at The Ojas World. We wish that our customers will have the most entertaining experiences of karting while visiting The Ojas World. o Young Active Generation: This section of society is the most enthusiastic and adrenaline rushed people in the world. They seek for adventure all the time and are ever ready to try out new things. With expenses of people on leisure activities on the rise, 8% of their total expenditure of 12 trillion dollars by 2020, will be on leisure [9]. They are the innovators for the subscription scheme present on every large platform with up to a 40% rise in their revenue growth [10]. o Corporate Employees: We wish to get the attention and interest of the adult society, to bring in the adventure in their hectic routine lives. By incorporating the field trip ideas for companies and giving them a fun-filled experience, we wish to give the employees a great time out.

Market Strategies and Implementation Strategy:1 We understand that accessibility to our Electric Race Cars needs to be to the most diverse sections of the society. With this aim in mind, we wish to provide the people of these sections with our Rent and Drive model. Using the tracks available to us; we create test drive events for Racing and EV enthusiasts where they can come to the track at their convenience and rent out the car to race [14]. Strategy:2 There are a lot of amateur and professional racers that hit the tracks on a regular basis. They tend to face high prices which poses as an obstacle to attend the Karting sessions. For the Racers who go to tracks regularly to improve their skills, we have planned for the Subscription model in which they can avail various benefits. This will not only provide us with the database for our marketing research through the Feedback forms and Social Media outlet responses, but also increase the trust and loyalty of our customer relations. This also enhances our Customer Satisfaction as we are able to cater to their demands as soon as possible [15].

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Strategy:3 We have a desire to support the growing culture of the Karting and Racing in India. We want to build a social community that feels very passionate about driving. We want this community to be active and evergreen ergo we have special races planned for them. This will lead to increased interaction with each other and bring in a healthy competitive spirit among them. They will be able to track their performance and compare it with other racers and world-wide standings. This database will be present on our App along with tips and track advantages which will give an edge to them over the other drivers [15]. Strategy:4 Ojas World, being a very large step towards building our Brand Image is a one of a kind Entertainment and Leisure Hub for people to come and experience luxury with a flare of adrenaline. This idea is implemented to increase Brand Value and develop Brand Loyalty. The long-term goal for any organization, is to stay in the market as long as possible. With increased Brand Loyalty, Excellent Customer Satisfaction and High Brand-Value; we aim to achieve this long- term goal as an Entertainment and Recreation Hub in the market [17]. Strategy:5 Loyalty and Rewards program The program would be to start off all our customers at the highest level of Rewards possible which would then grant them access to all the amenities and perks for a limited period of time. If a customer is not able to maintain a level of expenditure on our mall, then they are downgraded to the subsequent level Key aspect of this loyalty program covers basic amenities such as priority parking for loyal customers of the mall, exclusive shopping days for members, VIP access to the mall lounge, access to Parents Lounges for parents to tend to their children or generally a place for the child to rest. Further to that, our loyalty program also features exclusive invites to events and celebrations [16]. Strategy:6 Flash Sale We want to increase our footfall in Ojas World for which we have planned a Surprise Sale for a day where we would be giving various offers like a Buy one Get one or a 30% off on everything. Making it a regular increment in visitors, we would like to randomize the day every month and put out 5 days at the beginning of every month from which we choose; one of them to be the Surprise Sale Day. This plan would give an extra incentive for our customers [13]

Business Models: Commercialization of Electric Vehicles 1) Rent and Drive Model: The original concept of Arrive and Drive karting experience is one of the ways we can make karting accessible to the community. In this model, we would plan for people to come and instantly register to drive our Electric Formula Race Cars. We will be able to achieve this with our collaboration with race track owners spread across India [19]. 2) Subscription Model: With the concept of Subscription to services booming in the recent years, we plan to have 2 subscription packages which our customers can avail to get various benefits. In the first plan, we will go for 15 free laps a month and a discounted price for every successive visit to our arrive and drive event. In the second plan, we have planned to give 25 laps a month, a discounted price along with merchandise and invites to special events [18]. 3) Ojas World: Ojas World is a symbolical representation of what we as a team stand for. Ojas world depicts a perfect blend of our team’s dual vision – Racing and Entertainment. With the operational controls of Ojas World in our hands, we will have flexibility, an increment in revenue with revenue diversification to facilitate a faster trajectory of growth for our organization. We plan to slowly develop brand loyalty and present our start-up as an Entertainment Hub. We would like to build our own brand image - to spread our Electric Racing Ideology. We plan on building a platform to show and experience the racing lifestyle. We plan to give the people an Entertainment Hub for leisure and recreation. We have planned a 2-floor infrastructure where we would like to incorporate the major Entertainment activities. On the Ground Floor, we will have various Food Trucks and a Food court along with a Fine Dining Restaurant and Resto-Pub to give our guests an overall dining experience. These will provide a wide range of specialty dishes to our

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customers. We would also provide an arcade gaming center for the enthusiastic people who love to enjoy and bring their inner child out to express it to everyone. Along with that, we have a Bowling Alley for a more relaxed experience with friends and family. On the First Floor, we will have one-of-a-kind rooftop racetrack with a dynamic multi-level concept which will be an adrenaline rich racing experience. We have an exhibit to showcase the Development of Electric Vehicles through the years along with their induction in the motorsport field. The Continuous Process that the engineers have taken us through to develop a more sophisticated vehicle from our initial concept will be the highlight of the Exhibition. 4) B2C Model: This method of commercialization is the revenue generated from selling the vehicle directly to customers. The cornerstone of this model is AIDA [11] which stands for Attention, Interest, Desire (or decision), Action and is the strategy which will make our customer interested and inquisitive about the car and then our product’s distinguished feature will make want the car and jolt him into the action of buying the car. Various type of advertisements will generate attention to our brand, we will add consumer education elements in those advertisements to garner the interest of the consumers. With through education about the benefits of EV there will a tangible increase in interest. Once we have gathered information about the interested consumers, we will escalate our CRM through focused drip marketing through mail, messages, ads etc and hence push our sales force to convert the customers from desire to action. We catch the attention of the customers using our varied and well thought marketing strategy. Social media plays a major role here. Our product is a unique product in an exciting field of racing. This will help in retaining the interest of the customers and make them desire the product. Our customer acquisition team will ensure that this desire motivates them to take the action of purchasing our car. The advantages to the customer are:  Ease of buying  Ease of documentation  Customizability  24/7 support  Ojas app

Conclusion The world is making efforts to reduce pollution and hence global warming. And along with this, the needs and desires of humans are rising day-by-day. The same will be applied to the racing and entertainment segments. Since the inception of electric go karts, this business model not only reduces the pollution generated by go karts running on conventional fuel but also the innovative marketing strategies which implemented all under one roof will make this industry more sustainable. Conclusively, by implementation of this business model the pollution reduces, an innovative way of generating revenue in a sustainable way is obtained and the same adrenaline gushing experience can be achieved.

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References 1. https://solarenergypanels.in/solar-power-plants/mw-solar-power-grid 2. http://www.businessenergy.com/electricity/ 3. https://solarenergypanels.in/solar-power-plants/mw-solar-power-grid 4. https://auto.ndtv.com/news/bmw-believes-premium-car-sales-in-india-will-reach-1-lakh-units-by-2020- 1257339 5. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/indias-switch-to-electric-vehicles-will-be- rapid-31m-evs-by-2040/articleshow/60403697.cms 6. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8498507.stm 7. http://www.espn.in/f1/story/_/id/21966301/f1-claims-fastest-growing-sport-brand-social-media 8. Ramachandra, T.V., Aithal, B.H. and Sreejith, K., 2015. GHG footprint of major cities in India. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 44, pp.473-495. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.036) 9. https://www.atkearney.com/consumer-goods/article?/a/consumer-wealth-and-spending-the-12-trillion- opportunity 10. https://www.zuora.com/resource/subscription-economy-index/ 11. https://www.smartinsights.com/traffic-building-strategy/offer-and-message-development/aida-model/ 12. https://www.india-briefing.com/news/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/power-rates-by-state.jpg 13. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/services/retail/retailers-report-growth-in-sales-as-big- discounts-increase-footfall-at-shopping-malls/articleshow/67374888.cms?from=mdr 14. https://www.jaguar.in/news/taopt.html 15. https://www.redbull.com/in-en/red-bull-kart-fight-2018 16. Jeevananda, S. (2018). Influence of Customer Loyalty Programs on Buying Decisions Introduction. November 2011. 17. https://smaaash.in/mumbai/about 18. https://www.team-sport.co.uk/the-grid-go-karting-club/ 19. https://smaaash.in/mumbai/attraction/sky-karting

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Development of Aluminium-based Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) using Industrial and Agro Wastes as Reinforcement-A Review †*††Amol S. Dayma, †Chetankumar Patel †School of Engineering, RK University, Rajkot, Gujrat, India ††Shivajirao S. Jondhle College of Engineering & Technology, Asangaon, Thane, Maharashtra, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) with reinforcement are robust and highly attractive for various engineering applications as reinforcement enhances mechanical properties like hardness, toughness, compressive strength and tensile strength, and performance of a given composite. The main issue associated with the use of Metal Matrix Composite is its cost of production especially due to higher reinforcement cost. This can be overcome by looking towards alternative materials which will reduce reinforcement cost. Rice husk ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, fly ash, and red mud are the various examples of agro-industrial wastes as well as easily available which can be used to reduce reinforcement cost. Agricultural-based industries produce a vast amount of residues every year. The release of these wastes to the environment without proper disposal procedure will lead to environmental pollution and harmful effect on the earth. Hence, the use of agro-industrial waste as a reinforcement material will help in converting waste into usable material by which the environmental hazards due to waste disposal is being resolved. Research shows that using agro-industrial waste will help to reduce the production cost and pollution load from the environment. Besides these, other advantages like the easy accessibility, low density, etc. also encourage to use agro-industrial waste as an alternative product. Hence in the area of material science, a lot of research opportunities is possible by developing the hybrid metal matrix composites and has been getting a lot of attention due to its low cost and environmental safety.

Keywords: Aluminium, Fly Ash, Rice Husk Ash, Silicon Carbide.

Introduction The growth of world population and increase of living standard due to technology development has increased the number of waste materials generated through industrial, mining and agriculture activities. The waste materials are hard to disposal and thus a major concern to environmental pollution. Utilization of waste materials could reduce contamination and spaces for disposal. Therefore, recycling of waste material by converting it into green material for application in automobile and construction industries is a prime concern among the current researchers. Fly ash, red mud, palm oil fuel ash (POFA), palm oil clinker (POC), rice husk ash (RHA), coconut husk and sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) are some of the examples of waste materials which have potential to be utilized in construction and automobile industries. Vast researches have been conducted but developments are still advancing for successful utilization of waste materials as partial reinforcement in composite materials. Environment-friendly, energy-efficient and cost-effective alternative materials produced from solid wastes will exhibit a good market potential to fulfil people’s needs in rural and urban areas [1]. The aluminium matrix composites (AMCs) have properties like light density, high stiffness, good strength, wear resistance, variable load resistance and good stability at a high temperature. Due to all these properties, these composites can be used for the design of different components for advanced applications [2]. Most of the researches have been carried out to develop the AMCs which reduce overall weight, fuel consumption and environmental pollution load for manufacturing different automobile and aircraft components. The different industrial and agro waste can be reinforced with aluminium in the powdered form (ashes). The ash particles, generally being hollow, display lower densities while oxides present as constituents make

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them possess high modulus and strength thereby enhancing specific strength and stiffness along with lower densities compared to many metal-based systems.

Methodology Most of the researchers worked on aluminium as base metal which was reinforced with different types of industrial and agro-waste to produce the metal matrix composite which will satisfy the current needs of the industry. Mainly the reinforcing material is classified into three categories, ceramic particulates, Industrial waste and Agro wastes. In this paper, we will review the work of AMCs based on industrial waste and Agro waste as a reinforcing material

Hybrid AMC’s using industrial waste as reinforcement material Reinforcement material Fly Ash (FA) and Red Mud are typical industrial waste gotten from the power plant and Aluminium industry respectively [3, 4]. Anilkumar et. al. [3] fabricated aluminium metal matrix composite reinforced with fly ash. Three different sets were prepared with different particle sizes of fly ash. Each set has three types of composite samples with the reinforcement weight fractions of 10, 15 and 20%. The different mechanical properties were studied. Results showed that Tensile Strength, Compression Strength and Hardness increased with the increase in the weight fraction of reinforced fly ash and decreased with increase in particle size of the fly ash. It is also observed that with an increase in the percentage of reinforcing material (fly ash), the ductility of AMC’s decreases. Industrial wastes are suggested to be suitable for use as reinforcing materials in aluminium composites. Although research work reporting the use of red mud as reinforcement in MMCs are sparse, extensive studies have been carried out on the use of fly ash as reinforcement in both single and hybrid composites [3-5]. Moorthy et. al. [6] fabricated hybrid metal matrix composite with fly ash and graphite reinforced with aluminium. Used fly ash with 3 wt.%, 6 wt.%, 9 wt.% and fixed 3 wt.% of graphite mixed with the aluminium alloy to form a hybrid composite. Experimental results revealed that there is an increase in hardness. The wear behaviour is analyzed using the Taguchi method. ANOVA was used to investigate the influence of parameters on the wear rate. The load was a very important parameter which haves the highest statistical influence on the wear rate of composites, followed by sliding speed. Bhandakkar et. al. [7] studied the influences of weight fraction of fly ash reinforcement on hardness, tensile strength and fracture toughness of aluminium MMC. The hardness of aluminium fly ash MMC increases with the addition of fly ash particulate reinforcement. However, the tensile strength and fracture toughness KIC and JIC of the aluminium fly ash composite decreases that of the base alloy. The reason for crack closure may be surface roughness resulting from reinforcement particles in the composites. The fracture behaviour and micro-mechanism of failure in base alloy and composites have been observed under SEM and optical microscopy.

Effect on Mechanical Properties Alaneme et. al. [8] developed Al matrix hybrid composites reinforced with silicon carbide with the weight percentage of 0, 2, 3 and 4 and bamboo leaf ash was added to prepare 10 % weight of reinforcement with aluminium alloy. The two-step stir casting method was used to fabricate matrix. From the results, it was observed that there is a decrease in hardness, tensile strength and % elongation of composite samples with an increase in bamboo leaf ash content. Fracture toughness of composites is better in comparison with monolithic materials or single reinforced composites 10 wt% SiC composite. Alanemea et. al. [9] investigated the behaviour of Al-Mg-Si alloy which was reinforced with alumina with the weight percentage of 0, 2, 3 and 4 and rice husk ash was added to prepare 10 % weight of reinforcement with aluminium alloy. The two-step stir casting method was used to fabricate matrix. From the results, it was observed that for less dense hybrid composite porosity is low, hardness decrease slightly with an increase in RHA content. For the 2% wt of RHA, the specific strength, percentage elongation and fracture toughness value is higher as compared to single alumina (Al2O3) reinforced. Prasad et. al. [10] double stir casting process was

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used to fabricate aluminium composites reinforced with various volume fractions of 2, 4, 6, and 8 wt% RHA and SiC particulates in equal proportions. The results show that the density of hybrid composites decreases, whereas the porosity and hardness increase with the increase in the percentage of the reinforcement. RHA & SiC particles increase the yield strength and UTS of materials. Saravanan et. al. [11] fabricated the aluminium composite using Rice Husk Ash. The RHA was reinforced in 3, 6, 9 and 12 % by weight using three different particle size which ranges from (50 – 75μm), (75 – 100μm) and (100 – 150μm). The results reveal that the tensile strength, compressive strength, ductility and hardness of the aluminium alloy composites decrease with increase in particle size of RHA. Usman et. al. [12] studied the mechanical properties of aluminium MMC reinforced with Si alloy and bagasse ash (BA). The volume fraction of Si alloy and BA were 7% and 0 % to 30%. From the results, it was clear that the density decreases with increase in reinforcement and the minimum value was observed for the 30 vol % of BA. For the other mechanical properties, results show that there is an increase in ultimate tensile strength (UTS), Young modulus and impact strength maximum value was observed at 10 vol. % of BA. The maximum value of hardness was observed at 20 vol. % of BA. Singh et. al. [13] developed the inexpensive composite material using locally available groundnut shell ash as reinforcement and mechanical properties were analyzed at 3, 6, 9 & 12% weight percentage of ash. Composite was developed using liquid metallurgy route. The microstructure images were taken by using a microscope for analyzing the distribution of groundnut shell ash. The results revealed that with the percentage reinforcement of groundnut shell ash will increase ultimate tensile strength, compressive strength and hardness of the composite. Ahamed et. al. [14] studied the Al MMC reinforced with RHA in the weight fraction of 3, 6 and 9% and Magnesium (~1%) was added as a wetting agent. The mechanical properties of pure Al alloy and composite were measured. The results show that the density decreases with the increase in reinforcement and other mechanical properties viz yield strength, ultimate strength and hardness of composites increase with the increase in reinforcement as compared to unreinforced Al alloy. Subrahmanyam et. al. [15] investigated the mechanical properties on Al356.2 alloy reinforced with locally available inexpensive rice husk ash & fly ash reinforcements. The effect of these reinforcements on the mechanical properties of Al356.2 was studied at 4:6, 5:5 and 6:4 weight % of Fly Ash (F.A) and Rice Husk Ash (R.H.A) respectively. The reinforcement’s F.A and R.H.A are added to Al356.2 through stir casting technique. Interesting facts brought into light that the hybrid cases have prominent mechanical properties than pure Al356.2 alloy. Nithyanandhanet. al. [16] investigated aluminium (6061) alloy reinforced with boron carbide (B4C) and coconut shell ash to produce hybrid composite using the stir casting method. The results showed an increase in the value of tensile strength and hardness with an increase in weight percentage of reinforcement. Gupta et. al. [17] fabricated the composite samples by varying reinforcing material percentage (3, 6 and 9) of Sugarcane bagasse ash with 3% SiC as constant for all samples, Al 7075 as a base metal. The aluminium matrix hybrid composites have been fabricated by stir casting method at 800°C and magnesium (1%) is added to overcome the wetting problem between reinforcement and liquid aluminium metal. The different test had been carried out to measure the hardness, wear and tensile strength and the results shows that the combination Al7075 + 3% SiC + 3% Bagasse ash was found to be efficient as compared to Un-reinforced matrix. Kumar S.H.et. al. [18] investigated Fabricated composites samples, Al alloy 5083 as base metal and with the varying percentage (3 and 7) reinforcing material SiC studied the mechanical of samples. it was found out that Al with 5% SiC Sample shows the optimum mechanical properties. from further more studies it was observed that the addition of fly ash and SiC show better results Rajendran et. al. [19] investigated the Al MMC fabricated using LM 30 which is a popular lightweight aluminium alloy as base metal reinforced with SiC and fly ash with the weight fraction of 6%, 12% & 18%. Specimens were stir cast in six different compositions. The results show that the elastic modulus and hardness of the AMMC was found to be increased to a certain level of the content of the SiC in the composite and then found to be decreasing. Ghosh Shouvik et. al. [20] fabricated metal matrix composite using sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) as reinforcing material, reinforced with Al6061. The composites were fabricated using stir casting technique with the volume percentage of 4-12% of SCBA. The different mechanical properties were studied.

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Fig. 1 Hardness values of Al6061/SCBA AMC [20] Fig. 2. Effect of SCBA content on tensile Strength of

AL6061/SCBA AMCs [20]

Fig. 1 & 2 show results of addition SCBA particles increase the tensile strength of the base metal. microhardness of the composite samples decreases with the increase in a weight fraction of SCBA. Ghosh Shouvik et. al. [21] fabricated metal matrix composite using rice husk ash (RHA) as reinforcing material, reinforced with Al6061. The composites were fabricated using stir casting technique with the volume percentage of 4-12% of RHA. The different mechanical properties were studied. Fig. 3 & 4 shows the results, addition of RHA particles in Aluminium alloy, there is increasing the tensile strength of the samples. Microhardness of the composite samples increases with the increase in the percentage of RHA.

Fig. 3 Hardness Values of Al6061/RHA AMC [21] Fig. 4. Effect of RHA content on tensile Strength of AL6061/RHA AMCs [21]

Tile et. al. [22] investigated some mechanical properties of a particulate strengthened Al-Mg-Si composite using groundnut shell particles in powdered and ash forms. Stir casting method was used to produce the alloy of Al-Mg-Si with 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 % weight groundnut shell particulates. The microstructures of the various alloy particulate composites produced were examined while tensile, hardness and impact properties determined. The result obtained shows that hardness values increased with increase in the amount of groundnut shell particles with the best result of 44.5 HRB at 8 % weight groundnut shell ash particulates. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strength increased with increasing particulate addition with 47 kN/mm2 at 10 % and 110 kN/mm2 at 4 % ash particulates respectively while the impact strength also showed a similar trend.

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Effect on Tribological Properties Alaneme et. al. [8] developed Al matrix hybrid composites reinforced with silicon carbide with the weight percentage of 0, 2, 3 and 4 and bamboo leaf ash was added to prepare 10 % weight of reinforcement with aluminium alloy. The two-step stir casting method was used to fabricate matrix. The corrosion resistance was checked using 5% wt NaCl solution and it was observed that for the 2% and 3% BLA containing composite, the corrosion resistance is higher as compared to single reinforced Al with 10% wt of SiC. Kumar S.H.et. al. [18] investigated Fabricated composites samples, Al alloy 5083 as base metal and with the varying percentage (3 and 7) reinforcing material SiC studied the tribological properties of samples. it was found out that Al with 5% SiC Sample shows the optimum tribological properties. from further more studies it was observed that the addition of fly ash and SiC show better results. Ghosh Shouvik et. al. [20] fabricated metal matrix composite using sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) as reinforcing material, reinforced with Al6061. The composites were fabricated using stir casting technique with the volume percentage of 4-12% of SCBA. The tribological properties were studied. It resulted that the wear depth decreases with an increase in a weight fraction of SCBA which indicates higher wear resistance. Ghosh Shouvik et. al. [21] fabricated metal matrix composite using rice husk ash (RHA) as reinforcing material, reinforced with Al6061. The composites were fabricated using stir casting technique with the volume percentage of 4-12% of RHA. It was observed that the wear depth decreases with an increase in a volume percentage of RHA which indicates higher wear resistance. The result of the tribological test shows that with the higher volume fraction of RHA, the co- efficient of friction was also high. Alaneme et. al. [23] fabricated Al–Mg–Si alloy matrix hybrid composites using RHA and SiC mixed in the weight ratios of 0:1, 1:3, 1:1, 3:1, and 1:0. Using these weight ratios the composite was fabricated using double stir casting method with the reinforcement of 5, 7.5 and 10 wt% of RHA and SiC. The corrosion resistance was checked using 3.5% wt NaCl solution and it was observed that there is an improvement in corrosive resistance. The wear rate and COF properties of the hybrid composites samples were also improved as compared to single reinforced aluminium alloy. Alaneme et. al. [24] fabricated Al-Mg-Si alloy which was reinforced with alumina with the weight percentage of 2, 3 and 4 and bamboo leaf ash was added to prepare 10 % weight of reinforcement with aluminium alloy. The double stir casting method was used to fabricate matrix. The tribological & corrosion behaviours of Aluminium matrix hybrid composites was studied in chloride medium. The Scanning Electron Microscope is used to study the wear mechanism. The results show that the corrosion resistance decreases with the increase in BLA wt percentage in 3.5 % NaCl solution. The friction coefficient and wear resistance of the composites sample containing 4 wt % Bamboo leaf ash has the highest value compared to other samples. it was also observed that there is a little improvement in wear resistance of 2 % wt & 3 % wt of BLA containing samples. From the above literature, it is clear that most of the researchers worked on aluminium metal matrix composites using different industrial and agricultural waste ashes. To reduce the cost of production of composites and reduce environmental pollution load should use the industrial and Agro-waste as reinforcing material. It was also observed that the Aluminium metal matrix reinforced with waste materials will improve the different mechanical and tribological properties as compared to pure Aluminium metal.

Conclusions The following conclusions can be drawn from the review The use of agro-industrial waste will help to reduce the production cost and pollution load from the environment. Aluminium metal reinforced with agro-industrial waste shows high specific strength, yield strength, hardness and ultimate tensile strength. The wear and corrosion resistance increases up to some satisfactory level as compared to pure aluminium alloy. The volume and weight percentage of reinforcement are to be optimized. However, using different combinations of reinforcement material to form hybrid metal matrix composite needs to be explored. More research should be carried out on nanoscale industrial and agro-waste reinforcing materials as well as production techniques to reduce the production cost.

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References 1. Lancaster, L., Lung, M.H. and Sujan, D., “Utilization of agro-industrial waste in metal matrix composites: towards sustainability” In Proceedings of World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology (No. 73, p. 1136). World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology (WASET), (2013). 2. Surappa, M.K., Aluminium matrix composites: Challenges and opportunities. Sadhana, 28(1-2), pp.319-334, (2003). 3. Anilkumar, H. C., H. S. Hebbar, and K. S. Ravishankar. "Mechanical properties of fly ash reinforced aluminium alloy (Al6061) composites” International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, 6, 41-45 (2011). 4. Panwar, N., & Chauhan, A., Development of aluminium composites using Red mud as reinforcement-A review, Recent Advances in Engineering and Computational Sciences (RAECS) (pp. 1-4). IEEE. (2014). 5. Gikunoo E, Omotoso O, Oguocha INA. Effect of fly ash particles on the mechanical properties of aluminium casting alloy A535. Mater Sci Technol, 21(2), 143–52 (2005) 6. Moorthy, Anandha, Dr N. Natarajan, R. Sivakumar, M. Manojkumar, and M. Suresh. "Dry sliding wear and mechanical behaviour of aluminium/fly ash/graphite hybrid metal matrix composite using Taguchi method." Int. J. Modern. Eng. Res., 2, 1224-1230, (2012). 7. Bhandakkar, Ajit, R. C. Prasad, and Shankar ML Sastry. "Fracture Toughness of AA2024 Aluminum Fly Ash Metal Matrix Composites."International Journal of Composite Materials 4, no. 2 ,108-124, (2014). 8. Alaneme, Keneth Kanayo, Idris B. Akintunde, Peter Apata Olubambi, and Tolulope M. Adewale. "Fabrication characteristics and mechanical behaviour of rice husk ash–Alumina reinforced Al-Mg-Si alloy matrix hybrid composites." Journal of Materials Research and Technology 2, no. 1, 60-67, (2013). 9. Alaneme, K. K., B. O. Ademilua, and M. O. Bodunrin. "Mechanical properties and corrosion behaviour of aluminium hybrid composites reinforced with silicon carbide and bamboo leaf ash." Tribology in Industry 1, no. 35, 25-35, (2013). 10. Prasad, Dora Siva, Chintada Shoba, and Nallu Ramanaiah. "Investigations on mechanical properties of aluminum hybrid composites." Journal of Materials Research and Technology 3, no. 1 ,79-85, (2014). 11. Saravanan, S. D., & Senthilkumar, M., Mechanical Behavior of Aluminum (AlSi10Mg)-RHA Composite. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 5(6), 4834-4840, (2014). 12. Usman, A. M., Raji, A., Waziri, N. H., & Hassan, M. A., Production and characterisation of aluminium alloy- bagasse ash composites. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 11(4), 38-44 (2014). 13. Singh, J., Suri, N. M., & Verma, A., effect of mechanical properties on groundnut shell ash reinforced AL6063. International Journal for Technological Research in Engineering, 2(11), 2619-2623 (2015). 14. Ahamed, A. A., Ahmed, R., Hossain, M. B., & Billah, M., Fabrication and Characterization of Aluminium-Rice Husk Ash Composite Prepared by Stir Casting Method, Journal of Science and Engineering, 44, 9-18 (2016). 15. Subrahmanyam, A. P. S. V. R., Madhukiran, J., Naresh, G., & Madhusudhan, S., Fabrication and characterization of Al356. 2, rice husk ash and fly ash reinforced hybrid metal matrix composite, International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 94, 49-56 (2016). 16. Nithyanandhan, T., Rohith, K., Sidharath, C. G., Sachin, C., & Jagadesh, S., Investigation of Mechanical Properties on Aluminium Based Hybrid Composites, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 6, 2347-6710 (2017). 17. Gupta, Shikha. "Experimental investigation of mechanical properties of bagasse ash and SiC reinforced Al 7075 alloy matrix hybrid composites manufactured by stir casting method” International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 8 (2017). 18. Kumar, S. H., Suman, K. N. S., Sekhar, S. R., & Bommana, D., Investigation of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(11), 23743-23751. (2018). 19. Rajendran, M., & Suresh, A. R., Characterisation of aluminum metal matrix composites and evaluation of thermal properties. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(2), 8314-8320, (2018).

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20. Ghosh Shouvik, Virkunwar Anwesh and Basak Ranjan, In Proceedings of TRIBOINDIA-2018 An International Conference on Tribology: Study of Mechanical and Tribological Characteristics of Aluminium Alloy Reinforced with Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (2018). 21. Ghosh Shouvik, Virkunwar Anwesh and Basak Ranjan, In Proceedings of TRIBOINDIA-2018 An International Conference on Tribology: Study of Mechanical and Tribological Characteristics of Aluminium Alloy Reinforced with Rice Husk Ash (2018). 22. Tile, J. M., Nyior, G. B., & Sidi, M. S. ‘Mechanical Properties of Al-Mg-Si/Groundnut Shell Particulate Composite Produced By Stir Casting Method’ American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) Volume-7, Issue-5, pp-247–252 (2018). 23. Alaneme, Kenneth Kanayo, Tolulope Moyosore Adewale, and Peter Apata Olubambi. "Corrosion and wear behaviour of Al-Mg-Si alloy matrix hybrid composites reinforced with rice husk ash and silicon carbide." Journal of Materials Research and Technology 3, no. 1, 9-16 (2014). 24. Alaneme, K. K., P. A. Olubambi, A. S. Afolabi, and M. O. Bodurin. "Corrosion and tribological studies of bamboo leaf ash and alumina reinforced Al-Mg-Si alloy matrix hybrid composites in chloride medium." International journal of electrochemical science 9, no. 10, 5663-5674 (2014).

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Phytochemical Screening, Total Tannin Content and Antimicrobial Properties of Different Parts of Bombax Ceiba Linn. - A Comparative Study †*V. B. SAVALIA, †D. J. PANDYA, ††N. R. SHETH †School of Pharmacy, RK University, Rajkot, India ††Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae) is tall deciduous tree distributed throughout tropical parts of India and known as Shalmali. Different parts of Bombax ceiba are useful in gastrointestinal tract, skin, gynecological and urinogenital diseases. Leaf and stem branches of B. ceiba possess ACE inhibitor, antifungal and anticholinesterase activity. While, bark and prickle of B. ceiba are used to treat acne. According to Charak Samhita and Sushrut Samhita the plant is among top ten drugs to treat sepsis, acne, wound and in burns. In present study, leaves, stem and prickles of Bombax ceiba were analyzed for its phytochemical class, total tannin content and in-vitro antimicrobial activity on 7 bacterial and 2 fungal species by agar well diffusion method. Study revealed presence of phenolics, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, carbohydrates, phytosterols and highest % tannin content, 4.98% w/w in prickles of Bombax ceiba. The results also showed that prickles methanol extract has broad spectrum and highest antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 and Staphylococcus epidermis ATCC 90028 at 25mg/ml in dimethyl sulfoxide. Thus, present study suggest that prickles are most important part of plant with respect to antimicrobial activity.

Keywords: Bombax ceiba, Antimicrobial, Phytochemical screening & Total tannin content

Introduction Bombax ceiba (Bombacaceae) is tall deciduous tree distributed throughout tropical parts of India and known as Shalmali [1]. According to Charak Samhita the plant is among top ten drugs to treat sepsis, bowel regulator and tissue regenerator [2]. According to Sushrut Samhita stem bark is useful in removing acne, hemorrhagic disorders, in wound healing and in burns [3]. According to ethnomedicinal survey leaves are used for Glandular swellings, rheumatism and antidysentery. According to ethnomedicinal survey stem and bark are useful for Bacterial, viral, protozoal infection & digestive disturbances, Boil, heartburn, heart tonic, weakness snakebite, scorpion, & spider stings. According to ethnomedicinal survey prickles for Skin troubles, acne & headache [4]. While, according to modern research leaf and stem branches of B. ceiba possess ACE inhibitor, antibacterial, antifungal and anticholinesterase activity. Plant extracts (acetone, methanol, and aqueous) were assayed for their activity against multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhi. Methanolic and aqueous extract of stembark has also shown strong antibacterial activity against multi drug resistant Salmonella typhi strains. Mangiferin isolated from ethanolic extract of Bombax ceiba has antibacterial potential and inhibited growth of Candida albicans [5, 6]. Besides many ethnomedicinal claim and recommendation in several diseases no comparative evaluation of prickles, leaf and stem of Bombax ceiba was found so our aim is to, 1) To carry out preliminary phytochemical screening of prickle, leaf and stem of Bombax ceiba. 2) To carry out total tannin content of prickle, leaf and stem of Bombax ceiba. 3) To carry out an antimicrobial activity of methanol extract of prickle, Leaf and Stem of Bombax ceiba.

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Experimental Material and Methods: Collection and identification: Prickle, leaves and stem of Bombax ceiba (B. ceiba) were collected in the month of August-September 2007, from Gir Forest, Junagadh, Gujarat. The identity of the plant was also confirmed by Department of Botany, Christ College, Saurashtra University, Rajkot. An herbarium voucher specimen no. SU/DPS/Herb/07-08/2 was deposited at the Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot. Extraction: Prickles were sun-dried while stem and leaves were shade dried and powdered by pulverizer. The powder of the drug, weighing about 150g was successively extracted in soxhlet apparatus with solvents of increasing polarity as follows, petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, acetone, methanol and water. All extracts were concentrated by distilling the solvent and the extracts were dried in oven at 50°C. Dried extracts were used further for phytochemical screening, and antimicrobial screening. Phytochemical screening: For the preliminary phytochemical investigation of prickle extracts were done according to methods described in Harborne (1973) [7] and Kokate (1997) [8]. The different extracts obtained by successive solvent extraction were tested separately for the presence of various phytoconstituents, viz. alkaloids, glycosides, carbohydrates, Phenolics and tannins, phytosterols, fixed oils and fats, proteins and amino acids, flavonoids, saponins, gums and mucilage. Total tannin content: Total tannin content was estimated different parts of Bombax ceiba by the method described in Indian Pharmacopoeia, 1996 [9,10]. Accurately weighed 0.08g of methanol extract of Bombax ceiba leaf, prickle and prickle powder were heated gently with 100ml of water. From this 100ml solution, 10ml was taken into another conical flask. 10ml of indigo carmine solution and 300ml water were added in the flask. This solution was heated at

60-70°C, and then titrated with 0.1N KMnO4 until royal blue color changes to bottle green. Then titrated dropwise until solution becomes bottle green to golden yellow in color. Similarly, Blank reading was taken by using 10ml of the indigo carmine solution alone with 300ml of water. Total tannin content was calculated using the following formula.

% Total tannins = (A-B) X Normality of KMnO4 solution X 0.004157 X 1000 Weight of drug sample taken X 0.1 Where, A = Blank reading, B = Test reading

In-vitro antimicrobial study: In-vitro antimicrobial activity of methanol extract of leaf (MLBC), stem (MSBC) and prickle (MPBC) of Bombax ceiba were determined by agar well diffusion method [11]. The media were prepared and then autoclaved at 121 ̊C for 15min and were poured on petriplates and allowed to solidify. The prepared culture plates were inoculated with a selected strain of bacteria and fungus using spread plate method. The wells were made on the agar surface with sterile borer (6mm). The extracts were poured into the well using micropipette with the concentration 25mg/ml in Dimethyl Sulfoxide were tested. The bacterial culture plates were incubated at 37 ̊ C for 24h and fungal culture plates were incubated at 25 C̊ for 7 days. The results were measured and expressed in diameter (in mm) of inhibition zone + SEM, where, n=3. Test strains used for anti-bacterial study were Escherichia coli ATCC 35218 (Ec), Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442 (Pa), Kleibsella lebsiella (Kl), Bacillus subtilis AT CC 6059 (Bs), Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778 (Bc), Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 (Sa) and Staphylococcus epidermis ATCC 90028 (Se). while test strains for anti-fungal study were Candida albicans ATCC 90028 (Ca) and Aspergilllus niger (An). Nutrient media used was Mueller Hinton Agar (HiMedia Laboratories) for anti-bacterial study and Potato-Dextrose Agar (HiMedia Laboratories) for anti-fungal study. Standards used were Gentamycin (10µg/ml) was used as a reference standard for anti-bacterial study, Fluconazole (100µg/ml) was used as a reference standard for anti-fungal study and Dimethyl sulfoxide was used as negative control during the whole test on bacteria and fungi.

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Results and Discussion Phytochemical screening: Powdered leaves, stem branches and prickles were subjected to successive solvent extraction. The results of the Preliminary Phytoprofile of successive extracts of Bombax ceiba leaves, stem branches and prickles are shown in the Table 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Methanol extracts of leaf (MLBC), stem (MSBC) and prickles (MPBC) were then subjected to various qualitative chemical tests to determine the presence of various phytoconstituents like alkaloids, glycosides, carbohydrates, phenolics and tannins. the results are reported in Table 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

Table 1 Preliminary phytochemical analysis of leaf of Bombax ceiba Class of Compound PEL BEL CEL AEL MEL WEL MLBC

Alkaloids - - + + - - + Cardiac Glycoside ------Phenolics/Tannins - - - - + + + Flavonoids - - - + + + +

Saponins - - - - + + + Fixed oils & Fats ------Proteins & Amino acids ------Gums/mucilage - - - - - + - Volatile oil ------Carbohydrates - - - - - + + Phytosterols/ Triterpenoids + + + - - - + Where, - Negative, + Positive, PEL- Petroleum ether (60-80ºC) extract of Bombax ceiba leaf, BEL-Benzene extract of Bombax ceiba leaf, CEL- Chloroform extract of Bombax ceiba leaf, AEL-Acetone extract of Bombax ceiba leaf, MEL- Methanol extract of Bombax ceiba leaf, WEL-Water extract of Bombax ceiba leaf

Table 2 Preliminary phytochemical analysis of stem of Bombax ceiba Class of Compound PES BES CES AES MES WES MSBC

Alkaloids ------Cardiac Glycoside ------Phenolics/Tannins - - - + + + + Flavonoids - - - + + + + Saponins - - - - + + + Fixed oils & Fats ------Proteins & Amino acids ------Gums/mucilage - - - - - + - Volatile oil ------Carbohydrates - - - - + + + Phytosterols/Triterpenoids + + + - - - + Where, - Negative, + Positive, PES- Petroleum ether (60-80ºC) extract of Bombax ceiba stem, BES-Benzene extract of Bombax ceiba stem, CES- Chloroform extract of Bombax ceiba stem, AES-Acetone extract of Bombax ceiba stem, MES- Methanol extract of Bombax ceiba stem, WES-Water extract of Bombax ceiba stem

Thus, leaf extracts revealed presence of Alkaloids, Cardiac glycosides, Phenolics/ Tannins, Flavonoids, Saponins, Carbohydrates and Phytosterols/Triterpenoids etc. While, stem branches showed presence of Cardiac glycosides, Phenolics/ Tannins, Flavonoids, Saponins, Carbohydrates and Phytosterols/Triterpenoids. The prickle has showed presence of Phenolics, Tannins, Flavonoids, Saponins, Carbohydrates, Phytosterols/ Triterpenoids. Preliminary qualitative chemical tests of MPBC showed the presence of Phenolics, Tannins, Flavonoids, Saponins, Carbohydrates, Phytosterols/ Triterpenoids. Alkaloids exclusively found in leaves of Bombax ceiba. Gums and

64 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) mucilage were exclusively found in stem and leaves.

Table 3 Preliminary phytochemical analysis of prickle of Bombax ceiba Class of Compound PEP BEP CEP AEP MEP WEP MPBC Alkaloids ------Cardiac Glycoside ------Phenolics/Tannins - - - + + + + Flavonoids - - - + + + + Saponins - - - - + + + Fixed oils & Fats ------Proteins & Amino acids ------Gums/mucilage ------Volatile oil ------Carbohydrates - - - - + + +

Phytosterols/ Triterpenoids + + + - - - +

Where, - Negative, + Positive, PEP- Petroleum ether (60-80ºC) extract of Bombax ceiba prickle, BEP-Benzene extract of Bombax ceiba prickle, CEP- Chloroform extract of Bombax ceiba prickle, AEP-Acetone extract of Bombax ceiba prickle, MEP- Methanol extract of Bombax ceiba prickle, WEP-Water extract of Bombax ceiba prickle

Total tannin content: Tannins are known to precipitate proteins leading to reduced secretion. Total tannin content of Bombax ceiba leaf, stem and prickles were determined by Lowenthal Permanganate titration method [10]. The method relies on the oxidation of Phenolics by potassium permanganate solution in the presence of indigo carmine as a 'redox indicator' to show the end point. Total tannin content of prickles was found highest (4.98%w/w) among three parts leaf, stem branches and prickles tested (Table 4).

Table 4 Total tannin content of different part of Bombax ceiba Parameter Average values* % w/w

Leaf Stem Prickle Total tannin content 1.18±0.04 1.66±0.05 4.98±0.22

The values given here are expressed as % w/w of dry weight. *Results are expressed as n ± SEM, where n=3.

Table 5 In-vitro Antibacterial activity of Methanol extracts of Bombax ceiba leaf, stem and prickle Tested sample Diameter of Zone of inhibition (mm± S.E.M.) Ec Pa Kl Se Sa Bs Bc MLBC(25mg/ml) 14.33±0.33 - - - - 12.00±0.20 - MSBC(25mg/ml) - - 13.66 ±0.33 16.00 ±0.88 13.66±0.66 14.00±0.57 16.33±0.88 MPBC(25mg/ml) 12.66 ±0.13 13.66±0.88 12.66±0.66 18.66±0.66 17.33±0.66 12.66±0.33 16.00±1.15 Gentamycin(10μ 15.66 ±0.33 17.66 ±0.33 15.33 ±0.33 19.00±0.57 18.66±0.66 19.66±0.33 18.33±0.33 g/ml)

Where, bore diameter- 6mm, Values are mean ± SEM; n=3, - - no activity, a:- positive control, Ec - Escherichia coli ATCC 35218, Pa - Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442, Se - Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228, Sa - Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, Bc - Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778, Bs - Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6059, Kl - Kleibsella lebsiella, MLBC – Methanol extract of leaf of Bombax ceiba, MSBC – Methanol extract of stem of Bombax ceiba, MPBC – Methanol extract of prickle of Bombax ceiba.

In-vitro Antimicrobial: The agar well diffusion method was used to determine the diameter of inhibition zones (mm) of MLBC, MSBC and MPBC. The results of antimicrobial activity of MLBC, MSBC and MPBC are reported in Table 5. for antibacterial and antifungal activity respectively. The results are also expressed graphically in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 for antibacterial and antifungal activity respectively.

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Fig. 1 Bombax ceiba tree Fig. 3 Stem of Bombax ceiba

Fig. 2 Prickle of Bombax ceiba Fig.4 Antibacterial activity of MLBC, MSBC, and MPBC of Bombax ceiba

Table 6 Antifungal activity of Methanol extracts of Bombax ceiba TESTED SAMPLE DIAMETER OF ZONE OF INHIBITION (MM) An Ca MLBC (25mg/ml) 12.66 ± 1.88 12.33 ± 0.88 MSBC (25mg/ml) 12.00 ± 0.66 21.66 ± 0.88 MPBC (25mg/ml) 19.00 ± 0.57 21.33 ± 0.18 Fluconazolea (100 μg/ml) 20.00 ± 0.33 22.00 ± 0.02 Where, bore diameter- 6mm, Values are mean ± SEM; n=3, - - no activity, a:- positive control, An - Aspergillus niger, Ca – Candida albicans ATCC 90028, MLBC – Methanol extract of leaf of Bombax ceiba, MSBC – Methanol extract of stem of Bombax ceiba, MPBC – Methanol extract of prickle of Bombax ceiba

Fig.5 Antifungal activity of MLBC, MSBC, and MPBC of Bombax ceiba

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Fig.6 MSBC against Staphylococcus epidermidis Fig.7 MPBC against Staphylococcus ATCC 12228 epidermidis ATCC 12228

The agar well diffusion method was used to determine the inhibition zones of MLBC, MSBC and MPBC at 25mg/ml concentration. Dimehtyl sulfoxide was used as negative control and as a vehicle to dissolve extract. While Gentamycin (10µg/ml) and Fluconazole (100µg/ml) were used as positive control for antibacterial and antifungal activity respectively. In-vitro antimicrobial activity of Bombax ceiba leaf extract have shown narrow spectrum, while stem have shown moderate, and prickles have shown highest as well as broad spectrum activity against many species of microbes. While MPBC have shown highest antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, with the diameter of zone of inhibitions (mm ± S.E.M.) 18.66 ±0.66, and 17.33 ± 0.66, respectively. This is very significant as both the microorganism are responsible of acne and skin diseases, respectively [12,13]. Which is in correlation with claims of Bombax ceiba plant in charak and shushrut samhita that drug is among top ten in treatment of top ten drugs to treat sepsis, wound healing and burns [2, 3]. Prickles possess broad and highest antimicrobial activity due to presence of highest 4.98±0.22 %w/w of total tannin content. Because, Tannins are known to precipitate proteins leading to reduced secretion [14]. Tannins have been reported to be bacteriostatic or bactericidal against Staphylococcus aureus [15].

Conclusions Phytochemical screening of Bombax ceiba leaf, stem and prickle revealed presence of important class of phytoconstituents. Highest total tannin content and in-vitro antimicrobial activity of prickle extract revealed that prickles are medicinally important candidate among other parts of plant with reference to antimicrobial study. Moreover, our study provides scientific proof for traditional claims of being top ten drug used for sepsis. Further research can be done to isolate and characterize phytoconstituents from prickles extracts.

Acknowledgements We are very thankful to Department of Biochemistry, Saurashtra University for their extended support.

References 1. K.R. Kirtikar, B.D. Basu, “Indian medicinal plants”, 2005, International Book Distributor, Dehradun, India, 1, 354-357. 2. Agnivesha, Charak and Dridhabala, “Charak Samhita Sidhisthana”, 2002, Verse-35, 10th Chapter, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan, New Delhi, 967. 3. Sushruta, “Sushruta samhita Sutrasthana”, 2001, Verse-45-46, 12th ed., 38th Chapter, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi, 144-5. 4. J. Vartika, S.K. Verma and S. S. Katewa, Indian. J. Tradit. Know., 8(4) 638 (2009). 5. P. Rani, N. Khullar, Phytother. Res.; 18(8), 670 (2004). 6. M. Vandana, C. Anand, Int. J. Green Pharm, 11 (3), S401- S406 (2017). 7. J.B. Harborne, “Phytochemical methods”, 1973, Chapman and Hall, London, UK, 49–188. 8. C.K. Kokate, A. P. Purohit and S. B. Gokhale, “Pharmacognosy”, 1997, 7th ed., Nirali Prakashan, Pune, India, 108-109.

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9. Indian pharmacopoeia, Government of India, Ministry of Health & Family, controller of publication, Delhi, India, Vol-2, App. 13.2, A-171(1996). 10. J. Lowenthal, About determination of tannin, Magazine for Analytical Chemistry, 16, 33 (1887). 11. M. J. Pelczar, E.C.S. Chan, and N.R. Krieg, “Microbiology” 1993, Int. Edn., Macgraw Hill, New York, 578. 12. C.G. Burkhart, C.N. Burkhart, and P. F. Lehmann, J. Postgrad., 75; 328-331 (1999). 13. S.Y.C. Tong, J.S. Davis, E. Eichenberger, T. L. Holland, and V.G. Fowler, Clin Microbiol Rev., 28(3), 603-61 (2015). 14. K. D. Tripathi, “Essentials of Medicinal Pharmacology”, 1994, Jaypee Brother, Medical Publishers, New Delhi. 15. K. T. Chung, S. E. Stevens, W. F. Lin and C.I. Wei, Letters in Applied Microbiology, Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 17, 29–32 (1993).

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Rapid Investigation of Sterols from Plumbago Zeylanica Stem †*Jayesh Dhalani, †Bhushan Chandegara, †Vishal Pathak †Department of Chemistry, School of Science, RK University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Plumbago Zeylanica, The plant is reported for many biological activities. Plumbago zeylanica plant belongs to plumbaginaceae. P. zeylanica is also known for its constituent plumbagin. Non-polar compounds present in leaves was earlier reported. It is necessary to identify compounds present in the stem. To achieve our objective of the study, Petroleum ether solvent was used to perform the extraction of compounds using soxhlet apparatus. Saponification process was carried out to separate saponifiable and unsaponifiable matter. Diethyl ether solvent was used to extract the non-polar compounds. Further sodium sulfate was used to remove moisture from the extract. Further Gas chromatography-Mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis were performed to identify all non-polar compounds present in extract using National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) data. Three sterol compounds were identified with good separation in GC-MS graph i.e. γ-sitosterol, taraxasterol, and lanosterol. Nowadays, advancements in chromatography technique make it easier to identify compounds with micro-level quantity. GC-MS is one of the powerful chromatographic tool to identify compounds matched with the stored pattern. Here the objective of study was achieved with three sterol biologically active compounds with reproducible GC-MS method. Investigation of non-polar compounds from the stem was here achieved. Researchers should take the initiative to isolate compounds or investigate polar compounds present in P. zeylanica stem.

Keywords: GC-MS, Plumbago Zeylanica, taraxasterol, lanosterol, γ-sitosterol

Introduction Plumbago zeylanica plant has functional medicinal importance [1]. P. Zeylanica is mostly available in Africa, Asia west zone [2]. The plant is reported for many biological activities [3]. The plant is reported for its biologically active compound plumbagin. The plant is reported for anti-hyperglycemic, central nervous system stimulatory, anti-carcinogenic activity, antifungal, antioxidant, cardio-protective, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory [3-7]. P. zeylanica plant contents many chemical compounds [8]. Phytochemical screening shows alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, fatty acids, saponins, carbohydrate, steroid presence in plant [9-10].

Experimental Material and Methods Petroleum ether, diethyl ether, glacial acetic acid (GAA), Potassium hydroxide, n-hexane, methanol, anhydrous sodium sulfate, ethyl acetate and thin layer chromatography (TLC) F254 plate were used. Chemicals and TLC were purchased from Merck (India) Ltd. Preparation of extracts [11] Plant dried materials stem was ground. 90.937 gm dried powder was extracted with petroleum ether in soxhlet extractor at 60-80˚C, to get the extract of pet. ether i.e.1.069 gm. Dried Petroleum ether extract was further processed to saponification. Saponification [12-14] Pet. ether extract obtained from continuous extraction was then suspended in 20% alcoholic KOH in a round bottom flask. This solution was then refluxed for 6 hours. After it was refluxed, the solution was collected in a separating

69 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) funnel, and 30 ml distilled water was added. 80 ml of diethyl ether was added to the separating funnel stirred, shaken and then left to stand for the separation of layers. The unsaponifiable fraction was separated. Unsaponifiable fraction The unsaponifiable fraction was washed with water until it became neutral and then dried with sodium sulphate [15]. It was filtered and dried. The obtained dry unsaponifiable matter was 0.178 gm. The unsaponifiable extract was further dissolved in di-ethyl ether and gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis was performed. GC-MS Protocol Agilent Technologies Model 5977B MS occupied to 7820A GC was used to analyze. HP-5 capillary column (30 m×0.32 mm i.d.; 0.25µm film thickness) was used. The column temperature was initially held at 60 oC for 5 min, then increased to 100 oC with the rate of 10 oC/min, hold for 1 min further rise temperature to 150oC with rate of 10 ᵒC/min, hold for 10 min after that increased temperature up to 200oC with rate of 10 ᵒC/min, hold time 10 min, continue to 250oC with rate of 10 ᵒC/min, hold time 10 min. Rise the temp. to 300 oC with a rate of 10 ᵒC/min and hold time 5 min. MS was operated at 230 oC, transfer line at 260 oC, Electron impact (EI) ionization was at 1195.2 EMV. The helium flow rate was 1.3 ml/min. sample was dissolved in ether and injection volume was 1 µl. The mass range was 50-850 Amu. Compounds were identified by NIST 14 Library.

Results and Discussion Experiment results showed that there are three non-polar chemical entities present in the P. Zeylanica stem. (Fig. 1)

Compound-1(VB-1_2): γ- sitosterol, Molecular Formula (M.F.)- C29H50O, Molecular Weight (M.W.) - 414.71, Retantion time (RT)- 48.349, Peak area- 56.44%. GC-MS fragment: The peak at 48.349 minutes had a mass [M+] 414.4. The daughter, ion spectra of the compound, revealed the characteristic fragments m/z 145.1, 213.2, 255.2, 329.3, 414.4.

Compound-2(VB-1_2): Taraxasterol, M.F.- C30H50O, M.W. - 426.72, RT-49.553, Peak area – 33.79%. GC-MS fragment: The peak at 49.553 minutes had a mass [M+] 426.7, the daughter ion spectra of the compound revealed the characteristic fragments m/z 189.2, 207.2, 218.2, 411.4, 426.7.

Compound-3(VB-1_2): Lanosterol, M.F.-C30H50O, M.W. - 426.72, RT-51.115, Peak area – 9.76%. GC-MS fragment: The peak at 51.115 minutes had a mass [M+] 426.72. The daughter, ion spectra of the compound, revealed the characteristic fragments m/z 137.2, 159.2, 187.1, 229.2, 259.2, 393.4, 411.4, 426.7. Chemical compounds can be categorised in polar and non-polar. Here we have tried to identify non-polar compounds which present in stem of P. Zeylanica. Many chemical compounds are reported from P. Zeylanica but that is from leaves. No one has reported this compound from the stem. Here we are first time reporting this compound from the stem of P. Zeylanica. GC-MS method which we developed here will be utilised for identification of non-polar compounds in any plant. GC-MS method will be used for identification of sterol from any herbal products or any chemical mixture.

Fig. 1 GC graph of unsaponifiable matter

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Conclusions Recent advancements in chromatography, i.e. flash chromatography, Thin layer chromatography mass spectrometry (TLC-MS), High performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), preparative High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), are powerful techniques. It is beneficial to identify and isolate the compound from the plant. Spectroscopy i.e. mass, Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Infrared (IR) also helpful to characterised isolated unknown compounds from the plant. 2D-NMR technique i.e. Heteronuclear Multiple Bond Coherence (HMBC), Heteronuclear Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) interpretation provides a clear structure of the unknown compound. GC-MS which is a combination of chromatography and mass spectrometry techniques with NIST database. GC-MS gives direct identification of a compound. Here we have identified three bioactive reported compound. Researchers should take the initiative to identify or isolate the fatty acid or polar compound from the stem of P. Zeylanica. Acknowledgements We are thankful to RK University for providing research facility at Bio-research and characterisation centre and Dr. Anjisha Maharshi, Assistant Professor, School of Science, RK University for plant identification.

References 1. J.M. Dalziel, The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. London: The Crown Agents for the Colonies, 424, (1959). 2. J.A. Olagunju, A.A. Jobi, O. Oyedapo, An Investigation into the Biochemical Basis of the Observed Hyperglycaemia in Rats Treated with Ethanol Root Extract of Plumbago zeylanica, Phyto. Res., 13, 346–348, (1999). DOI:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(199906)13:4<346::AID-PTR444>3.0.CO;2-D. 3. A. Sharma, N.A. Singh, Multifarious Potent Herb: Plumbago Zeylanica –A Mini Review, Inter. J. of Rec. Scie. Res., 6, 4825-4829. (2015). 4. H. Yen-ju, L. Lei-Chwen, T. Tung-Hu, Measurement and pharmacokinetic study of plumbagin in a conscious freely moving rat using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry, J. chromate. B, 844, 1-5 (2006). DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.06.024. 5. W. Yuan-chuen, H. Tung-liang, High performance liquid chromatography for quantification of plumbagin, an anti-helicobecter pylori compound of plumbago zeylanica, J Chromato. A, 1094, 99-104 (2005). DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2005.07.092. 6. M. Vanisree, T. Hsin-Sheng, Plant cell culture- an alternative and efficient source for the production of biologically important secondary metabolites, Int. J. Appl. Sci. Eng., 2, 29-48, (2004). 7. B. Eldhose, M. Gunawan, R. Mahbubur, M.S. Latha, V. Notario, Plumbagin reduces human colon cancer cell survival by inducing cell cycle arrest and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, Int. J. of Oncology, 45, 1913-1920, (2014). doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2014.2592. 8. G.O. Ajayi, J. A. Olagunju, O. Ademuyiwa, O. C. Martins, Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis and phytochemical screening of ethanolic root extract of Plumbago zeylanica, J. of Medicinal Plants Res., 5, 1756-1761, (2011). 9. K. Subhash, A.S. Wabale, M.N. Kharde, Phytochemical Screening and Antimicrobial Studies on Plumbago zeylanica L, Adva. in Biores., 4, 115-117, (2013). 10. A. Roy, N. Thakran, N. Bharadvaja, Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Profile Analysis of In-Vitro Grown Accessions of Plumbago zeylanica, Nat. Pro. Chem. & Res., 6, 1-5, (2018). Doi:10.4172/2329-6836.1000320. 11. J. Dhalani, G. Dubal, A. Patel, P. Nariya, Isolation and identification of non-polar chemical entity from Leptadenia Reticulata aerial Parts, Asian J. of Pharma. and Clinical Res., 12, 226-229, (2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2019.v12i2.28683. 12. D.F. El-Kashef, N.E. Hamed, H.E. Khalil, M.S. Kamel, Investigation of the Unsaponifiable and Saponifiable Matters of Pachypodium lamerei Drake Leaves and Stems by GC/MS. J. of Pharma. and Phyto., 3, 128-132 (2014).

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13. P. Nariya, V. Shukla, R. Acharya, M. Nariya, P. Bhatt, C. Pandit, R. Tada, Isolation and Characterization of phytosterols from Cordia Macleodii (HOOK F AND THOMSON) bark by Chromatographic and spectroscopic method, Asi. J. of Pharm. and cli. res., 7, 86-88, (2014) 14. J. Dhalani, K. Kapadiya, M. Pandya, G. Dubal, P. Imbraj, P. Nariya, An approach to identify sterol entities from Abrus Precatorius’s seeds by GC-MS, J. of Sci. & Indu. Res., 77, 297-300, (2018). http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/44286 15. H. Obana, M. Okihashi, K. Akutsu, S. Taguchi, S. Hori, Drying ability of anhydrous sodium sulfate on wet organic solvents after liquid-liquid partition, Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi 42, 148-153, (2001).

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A Review on Electrochromic Materials for Smart Window Applications: Past, Present and Future †*††MINAL A. BHATT, †ASHISH R. TANNA †Department of Physics, School of Science, RK University, Rajkot, India ††Sir P.P. Institute of Science, M. K. Bhavnagar University, Bhavnagar, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract In present day technology is growing due to variety of novel materials whose properties are suitably as per the requirements. In this era of modern technology, production and conservation of energy are of most important aspects. Electrochromic materials have unique property which possess application in the area of smart materials and thin film technology for smart glass. Electrochromic materials are also known as smart materials because it shows color changing properties when voltage is applied. Electrochromic materials like Tungsten Trioxide, Titanium dioxide, Vanadium Pentoxide are transition metal oxide materials and they have large scope of industrial application. With the help of these unique materials Electrochromic Devices (ECDs) can be made. These manufactured devices are popularly known as smart window, Photovoltaic Electrochromic Device (PV-EC) and Electrochromic Thin film. Electrochromic smart windows can play an important role for energy saving as well as for controlling the visual and thermal conditions inside the room. Electrochromic display device can be proved one of the most powerful candidates for this purpose. ECD has various merits such as multicolor, high contrast and optical memory. Performance ratio, production technique and selection of materials for ECDs are affecting factors to produce cost effective future smart windows.

Keywords: Electrochromism, ECD, PV-EC, Smart Window

Introduction In recent era Electrochromic device has huge interest in academic and industry fields. ECDs have both research and commercial applications because of their controllable transmission [1]. For this reason, major revolution in energy technology is essential, which will impact on globally. Hence it is important to note that energy savings and to build healthy environment for future generation play vital role [2]. Chromogenic materials are such wide class of materials which could dynamically change their property by minimizing the energy consumption and gives ‘smart’ response to the surrounding conditions. A brief review about combining the solar energy for producing the energy efficient, comfortable and healthy indoor environments is discussed here. Now a days global warming is receiving worldwide consciousness issue. To generate healthy environment, new concept of electrochromic smart windows has an important tool in the field of energy efficient and environmentally devices [3]. The smart windows can be made up as per the requirement of climate conditions. The Electrochromism and photochromism are impactful concepts of chromogenic technologies from which smart window concept can be developed. The importance of electrochemical technology is increasing because it is related to green technology [4]. ECDs are mainly focus on cooling environment in building construction. With the help of smart windows if we control heat entering in the building than automatically reduced the artificial cooling environment of building which give us major advantage of energy saving. As global warming is major issue for all the countries and if development of smart window is convert in large scale manufacturing device then it may help to reduce heating effect which is generated by human machines.

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Electrochromism Electrochromism is such kind of characteristic in which the color of a material changes when electrical field is applied [3]. Oxidation and reduction process is main function of transition metal oxide materials [5]. Using solar radiation (with particular wavelength) and small amount of electric field, chromic materialsare capable to change color [6]. Electrochromic materials are used to control the amount of light and heat allowed to pass through a surface, most commonly known as smart windows [5]. Recent advancement in EC technology is towards nanotechnology [7]. Present technology is driving us some new device with the help of EC materials. Special consideration is given to the energy savings and electrochromic glazing technology. Chromic materials are discovered in early 1900s but the main concept behind this phenomenon to develop such devices which are helpful to green environment for earth atmosphere till important.

Electrocromic Materials and their Applications Electrochromic materials are developed because of its rare quality of appearance. These EC materials are mainly classified into three categories as Conducting Polymers, Viologens and Electrochromic oxides. Materials like WO3,

TiO2, NiO, V2O5 are known as electrochromic transition metal oxide materials which are consider as inorganic electrochromic materials. Among all inorganic materials, WO3 have high coloration efficiency, fast response time and long life [5]. Others include molybdenum, titanium and niobium oxides, but all these are less effective optically. Viologens have been commercially used as organic materials. There are other conducting polymers like polypyrrole, PEDOT and polyaniline [5] useful to manufacture large scale for industries. Electrochromic device (ECD) normally protect Indore environment from outside heating effect. This kind of device or thin film is normally focusing on optical properties like transmittance, absorption and [5]. In new generation of material science this kind of materials are section as smart materials and particularly ECDs are useful in application like smart window, electrochromic mirrors and electrochromic display. In this paper, we discuss about inorganic electrochromic materials and their applications.

Table 1 Cathodic and anodic electrochromic materials [8] Cathodically ion Anodically ion Color of oxidized Color of reduced insertion materials insertion materials state state MoO3 ---- Transparent Blue V2O5 ---- Yellow Blue-Black Nb2O5 ---- Yellow Blue WO3 ---- Transparent Blue ---- In(OH)3 Blue Black Transparent ---- Ni(OH)2 Brown-bronze Transparent/green

There are various electrochromic materials and devices actually in the market, having various application like in automobile sector as rear view mirrors and sunroofs. Alphanumeric displays and electrochromic mirrors have also been produced. Some other applications of ECDs, particularly, for architectural applications depends on reducing costs, increasing device lifetime and overcoming the problem of ECD degradation. Smart window concept is new discovery of electrochromic technology and it has lots of focus on environment friendly atmosphere for mankind. Photo-electrochromic systems which changes color electrochemically but only on being illuminated may be more appropriate candidates for smart windows [9].

Electrochromic Devices (ECDs) The history of chromogenics dates back to 1704, when Diesbach discovered the chemical coloration in Prussian blue [10]. Later, a color change in tungsten oxide was observed. The ability to modify optical properties from transparent

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to dark/opaque upon insertion/extraction of charge reversibly under a small applied voltage which marked the beginning of extensive research on electrochromism and on a number of other transition metal oxides. Fig. 1 shows a generic electrochromic device comprising five superimposed layers on a single transparent substrate or positioned between two transparent substrates [1]. Its variable optical transmittance ensues from the electrochromic films, which change their optical absorption when ions are inserted or extracted via a centrally positioned electrolyte. Normally the substrates are made of glass or flexible polyester foil [7] and central part is pure ion conductor. This ion should be H+, Li+, Na+ and K+ [8-9]. This ion conductor is sandwiched in between two electrochromic layers [9]. This central three layers structure is positioned between electrically conducting transparent film known as ITO.

_ ++ + + _

++ _ ++ _

_ + + - _

Fig. 1 Four- layers electrochromic device design __

The description of this layered thin film device is as follows:1) Glass 2) ITO 3) Electrochromic material and 4) Electrolyte after this fourth layer, this will repeat in another side. In between the electric field is applied. Transition Metal Oxide (TMO) films have been deposited by several techniques such as Vacuum evaporation, sputtering, Spray deposition, electrodeposition, chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel method etc. [8]. The generalized equation for electrochromic reaction is + 푊푂3 + 푥푀 + 푥푒̅ → 푀푥푊푂3

Another study indicate that mixed oxides based on tungsten can exhibit properties that are superior then those of the pure oxide [3]. Thin film of these materials can be made by different deposition techniques like Physical Vapor deposition (PVD), thermal evaporation, sputtering, e-beam evaporation, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and sol- gel techniques [10]. Literature suggests that electrochromic windows can be more beneficial than conventional window technology [11, 12]. These kind of windows reduced cooling loads and electric lighting by managing daylight admittance [12]. To develop the effective ECDs the structural properties of materials can also be modified. It is shown in one of the studies that nanostructure materials shown more efficient ECDs [13]. To measure thermal radiation of the cell, a setup of sensors can be used. Simulation technique proves the relation between practical radiation data and logical analysis [14]. The term 'smart' window was discovered in 1984 and got immediate attention from researchers as well as environmentalists [15]. One study suggests that EC windows can reduce the peak electricity demand for cooling during summer and heating during winter and it contributing towards the further reduction of the Green-house Gas emission [16]. One of the studies indicates that there has been dedicated work of electrochromism carried out for its possible application in electro-optical devices but the major problem is slow switching time of ECDs [17]. Many insertion materials in thin films modified optical properties of electrochromic devices [17, 18]. Research area of EC smart windows are mainly target some materials which gives fast and smart response in presence of radiation and show their electrochromic properties very fast. Nickel oxides is one of the best candidate for smart window application. Different deposition methods are available for thin film making process in which Nickel oxide is plays important role as counter electrode layer [19, 20]. When nanotechnology aspects are adding in thin film making process for ECDs then parameters of ECDs will change gradually. With the help of nano structured TiO2/WO3 films one can increase the time of ECD coloration which is small as 2 secs and its coloration efficiency is high as 35.7 cm2/C [21]. Electrochromic smart window is able to block ultraviolet, visible or (near) infrared light immediately. This ability to control of light, shows another use of smart window in which

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energy efficiency of indoor space is increasing and reducing heat consumption of building. Smart window working can be estimated with the help of simple method; when solar radiation incident on it then with regard to its working ability the transmittance, color and bleaching effect can be measured [11]. New idea of smart window is in absorption and reflection wavelength ranges because electrochromic devices are mostly working on different wavelength but if this device is conventional for particular wavelength then it is more useful for environment control inside the building as compare to outside. For this point of view one new concept is developed in which a device capable of covering the 400-750 nm range in the dark state and low-absorbance coverage or no absorption coverage in the bleached state and these kind of device is specially known as black ECDs [22].

Current Developments in Smart Windows Recent technology and development in smart windows are more environment friendly and effective for residential application purpose. The main focus of smart window technology is to reduce manufacturing cost and increase life cycle of it. Through different deposition method and doped techniques one can easily change some basic properties of smart windows another aspect is to create low cost smart windows as per demand of market [23, 24]. A new concept of integration between electrochromic (EC) and thermochromic (TC) systems is important for functional smart window. It is solid state multifunctional smart window in which WO3 based EC and VO2 based TC cells were integrated into a single device, which is hybrid type of smart window [25, 26]. EC layer modulates optical transmission and TC layer regulates solar energy transmission to the surrounding temperature [27]. Commercial manufacturing of smart windows is focused on thermal transmittance, visible solar transmittance, solar factor, switching time and contrast ratio [28]. Recent development of smart window technology is known as PV-EC devices (Fig. 2) in which Silicon Thin film solar cell (Si-TFSCs) is fabricated and it is successful buildup of Electrochromic thin films(ECTFs). In this smart window thin film, electric current is generated by Si-TFCSs and this current helps ECTFs in coloration [29-30].

Electrochromic layer and substrate

Si thin film solar cell

Fig.2 Schematic diagram of PV-EC device

To build healthy environment for future generation, now a days green building [31] concept, self-powered electrofluorochromic (EFCDs) has huge attraction. For this, solar cell fabrication with electrochromic material and fluorescent component can be one of the options as self-powered device. For EFCDs, without any additional external bias the fabrication is started coloration process [32]. PV-EC devices are basically photovoltaic application of electrochromic smart materials and therefore PV-EC is the batter option for future generation of smart windows [33]. EC windows can active and effective elements in a buildings envelope which save energy up to 50% and also provides better thermal insulation as these are useful in hotter and cooler surrounding environment [34]. Electrochromic coatings for controlled light transmission are useful in markets as switchable device. But electrochromic window technology is not cost-effective for residential application [35].

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Conclusion In recent years, a lot of attention is on the modification of physical and chemical properties of various electrochromic materials to make them commercially viable. This has brought various electrochromic materials and devices actually in the market in automobile and displays applications. To enhance commercial applications of ECDs, particularly, for architectural, the affecting factors are reducing costs, increasing device lifetime and overcoming the problem of ECD degradation. Further, existing smart windows require an external power source for their operation. Photo-electrochromic systems which changes color electrochemically but only on being illuminated may be more appropriate candidates for smart windows. Electrochromic devices can be useful for modulation of radiation in the near infrared, thermal infrared and microwave region. The photo-electrochromic materials and devices for large area window applications will be potential candidates for future developments.

References 1. Electrochromic Mater. Devices: An Introduction to Materials and Devices, C. G. Granqvist, 2015, Wiley - VCH Verlag GmbH & Co., Germany,p. 1–40, (2015). 2. K. J. Patel, G. G. Bhatt, J. R. Ray, P. Suryavanshi, and C. J. Panchal, J. Solid State Electrochem., 21, 337– 347(2017). 3. C. G. Granqvist, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., 25, 2907–2912(2005). 4. S. I. Park et al,Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. - Green Technol., 3, 397–421(2016). 5. V. R. Buch, A. K. Chawla, and S. K. Rawal, Mater. Today Proc., 3, 1429–1437(2016). 6. E. Environ, A. Cannavale, M. Manca, F. Malara, and L. De Marco, “Energy and Environmental Science.,7, 2567–2574(2011). 7. D. T. Gillaspie, R. C. Tenent, and A. C. Dillon, J. Mater. Chem., 20,9585–9592(2010). 8. M. Jayachandran, R. Vijayalakshmi, V. Ravindran, and C. Sanjeeviraja, Adv. Electrochem. Sci. Technol., 40, 42–61(2005). 9. A.G. Niklasson and C.G.Granqvist, J. Mater. Chem.17, 127–156 (2007). 10. S. A. Agnihotry, Bull. Electrochem.,12, 707–712(1996). 11. A. Azens and C. G. Granqvist, J. Solid State Electrochem., 7, 64–68(2003). 12. P. Reviewed, L. Berkeley, and B. Cancer, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,35–43 (2010). 13. J. Leng et al., Chem. Soc. Rev., 48,3015–3072(2019). 14. M. N. Assimakopoulos, A. Tsangrassoulis, G. Guarracino, and M. Santamouris, Energy Build., 36, 415– 422(2004). 15. A. Pawlicka, Recent Pat. Nanotechnol., 3, 177–181(2009). 16. C. G. Granqvist, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 60, 201–262(2000). 17. P. Baudry, M. A. Aegerter, D. Deroo, and B. Valla, J. Electrochem. Soc., 138, 460–465(1991). 18. V. Kotok and V. Kovalenko, Science & Engineering (2016). 19. R. Baetens, B. P. Jelle, and A. Gustavsen, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 94, 87–105(2010). 20. W. Cheng et al, iscience,10, 80–86(2018). 21. N.N.Dinh, H.D. Ninh, T.T. Thao &T Vo-Van, J. Nanomater.2012 (2012). 22. T. Jarosz,K. Gebka, A Stolarczyk and W Domagala, Polymers (Basel).11, 1–18 (2019). 23. R. C. Tenent, D. T. Gillaspie, A. Miedaner, P. A. Parilla, C. J. Curtis, and A. C. Dillon,J. Electrochem. Soc., 157(2010). 24. S. Kondrateva, P. Bespalova, G. K. Baryshev, and M. Mishin, Key Eng. Mater., 822, 781–786(2019). 25. S. Kim, M. Taya, and C. Xu, J. Electrochem. Soc., 156, 40–45(2009). 26. C. Liu, I. Balin, S. Magdassi, I. Abdulhalim, and Y. Long, 23,4565–4570 (2015). 27. S. J. Lee et al., ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng., 7, 7111–7117(2019).

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28. S. Sibilio et al., Int. J. Heat Technol., 34, S481–S488(2016). 29. L. M. Huang, C. P. Kung, C. W. Hu, C. Y. Peng, and H. C. Liu, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 107,390– 395(2012). 30. K. Ahn, S. Jong, and M. Kang, J.Power Sourse, 168, 533–536(2007). 31. L. M. Huang, C. W. Hu, H. C. Liu, C. Y. Hsu, C. H. Chen, and K. C. Ho, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 99, 154–159(2017). 32. J. Sun, Y. Li, J. Sun, Z. Zhu, Y. Zhai, and S. Dong, Chem. Commun.,55, 12060–12063(2019). 33. F. Lin et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 5,301–309(2013). 34. S. Papaefthimiou, E. Syrrakou, and P. Yianoulis, Thin Solid Films, 502, 257–264(2006). 35. M. P. Browne, H. Nolan, N. C. Berner, G. S. Duesberg, P. E. Colavita, and M. E. G. Lyons, Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., vol. 11, 6636–6647(2016).

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Methods of Measuring Intrinsic Foot Muscle Strength: A Systemic Review †*AMIT SHARMA, †PRIYANSHU V RATHOD †School of Physiotherapy, RK University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract A concept of core stability recently extended to the arch of the foot where the support in provided by both extrinsic (global movers) and intrinsic (local stabilizers) foot muscle. Intrinsic muscle act as stabilizers for Medial Longitudinal Arch (MLA) and weakness of these muscle associated with the height of the Navicular bone which is directly linked with the morphology of the foot and can cause varieties of foot disorders and deformity. The purpose of this analysis is to offer a systemic review of the research directed toward the evaluation of different method to measure intrinsic foot muscle strength in terms of their reliability and validity. The search will be performed using PRISMA Guidelines, relevant keywords will be used for the search through the electronic database PubMed, PEDro, MEDLINE, SCOPUS, CINAHL and Cochrane Reviews till November 2019 to locate the scientific research on method of Intrinsic foot strength Measurement. Downs and Black Checklist is used to assess the methodological quality of intervention studies. The abstract of the located articles will be read to select the appropriate article and full text was evaluated of the relevant research. There is no broadly recognized technique of determining intrinsic foot muscle strength. Some of the design use Hand-held dynamometry which limits toe curling, which is hypothesized to enhance the activity of intrinsic toe flexor muscles. Also, most methods do not take position of ankle in consideration as it directly influences the action of extrinsic muscle and help to isolate the planter intrinsic muscle. Measurement of Planter intrinsic muscle strength in isolation still possess a major challenge among clinicians. Most Hand-held dynamometry appears to be a promising method if the position of ankle should be taken care and some of the clinical method is used to isolate the intrinsic muscle.

Keywords: Foot, Muscle, Toes, Muscle strength, Dynamometer

Introduction Human feet are made up of 29 muscles which can be divided into two distinct groups. There are 10 extrinsic muscle which originate outside the foot and 19 intrinsic muscles which originate and act in the foot itself. [1] Over the year it is believed that the role of intrinsic muscles are gradually diminishing since the use of footwear and over the year these muscle become rudimentary to the human foot which is partially correct also for the dorsal intrinsic muscle [2]. A foot core system described by McKeon PO et.al [3] help us to understand that these four-layer plantar intrinsic muscle act as local stabilizers and help in medial arch support with extrinsic muscle which act as the global movers. [4,5]. Weakness of intrinsic muscle may cause problem directly related to the foot morphology and pain like claw toes, pes planes, pronated foot, heal pain, planter fasciitis etc. [2, 6-14]. The overuse and weakness of these intrinsic muscle are responsible for the development of foot disorders and there is a need for a reliable and valid instrument to measure the weakness of these muscle. There are distinct methods available to meet this demand [12-24], but till now there is not a single fixed method or instrumentation available which is regarded as most appropriate way to measure the foot intrinsic muscle. Therefore, the aim of this review was to evaluate the different instrument who claimed to measure intrinsic foot muscle strength.

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Material and Methods Relevant keywords will be used for the search through the electronic database PubMed, PEDro, Cochrane Library & Google Scholar from Jan 2011 till December 2019. An open source reference management software Zotero was used to manage bibliographic data and related research materials. Keywords used are related to the intrinsic muscle and tools to measure their strength are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Keywords used for search in electronic database 1 Intrinsic foot muscle

2 Intrinsic foot muscle measurement

3 Intrinsic foot muscle strength

4 Toe Dynamometer

5 Hand held dynamometer

6 Fixed Dynamometer

7 Planter Plates

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Diagram [25] is used to report this systemic review. Inclusion Criteria . Study associated with the role of intrinsic foot muscles . Study allied to the anatomy of intrinsic foot muscles . Study relating the strength measurement of intrinsic foot /toe muscles . Study related to Toe Dynamometry . Study related to the clinical investigation of foot intrinsic muscle . Publication in peer-reviewed journals . Publication is in between Jan 1999-Dec 2019 . Full-text English language articles . Exclusion Criteria . Grey Literature . Predatory Journals . Unpublished articles . Personal Blogs . Press column Further the methodological quality of intervention studies was assessed using the Downs and Black checklist [26]. The abstract of the located articles will be read to select the appropriate article and full text was evaluated of the relevant research. General procedure: The related research material in managed in the Zotero and the duplicate research article was cancelling out and the PRISMA Flow Diagram is created (Figure 1) by using the online URL http://prisma.thetacollaborative.ca Downs and Black checklist is used to measure the methodological quality of 123 articles are assessed by and based on its criteria only 63 articles were eligible for the final list with the average score of 22 which is good in terms of the grading of the scale. The scoring of the scale was done by the reviewer and the external reviewer both and the discrepancies were sorted out in the one to one meeting

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Fig. 1: PRISMA Flow Diagram

Detection Method: The full text of these 63 Research articles were reviewed for and different method and tools used for measurement of planter intrinsic muscle were listed.

Results and Discussion There are variety of Instrument and techniques, clinical test and laboratory test which are directly used to for the measurement of the muscular force of planter intrinsic muscle [11, 14, 18, 19, 27, 28]. One thing is very certain in all the literature that all the direct method measure only the toe flexor muscle force and other action of the intrinsic muscle like abduction or extension is seldom measured in the literature. Since toe flexion use both intrinsic muscle and extrinsic muscle it is very difficult to tell whether these techniques are measuring the intrinsic muscle or extrinsic muscle as no instrument and laboratory testing isolate the intrinsic muscle and these muscle also work in group so it is very difficult to isolate the action of these muscle with the help of Direct measure. The major instrumentation and the special test which are mainly used in measuring the strength of Planter intrinsic muscle are listed in the Table 2.

Table 2 Direct instrumentation and testing for the strength of Planter intrinsic muscle Instrumentation Special test Toe Dynamometry Paper Grip Test Pressure Plate Intrinsic positive Test

Toe Dynamometry There are 12 research articles in which the investigation of intrinsic muscle strength was measured by the Dynamometer in most of the research the hand held Dynamometer is used and some of the instrument are tailor made for the purpose of research these instrument either use straight away or they are a part of one architecture which is designed in terms of measuring the planter muscles the summery of these articles are mentioned in Table 3. One more significant consideration while determining intrinsic muscle strength is the position of the ankle joint. Spink and co-workers [28] in their study hypothesised about it, according to them if we can control the ankle passively and maintain it in plantarflexion while measuring the planter intrinsic muscle it will put the external muscle of the foot which are generally prime movers in shortened position and they will generate minimal force in this position. None of the instrument put the ankle plantarflexion while recording the toe flexor strength.

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Table 3 Various Toe Dynamometer claim to use for planter muscle strength Research Paper Instrument Comment Daisuke U et.al (2012) [29] Dynamometer This dynamometer promotes the toe flexion but Daisuke U et.al (2014) [30] (T.K.K.3361) also it allows the curling of the toes which is Yasuhiro Y et.al (2018) [37] action of the extrinsic muscle. Pushing mechanism also promote the flexion at the IP Joint Sarah R et.al (2017) [31] Custom-made Doming Action of the feet with hand held Spinke M et.al (2010) [28] dynamometer dynamometer certainly activates some of the (Rowley et al) extrinsic muscle Masuao S et.al (1999) [32] The Brannock device with handheld Dynamometer All these instruments certainly cause the flexion Dustin AB et.al (2019) [33] Handheld of the IP Joint which enhance activity in the Dynamometer extrinsic muscle. Rachel H.A et.al (2003) [34] Toe Dynamometer

Benjamin et.al (2015) [35] Hand held Among all the instrument Hand held Dynameter Dynamometer is close to accuracy while measuring the intrinsic muscle strength as it promote the Kwon et.al (2011) [36] flexion at MTP while IP remains in Extention

Paper grip test The Paper Grip Test has a two variant PGT 1 and PGT 2 used to measure the intrinsic muscle strength in Great toe (PGT 1) and combined lesser toes (PGT 2) this test is performed by the help of piece of paper just like the visiting card. the PGT1 is capable of selectively demonstrating intrinsic foot muscle weakness and it is having outstanding interrater (ICC 0.87) [38] and reasonable interrater reliability (ICC 0.56) [39] while measuring patients with leprosy and healthy individuals. Moreover, as the participant demonstrate these test they tend to curl their toe and this action is subjected to the extrinsic muscle of foot, the EMG experiment shows that the extrinsic muscles were also activated during the PGT [38] Therefore this test validity in questionable as it probable assess both planter intrinsic and Foot extrinsic muscle strength.

Pressure Sensors Plantar pressure sensors can calculate the strength in terms of force beneath the toes. These instrument are of two types; it can be either use as in shoe design or by Force plate as Platform System. The test-retest reliability of these pressure plates is exceptional in both devices to measure both great toe and lesser toe strength but as seen in Paper grip test its validity of testing the intrinsic muscle strength is still questionable as it does not isolate the intrinsic muscle and can determine the strength of both intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscle

The Intrinsic Positive Test This test is the qualitative measure used to determine the function of the planter intrinsic muscle of the 2,3,4,5 Toes [40]. The test involves the participant extending the great toe while simultaneously attempting to flex the lesser toes at the MTP joint and extend the interphalangeal joints. Also the validity and reliability of the intrinsic positive test has not been investigated thoroughly and quantification of this test cannot be done.

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Conclusions Till now there is not a single method or instrumentation is available which can measure the planter intrinsic muscle strength accurately. All the methods which are available just measure overall toe flexor strength as none of the instrumentation and special test able to measure the intrinsic muscle in isolation. Method such as Paper grip test and planter pressure plates are good on reliability but their validity is in question as both of them promote the toe curling which is not a correct movement as it involves extrinsic foot muscle. Hand held dynameter promote the IP Extension with MTP Flexion it is one of the suitable instrument with some limitation furthermore none of the method till now put suitable emphasis on the position of the ankle which is again is very important in term of reducing the impact of extrinsic muscle on the foot. Designing the instrument to measure the planter intrinsic muscle still challenge for the clinicians as we must test the strength of these muscle in isolation while designing any instrument make sure it can use some clinical method like EMG to isolate the intrinsic muscle and put more emphasis on the positioning of the ankle

Acknowledgment I would like to thank the staff and faculty of School of Physiotherapy, RK. University for the constant support and guidance wherever required

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13. Hoffmeyer P, Cox JN, Blanc Y, Meyer JM, Taillard W. Muscle in hallux valgus. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1988;232: 112–118. 14. Wearing SC, Smeathers JE, Urry SR,et al.The pathomechanics of plantar fasciitis. Sports Med 2006; 36:585–611. 15. Menz HB, Zammit GV, Munteanu SE, Genevieve S. Plantarflexion strength of the toes: age and gender differences and evaluation of a clinical screening test. Foot Ankle Int. 2006;27: 1103–1108. 16. Mickle KJ, Chambers S, Steele JR, Munro BJ. A novel and reliable method to measure toe flexor strength[abstract] Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2008;23:683–683. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2008.03.025. 17. Mickle KJ, Munro BJ, Lord SR, Menz HB, Steele JR. ISB Clinical Biomechanics Award 2009: toe weakness and deformity increase the risk of falls in older people. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2009;24:787–791. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2009.08.011. 18. Senda M, Takahara Y, Yagata Y, Yamamoto K, Nagashima H, Tukiyama H, Inoue H. Measurement of the muscle power of the toes in female marathon runners using a toe dynamometer. Acta Med Okayama. 1999;53: 189–191. 19. Unger CL, Wooden MJ. Effect of foot intrinsic muscle strength training on jump performance. [article] J Strength Cond Res. 2000; 14:373–378. 20. Bus S, Maas M, Michels P, Levi M. Role of Intrinsic Muscle Atrophy in the Etiology of Claw Toe Deformity in Diabetic Neuropathy May Not Be as Straightforward as Widely Believed. Diabetes Care. 2009; 32:1063–1067. doi: 10.2337/dc08-2174. 21. Bus SA, Maas M, Lind boom R. Reproducibility of foot structure measurements in neuropathic diabetic patients using magnetic resonance imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2006; 24:25–32. doi: 10.1002/jmri.20601. 22. Bus SA, Yang QX, Wang JH, Smith MB, Wunderlich R, Cavanagh PR. Intrinsic muscle atrophy and toe deformity in the diabetic neuropathic foot: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Diabetes Care. 2002; 25:1444–1450. doi: 10.2337/diacare.25.8.1444. 23. Robertson DD, Mueller MJ, Smith KE, Commean PK, Pilgram T, Johnson JE. Structural changes in the forefoot of individuals with diabetes and a prior plantar ulcer. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2002; 84: 1395–1404. 24. Mueller MJ, Smith KE, Commean PK, Robertson DD, Johnson JE. Use of computed tomography and plantar pressure measurement for management of neuropathic ulcers in patients with diabetes. Phys Ther. 1999; 79:296–307 25. David Mohar et.al (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement BMJ 2009; 339 26. Sara H Downs, Nick Black (1998). The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomized and non- randomized studies of healthcare interventions. J Epidemiol Community Health1998; 52:377–384 27. Garth WP Jr. Miller ST: Evaluation of claw toe deformity, weakness of the foot intrinsics, and posteromedial shin pain. Am J Sports Med. 1989; 17:821–827. doi: 10.1177/036354658901700617. 28. Spink M, Fotoohabadia M, Menz H. Foot and Ankle Strength Assessment Using Hand-Held Dynamometry: Reliability and Age-Related Differences. Gerontology. 2010;56(6):525–532. doi: 10.1159/000264655. 29. Daisuke Uritani et.al (2012) Interrater and interrater reliability for a toe Grip Dynamometer J. Phys. Thera. Sci.24:639-643 30. Daisuke Uritani et.al (2014) Reference values for toe grip strength among Japanese adults aged 20 to 79 years: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Foot and Ankle Research 7(1):28 31. Sarah Trager Ridge et.al (2017) Reliability of doming and toe flexion testing to quantify foot muscle strength Journal of Foot and Ankle Research (2017) 10:55 32. Masuao Senda et.al (1999) Measurement of the muscular power of the toes among female marathon runners using a toe dynamometer Acta Med Okayama (1999)

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33. Dustin A. Bruening et.al (2019) Functional assessments of foot strength: a comparative and repeatability study. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders (2019) 20:608 34. Rachel H. Allen et.al (2003). Toe flexors strength and passive extension range of motion of the first metatarsophalangeal joint in individuals with plantar fasciitis J orthop sports Phys Ther Vol 33 No. 8 Augest 2003. 35. BenjaminF.Mentiplay et.al (2015) Assessment of Lower Limb Muscle Strength and power using Hand held and fixed Dynamometer: A reliability and validity study PLOS ONE (2015) 36. Kwon OY, Tuttle LJ, Johnson JE, Mueller MJ. Muscle imbalance and reduced ankle joint motion in people with hammer toe deformity. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2009;24:670–675. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2009.05.010. 37. Yasuhiro Yuasaet.al (2018) Relationship Between Toe Muscular Strength and the Ability to Change Direction in Athletes Journal of Human Kinetics volume 64/2018, 47-55 38. de Win MM, Theuvenet WJ, Roche PW, de Bie RA, van Mameren H: The paper grip test for screening on intrinsic muscle paralysis in the foot of leprosy patients. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 2002, 70:16–24. 39. Menz HB, Zammit GV, Munteanu SE, Genevieve S: Plantarflexion strength of the toes: age and gender differences and evaluation of a clinical screening test. Foot Ankle Int 2006, 27:1103–1108. 40. Garth WP Jr. Miller ST: Evaluation of claw toe deformity, weakness of the foot intrinsic, and posteromedial shin pain. Am J Sports Med. 1989; 17:821–827. doi: 10.1177/036354658901700617.

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Designing and Testing of the SNJP Behaviour Assessment Scale †*Shivani Vyas, †Priyanshu Rathod, †Janvi Modh, †Nirali Koradia, †Priyanka Jadeja †School of Physiotherapy, RK University, Rajkot, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract “Behavior is the mirror in which we can display our image”. Behavior is one of the cumulative reflections of mental, physical, social and spiritual wellness. In last decade, Behaviors science has observed high potential in dealing with challenges relevant to mental and physical health. However, assessing the behavior is always an interesting at one hand and challenging at other hand for health care professionals for effective intervention. Thus, we would like to design and develop a behavior assessment scale. To design The SNJP Behavior Assessment Scale. To test the reliability and validity of SNJP Behavior Assessment Scale. Multiphasic Study, 1st phase: attributes were accumulated by Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and Personal Interviews (PI). 2nd phase: the “statements” were prepared according to the selected attributes until data saturation. 3rd Phase: the validity was tested by using Content Validity Index (CVI) and Content Validity Ratio (CVR). Reliability was checked by test-retest method where assessment forms were given to students’ community. The mean value of CVI is ≥0.85 and CVR ≥ 0.75indicate the expected validity of the scale. The value of Cronbach’s alpha (0.7) test indicates the expected reliability of the scale. Prospective SNJP behavior assessment scale must be taken into consideration for behavior assessment.

Keywords: Behavior Assessment, Mental Health, Reliability, Validity Note: SNJP derived from first alphabet of four authors Shivani, Nirali, Janvi, and Priyanka

Introduction “Health” is one of the most important aspects of human life. Health indicates a person's mental or physical condition. Mental health represents a person’s condition about their psychological and emotional well-being, which has a direct impact on physical health. If someone experiences mental health problems, behavior of that person can be affected. However, assessing the behavior is always a challenge for researchers. Moreover, there is a certain lacking in such tools among health care workers, including psychologist or mental health counselor. Behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around, as well as the (inanimate) physical environment [1]. Human behavior is the potential and expressed capacity for physical, mental, and social activity during the phases of human life. Behavior is at the heart of many fields in the life sciences, social sciences and psychology but despite its importance and numerous behavioral researches, many standard works and textbooks refrain from defining their central object of research. Among the few definitions provided, many are surprisingly imprecise or apply to only particular kinds of behaviors or species [2]. The lack of an established scientific definition of behavior may also contribute to the diversity of methods used for studying behavior. Biological disciplines strongly rely on observations and technology-based methods for measuring and tracking behavior. Psychological and social science disciplines, by contrast, largely rely on assessment and self-report methods for studying behavior (e.g., questionnaires and interviews), whereas observations are much less frequently used [2]. Behavior is the way an individual act towards people or society. It is necessary to have a behavior assessment tool as a proper outcome measure for any organization or wellness programs, which are

86 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) working for the improvement of behavior as well as for self-evaluation. Assessment refers to the entire process involved in collecting information about persons and using it to make important predictions and interference. Assessment methods used in behavior sciences are very comprehensive and have a variety of instruments. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are used in assessment. These methods are being employed not only in psychiatry but also in all clinical disciplines, especially to understand the role of psychosocial factors. This study is aimed to innovate a concise behavior assessment tool to healthcare professionals and researchers.

Hypothesis Null hypothesis: There is no significant reliability and validity of The SNJP behavior assessment scale. Experimental hypothesis: There is significant reliability and validity of The SNJP behavior assessment scale.

Methodology We designed a methodological study and divided into 3 phases. Phase 1: Finding The Attributes For Statement Formation To Design The Scale. Methods used for data collection were focus group discussion (FGD) [3] and personal interview (PI) [4]. A cluster sampling was used for FGD in which College students, studying psychology from School of physiotherapy RK University Rajkot and MVM Mahila college Rajkot, Gujarat, India were selected. A random sampling used for PI in which Teaching Gujarat, India, faculty of psychology from department of psychology Saurashtra University Rajkot, Gujarat, India, MVM Mahila College Rajkot, Gujarat, India SMT KSN kansagara Mahila College, Rajkot, Gujarat, India for PI (personal interview) were selected. For FGD, students were divided in 10 groups, each group contained three students. Total 10 teaching faculties were selected for PI. The topic for FGD and PI was “explain behavior, while assessing behavior, what are the areas or attributes someone should consider for individual.” Then the software “text analyzer” was used to find out the common words from FGD and PI. Attributes were selected from these common words. (Figure 1)

Flow chart showing the process of statements formation

Fig. 1 Process of statements formation

Phase 2: Designing the Scale: Total eight attributes were selected from the data of phase 1. Among those eight attributes, four attributes were finalized with the help of psychologists. The final attributes are psychological well-being [5], social intelligence [6], emotional intelligence [7], spiritual intelligence [8]. Statements were prepared (Table 1) based on the available and reliable scales and studies on these attributes. The statements were divided into two parts, as an individual only cannot judge his /her behavior. Therefore, individual’s close family member or friend must fill the one set of statements. (Table 2) The draft contained total 30 statements. Individual must fill 18 questions. Their close friend or family member must fill rest 12. For the response, 5-point Likert method for agreement was used [9] (Table 3). Range of score 30 to 150.The score is categorized as given below (Table 4).

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Table 1 Statements of the SNJP behavior assessment scale (self-assessment) Attributes sr. no. Self

Psychological 1 In general, I feel confident and positive about myself. Well-being 2 I do not tend to worry about what other people think of me. 3 I fit very well with the people and the community around me. 4 I have experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others. 5 I enjoy being in new situations that require me to change my old familiar ways of doing things.

Social 1 I know how my actions will make others feel. Intelligence 2 I often feel uncertain around new people who I don’t know.

3 I never often hurt others without realizing it. Emotional 1 I frequently seek feedback on my behavior/performance. Intelligence 2 I take initiative to meet people in social situation. 3 When I contribute to group discussions, I believe my contributions are as valuable as those of other.

4 When I face a problem, I focus on what I can do to solve it. 5 I present myself in such a way that people get impressed. 6 I emerge as a natural leader during unstructured situation. Spiritual 1 I don't get upset when things don't go the way I want them to go. Intelligence 2 I have a daily spiritual practice such as meditation or prayer. 3 My actions are aligned with my values. 4 Even when things are confusing and disturbing around me, I remain centered and peaceful inside.

Table 2 Statements of the SNJP behavior assessment scale (assessment by a Friend or family member)

Attributes sr. no. Friend or Family member

Psychological 1 Most people see him/her as loving and attractive. Well-being 2 S/he does not tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions. 3 I have the sense that he/ she has developed a lot as a person over time.

Social 1 He/ She can easily get along with other people. Intelligence 2 He/ She is good at finding conversation topics.

Emotional 1 He/ She is quite flexible in approach to life and problems. Intelligence 2 He/ She can convince people. 3 He/ She can sense the pulse of other and state unspoken feelings. 4 He/ She is a good communicator.

Spiritual 1 He/ She doesn't tend to think about the future or the past without attending Intelligence to the present moment. 2 He/ She draws on deep trust or faith when facing day-to-day challenges. 3 He/ She brings a feeling of joy to activities.

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Table 3 Likert method for agreement - 5-point

Strongly Agree (5) Agree (4) Neutral (3) Disagree (2) Strongly Disagree (1)

*the bracket shows the points to be given for selected answer.

Table 4 Score category

30-60 below average

61-90 Average

91-120 above average

121-150 Excellent

Table 5 CVI and CVR measured based on rater’s score Item r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 r6 N CVI CVR 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 2 4 3 4 4 1 4 5 0.83 0.67 3 4 2 2 3 4 3 4 0.67 0.33 4 3 2 2 3 4 3 4 0.67 0.33 5 3 3 3 4 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 6 3 4 4 4 4 3 6 1.00 1.00 7 2 3 4 3 3 4 5 0.83 0.67 8 2 3 2 2 4 4 3 0.50 0.00 9 3 4 4 2 4 3 5 0.83 0.67 10 4 3 3 3 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 11 4 3 4 2 4 3 5 0.83 0.67 12 4 3 4 4 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 13 3 2 4 3 4 3 5 0.83 0.67 14 3 3 4 2 4 3 5 0.83 0.67 15 4 4 2 4 4 4 5 0.83 0.67 16 3 4 3 3 2 3 5 0.83 0.67 17 4 3 4 3 3 3 6 1.00 1.00 18 4 3 3 4 3 4 6 1.00 1.00 19 4 4 4 2 3 3 5 0.83 0.67 20 4 3 4 3 1 3 5 0.83 0.67 21 4 3 4 3 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 22 4 4 2 4 2 4 4 0.67 0.33 23 4 2 4 4 4 4 5 0.83 0.67 24 3 4 3 4 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 25 4 3 4 4 4 3 6 1.00 1.00 26 4 3 2 4 4 3 5 0.83 0.67 27 4 3 4 4 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 28 3 3 4 3 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 29 3 4 3 4 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 30 4 3 4 4 4 4 6 1.00 1.00 Mean 0.88 0.77

Phase 3: Testing the Scale - Reliability and Validity. Professors of school of physiotherapy RK University Rajkot, Gujarat, India (six raters for validity testing), students of RK University Rajkot hostel (20 individuals for reliability testing) were selected by random sampling technique. Descriptive statistics method was used for Statistical analysis. Testing Validity: The content validation ratio (CVR) and content validity index (CVI) were used for instrument validity [10] (Figure 2A). Prepared draft was given to six raters (professors of school of physiotherapy RK University RK University Rajkot, Gujarat, India) who were selected by a random sampling. They were asked to rate the relevance for each statement given in the draft (Highly relevant, quite relevant, somewhat relevant, not relevant).

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To obtain CVI for each item, the number of those judging the item as relevant divided by the number of content expert. CVI=Ne /N, Ne = number of experts indicating essential, N= number of experts. The item CVR is calculated as the number of experts giving a rating of 3 or 4 divided by the total number of experts who evaluated the item.

CVR is proportion of items that met validity out of the total number of items. CVR= (Ne – N/2) / (N/2). The CVR >= 0.75 and CVI >= 0.85 indicate the good degree of validity (Table 5).

Procedure for Testing Reliability: The internal consistency or reliability of the scale was checked by using test-retest and CA (Cronbach’s alpha) test in SPSS (Figure 2B). Twenty students of RK University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India, who spent two or more consecutive years with same roommate in hostel or who is having family member within the university were selected in pairs (with whom they share a good bond). Therefore, they can fill the 2nd part of scale for each other. Forms were given to 20 students. After 2 weeks [11], again they were asked to fill the same form. Pre and post data were compared by using Cronbach’s alpha test in SPSS.

Fig. 2 (A and B) Flow chart showing reliability and validity testing

Result: In MS Excel 2007 measured mean value of CVI (>=0.85) (Table 6) and CVR (>=0.75) (Table –7) indicate the expected validity of the scale. In SPSS 20 measured value of CA (>=0.7) indicates the expected reliability of the scale.

Table 6 Validity testing Mean content validity index Mean content validity ratio Value 0.88 0.77

Table – 7Reliability testing

Cronbach’s alpha test

Value 0.859

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Discussion The methodological study was aimed develop a comprehensive and concise behavior assessment tool for any adult individual, to provide a reliable and validate behavioral assessment scale to assess the behavior independently. William and colleagues (2010) stated that Basic clinical competencies in behavioral assessment are two-fold. One set of basic clinical competencies subsumes information gathering methods such as interviewing, behavioral observation, self-monitoring, and self-report inventory use. The other centers on the generation of topographical and functional analyses of behavior that can be used to guide treatment design. centers on the generation of topographical and functional analyses of behavior that can be used to guide treatment design. Uher (2016) mentioned in the study of a meta theoretical definition of behavior that the Psychological and social science disciplines, by contrast, largely rely on assessment and self-report methods for studying (primarily human) behavior (e.g. questionnaires and interviews), whereas observations are much less frequently used [2]. When you want to assess the behavior of a large group of people, you need a concise scale or tool. There are various behavior assessment tools or scales are available for specific targeted population i.e. children with neurodevelopment problems [12], teachers [13], students [14], employees [15] etc. In the review of Behavioral science theory and principles for practice in health education, it is stated More specifically, behavioral science theories identify several attributes of individuals and their surroundings that are causally related to behavior, and, thus, theories can guide practitioners' selection of psychological, behavioral, social and environmental targets for intervention [16]. The study was initiated by searching of attributes for behavior assessment. In phase one 10 FGD were conducted among students who had studied psychology and 10 PI of professors were taken to collect the attributes. These methods have been proved effective. Text analyzing software was used to finalize the attributes from FGD and PI. In phase two, the software selected attributes were reviewed and filtered by psychologists. Final attributes were, psychological well-being, social intelligence, emotional intelligence, spiritual intelligence. From the finalized attributes, statements were prepared according to the previous studies. Carolina and colleagues (2009) investigated into the factor structure of the Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being [5]. David and colleagues (2001) established a self-report measure of social intelligence, The Tromso Social Intelligence Scale [6]. Shailendra (2004) developed and standardized a measure of Emotional Intelligence (EI) which followed Goleman's (J998) Model of EI competencies [7]. Aydın and colleagues (2016) analyzed the reliability and validation of the the Integrated Spiritual Intelligence Scale (ISIS), In order to adapt the scale [8]. 30 statements were finalized and divided into two sets, 1) self 2) friend or family member. For scoring 5-point Likert method for agreement was used. Score was ranged from 30 to 150. Score was categorized. Agreements across multiple measures and sources, as well as discrepant information, enable the creation of a more comprehensive understanding of the individual being assessed, ultimately leading to more accurate and appropriate clinical conclusions. In phase three, the validity was checked by measuring the mean CVI and CVR [10]. The draft prepared in phase two was given to Six physiotherapists and they rated for relevance and validity measured. The value of CVI and CVR indicated the good validity of scale. Reliability was tested by test-retest method. [17] Forms were given to 20 individuals. Cronbach’s alpha test was used to have consistency in data. The test’s result indicated the good reliability of the scale. The prepared scale was named the SNJP behavior assessment scale. The prepared form fulfilled the purpose of behavior assessment among general adults.

Conclusion The SNJP behavior assessment scale can be taken into consideration for behavior assessment. the method of designing and testing to develop behaviors assessment scale remains the innovative areas of the research project.

Acknowledgement Authors acknowledge the immense support received from the research scholars whose articles are cited and included in references of this manuscript. The authors are also grateful to authors/editors/publishers of all those articles,

91 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) journals and books from where the literature for this article has been reviewed and discussed.

Reference 1. Alka Chaudhary, Token Economy: Important Technologies of Behaviour Modifiers and Applied Behaviour, International Journal of Engineering and Management Research, April-2015, 5(2), p 497-504. 2. Jana Uher, What is behaviour?: and (when) is language behaviour?: a metatheoretical definition, journal for the theory of social behavior, February 2016, 46(4) p 2,3 3. Wong LP, Focus group discussion: a tool for health and medical research Singapore Med J. March 2008,49(3) p 256-60 4. Ryan Frances, Michael Coughlan, Cronin Patricia, Interviewing in qualitative research, International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, June 2009, 16(6) p 309-314 5. Carolina M. Henn, Carin Hill, Lené I. Jorgensen, An investigation into the factor structure of the Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being, SA Journal of industrial psychology, November 2016, 42(1), a1275 6. David H. Silvera, Monica Martinussen, Tove I, The Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale, a self-report measure of social intelligence, Scandunavian Journal of psychology, December 2001, 42 (4) p 313-319 7. Singh, Shailendra, Development of a measure of emotional intelligence, Psychological Studies, January 2004, 49(2- 3) p 136-141 8. AydınSöylemez, Mustafa Koç, BüşraSöylemez, The Adaptation of Integrated Spiritual Intelligence Scale into Turkish, Journal of Family, Counseling, and Education, December 2016, 1(1) p 18-24 9. Ankur Joshi, Saket Kale, Satish Chandel, Dinesh Kumar Pal, Likert Scale: Explored and Explained, Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, january 2015 7(4) p 396-403 10. Isabel B. Rodrigues, Jonathan D. Adachi, Karen A. Beattie, Joy C. MacDermid, Development and validation of a new tool to measure the facilitators, barriers and preferences to exercise in people with osteoporosis, BMC MusculoskeletDisord, December 2017 18(1)p 540 11. Eric A. Storch, Melissa S. Strawser, Jason B. Storch, Two-Week Test-Retest Reliability of the Duke Religion Index, SAGE Journals, 2004, 94(3) p 993-994 12. Maria Salomon-Estebanez, Zainab Mohamed, Maria Michaelidou, Hannah Collins, Lindsey Rigby, Mars Skae, et al., Vineland adaptive behavior scales to identify neurodevelopmental problems in children with Congenital Hyperinsulinism (CHI), Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2017; 12: 96 13. Siti NurmaHanimHadie, Asma Hassan, Saiful BahriTalip, Muhamad Saiful BahriYusoff, The Teacher Behavior Inventory: validation of teacher behavior in an interactive lecture environment, An international journal of teachers' professional development, May 2018, 23(1) p 36-49 14. Sally Barton-Arwood, Joseph H. Wehby, Philip L. Gunter, Kathleen L. Lane, Functional Behavior Assessment Rating Scales: Intrarater Reliability with Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders, Behavorial Disorders, August 2003, 28(4) p 386-400, 15. Michael P. Brady, Howard Rosenberg, Job Observation and Behavior Scale: A Supported Employment Assessment Instrument, Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, January 2002, 37(4) p 427-433 16. Christine Jackson, Behavioral science theory and principles for practice in health education, Health Education Research, 1997, 12(1), p 143-150 17. Carlos Eduardo Paiva, ElianeMarçon Barroso, Estela Cristina Carneseca, Cristiano de Pádua Souza, Felipe Thomé dos Santos, Rossana Verónica Mendoza López et al., A critical analysis of test-retest reliability in instrument validation studies of cancer patients under palliative care: a systematic review, BMC Medical Research Methodology, January 2014 14, 8

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A Review on Audience Behavior towards Movies †*NIRAV MANDAVIA, ††NAILESH LIMBASIYA †School of Management, RK University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India ††Faculty of Commerce, Department of Commerce & Business Management, The M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract This paper reviews literature regarding research done on movies as well as its audiences and to find out the gap on which further research can be carried out especially on audience behavior towards Bollywood movies. There have been many researches done on movies and its audiences. The paper reviews all relevant research literature from 1981 or earlier to till date. Movies are considered as one of the entertainment avenues in India as well as in other countries. It gives unique experience to each viewer. There is significance relevance between movie watching audience and movies they prefer to watch. There are many factors that influence audience’s movie watching preference; be it demographic, psychographic or behavioural. There are many parameters of movie or related to the movie that audience consider before deciding the movies they watch such as production personnel, production element, advertising, critics’ reviews, interpersonal influence and perception of film content along with other factors. The paper proposes to study various variables of the movie or related to the movie such as star cast, director, story, music, critic reviews, advertising, word of mouth etc and its relevance with the demographic, psychographic and behavioral variables of audience in specific region.

Keywords: Movie, Audience, Bollywood, Hollywood, Audience behavior

Introduction Movie watching audience are selecting and watching the film and done pre purchase and post purchase behaviour more or less same as other product or service. Viewers are getting experience through the film. Each viewer has different experience than others from the same movie. Viewers are liking or loving movies from different genres according to their choice. And it is largely depending up to their demographic and psychographic profile as well as the environment in which they are living. The paper explores various research papers done on movies and their audiences till date and find the gap for further research can be carried out. The paper can be useful to start ups in Bollywood to know their audience better.

Objectives There are major two objectives of this paper are as follows: - To review research done on movies and its audience. - To find out gap for further research can be carried out - To find out various factors influencing audience behavior with respect to movies and impact commercial success of the movies.

Material and Methods There have been many researches done on movies and its audiences. Be it qualitative or quantitative research, be it Indian Bollywood movies or English Hollywood movies or movies in other languages. Peter and Olson [1] mentioned as The American Marketing Association defines consumer behavior as “The dynamic interaction of affect and cognition, behavior and the environment by which human being conduct the exchange aspect of their lives.” So

93 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) to understand consumer behavior one should explore affective, cognitive and factors that impact audience behavior towards movies. The paper reviews all relevant research literature from 1981 or earlier to till date.

Review of Literature Behavior, experience and role of movies: Eliashberg, Jehoshua & Sawhney, Mohanbir (1994) [2] developed a framework for enjoyment of hedonic experience in the context of movie viewing experience. They proposed that the viewers get the enjoyment because of interaction between temporary moods, emotional content of the experience and individual difference factors. Neelamegham, R., & Jain, D. (1999) [3] develop a model that analyse choice and post choice behavior regarding new movie choices. They found that latent product interest, post consumption response and expectations of consumers influences choice and post choice behavior. Tirumala, L. (2009) [4] explored the role of Bollywood movies in building and maintaining the Indian cultural identity among second generation Indian Americans. The author found that Bollywood movies have significant influence on the respondents in maintaining Indian identity. Factors influencing movie audience behavior and commercial success of movies: Elberse, A. (2007) [5] found that involvement of star actors impacts commercial success. However, she failed to find support that stars also drive the valuation of film companies. Cuadrado-Garcia, Manuel & Filimon, Nela & Montoro-Pons, Juan (2018) [6] found that for mainstream film goers popularity of film and mood are the main factors for movie attendance. Here popularity includes aggressive advertising, favourite star cast, lead actors etc. And mood means viewers are going for movie to get relaxation. Hart, A., Kerrigan, F., & vom Lehn, D. (2016) [7] discussed that movie selection is not about genre but it is overall expectation from the film developed by the information provided by movie marketing team. Austin, Bruce A. (1981) [8] found in their study that subject matter and influence of friends are the most influencing factors for college students to choose his recent film. They have also divided their respondents into two categories ‘frequent’ and ‘occasional’. They have analyzed various factors; production personnel, production element, advertising, critics’ reviews, interpersonal influence and perception of film content along with other factors. Basuroy, S., Chatterjee, S., & Ravid, S. A. (2003) [9] found that critic’s review influence box office collections especially in the first eight weeks. They also found that impact of negative review is more than positive review in initial weeks of film release. Li Qin (2011) [10] found that volume of word-of-blog impact revenue of movies as it increases consumer awareness. So it can be one of the big lead generators of social media tools. Wyatt, R. O., & Badger, D. P. (1984) [11] found that review direction impact film interest and evaluation but that effect is relative. Ravid, S. A. (1999) [12] found that star increase the box office revenues but doesn’t play role in the financial success of a film. Gaikar, D., Marakarkandy, B. and Dasgupta, C. (2015) [13] used sentiment analysis and prediction algorithms to analyze the performance of Indian movies based on data obtained from social media sites that includes Twitter. They found the predicted values are almost same as actual values.

Results and Discussion Movie is an experiential product. It gives unique experience to each viewer. There is significance relevance between movie watching audience and movies they prefer to watch. There are many factors that influence audience’s movie watching preference; be it demographic, psychographic or behavioural. There are many parameters of movie or related to the movie that audience consider before deciding the movies they watch such as production personnel, production element, advertising, critics’ reviews, interpersonal influence and perception of film content along with other factors. Further research can be carried out with these factors in specific region of India with respect to Bollywood movies.

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Conclusion Marketers of movies must understand their audience characteristics and their behavior with respect to movies they watch. The paper proposes to study various variables of the movie or related to the movie such as star cast, director, story, music, critic reviews, advertising, word of mouth etc and its relevance with the demographic, psychographic and behavioral variables of audience in specific region. The findings will also help movie producers and distributors to produce and distribute movies in more profitable way. The paper can be useful to start ups in Bollywood to know their audience better

References 1. ‘Consumer Behavior & Marketing Strategy’, J. Paul Peter and Jerry C. Olson. (2010). Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi India. 7thEdition, p. 237 to 239. 2. Eliashberg, Jehoshua & Sawhney, Mohanbir, ‘Modeling Goes to Hollywood: Predicting Individual Differences in Movie Enjoyment’. Management Science. 40. 1151-1173 (1994). 3. Neelamegham, R., & Jain, D. ‘Consumer Choice Process for Experience Goods: An Econometric Model and Analysis’. Journal of Marketing Research, 36(3), 373 (1999). 4. Tirumala, L. ‘Bollywood movies and identity construction amongst second generation Indian Americans’. Journal of Academia education, 1-27 (2009). 5. Anita Elberse, The Power of Stars: Do Star Actors Drive the Success of Movies?’ Journal of Marketing, Vol. 71, No. 4, pp. 102-120 (2007). 6. Cuadrado-Garcia, Manuel & Filimon, Nela & Montoro-Pons, Juan, ‘Picturing Spanish Filmgoers: Motives, Barriers and Film Theatres’. Regional Science Inquiry. 10. 45-60 (2018). 7. Hart, A., Kerrigan, F., & vom Lehn, D. ‘Experiencing film: Subjective personal introspection and popular film consumption’. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 33(2), 375–391 (2016). 8. Bruce A. Austin, ‘Film Attendance, Journal of Popular Film and Television’, 9:1, 43-49, (1981). 9. Basuroy, S., Chatterjee, S., & Ravid, S. A. ‘How Critical Are Critical Reviews? The Box Office Effects of Film Critics, Star Power, and Budgets’. Journal of Marketing, 67(4), 103–117 (2003). 10. Li Qin, ‘Word-of-blog for movies: A predictor and an outcome of box office revenue?’, Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, VOL 12, NO 3, (2011). 11. Wyatt, R. O., & Badger, D. P. ‘How Reviews Affect Interest in and Evaluation of Films’. Journalism Quarterly, 61(4), 874–878 (1984). 12. Ravid, S. A. ‘Information, Blockbusters, and Stars: A Study of the Film Industry.’ The Journal of Business, 72(4), 463–492 (1999). 13. Gaikar, D., Marakarkandy, B. and Dasgupta, C. ‘Using Twitter data to predict the performance of Bollywood movies’, Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol. 115 No. 9, pp. 1604-1621 (2015).

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Venture Capital Support for Research and Innovation and Emerging Paradigms †*A. A. ATTARWALA, †C. S. BALASUBRAMANIAM †Kohinoor Business School, Mumbai-400 070, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Indian Economy is now at the threshold of growth, technological progress and development wherein high inflation, stagnation and recession are experienced in the recent decade of 21st century. Increasing interest by the venture capitalists in small and new enterprises is observed in the Global Context and in India. An increased recognition and understanding has led to the development of ‘Triad’ in which overall enhancement in the relationship between Innovations, technology development in the context of trends across the Globe and India are discussed. This leads to the profitable exploitation of technology from the perspectives of the three distinct stakeholders–Viz., technology developers/Institutions, business enterprises (users) and Corporate/venture capitalists. The significance of the ‘Triad’ relationship between technology developers/Institutions, business enterprises (users) and venture capitalists and benefits derived in the economy are posed as emerging paradigms in the conclusion.

Keywords: Innovation, Research & Development (R&D) Venture Capital, Private Equity.

Introduction

Venture Capital (VC) plays a strategic role in financing high technology and risky entrepreneurial activity in advanced economies, India and other emerging economies across the globe. VC has significant potential for financing small scale enterprises also. VC finance is often thought of as early stage financing of new and young enterprises seeking to grow rapidly. It would imply involvement of the venture capitalist in management of assisted enterprises. While the conventional VC financiers generally assist proven technologies with established markets, financing of high technology ventures with small markets which have rapid potential for growth are indicated in recent years since 2009. This paper attempts to resolve these misconceptions and understand the aspects of VC funding in the proper perspectives. Further this paper would portray the global and Indian trends in the recent decade and address the issues of VC funding in the various stages of inception, growth, maturity and exit of assisted enterprises in Indian economy. Indian Economy is now at the threshold of growth, technological progress and development having experienced the high inflation, stagnation and recession in the last decade one after another. At this juncture, the relationship between Innovation, technology development and Venture capital assumes significance. The industries (new enterprises/ users) realize that they do not have the resources within themselves to develop new technologies. As such, new enterprises seek collaboration with academic research institutions to undertake sponsored research projects which involve innovation, technology development and commercial exploitation of technologies over a period of time in a phased execution. The overall significance is to increase recognition and understanding of the phases that make up the Technological progress and growth of new enterprises in the macroeconomic context of Indian economy. The commencement of Technology & Development Corporation of India (promoted by ICICI, then, later ICICI Bank Ltd) in early 1990s marked the beginning of active venture capital type of funding for innovative and research oriented enterprises in India. Other venture finance institutions include Risk Capital and Technology Finance Corporation Ltd., Venture Capital Funds promoted by commercial banks like State Bank of India, Canara Bank etc., are also operate in India. Credit Capital Venture Fund (India) Ltd. (Joint venture of Credit Capital Finance

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Corporation, Asian Development Bank & Common wealth Development Finance Corporation) was set up in 1989. Recent data indicate that a good number of International Venture Capital and Private Equity (VC and PE) funds have shown interest and invested in equity ownership to the extent of 40 per cent in new & innovative enterprises in India. On a different dimension, the 4,000-plus enterprises that have been financed by VC and PE funds as compared against around 1,847 enterprises that have been listed on the National Stock Exchange (NSE), although it is perceived that the proportion of funding by VC and PE funds is marginal. A high component of VC and PE funds is used to be associated with innovative and new technology enterprises in the early years since 1990 and with more visible businesses like E Commerce recently since 2010. (NSE Data 2018). Those new technology enterprises funded by VC and PE have been estimated to be around 5500 enterprises (BSE data 2018). The term ‘innovation ‘is different from traditional industries like manufacturing, components assembling, automobiles, fast moving consumer goods (toiletries, cosmetics etc.,) and service sector enterprises. Inventions, in common parlance are discoveries of scientific experiments conducted in laboratories, whether private or public institutions promoted by Government or private sector. Innovation arises from applications in production /commercial exploitation industries, services sector with a view to bring about new sources of raw materials, new markets, new techniques of production /services, new methods of organization, novel methods of financing. Innovation does not arise spontaneously. Strategic factors in stimulating innovations and new entrepreurial activity lead to ‘disruptions like movements’ in the economy which would not belong to commercial exploitation or profitable in the traditional sense. Hence innovations turned into commercial exploitation / industries /services need different sources of funding and novel methods of financing distinguished from traditional sources of funding like commercial banks and their methods /instruments of financing. Key features of VC financed enterprises in India can be noted as follows: (i) It is remarkable to observe that VC & PE have been supporting enterprises across more than 35 broad categories of industries mainly since 2008. VC& PE -funded enterprises include schools real estate, beauty salons, hospitals of various specialties, transportation companies fine dining restaurants and retailers of nearly all kinds of goods and services, which do not belong to research and innovation category. These observations on VC & PE players’ funding indicate that traditional sources of financing like commercial banks, private financial institutions, money lenders have become reluctant to lend to these kind of risky enterprises. (ii) It can be further observed that in the past decade since 2009, the Indian VC industry has supported enterprises by providing them with what is known as ‘follow-on funding’. Some VC-funded enterprises have managed to raise as many as eight rounds of financing before they got acquired or went public or listed on the Stock Exchanges. Such a trend has to be interpreted as a sign of the maturity of the VC and PE assistance to new and small enterprises. (iii) VC & PE has created a line-up of public offerings and acquisition candidates which can be termed as ‘exit opportunities’. Economists would consider this rate of entry and exit of firms as the sign of a competitive marketplace where capital by way of investment funds flows to the most efficient players.

Growth of new & small enterprises assisted by Venture capital players -Global experience Global annual investment by venture capital players has been around $ 53 billion during the decade 2008 -2018 registering a cumulative annual growth rate of 17 per cent (Figure 1). Though smaller amounts of assistance are raised by new and start up enterprises engaged in various types of industries are seen during the initial years, larger funds are provided by venture capitalists in the later years of operations. It is also observed that venture capitalists are patient with low performance of these enterprises during the inception and growth stages. The shift towards increased corporate venture capitalists can be attributed to a number of factors, some of which are concurrent to the global industry trends can be observed here:

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Fig. 1: Global Venture Capital Financing by Stage: 2010 – 2018 (Source: KPMG Venture Pulse/Total)

(i) Cash balances: Since 2008, corporate cash balance reserves in the balance sheets have doubled to over $ 2 trillion. Despite this increase in cash balances, operational costs and Capital expenses have also escalated in the small and new enterprises funded by venture capitalists. Buybacks are observed in the maturity stages of growth of these enterprises. (ii) Disruptive innovations are increasing: R&D labs which are set up by large corporates have been made ready to receive borrowings from venture capitalists rather than internal funding by themselves or their parent companies. These R & D labs are found to be risky due to technical failures and low market shares in the competitive markets in the initial years of operations. (iii) Low growth in financial performance: With large corporates are observed to be struggling with low financial performance, corporate development teams operating the innovative and financially attractive projects with investment in start-up enterprises which would yield planned yields over the inception, growth, maturity and exit stages. United States of America (USA) has been a pioneer of startup/new firms since 1980 when large number of that kind of startup enterprises in 1980 than the number of such enterprises did in 2013. Over a similar period, the composition of ‘young’ companies (less than 1 year old) in the US economy also fell significantly by 44%. Crunch base data for the past decade since 2009 reveals that highest start-up creation came in 2015. Since then, number of start-up enterprises has halved. Assuming quality has remained the same, interested investors have shown lesser appetite to fund fewer start-ups. (Figure 2). The decline in start-up enterprises can be attributed to the factors: a. The financial expectations of the Venture Capitalists have not been matching the performance of contemporary start-up enterprises. b. High streamlined pattern of VC investors’ interest has been matching, with fewer areas of industry /services rather than wide spectrum of industries. c. After the ‘Dot-com’ bubble burst in early 2000s, VC investors are not the only ones to invest in start-ups, one third of corporate investing in the startups in USA reduced significantly. Since then, their quarterly investment has recovered from $848 million globally in Q3 2001 to a high of almost $50 billion by Q2 2018. Along with corporate, there is also significant investment interest from other “outsiders” such as sovereign wealth funds, hedge funds, and endowments. d. 72% of sovereign wealth funds invest in VC deals directly, with their commitments doubling on a yearly basis. Corporates are the most significant outsider investor and they alone now participate in between 15 – 20% of all venture deals, a 50% increase from five years ago. Part of this increase can be attributed to the Japanese conglomerate Softbank, which has invested almost $70 billion into start-up enterprises since 2016, through its Vision Fund Vehicle. e. Despite the issue of lack of reliable data, attitudes towards using and overcoming it should be pragmatic particularly with regard to data on patterns of funding of startup enterprises by VC players in other parts of the Globe. A large weight of judgment on the success of the VC asset class should be viewed through the ‘signalling properties’ of current trends of performance of start up enterprises. If more funds are being raised,

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more Global Players are being brought in for funding enterprises, and more firms are hiring new recruits, then that’s generally a sign that prevailing adverse incentives for employment. Nevertheless, with the data that is available, the key assertion to be made is that venture capital fund returns are showing strong signs of growth. With the exception of a period in 2016, they have been positive and oscillate around the acceptable par for the course level of financial performance of VC assisted enterprises.

Fig. 2: Global and Geographic Startup Creation by Year (Source: Crunch base/Total)

Trends of assistance by Venture Capitalists to small &new enterprises – Indian experience (i) Taking into account the success experience of Flipkart , the focus of large players and Private Equity Fund Managers shifted to implementing large amounts by limited deals. These stakeholders have supported successful business models with proven products during the period 2012-2018. (Figure 3)

Fig. 3: Venture Capital Investment in India - Amount ($Mn) and no. of Deals. (Source: VCC Edge, Analysis)

Fig. 4: Venture Capital Investment in India – Sector Wise & No of Deals. (Source: VCC Edge, Analysis)

(ii) The Banking, Financial Services and Insurance (BFSI) sector continues to dominate PE deals in India, followed by the Consumer Discretionary sector. In 2018, these were the largest sectors for investments, accounting for ~45% of the total deal volume, and they have been the leading sectors in terms of deal value as well. Investments in the consumer Discretionary space have, however, fluctuated over the same period. Healthcare and utilities are emerging sectors and have attracted investor interest in the recent past. Investments

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into Internet and ecommerce companies increased over 2013-15, post which investments in this sector declined due to start-ups suffered to identify right product for the market and struggling to attain profitability. (Figure 4) (iii) Exit opportunities in India are not as diverse as those in more mature markets. While M&A and secondary buyouts are key routes to exit in mature markets, the open market (IPOs) accounts for a smaller percentage of total exits. However, in India, the open market (IPOs) is considered the main exit route, followed by secondary buyouts. In 2017, the open market accounted for about ~40 per cent of total PE exits in India whereas M&A accounted for only 20 per cent. (Figure 5)

Fig. 5: Exit Opportunities for Indian VC & PE Investors. (Source: VCC Edge, Analysis)

(iv) Various reform measures brought in by the Government of India such as Insolvency & Bankruptcy Code, SEBI code on Venture Capital players, Mergers & Acquisitions, Foreign Direct Investment have also facilitated a motivating environment for venture capital assistance and promotion of new and small enterprises which are engaged in High technology commercialization, Fintech and other service sectors.

Triad Model of Collaborative Efforts The Triad Model (Figure 6) illustrates a union between the innovation and technology development, business enterprise (the users) and the venture capital institutions that provide finance to the technology development institutions as well as the (user) business enterprise. The process of financial assistance by the corporate venture capital financial institutions for Innovation and research can be described as follows: Early Stage Financing –Seed financing for supporting a concept or idea R&D Finance for product development • Start-up capital for initiating the operations and developing prototype • First Stage financing for full scale production &marketing Expansion Financing is second stage financing • For working capital and initial expansion while the company may have started operating at a loss. • Development financing for those having profit crossed the” break-even “or no profit –no loss zone and contemplating expansion. • Bridge or Mezzanine financing for facilitating public issue/ Initial Public Offer. Acquisition /buy out financing is third stage • Facilitating acquisition or purchase of another firm for further growth and progress • Management/buyout financing for enabling the operating group to acquire part or whole of another firm in the same industry /related industry. • “Turnaround financing” for turning around or revival a sick unit. Further, the venture capitalists provide a rich variety of value added (in-kind) services which are summarized here: • Acts a sounding board. • Helps in building networks of contacts.

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• Provides advice and assistance in a highly professional and competent way in managerial and technical fields. • Helps in raising subsequent financing from banks, by organizing pre listing, SEBI related matters and road shows, IPOs etc. • Marketing, regional expansion, additional segments. • Negotiation for Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A). • Strategic planning. • Recruitment of senior personnel & other HR services. • Operational planning & production related technical services.

Fig. 6: Venture Capital Triad

Venture capitalists are ‘high risk’ investors and in accepting these risks, they desire a higher return on their investment. The venture capitalists have differing operating approaches. These differences may relate to the location of the business, the size of the investment, the stage of the company /enterprise, industry specialization, structure of the investment and involvement of the venture capitalists in the activities of new enterprise. The entrepreneur should not be discouraged if one venture capitalist does not wish to proceed with an investment in his / her enterprise. The rejection may not be a reflection of the quality of the business but rather a matter of the business fitting with the venture capitalists’ investment criteria/appetite.

Approach of the study & sources of data This paper is emphatic on those enterprises engaged in scientific research & development in a variety of industries and service sector. Pragmatic view has been adopted in gathering data pertaining to VC assistance to new and small enterprises from a variety of secondary sources due to resource and time constraints. Our analysis of Global trends is sourced from Toptal which is a global remote company that provides a freelancing platform that connects businesses with software engineers, designers, and business consultants which has no headquarters. Our data on venture capital trends in India is sourced from “Venture Intelligence” and this source has been used by Dr. G. Sabarinathan (IIM Bangalore) in his seminal research on Venture Capital and thus considered highly reliable. Other sources like IVCA / VCC Edge, Analysis have been similarly used, for sources on VC & PE funding are not available with ease and appropriate justification to the researchers and public.

Conclusions: Emerging Paradigms  Venture Capitalists can play a highly innovative role in commercial exploitation of new and sophisticated technologies in a variety of industries and service sector. Venture capitalists by combining risk financing and a number of value added services can foster new enterprises/startups.  Emerging patterns also indicate sufficient opportunities for exit stage at maturity stage of new and small enterprises during the recent period. This observation has become explicit due to growing awareness of investors and positive regulatory environment provided by SEBI, Government of India departments /agencies.

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 A vigorous marketing thrust combined with promotional activities like organizing business fairs, exhibitions, venture networks, incubators, technology parks etc. can encourage new entrepreneurs/startups.

References 1. Alex Graham - State of the Venture Capital Industry 2019, Toptal - (2019). 2. G Sabarinathan, Aditya Muralidhar & Ahana Shetty - “Venture capital industry in India is a flourishing one” Economic Times, March – (2017) 3. G Sabarinathan- “Are Angel Networks different from Individual Angels? Evidence from an Emerging Economy” Working Paper no.538, IIM Bangalore – (2017) 4. ICICI Venture Fund Management Company Limited - Annual Report & Accounts – (2019) 5. I. M. Pandey: Financial Management, 11th Edition, Vikas Publishing House pp. 534-545 - (2015) 6. I. M. Pandey-Venture Capital Process in India, Technovation, Vol.18, no.4. - (1998) 7. I M Pandey - Venture Capital: The Indian Experience, New Delhi: Prentice Hall, (1996) 8. Bain & Co - India Private Equity Report, IVCA - (2019) 9. SIDBI: Private Investing in India – Venture Capital Focus, SIDBI, (2019).

Abbreviations Fintech: Financial Technology HR: Human Resources IPO: Initial Public Offer IT: Information Technology ITES: Information Technology Enabled Services IIM: Indian Institute of Management IVCA: India Private Equity and Venture Capital Association PE: Private Equity R&D: Research & Development SEBI: Securities & Exchange Board of India VC: Venture Capital

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Funding Start-up in India: Opportunity, Challenges and New Solutions †*KRISHNA JOSHI, ††CHETNA PARMAR †Marwadi University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India ††School of Management, GSFC University, Baroda, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Finance is a lifeline for any businesses. Many of the business fail because of funding unavailability. From a feasible idea to generation of capital, it is very lengthy process and it needs capital as fuel at every stage. Looking at the opportunity for startups in India, Improvement in easy access to raise fund for startups, has been main agenda of Indian government since last few years. Even though fund raising for startups has been a big question for entrepreneurs in India. Entrepreneur need to arrange capital requirement at every stage and that is the reason at every new stage entrepreneurs is asking themselves - How do I finance my start up? To address this question, the research has been carried out to explore the challenges faced by entrepreneur in funding startups and discuss new solutions to funding a startup. Firstly, in this paper pros and cons of traditional funding models are discussed with a special emphasis on venture capital and angel investors. In next part discussion is carried out about seed fund or accelerators and incubations, to explain how entrepreneurs can leverage this approach to access subsequent rounds of funding and craft flourishing ventures. After that a new approach to fund startups – crowd funding is discussed. The foundation of new move towards the use of crowd funding as a tool to attract investors as a collective has been discussed further. Also the examples of those companies who have successfully adopted crowd funding as a source of finance has been discussed.

Key words: Start ups, Entrepreneur, Crowd Funding, Collectives

Introduction: In recent years ‘an increased attention has been received by a startup in whole world. I India also Number of startups has increased and several of helps had been provided in almost all the dimensions. Even though all the eco system has been developed by a country, many a time startup fails if not got enough of finance when required. Finance is an important ingredient for any business. Many of new startups gets fails in first year of its inception and main reason is lack of finance. Fund is life line of any business and startup requires finance at each stage of its progress from Idea to Execution and commercializing of this idea. There are many sources available to any entrepreneur but each of them having some Challenges and opportunity in this paper; Funding to a new business opportunity and its challenges has been discussed in detail.

The startup scenario in India It is to be noted that every year more than 800 technology startups are being set up in India. By 2020, it is estimated that around 11,500 tech-startups are going to be established with employment potential of around 250,000 technical people (NASSCOM, 2015). It is admirable to note that India is amongst the top five countries in the world in terms of startups with 10,000+ led by US with 83,000+ comprising 43% tech-based firms with 9% managed by women entrepreneurs. The number of incubators also has crossed 100 in 2014-15 to give boost to the startup saga (Grant Thornton, 2015).Sector wise, the distribution of Indian businesses is:

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Table 1 Break-up of Indian Startup Business

Technology Based Non-Technology Based E-Commerce - 33% Engineering- 17% B2B - 24% Construction-13% Internet - 12% Agri- products- 11% Mobile apps - 10% Textile - 8% SaaS - 8% Printing & packaging – 8% Other – 13% Transport & logistics- 6% (Source: Startups India- An Overview, Grant Thornton, 2015)

Literature review Startup India has been promised an initial capital of ten thousand crore over a period of four years from the government. This seed capital is capable of attracting tenfold investment by 2022. Credit guarantee for startup lending is another booster. Startup plan unfolded on January 16, 2016 in front of domestic and international entrepreneurs. Internet-based businesses from food to fashion, health to education, and travel to payment platforms- all have taken Centre stage recently. Industry expectation from the Government is reciprocal. Few industry leaders who are championing Startup India want high bandwidth, tax breaks on budget smartphones supporting vernacular languages, simpler KYC norms, and improved access to electricity and credits. They are interacting with policy makers to weed out regulations which act as a brake to investments. Crisp documentation is a pipedream for the young, technology savvy, smart entrepreneur. The developed countries have worked hard to make startup operations simple. It is this backdrop which makes policy making challenging and interesting enough for the government of the day. The Prime Minister unveiled a 19-point agenda to take forward the startup culture. The action plan included tax sops, ease-of-doing business, and innovation to help entrepreneurs to startup and grow their business (Forbes India, Startup India, and January 18, 2016). As Stated by, Tarkeshwer Pandey, in his paper titled,” Challenges and opportunity of start-up India”, Capital can be a one of the challenge to Start-up India. According to him Investors and start-ups are both very important. Sometime investors give start-ups a very sluggish response. Scaling in start-ups only comes from Capital. The problem is not to generate a seed funding only but also a support in growth and Expansion It is always difficult for new entrepreneur to Manage Capital in a business. Dr. Gopaldas Pawan Kumar, stated Financing a start ups as a main problem in his paper,” Indian startups- issues, challenges and opportunities”, According to him Availability of finance is very critical in the start ups And it is always a problem to grow enough of finance. A start up can have a variety of sources of fund starting from investing own money or borrowing from family member, Friends etc., to Loans, Grants and Government Subsidies to Venture capital and angel capital to Crowd Funding etc. The fund requirement increases with expansion of business hence startups need really a very good Credit and Cash Control. A spritely stated by author in this paper is A recent report paints a gloomy picture with 85% of new company’s reportedly underfunded indicating potential failure (Iwasiuk, 2016). Dr Suniti Chandiok in her paper titled, “India the world’s fastest growing startup ecosystem: A Study”, Stated the Scaling as big problem for investors in startups. Even though country is growing very fast in segment of Startups but yet a lot of chance to develop. Another author, Omid Sharifi, in his Paper titled,” Understanding the Financing Challenges Faced by Startups in India”, Found that Major problem in front of small companies and startups if funding. Credit is not readily available to these young businesses according to author. Moreover, heavy investment in technology really requires a big Amount of money. Author, Dr. C Shekhar Upadhyay and Dr.Priyanka Rawal in their paper titled, “Start Ups; Let’s Start Them Up - An inside View in the Indian Start up Scenario”’ Funding an availably to an investor as a big problem which can lead

104 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) them to shut their businesses. They carried this research with objectives of This research paper is an effort to recognize the reasons and incentive at the back of the inorganic expansion of startups in India and also to try to comprehend the varieties of confront they face. This research paper has supply variety of recommendation to get better the overall situation of stat ups in India and help in making India the world’s startup capital. K. Sreenivasa Charyulu published a paper tieled,” Startups – Challenges and Opportunities in Indian Market”. He stated in this paper that The start-up fighting back over the Bringing of the funds into businesses from the numerous available sources of market like Bank, Non-Banking financial Companies, Venture capitalists, Angel Investors, crowd-funding. Even the Indian market has highly capable people to initiate their own company, But the difficult norms of bank it is harder to get money and fund their startup for short term and long term and they are turning back. It is responsibility of Indian Government to provide liberal rule and Easy availability of subsidies to entrepreneur to make them flourish their businesses in India. Paper titled, “challenges, issues and opportunities being faced by Indian startups”’ Published by Dr. S.S.Sodha. In her paper she stated that, accessibility of money is significant for the startups and is always a problem to get enough amounts. A number of finance options ranging from family members, friends, loans, grants, angel funding, venture capitalists, crowd funding etc are available. The requirement starts increasing as the business progresses. Scaling of business requires timely infusion of capital. Proper cash management is critical for the success of the startups. A recent report paints a gloomy picture with 85% of new company’s reportedly underfunded indicating potential failure. A paper titled, “Role of Micro Finance Institutions in Development of Micro-Enterprises (MSMEs) in Mumbai - An Empirical Study”’ Published by Prof. (Ms.) Gazia Sayed and Dr. Pankaj Trivedi. Author stated in his paper the role of Micro finance Institutions in Small scale sector industry in India. This research paper was based on the advancement of microfinance institutions (MFIs) and their Contribution to the development of Micro-Enterprise in Mumbai. This study required to fill in the gap by investigating the impact of microfinance institutions on growth and development of small and medium enterprises. A survey was conducted on 110 SME owners using structured questionnaire.

Research objective To study the opportunity of raising fund from traditional sources for start – ups To recognize the Challenges faced by an entrepreneur in the acquisition of fund from available To discover various new and innovative sources to raise the fund

Research methodology This research paper fundamentally focuses on the challenges faced by the start-ups over the raising fund and challenges faced by them to make successful grant of loans from banks, NBFC and other private channels. This information basically collected through secondary sources especially from journal, articles, internet and news papers and through peers’ discussion. The study is descriptive & conceptual in nature Traditional model of Funding for Start-ups

Discussions Various available sources available for funding start ups are as follows Boot Strapping In this era of technological advancement, it has been very easy and affordable to turn an idea into well developed businesses. Entrepreneur traditionally used to fund their start ups by Boot strapping which means using own money to start a business. It is very effective way to start own business with own funding. Those new entrepreneurs in industry have a difficulty in raising money without demonstrating their potential success. The start up can raise fund for their business on their own or can take help of family and friend. It is very easy option available for start up entrepreneur as there is less Formalities, Easily Available and less Compliance to

105 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) complete. One of the important advantage is own fund’s Cost of Capital is less. Moreover, once start up started with own fund and had achieved success than entrepreneur can go to market and can raise for more money from venture capitalist and Angels. It will be very positive point for investors later on and will start up will get funded easily. This option had only drawback is that it is not possible to fund on your own when requirement of fund in business is very high.

Government Support and Bank Loan An entrepreneur may avail facility of Bank Loan or can go to Government subsidised program to raise the capital for their start ups. There is also lot many non banking financial companies came into market to provide loans and advances for promising start-ups. An entrepreneur may take up a business loan from bank and Non-banking financial institutions as well. Now days this sectors have emerged as a good option for funding a start ups. Privatization of banking and cut throat competition in financial sector for capturing the market share has benefitted entrepreneur for easy availability of fund through such loan and govt. Subsidy under various govt programme like skill India and all. But problem here may be a lengthy process of bank and govt moreover the thinking in the mind of an Indian population of taking debt and doing business and lengthy and tedious process of documentation make entrepreneurs avoid this option

Venture Capital An entrepreneur can avail venture capital fund i starting of the new business. It comes into picture when product is successful and ready to be launched on grand level in market. It helps companies to reach to a level of IPO where they can raise money from market (lefton, 1998). VC helps start ups to grow into a big business with the help of financial aids and support. Executives of Venture capital firms are very experienced in making big businesses and it can positively help new business to grow. Challenges faced by entrepreneur in getting funded from VC can be described as : Even though VC helps a lot in growing business, It is true that they invest in Such a start up to earn comparatively higher return Because the VCs brought fund from an investor who want very high return as early as possible and hence VCs may be in hurry of taking start-ups to a stage of IPO where they raise a big amount of Money from public as an equity (galbooni and rouzies, 2010). In that case there are chances that founder of the start-up may lose their control over a business. In addition, all decision has to be scrutinise and permitted by the company’s board which have right to interfere in every decision (Wadhva, 2006). In addition to that it is very difficult for VCs to find promising ventures to which VCs can easily lead to a big Business in future. Also Investors who invests in VCs want a higher return as early as possible and it is very difficult to get those returns hence many individuals turned toward Angel Investors.

Angel Investors Angel Investors help in providing financial as well guidance support to start ups (Liu, 2000). Fundamentally, an angel investors are a bridge between the stage of Self funding in starting and Venture Capital in End. This is very important stage where in addition to money proper guidance is required to help in managing growing start ups. Angel investors are more liberal concept compared to venture capital as they need very less formalities to complete and very less information to provide fund to any start-up. As per one study angel takes forty to fifty percent less time to fund start-up (chapion, 2000). Although angel investment looks striking and more elastic, some due diligence is essential to make sure that they have the shoulders to support a start-up during its journey. The most universal trouble arises with abusive term sheets and agreements signed between the entrepreneurs and the angel, cash shortage when the start-up needs it the most, and angels who have no prior experience of investing in start-ups (Zwilling, 2011).

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Seed Accelerator Funding Some companies provide a combination of Funding as well as Mentor ship, to ease the process of start-ups for new entrepreneurs. It helps entrepreneur to refine their ideas and nurture them before actually presenting them in front of angels and VCs. This concept is more useful in the stage of product development this companies are called Seed Accelerator and with investment of a few thousand s of rupees they may have a remarkable impact on success of ant start-ups. Following are some of the example of Seed Accelerator in India. Seed Accelerators are a company that provides a simple process than angel broking or a venture capital. For the initial period no business plan is required, an applicant or entrepreneur may describe the business opportunity and has to present their idea in person and proper development of skill and all the other help to be provided by such a company. One of the great examples is Y Combinator who provides 300 Start-ups a seed accelerating funding

Crowd Funding Models In addition to seed accelerators, further innovative solutions are required to help start-ups overcome the funding challenges they face. The crowd funding space is a good place to look for inspiration. Crowd funding is a fairly new concept that stems from crowd sourcing, which is the process of delegating tasks or problems to a group of people through an open call. Crowd funding embraces the same concept and puts out a call to the public to invest in ideas in the form of intellectual or monetary support. An example of a crowd funding initiative is Kick-starter, which provides funding to projects "from the worlds of music, film, art, technology, design, food, publishing and other creative fields." It is based on an all-or-nothing funding model; the invested funds are released to the creator only once a certain threshold has been reached. If creator fails to attract sufficient investment interest to reach the threshold, the funds are returned to the investors. This ensures that creators have the necessary funds to develop their projects. Another example is Grow VC, which relies on a community of start-ups, investors, and experts to provide investments for start-ups. The company charges its members a subscription fee, 75% of which is used to build a community fund and the remaining 25% offsets the company's operational expenses. The community fund is managed by Grow VC, but the community decides which start-ups receive investment. If there is a return on equity, the profits are divided between the “most successful decision makers” and Grow VC. The successful decisions makers are the ones that have first chosen to invest in a successful start-up and have allocated a significant portion of their community fund to those start-ups. Furthermore, sophisticated investors have the option of investing directly in the start-ups of their choice.

Introduction to New Funding Model Here a basis to new move towards to start-up funding is proposed. This approach uses the power of the community that is the crowd to raise funds for start-ups and use an ecosystem (the collective) to offer a robust start-up selection, mentoring, and investment process. In order to provide a more robust crowd funding framework than is currently available in the market, there are numerous points of improvement that need to be considered. Here is the suggested new approach which can be applicable to the market.

Help in decision making An entrepreneur does not require only money to continue the business they need a strong support in decision making. Making investment decision is a hardest thing for entrepreneur some time. Here crowd involvement can be helpful to an entrepreneur to take these decisions but it has to make sure that it does not affect mission of a business in negative way. There is can be development of a decision making body which works with founder and start-up closely and help them into taking any decision.

An expert Committee Any crowd funding platform or a company should hire or take help of various experts and should form a board of

107 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) personnel who with their Expert and diversified knowledge work with an entrepreneur and their start-ups as per their requirements. A group of expert should be free to choose their core interested areas start up from a group of start ups and they can guide and support this start ups with their expertise.

A board of experts For this investment process to be viable there is a need for a board of experts who have autonomous status and diverse skill sets. This board is assigned the role of selecting start-ups for investment and mentoring. Members of the board should represent a diversity of backgrounds, but it is particularly important to have a strong representation on the board from members who have experience owning or operating successful start-ups or have experience in the financial sector. They can be contractors or permanent employees hired by the company operating the start-up investment process. As number of start-ups grows, leveraging the start up expertise would be a great approach. Previously, launched and successful start-ups member can now be on board of expert committee and can guide new startups and entrepreneurs.

A responsive approach A crowd or a community need to develop a bend and responsive approach for investment as well as well as in product development. It is to be checked that start ups are providing exactly what has been demanded in the market. There has to be system in a crowd funding model that member of collective or a Crowd provides their genuine feedback about product to the entrepreneurs of that start ups.

Further Investment Plans If start ups are not able to make growth or not earning the attention of consumers than there has to be mechanism in the crowd funding that they can take some corrective measures. so as to the money of investors does not stay stuck up. And if start ups are growing than it can take further help from Venture capital of angel investors in this case an investor should get their share as per the equity or interest they are holding in the start ups. Now those investors can invest same equity in other start ups and those start-ups also can get help of a strong collective.

A strong Crowd As part of a business ecosystem focused on refining business opportunities and attracting investment, a collective of technology start-ups can showcase their successes, build trust among members, add connections, and learn from each other. By showcasing success stories of start-ups and the forces of the business ecosystem, it would be much easier to attract individual investors to the collective.

Conclusion A startup can be financed by various sources like, an entrepreneur can raise the fund from Boot strapping that is investing his own fund or bringing it from family, friends etc., Get loan from Bank or other sources, get grant as government support and various SME development Programmes, Venture capital and angel investors can be approached as well. Moreover, there are some innovative sources available to help entrepreneurs with its start ups like Crowd Funding.

Acknowledgements I want to take this opportunity to thank all who have associated with this research work. I am thankful to, Dean – FDSR, Dr. Raashid Saiyed for his positive Recommendations and timely guidance regarding ICO STARTS and Importance of Presenting and Publishing of Research paper.

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References 1. Kousari, A. (2011). New solutions to the funding dilemma of technology startups. Open Source Business Resource, (June 2011). 2. Fernandes, R. (2013). Analysis of crowdfunding descriptions for technology projects (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology). 3. Salamzadeh, A., & Kesim, H. K. (2017). The enterprising communities and startup ecosystem in Iran. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy. 4. Salamzadeh, A., & Kirby, D. A. (2017). New venture creation: How start-ups grow?. AD-minister, (30), 9-29. 5. Cho, M., & Kim, G. (2017). A cross-cultural comparative analysis of crowdfunding projects in the United States and South Korea. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 312-320. 6. Belleflamme, P., Omrani, N., & Peitz, M. (2015). The economics of crowdfunding platforms. Information Economics and Policy, 33, 11-28. 7. Gerber, E. M., Hui, J. S., & Kuo, P. Y. (2012, February). Crowdfunding: Why people are motivated to post and fund projects on crowdfunding platforms. In Proceedings of the international workshop on design, influence, and social technologies: techniques, impacts and ethics (Vol. 2, No. 11, p. 10). Northwestern University Evanston, IL. 8. Pandey, S. C., & Pattnaik, P. N. (2017). People issues in start-ups: challenges and solutions. Strategic HR Review. 9. SunitiChandiok, D. (2016). India the world’s fastest growing startup ecosystem: A Study. Amity Research Journal of Tourism, Aviation and Hospitality, 1(02). 10. Sharifi, O., & Hossein, B. K. (2015). Understanding the financing challenges faced by startups in India. International Journal of Science Technology & Management, 4(1), 264-272 11. Kaur, K. (2017). Start up India: Challenges & opportunities. Journal of Social Science Research, 11(1), 2318-2321.

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Factors Affecting Creation of Campus Start-Ups: A Review of the Literature †*††SAGAR TANNA, †RAASHID SAIYED †School of Management, RK University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India ††Tolani Motwane Institute of Management Studies, Adipur, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to provide a selective review of available literature, analyse the role of campus ecosystems, and to identify gaps for future research. In today’s scenario where Government and Private Investors are supporting start-ups in the campus ecosystem through various schemes, huge funding, and campaigns like Start-up India & Make in India despite that we are not having substantial growth in the number of successful start-ups. By using an integrative review approach, in which 76 research papers and articles of the related domain were studied and analyzed. The literature is divided into various sections like Conceptual and Campus Ecosystem, Success and Failure Factors for campus start-ups. The paper finds that despite an increasing content of theoretical and empirical literature is available on start-ups there remains a lack of in-depth research on the factors that lead to success and failure of campus start-ups, issues faced by players of campus ecosystem in their journey from student to business start-ups. Through this review paper, identified factors will help Government, policymakers, and Academic institutes to come up with proper planning and implementation so that more campus Startups can be created and sustained. This review paper majorly focuses on factors that affect in pre-start-up phase. It is the first attempt to identify and organize various factors that will help in the successful creation of campus start-ups.

Keywords: Campus Start-ups, Entrepreneurship, Start-up, Start-up Ecosystem, Start-up Failure, Successful Start-up

Introduction The startup is defined as a fairly new entrepreneurial venture or company that aims to meet a marketplace need by developing or offering an innovative product, process, or service by the Start-up Ecosystem guidebook by Startup India (“The start-up ecosystem,” 2020). It is defined by Investopedia as, “a young company that is just beginning to develop. Start-ups are usually small and initially financed and operated by a handful of founders or one individual”. According to AICTE India, Student Start-up is a Start-up that is started by the student(s) enrolled in any AICTE approved academic institute. Start-up India the Status Report gave the amended definition of start-up and its simplified recognition process as, “Acknowledging the long gestation period for Start-ups, the definition has been amended where an entity shall be considered as a Start-up for up to 7 years (from earlier 5 years) and a Biotechnology Start-up for up to 10 years from the date of its incorporation/ registration" (Startup India, 2018-19). Start-up as defined by Nasscom “An entity working towards innovation, development, deployment, and commercialization of new products, processes, or services driven by technology or intellectual property”. Working definition of Campus Start-up Ecosystem: Campus ecosystem consists of various factors like Campus infrastructure, E-Cell (entrepreneur cell), campus incubator, Faculty/Mentors, Govt. Financial Aid & Private investors, Courses offered, Training, Placement, Technology (R&D), Library, Competition, and Events/Workshop that motivates, nourish, and promote start-ups on campus. Purpose: In today’s scenario where Government and Private Investors are supporting start-ups in the campus ecosystem through various schemes, huge funding and campaigns like Start-up India & Make in India despite that we are not having substantial growth in the number of successful start-ups. So it is of great significance to find various factors that are influencing students in their career selection. If we see today’s scenario where

110 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) unemployment is very high, it is critically important to have more job creators than a job seeker. India with a population of almost around 1.3 billion is ranking second in the world with the additional benefit of having the largest number of youth. According to ‘World Population Prospects: The 2015 revision’ Population Database of United Nations Population Division, India has the world’s highest number of youth of 10 to 24 years ago. Also in the same report, India by the year 2020 will have 34.33% of the youth of the total population (World Population Prospects 2015 - Data Booklet (ST/ESA/SER.A/377), 2015)(World Population Prospects 2015 - Data Booklet, 2015). In Economic Times, the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) stated that the unemployment rate for F.Y 18 was 5.3% in rural parts of India and 7.8% in urban India, which counts for an overall unemployment rate of 6.1%. India for the next 35 years will face severe scarcity of jobs and unemployment will continue to grow at a high rate as per the latest Asia Pacific Human Development Report. Around 1 million people enter the workforce every month as per Labour Ministry data. To tackle this situation of Job Scarcity, our Honourable Prime Minister Mr. Narendra Modi, on 15th August 2015 announced, “Start-Up India, Stand Up India” to promote Start-ups in India by providing Bank Financial Support for start-ups and offering start-ups incentives to boost job creation. Entrepreneurship education and Government Support enhance the entrepreneurial potential of students and may lead to more campus start-ups but in India vast majority of students with potential entrepreneurs, skills are graduating without opting for entrepreneurs as a career. In India, many youths do possess skill sets that can be good enough for Start-up but due to family background, lack of support, the risk associated, peer pressure, or because of some other issues they drop this idea of a start-up. Many start-ups fail before their idea is considered i.e. they give up at a very early stage and don’t get the benefit of government schemes or support.

No of

Start-ups

(Successful) (Successful)

Fig. 1 Need of Startup-Source-Self

So if we can find out factors affecting the creation of campus start-ups, Government and Academic institutes can take steps accordingly and add to the benefit of society on the whole. The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of available literature and analyse the role of campus ecosystems in the creation of successful campus start-ups.

Research Methodology An Integrative Literature Review is a form of research that reviews, investigates, and combines the literature on a theme in with the end goal that new frameworks and points of view on the subject are generated (USC Libraries, 2017). An integrative literature review is a distinctive form of research that generates new information about the subject reviewed (Torraco, 2005). Integrative review commonly includes non-experimental research (such as case studies, observational studies, and may also include practice applications, theory, and guidelines) in which selected literature should be analyzed to give comparisons, identify themes and gaps for future research (“Literature Review,” 2005). In this paper integrative literature review was adopted in which 76 research papers, reports, and articles of the

111 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) related domain were studied and analyzed. The literature is divided into various sections like Conceptual and Campus Ecosystem, Success and Failure Factors for campus start-ups. Planning the Review Before starting the review process following research questions were considered to explore the available literature. Q1) What is the start-up scenario in India? Q2) What is the performance status of Campus Ecosystem? Q3) What are the success and failure factors for the creation of campus start-ups? We used various combinations of search string such as (factors OR driver OR variable OR determinants) AND (Start-up OR Campus Start-up OR Pre Start-up) to find relevant literature. Development of the Review Various combinations of search keys were used along with the following inclusion (Table 1) and exclusion criteria (Table 2) so that relevant literature can be reviewed.

Table 1 Inclusion Criteria

Inclusion Criteria Reason for inclusion

Research focus: Studies that are relevant and that identify the factors which Factors -Success & Failure Factors, affect the creation of campus start-ups. Both success and Government Start-up reports, failure factors papers are included to get a holistic view. Research papers and articles Studies that map the Startup scenario on campuses in the context of its ecosystem and its performance

English language Only English studies are considered.

Table 2 Exclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria Reason for exclusion

Publication type Exclude books, book chapters, conference proceedings, and dissertations.

Research Focus Exclude studies that do not consider start-ups or are not relevant.

Analysis Start-up scenario in India Our Honourable Prime Minister Narendra Modi in correspondence to AICTE Start-up Policy 2016 said that India has the second-largest technical education system in the world with about eight million students in more than 10000 colleges in India and in term of start-ups we are third highest in the world. Few of Government and private entity reports are given below in a table with key findings affecting start-ups in India:

Table 3 Report Analysis Reports Key Highlights Start-up India  The ecosystem consists of more than 14,600 Startups, approximately 270 National Incubation & business acceleration programs, 200 global & domestic VC firms, Report 2018 and a fast-growing community of 231 angel investors and 8 angel networks.  India is home to 3rd largest unicorn community, with over 16 high valued Start-ups having raised over $17.27 billion funding, with an overall valuation of over $58 billion.

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Start-up India:  Launch of Startup India Action Plan by the Hon’ble Prime Minister on January 16, The Status 2016, in New Delhi for nurturing innovation and Start-ups in the country Report 2018  14,036 have been recognized as Startups by DIPP.  91 Startups have been approved for availing tax benefits by IMB, as of 3rd week of Nov 2018  NIDHI (NATIONAL INITIATIVE FOR DEVELOPMENT AND HARNESSING INNOVATIONS)  Under the MANEK scheme, 30,678 students have been selected, who have received a grant of INR 10,000 each.  Under UCCHATAR AAVISHKAR YOJANA (UAY) INR 162 crore has been disbursed for research proposals from IITs.  8 Research Parks are being set up under the Startup India initiative.

Start-up  The Start-up Gujarat website reported 2693 start-ups. (2817 start-up as per report) Gujarat  18 Mentors (19 as per report) & 1 accelerator – iCreate (Startup  7 incubators– Aashray Incubator, iSEED, National Design Business, Gujarat Gujarat, University, Centre for Advancing and Launching enterprise, i Create, Pandit 2018-19) Deendayal Petroleum University (PDPU) Report

Start-up  The policy aims to create 100,000 technology-based student start-ups and a Policy: million employment opportunities within the next 10 years (2025). AICTE-2016

Nasscom  1200+ of Start-ups added in 2018 out of which 8 Unicorns were their $ 4.3 Bn Report-Key Total funding received by Start-ups in 2018 (Jan-Sep Highlights  40,000 New Direct Jobs created 2018:  210+ Active Incubators/Accelerators in 2018  Factors like creative and supportive environment, access to faculty and active ecosystem members can be a key support for campus start-ups.

Starts-up in India, Ecosystem, and Challenges India has a unique context of entrepreneurship. In India, one finds a heterogeneous and complex blend of cultural, social, economic, and regional attributes. (Shankar, 2016).Indians when measured on entrepreneurial intention among different regions, the result indicate Indians have a moderately high level of entrepreneurial intentions (Valliere, 2016). Especially for developing countries, an important economic goal is of expanding the level of entrepreneurial activity. As per literature culture, education and environment play important roles, yet these attributes vary across nations. A comparative study between Indian and US student reveals that despite in India a combination of social structures and cultural values that have historically constrained entrepreneurship, India’s youth were found to have a significantly higher level of interest in starting new ventures than their US counterparts(M, Nancy; V, 2008). As per Unnithan, the majority of business ideas were developed during studentship (Unnithan & Palace, 2015). Giving projects and exercises that resemble real business world situations would increase knowledge and skills that can be transformed into the workplace from school. (Reeves, Zappe, & Follmer, 2019).

Campus Ecosystem Entrepreneurship education and Government Support enhance the entrepreneurial potential of students and may lead to more campus start-ups but in India vast majority of students with potential entrepreneurial skills are passing out

113 | ISBN: 9789354063343 ICOSTART 2019 Conference Proceedings www.rku.ac.in © RK University, Rajkot, India International Research Conference on Innovations, Startup and Investments (ICOSTART-2019) without opting for Entrepreneurship as a career. Also in the same study, findings suggest that entrepreneurship education in the higher education system is below average whereas the entrepreneurial potential of students is above average. The outcome of that study highlights the increasing need to focus on entrepreneurship education in higher education(H.V. Mukesh, Abhishek S Rao, 2019). According to the UGC report of 2015, India with the world's biggest higher education framework comprises a total of 26.58 million students in 711 universities and 40,760 colleges. Most of the young people and potential business visionaries are every years going through colleges without essential enterprising aptitudes. Because of this, it creates excessive supply in job markets, resulting in an imbalance as well as increasing unemployment. Binder, Davis, and Bloom in their study show how student cultures prefer high-wealth, high-status occupational sectors. As per Binder, findings suggest how status form on school grounds is focal in generating inclinations for the uppermost positions in the occupational structure. (Binder, Davis, & Bloom, 2015). “Teaching entrepreneurship in a classroom can be like teaching swimming from a textbook. You have to get into the pool to learn how to swim. You have to start a venture, network with other entrepreneurs, and present to funders to learn how to be an entrepreneur.” His research also states the importance of providing support for the development of entrepreneurship programs and also developed an ecosystem of independent initiatives where any faculty member or student could engage with, regardless of academic affiliation (Kingma et al., 2014). As per Kirby, Governments around the world are focusing more on creating more Entrepreneurial universities as they believe that they are important catalysts for regional economic and social development, through new, innovative enterprises (Kirby, 2002b).

Factors affecting campus start-up Entrepreneurial Intention requires formulating an idea or a project as per the conclusion in a theoretical analysis of research conducted by Badri and Hachicha (Badri & Hachicha, 2019) which includes a sample made up of students from the Tunisian universities. Four factors were distinguished as determinants for students to go into business: enterprising certainty, innovative direction, college support for business enterprise, and social help for business. (Pauceanu, Alpenidze, Edu, and Zaharia, 2018). Likewise persuading factors like a financial and non-money related prize, related understanding, individual foundation, organizing opportunity, support from powerful relatives, and business impact from associates were found in a focus group survey led in Malaysia (Marzuki, Kadir, Buyong, & Junid, 2016). The most glaring difference that was found was that faculty perceived students to be significantly less entrepreneurial than the students perceived themselves (Shinnar, Pruett, Toney, Shinnar, & Carolina, 2010).

Factors for the failure of Startups Factors for the failure of start-up as determined in a research carried out on 214 start-up post-mortem report states Structured Business Development strategy as a key determinant for the failure of a start-up. According to Young Entrepreneurs Council, three-fourths of college students still indicate that they have no access to on-campus entrepreneurship as mentioned resources and so for universities to help student entrepreneurs and to have an ideal entrepreneurial climate, should focus on Cross campus collaboration, Hands-on, experiential programs, Dedicated workspace and Mentorship programs

Findings: Through integrative literature review, various factors were identified and grouped down into conceptual themes which are as follows:

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Students Campus Ecosystem Societal factors Government Startup Strategies Entrepreneurial interest Entrepreneurial activities Social support Fianancial Support Pricing Strategy Parental Entrepreneurial Vocation Curriculum Preference Legal environment Free to paid Entrepreneurial skills Practical course Social Norms Ease of doing business Word of Mouth Personality Traits Incubator Family support Tax Policies Communication Entrepreneur tendency Research Park Culture Patent Registration Environment Closure Regulations- Career Adaptability Accelerator Society Norms Law Process of starting Ease and support Entrepreneurial Intention Courses of resources Previous Government Customer analysis Academia-Corporate- Gender Entrepreneur Network Employment Market analysis Personal Attraction Alumni Technology Self efficacy Entrepreneur Education Perosnal Power Faculty Support Social power Infrastrutcure Material Power Government Support Skills Internship and Placement Ability Events Prior Experience Aspiration

Perception Motive Entrepreneur Exposure Family Business background Fig. 2 Factors affecting creation of Campus Startup. Source: Self (Integration of LR)

Factors under student’s category discuss individual preference and readiness towards start-ups. Their entrepreneurial interest, skills, demographic, exposure to the start-up ecosystem, and family background affect their career selection and their interest in creating a start-up. Campus ecosystem talks about all the factors like entrepreneur cell, faculty, courses, curriculum, infrastructure, etc. that helps in creating successful start-ups. Societal factor includes material and support from family, friends, and society on the whole. Many times students do opt for the wrong career option because of societal factors (peer pressure, family/society support). Government factors include support and initiatives for the start-up ecosystem. Many Government schemes and subsidies are available to boost start-up scenarios in the country. Start-up Strategies discusses factors that are required to sustain start-up in this competitive dynamic environment. In the following table 4, a summary of various research papers classified and grouped in various categories is shown:

Table 4 Literature Review Findings & Integration No Reference Methodology Key Findings Theme 1 (Costa, 2009) Descriptive analysis - Students have a moderate predisposition Campus 171 students of higher to engage in entrepreneurial activities Ecosystem education institutions The entrepreneurial interest is influenced from Fortaleza by the perceived entrepreneurial vocation of the area, the social support, and the perceived strategic entrepreneurial skills mastery. 2 (William, 2018) Qualitative- 4 to 5 It helps in understanding the different Start-up Start-ups techniques that start-up would use like Strategy the word-of-mouth, online community, pricing technique adopted by them for their product or service, and how they move from providing their services for free to a fee-based system. 3 (Dr. Suniti Chandiok, Mixed- Qualitative & Making capital more accessible and Government 2016) quantitative data cheaper, easier patent filing, giving Support (Sample Size: 145 research and development credits, and respondents) easier entry for the success of Start-up India as a growing economy. The success of Start-up India campaign hinges on initiatives like faster and easier registration of Companies,

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self-certification for any legal requirements, zero, inspection for three years, funding for patents, and speed of patent protection. 4 (Brandstätter, 2011) Quantitative- The influence of personality traits may Start-up Meta-Analysis be stronger with entrepreneurs than with Ecosystem most other professions because the entrepreneurial role provides more freedom in choosing and changing the environment as well as in acting according to personal preferences and goals. 5 (Öznur, Elibol, & Descriptive- Sample The students with high entrepreneurship Campus Sönmez, 2019) 265 tendencies have better career Ecosystem adaptability. 6 (Bloemen-bekx, 2019) Descriptive- Sample There is a direct effect of gender on EI. Campus size 1134 consisting of Also, this study reveals a significant Ecosystem at a university in the mediating effect of parental preference – Netherlands one of the social persuasion factors studied – on the gender–EI 7 (Analoui, 2019) Qualitative The authors emphasize the lack of Impact/Scope research in service demand for of Start-up disadvantaged groups from a social enterprise perspective while highlighting how social enterprise can fill the gap in public service provision in rural areas 8 (Heyworth-thomas & Qualitative Social entrepreneurs, those who are Impact/Scope Jones, 2019) motivated by personal need and altruistic of Start-up behavior, rather than necessity. 9 (Sahinidis, Vassiliou, Quantitative- SEM of There is a strong link between Personal Campus & Hyz, 2014) 696 business owners Attraction and Entrepreneurial Intention Ecosystem (EI), 10 (Gelderen, Thurik, & Descriptive-sample of New venture creation framework Start-up Bosma, 2006) 517 business Strategy 11 (Kitching & Qualitative data from The conception of entrepreneurial Campus Blackburn, 2018) three UK-based disabled identity – the personal power to create a Ecosystem entrepreneurs new venture. Although most people have the power to become an entrepreneur, not everyone can, or is motivated to, realize that potential. Other countervailing powers – personal, material, and social – can constrain, or discourage, action. 12 (Smith, 2019) Mixed research Key factors associated with the success- Start-up methodology of Startups such as understanding Strategy customer needs, networks, clear market analysis, etc. 13 (Mazzarol, Volery, Empirical Study of 93 Gender, previous government Impact/Scope Doss, & Thein, 1999) set up employment, and recent redundancy – of Start-up were identified as having potential negative influences on small business formation 14 (Snelson, 2016) Qualitative analysis of The most commonly used research Methodology 229 studies approaches involved collecting data from people through interviews, focus groups, and survey methodologies. Content analysis was the second most commonly used approach 15 (Jones, Klapper, Qualitative literature There is a need for more contextual Methodology Ratten, & Fayolle, review research in entrepreneurship. This is a 2018) continual journey that needs a mixed-method approach to provide for improved triangulation of findings 16 (Upadhyay, 2017) Qualitative Start-ups are playing the role of Impact/Scope methodology game-changer in India, Challenges from of Start-up lack of funds to government assistance/interference are existing 17 (Corvello, Grimaldi, Qualitative 7 theme- of Open innovation and Start-up Lazio, & Rippa, 2017) review-Forty-one start-up. An open innovation ecosystem Ecosystem articles for start-ups is not complete without the role played by Higher Education System

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(HEI). 18 (Santisteban, 2019) A qualitative review of 21 critical success factors grouped into Start-up 74 studies three categories (organizational, Ecosystem individual, and external) and 4 stages of development through which a Start-up passes (seed, early, growth, and expansion). 19 (Guerrero, Kirby, & Quantitative -The Individual-Prior experience, skills, Campus Urbano, 2006) proposed model was Aspirations Universities-Incubation, Ecosystem tested with 11,569 Research Park, Accelerator graduates from 30 campuses across 21 Mexican cities 20 (Centobelli, Qualitative-32 paper Gap regarding Knowledge Management Start-up Cerchione, & literature review on start-up’s performances Ecosystem Esposito, 2017) 21 (Guerrero et al., 2006) Qualitative-literature Formal factors were considered the Campus review: Books (13), organizational and governance structure, Ecosystem Academic Journals the support measures to create new (122), and Working business, and the entrepreneurship Papers (8). education. Informal factors were the attitudes of the university community, entrepreneurship teaching methodologies, and role models and academic reward systems. 23 (Silva & Nobre, 2018) Quantitative-Descriptive Students in the management area are Campus more likely to be future entrepreneurs, Ecosystem thus proving the idea that courses that offer more information and training in entrepreneurship increase students’ positive attitudes towards this issue. 24 (Stijn & Rijnsoever, Qualitative-Interviews The resources that universities transfer to Campus 2018) of 36 clean-tech start-ups mostly relate to the Ecosystem start-ups, universities, organization and product development, and other experts but little to market development. Universities can strengthen their (entrepreneurship) education programs and knowledge utilization objectives through university–start-up interaction (USUI) 25 (Dutta, 2006) Qualitative Literature The Start-up initiative holds the potential Start-up Review of creating jobs when the manufacturing Ecosystem sector is having a downfall. Roadblocks-finance, land permissions, environmental clearance, foreign investment proposals, family support, team, marketing strategy, legal aspect, resource allocation, mentorship, accurate advice and information, fear of failure, etc. 26 (Juha, 2017) Qualitative Literature The students driven to an entrepreneurial Campus Review career have had a personal touch with the Ecosystem real-life entrepreneurs 27 (Staniewski & Quantitative It is vital to introduce classes involving Campus Szopiński, 2015) -entrepreneurial entrepreneurship at an early stage, Ecosystem attitudes of 458 teaching should focus on stimulating students. student interests 29 (Aravind, Pradeep, & Quantitative analysis of Engineering students have a positive Campus Satish, 2018) 156 students of colleges attitude to get involved in start-ups. The Ecosystem under KTU number of students involved in start-ups is less as they have limited awareness of the current government policies. The main barrier factors towards entrepreneurship are financial stringency, misconceptions regarding start-up incubation, lack of self-confidence, etc. 30 (Nabi et al., 2006) Qualitative Literature A transition from entrepreneurial Campus Review intentions to actual start-up is often Ecosystem assumed but under-researched in terms of career development and

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decision-making processes. 31 (Hassan, 2016) Qualitative Literature Opportunities, Barriers, motives, Start-up Review Entrepreneurial Exposure, Family Ecosystem Support, Culture 32 (Pandit, Joshi, & Quantitative data Explicit entrepreneurship education can Impact/Scope Tiwari, 2018) analysis of 836 students have a positive influence on graduates of Start-up of various streams of and make them better entrepreneurs. Campus graduate course Exposing students to well-designed Ecosystem entrepreneurship courses can ensure the development of the economy through the presence of successful entrepreneurs 33 AICTE (Aicte, 2019) Report- Policy for Definition of Start-up- An entity that Campus students and faculty develops a business model based on Ecosystem under AICTE either product innovation or service innovation and makes it scalable, replicable and self-reliant 34 (Cantamessa & Descriptive - 214 Post Lack of a structured Business Start-up Gatteschi, 2018) mortem report of failed Development strategy, SHELL model Strategy start-ups (failure factors) 35 (Reeves et al., 2019) Semi-structured Providing projects and activities that Campus interview of 7 closely resemble real-world situations Ecosystem successful professional would likely increase the amount of entrepreneurs and 32 knowledge and skills that students can students transfer from school into the workforce. 36 (Wright, Siegel, & Qualitative Theoretical The student ecosystem model, Campus Mustar, 2017) Framework-Student University, alumni, local authorities, Ecosystem ecosystem existing start-ups, and large firms accelerate the development of the ecosystem. 37 (Marzocchi, Kitagawa, Quantitative-Descriptive The evolution of USOs-Spinoffs and Campus & analysis universities (N graduate start-ups exhibit two different Ecosystem Sánchez-Barrioluengo, = 163) for six academic pathways over time; and second, that 2019) years teaching and research both affect entrepreneurial ventures 38 (Herri & Syed Azizi Quantitative Descriptive Entrepreneurship characteristics and Start-up Wafa, 2003) analysis of 184 sample strategy Ecosystem 39 (Keat, 2013) Quantitative Descriptive Motivators such as extrinsic rewards and Campus analysis of 153 change management inspire them to start Ecosystem undergraduate students up a new venture whilst government of University Utara support/assistance plays a significant role Malaysia in promoting entrepreneurship. 40 (Hien & Cho, 2018) Quantitative analysis of Curricular and extracurricular programs Campus 293 students from two for entrepreneurship based on Ecosystem universities in Vietnam. self-efficacy, but not social education, had significant effects on innovative start-up intentions. 41 (Mehralizadeh & Quantitative analysis Failure factors were weak managing Campus Sajady, 2011) based on a triangulation technical skills, financial issues, planning Ecosystem method and organizing their business, education, and Methodology low training. Success Factors-suitable managing technical skills, education and paying more attention to personnel training, application of management conceptual skills 42 (Qian & Yao, 2017) Mixed Methodology, Research universities can effectively Campus Quantitative: 53 participate in an entrepreneurial Ecosystem Qualitative: ecosystem of a college Methodology 43 (Foo Wah, Mohd Quantitative analysis of Factors such as attitude towards the Campus Yusuf, & Suanda, 200 respondents of behavior, desirability, and feasibility of Ecosystem 2017) Universities in Malaysia self-employment, family business background and entrepreneurship education do have significant relationships towards students’ entrepreneurial intentions 44 (Evers, 2003) Qualitative Literature Many start-ups never reach Start-up Review establishment, and the majority close up Ecosystem within one year after they have become established & integrated theoretical frameworks of new venture creation

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45 (B. Kim, Kim, & Jeon, Qualitative literature Idea commercialization is the most Start-up 2018) Review important success factor. Ecosystem 46 (Patrick, Rizal, Hee, Qualitative Conceptual framework- Lack of Start-up Mahadi, & resource, social networking, fear of risk, Ecosystem Kamarudin, 2019) stress aversion are hindering factors 47 (Okrah & Nepp, 2017) Mixed-Method using a The number of launched Start-ups is very Start-up pooled model, fixed high and the number of start-ups that Ecosystem effect model and the don't survive is highly correlated. random model 48 ( SSIP, 2017) Policy Report Definition of Student Start-up is any Start-up student-led innovation-based Start-up Ecosystem that has been founded by the efforts of one or more student(s) and/or alumni (not more than 5 years from graduation) 49 (Sabbarwal, 2010) Quantitative analysis of They suggest that although the business Startup eighty entrepreneurs castes still dominate the entrepreneurship Ecosystem from the northern scene, yet there is an emerging trend of regions of India more and more non-business community participation in this sphere. 50 (Hausberg & Korreck, Qualitative Literature Provide an understanding of the growth Startup 2018) Review drivers and motivations of Start-up Ecosystem founders; identify challenges facing these Start-ups, and outline the pillars in place that support them. 51 Sari Pekkala Kerr, Qualitative Literature They consider baseline personality traits Startup William R. Kerr, Tina Review like the Big-5 model, self-efficacy and Ecosystem Xu innovativeness, locus of control, and the need for achievement. 52 FICCI (FICCI, 2016) Report FICCI Creating ecosystem: Institute academic Start-up support Ecosystem 53 Nasscom (Nasscom, Report Nasscom Definition, Start-up ecosystem- facts, Start-up 2018) overview, and Factors Ecosystem 54 Start-up India 2018 Start-up India - Report Definition, Campaigns, Policies Start-up 2018 Ecosystem 55 Assocham,Grant Report- Assocham & Definition, Start-up growth, challenges, Start-up Thronton 2016 Grant Thronton 2018 process, data analysis, and Overview Ecosystem 56 Start-up India 2018 Report- Start-up India The lifecycle of start-up, Role of State Start-up Government of India Government, State-wise ranking Ecosystem 57 Swarnim Startup Brochure of Start-up Scope/University Ecosystem Campus University brochure University Ecosystem 58 Start-up India 2018 Start-up India - Gujarat Overview, State Performance, and Pillar Start-up Report 2018 wise support Ecosystem 59 (Celuch et al., 2017) Quantitative - Pre and Role of the university as an ecosystem Start-up post-test integrator to accelerate learning and Ecosystem innovation in the region. 60 (Watson, Empirical study “Push” criteria such as redundancy, Start-up Hogarth-scott, & unemployment, frustration with previous Ecosystem Wilson, 1998) employment and the need to earn a reasonable living are important motivators for start-up, However, “pull” criteria such as independence, being one’s boss, using creative skills, doing enjoyable work and making a lot of money are more important motivators 61 (Aashish, 2017) Qualitative literature Successful ecosystem (a) Incubation Start-up review concept, facility design, and models and Ecosystem (b) Incubator performance assessment and benchmarking of best practices. 62 (S. Kim & Read, Mixed- Qualitative Case Summary of start-up ecosystem status Start-up 2019) study and Student with several cities included in Silicon Ecosystem sample survey Valley to understand the characteristics of the start-up ecosystem in Korea. 63 (Scott, Lubynsky, & Quantitative analysis of Uncertainties associated with R & D and Start-up Scott, n.d.) 652 ventures non R & D sectors Ecosystem 64 (Cohen, 2014) Qualitative- Accelerator programs represent a Start-up relatively new model of assistance for Ecosystem entrepreneurs that combines many features that in the past were typically provided separately.

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65 (Guifang, Peng, Quantitative -Empirical Carve-out education can enhance Campus Luqing, & Ziqi, 2012) Study on 200 college entrepreneur intention indirectly by Ecosystem students of China updating students’ knowledge and cultivating their abilities 66 (Gonthier & Chirita, A qualitative study of 4 Factors comprise the recruitment of Start-up 2019) corporate incubators employees with entrepreneurial potential, Ecosystem investments in knowledge articulation and codification, and leadership that legitimizes the incubator as a means for the company to develop new ideas and provide support to entrepreneurs inside the organization. 67 (Williams & Kedir, Quantitative analysis of Survey data on 67,515 enterprises across Start-up 2018) World Bank Enterprise 142 countries, talks about Ecosystem non-registration i.e. state intervention and the rules of formal institutions being incongruent with the socially shared beliefs of entrepreneurs. 68 (Chang, 2017) Quantitative analysis This study suggests that higher education Start-up institutions can engage in more workable Ecosystem actions to enhance students’ entrepreneurship 69 (Wolf, Amstutz, Case study method This study discusses how city Start-up Schuchert, Minder, & governments and municipalities can Ecosystem Willener, 2018) stimulate grassroots initiatives toward an entrepreneurial city 72 (B. Kim et al., 2018) Qualitative literature Idea commercialization is the most Start-up Review by studying a important success factor as an innovation Ecosystem total of 24 experts criterion among the four success criteria of design Start-ups. 73 (Patrick et al., 2019) Qualitative Conceptual framework- Lack of Start-up resource, social networking, fear of risk, Ecosystem stress aversion are hindering factors 75 Akanksha Dutta Qualitative Literature The Start-up initiative holds the potential Start-up (Dutta, 2006) Review of creating jobs when the manufacturing Ecosystem sector is having a downfall. 76 (Martin & Welsch, Qualitative Conceptual This study focuses on demographic Start-up 2018) changes in society and the alternative Ecosystem career paths that influence retired individuals via social capital.

Conclusion and Research Gap The discussion in this review has covered a wide range of topics related to the start-up ecosystem, but factors for creating campus start-ups are still understudied. Need of Start-ups: We are having the largest number of the youth population (World Population Prospects 2015 - Data Booklet, 2015).In today’s time, there is a need for more job creators rather than job seekers as per unemployment and job shortage data by Asia Pacific Human Development Report. Need for improvement in Campus Ecosystem: Our current education ecosystem needs improvement in curriculum, course, practical approach and lacks focus on start-up creation as per (Badri & Hachicha, 2019; Binder et al., 2015; H.V. Mukesh, Abhishek S Rao, 2019; Kingma et al., 2014; Young, 2000). Need for improvement in the sustainability rate of start-ups: Start-ups in consumer services, e-commerce, and fin-tech saw the most shutdowns from 2016 to 2018. The Start-up's sustainability rate is very low. It is in the absence of scalable ideas that makes 9 out of 10 Indian startups sink like balloons as per (In Review: 10 Of The Biggest Startup Failures In India,2018). Government support and major issue: Successful creation of start-ups is a critical issue for Government as even after spending huge amounts through various subsidies and policies discussed in table 3 to boost start-ups but then also they are not successful in creating start-ups that can survive and sustain long in this dynamic environment. Students are having innovative ideas but many are rejected or failed before they get any shape of a start-up. Many times because of peer pressure, societal pressure, or lack of support, awareness, and resource students although having traits of start-up opts for wrong career options or avoids their idea implementation. If these relevant factors can be identified then a supportive ecosystem can be created which Government, Policymakers, and Academic institutes to come up with proper planning and implementation so that more campus

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