Soldiers International 9 Marshalsea Road London, SE1 1EP +44 (0) 20 7367 4110 [email protected] A Rights-Based Analysis of www.child-soldiers.orgChild Recruitment On the cover: A British soldier, © Stephen Mulcahey / Alamy

Child Soldiers International wishes to thank Derek Brett, Pat Elder, Edwina Hughes, Stefan Mohrle, Bill Scheurer, Wayne Sharrocks, Ralf Willinger and Renate Winter, whose support made this report possible. We also gratefully acknowledge the work of all those organisations campaigning to end the exploitation of children worldwide, whose research we have cited here. Published in 2018, by: Child Soldiers International 28 Charles Square London N1 6HT United Kingdom www.child-soldiers.org [email protected]

Printed by: Bowmans

Design: Design Corps, Pratt Institute; designcorps.pratt.edu Alyssa Klimo '18, Megan Lee '18, Dana Weiss '17 CONTENTS Glossary of Terms...... 2 'Voluntary' of Children...... 28 Foreword...... 3 The Military Training Process...... 29 Executive Summary...... 4 The Military Environment...... 36 Introduction...... 8 Participation in Hostilities...... 40 Child Recruitment by State Leaving the Armed Forces...... 42 Armed Forces: An Overview...... 12 Quantifying the Impact...... 44 Extent of Child Recruitment...... 13 Mental Health and Alcohol Use...... 45 Child Recruitment and the ...... 14 and Violence...... 47 The Child Recruit's Journey...... 18 General Health...... 48 Targeting Children for Recruitment...... 19 Socioeconomic Outcomes...... 48 Socioeconomic Targeting...... 20 Conclusion: The Case for 18...... 52 Fantasy Marketing...... 21 The Harm of Child Recruitment...... 53 Cadet Forces...... 21 The Positive Case for Change...... 54 Recruiting in Schools...... 22 Recommendations...... 55 Military Schools...... 23 Bibliography...... 56 Enlistment and Consent...... 24 Country Index...... 61 GLOSSARY OF TERMS AFFLUENT COUNTRIES For the purposes of this report, ‘affluent’ refers approximately to the richest third of countries globally, as measured by Gross Domestic Product per capita per annum (equivalent to approx. $15,000 or greater).

ARMED FORCES (STATE) The principal military organisation of a nation state, comprising a land force (army) and often also naval and air forces.

ARMED GROUP (NON-STATE) A military organisation or group not integral to the state armed forces.

CHILD Per international law, this report defines a child as any person under the age of 18.

CONSCRIPT A recruit who begins military employment by state compulsion.

CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child.

ENLISTED RECRUIT A recruit who begins military employment at the lowest rank (typically with a background of socioeconomic disadvantage).

NCO Non-commissioned Officer. A common term for an enlisted recruit who has been promoted to a position with varying degrees of management responsibility.

OFFICER RECRUIT A recruit who begins military employment in a senior position (typically with a background of socioeconomic privilege).

OPAC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict.

PTSD Post-traumatic stress disorder.

RECRUIT A person used by a military organisation or group for any military purpose, not limited to participation in hostilities. FOREWORD

When I spoke with a warlord ‘General’ about why he recruited children he said, ‘Children are abundant, stupid, they obey orders, don’t ask questions, and cost nothing. They are very cheap! They never desert, cannot go home and I can get as many as I want immediately.’ But it is different when children are recruited legitimately by State armed forces, isn’t it? They can make an informed and responsible decision, guided by their parents, they can get an education that their parents might not be able to afford, vocational training for future employment, and they are medically insured. They get a good opportunity for life. Is that so? In one UN Member State judges tell boys in conflict with the law that they have a choice: either prison or the army. This sounds like the army is equivalent to punishment rather than a consideration of the best interests of a child - even though this should be mandatory! Why are States still interested in enlisting children, even if there is no , no pressing need? Maybe because this way statistics for jobless look better? Not all children are targeted by army agents. The overwhelming majority of child recruits are from poor and/or troubled backgrounds, they don’t like school or have difficulties there, and are not able to read texts fluently - certainly not complex legal ones. They don’t see what long term consequences are hidden in rather repressive contracts, and nor do their parents. So much for informed and guided decisions! Instead of finding the glamorous, heroic environment described to them in recruitment advertising, they often find harsh conditions, , used as a means of control, restriction of , and, even more important, restriction of freedom of thinking or expression. Is there anyone who really believes that a military school is a place for discussion and individual development? Is it not rather a place to learn, above all, to obey as a reflex? Is this not the reason why a judge gives the choice mentioned above? To learn to function and obey without thinking? To have vocational training for the needs of the army, not for a civilian career? What about health? Bullying, sexual violence, peer pressure into violent behaviour, all this leading to a high suicide rate. There is huge alcohol consummation to demonstrate ‘manhood’ and injuries in training with immediate discharge. Are these the ‘highest attainable standards of health’ that a child has a right to? But surely there is not only enlistment to the ranks for poor children – isn’t there also officer training for rather well-to-do children? There is. But when a child has a family member in the army who tries hard to convince him to enlist, does he really have a free choice? ‘Why does 18 matter?’ Because ‘over 18s’ are more likely to believe less easily and think more critically. This is ‘why 18 matters’!

Justice Renate Winter Chairperson, UN Committee on the Rights of the Child ‘Clearly one of the most urgent priorities is to remove everyone under 18 years of age from armed forces.’ Graça Machel, Impact of armed conflict on children (2)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

THE RECRUITMENT OF not usually used in armed conflict, associate military life with action CHILDREN BY STATE their rights are unaffected. To the adventure films and videogames. ARMED FORCES contrary, this report shows that Omitted from recruiters’ marketing the practice causes material harm are the risks and trauma of war, As of April 2018, more than four- to children and routinely violates the harsh conditions of the military fifths (167) of states worldwide several of their fundamental environment, and the restrictive have now committed in law to rights. This report catalogues legal obligations that follow ‘take all feasible measures’ not these violations, drawing on enlistment. In so misleading to use children under the age evidence from epidemiological children, military marketing is of 18 in armed conflict or any research, official sources, and the exploitative. other hostilities. Two-thirds of testimony of former child recruits. Schools and Youth states with armed forces have THE CHILD RECRUIT’S Organisations further committed to the so- Education settings are a major called ‘straight-18’ standard: no JOURNEY site for promoting of children for any employment to children below military purpose. The remainder The journey of a child recruit begins long before they become enlistment age. The US army have yet to reach this standard, describes schools as the continuing to capitalise on the eligible for military employment, and continues through their ‘cornerstone’ of its recruitment failure of international law to strategy, for example.1 In addition, forbid recruiting children from enlistment, training, and ultimate discharge from the armed forces: many states subsidise cadet age 16. forces and military schools to States that still allow child Targeting Children immerse children in an apparently recruitment in law tend to Children, particularly those from risk-free simulation of military life be relatively affluent and low-income backgrounds, are and begin to train them there democratically controlled; they targeted for potential recruitment in the techniques of warfare. In include five of the G7 states, for from a young age. Marketing several countries, children in example. States often suggest presents military life in glamorous military schools are liable for that because parental consent terms, sanitises war as heroic an extended period of military is required and child recruits are in the child’s imagination, and employment after graduation. frequently encourages children to The Contract risks their child faces. Parental New child recruits commit consent, as a safeguard, assumes 46 STATES BELIEVED TO themselves to absolute control unreasonably that parents who BE ENLISTING CHILDREN by the state, accept limitations have been abusive or neglectful AS OF APRIL 2018 of their child are as capable to fundamental rights, and face Afghanistan markedly increased long-term of defending his or her best Algeria occupational risks. The contract, interests as those who have been which can bind enlistees to loving and responsible. Australia serve for a period of years, Austria could not be imposed lawfully Child Conscription Bangladesh on a civilian of any age in Some states which operate Belgium most economically developed adult conscription systems Bolivia invite children to begin their countries. In restricting freedom Cabo Verde compulsory service early. Many and suspending fundamental Canada rights, military terms of service children opt for this to limit the Chile are unambiguously inimical to the impact of conscription on their China best interests of the child. civilian education and career plans. Since conscription is not Cuba Adolescent Susceptibility ‘genuinely voluntary’, it ought not Cyprus Neuroscientific research has to involve children at all. Dominican Republic found that children in mid- DPRK Training by Coercion adolescence are markedly Egypt more likely than adults to make The primary purpose of initial El Salvador choices based on emotive military training is to ensure that Eritrea appeal, and less able to evaluate child recruits will obey all orders the long-term consequences. by reflex and without question. France Accordingly, a child in mid- It is a coercive process based German adolescence is less able than on sustained psychological and Guinea-Bissau an adult to make an informed physical stress, harsh discipline Guyana including humiliation and physical and responsible choice about India punishment, and tight restrictions enlisting. This developmental Iran on contact with family and susceptibility combines with Israel the underdeveloped of friends. by instructors are Mauritania many child applicants and the widespread. Research in the US salesmanship of recruiters to found that the rate of attempted Mexico jeopardise a child’s legal right suicide in the 2000s among Myanmar, Netherlands to be ‘fully informed’ of the army recruits (all ages) was four New Zealand consequences of enlistment.2 times higher during initial training Pakistan Each time a child enlists without than during deployment to Iraq Papua New Guinea or Afghanistan. As such, military full comprehension of the risks Saint Kitts and Nevis training is wholly incompatible and obligations that follow, the São Tomé e Príncipe choice is not ‘genuinely voluntary’ with states’ legal obligation ‘to Singapore as required by law.3 protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury Somalia Parental Involvement or , or negligent South Most armed forces are required treatment, maltreatment or Sudan 4 by law to obtain the ‘informed exploitation...’. Syria consent’ of parents or guardians Tonga before a child can enlist. In Trinidad and Tobago practice, the involvement of parents may be only peripheral, 1. For the full quotation and source, United Kingdom the information provided to them see “Recruiting in Schools,” p. 22 aims to persuade rather than United States of America 2. OPAC art 3. inform, and recruiters need only Yemen 3. OPAC art 3. a signed form as evidence that Zambia parents fully comprehend the 4. CRC art 19. Insubstantial Education Participation In Hostilities QUANTIFYING THE It is common for armed forces While most states do not routinely IMPACT OF MILITARY to describe training bases as use children in the military theatre, EMPLOYMENT ON education institutions and argue some reserve the right to do so, or that child recruits enjoy an may do so in error; the UK and US CHILD RECRUITS ongoing education; for example, have sent small numbers of child Research findings, particularly the British army’s main training recruits to Iraq and Afghanistan, in the last decade, have begun site for child recruits is called for example. Some armed forces to quantify the effect of military the . post child recruits as armed employment on young people, Typically, training centres for guards at military sites, with the including child recruits. Research low-ranking military jobs do expectation that they may open in the UK and US has shown that not operate to the standards fire in the event of an attack. and veterans expected of civilian education, Even when child recruits are not are more likely than civilians basic skills education for child deployed in any way, their uniform to experience stress-related recruits is rudimentary, and could attract an attack from any mental health problems, drink the vocational training offered hostile actor. heavily, and behave violently, has limited transferable value and they have poorer general to the civilian jobs market. Child Trainee Attrition health in later life. The extent Child recruits, especially those These conditions fall short of of these problems among from economically deprived states’ legal obligation to direct recruits under the age of 18 is backgrounds, are more likely education to ‘the development of often not directly quantifiable than adults to drop out of their the child's personality, talents and from the data, but the studies training. A third of child recruits mental and physical abilities to examined for this report show 5 to the British army either leave their fullest potential’. repeatedly that younger recruits or are dismissed during training, are most affected. In the UK, for example, which usually leaves The Military Environment for example, the suicide rate Research in the UK and US them without work and out of among the army’s youngest has found that bullying, sexual the education system. Extensive recruits is substantially higher violence, and heavy drinking are research in the US armed forces than both the same age group in substantially more common in has found repeatedly that child the civilian population, and adult the armed forces than elsewhere, recruits from poorer backgrounds recruits. and that the youngest personnel are more vulnerable to stress (including child recruits) are the and more rebellious, which Although child recruits, who most affected. In common with combine to increase the risk commonly come from deprived findings from other countries, of early attrition. In addition, backgrounds, often have an investigation into sexual British research has found that elevated rates of mental health in the Canadian child recruits are significantly and behaviour issues before armed forces noted that relative more likely than adults to be they enlist, the research shows immaturity is a ‘prominent factor’ discharged due to training that military employment tends in the elevated vulnerability of the injury, because their bones to aggravate these problems. youngest recruits, and that various and musculature are not yet Psychosocial vulnerabilities military settings create ‘particular developed. associated with an adverse conditions of vulnerability’.6 childhood appear to combine ‘If I was to have a child that was 15 who wanted to join the army, I wouldn’t let them. I know...the army and what can happen. If they wanted to join at 18 that would be their own option.’ Wayne Sharrocks, British , 2006-2013 (3).

hazardously with the stress of CONCLUSION still rely on adult conscription, initial training (and often, later, most do not, proving that traumatic war experiences) to Now that most states have recruiting children is not a increase the prevalence of stress- moved to end the recruitment strategic necessity, but a policy related disorders and violent of children by their armed convenience. Research has behaviour. For example, research forces, a global ban is at least shown that all-adult armed forces in the UK and US has found that foreseeable, if not within reach. are more viable: they benefit young people are more likely It is striking that states which from recruits who are more to commit violent offences after still rely on child recruits to mature and resilient, need fewer they enlist than before. A popular their armed forces tend not to safeguarding arrangements, belief that joining the army be the poorest, but the most are trained more quickly and prevents anti-social behaviour is prosperous. The reluctance thus are less likely to drop out, not supported by the available far of these powerful states to can be deployed immediately research, which points in the embrace the straight-18 standard afterwards, and are more other direction. themselves diminishes their financially cost-effective. If they credibility when prescribing that ever used to recruit children, they Another popular assumption is same standard elsewhere, and do not regret that they no longer that military employment is an so frustrates efforts across the do so.  effective route out of poverty world to eliminate the use of child for disadvantaged young people, soldiers. but the long-term socioeconomic prospects of enlisted personnel On the evidence in this report, are relatively poor. Research in the view that child recruits in the US has found that, since the affluent, democratic states end of the Second , are protected from harm and veterans have been worse off violations of their rights is widely than non-veterans from mistaken. From the misleading similar backgrounds. In the UK, marketing, cursory consent the unemployment rate among arrangements and repressive infantry veterans – the main contract, to the sustained stress role group for child recruits of military training, multiple – is substantially higher than risks of a military environment, that among civilians, including and a high rate of attrition, the civilians with the lowest level recruitment of children by state of academic attainment. While armed forces is conspicuously some veterans testify that military detrimental. The reality is that employment has enhanced the fundamental rights of child their socioeconomic status, the recruits are violated repeatedly evidence indicates that this is throughout their engagement the exception and, more often, with military institutions. 5. CRC art 29. that joining the armed forces Adult-only armed forces are 6. For full quotation and source, see 'Sexual Violence, Assault and prematurely disrupts children’s slowly becoming the norm. ', p. 37. education and career prospects. While some straight-18 states

Executive Summary Introduction

Dutch army performing a drill in the Netherlands, © Ton Koene/Alamy ‘In all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interest of the child shall be a primary consideration.’ Article 3 (1) Convention on the Rights of the Child

Concerted international efforts to widespread frustration that the Meanwhile, international efforts end the recruitment of children Convention had not explicitly to end the military exploitation for military purposes began outlawed the use of children for of children have narrowed to after the publication of Graça military purposes (5). focus on the demobilisation and Machel’s major report in 1996, reintegration of those involved Adopted in 2000, OPAC The impact of armed conflict on in armed conflict. This is clearly prohibited the conscription and children (2). The report focused justified by the severity of the routine deployment of children, on the plight of younger children impact on these children, but and outlawed their recruitment in poorer countries where they it has left neglected the harm by non-state armed groups. were widely used as participants caused by aspects of military Nonetheless, by allowing states in armed conflict. It found that employment other than combat, to recruit from age 16, it stopped exploiting children as participants including the psychological short of an outright ban on the use in war was killing, maiming and impact of military training, a of children for military purposes. psychiatrically injuring thousands common culture of bullying and Despite strong support for the of children every year.7 Further so-called ‘straight-18’ standard harassment, and the sweeping research has since shown that from many states, the International suspension of fundamental rights. children who survive such war Committee of the Red Cross, exposure suffer a radically the International Labour Office, increased risk of mental illness, the Committee on the Rights of behaviour problems, and 7. Since the Machel report, research the Child, Graça Machel, NGOs underdeveloped literacy and has deepened understanding of and others (1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10), this , often leading to lasting the effects of armed conflict on was prevented by a small but children. Psychiatric injury is very poverty in adulthood (4). influential group of states led common in children who have par- While the Machel study was in by the UK and the US. At the ticipated in, or closely witnessed, process, work was under way time, both states were routinely armed violence and other practices on an Optional Protocol to the deploying military personnel associated with it, such as and Convention on the Rights of under the age of 18, and 43 incarceration. Two-thirds of Pales- the Child on the involvement of per cent of British army recruits tinian children who had frequently witnessed military violence met the children in armed conflict, known were minors at enlistment (11). criteria for PTSD (4). It is now un- as OPAC. The initiative began Consequently, many thousands of derstood that such military-induced immediately after the adoption children continue to be recruited trauma damages the adolescent of the Convention on the Rights and trained each year by state brain, retarding normal develop- of the Child (CRC) in 1989, after armed forces across the globe. ment (ibid.). 16,18817-year-olds enlisted by US armed forces during 2015

This report seeks to rekindle them into hostilities until they their domestic practice falls short international attention to the harm reach 18, yet still the evidence of the same standard. Child caused by premature enlistment shows that military recruitment recruitment anywhere is a risk to and so help to reinvigorate efforts has a detrimental impact. children everywhere. to achieve a universal straight-18 Specifically, the report Accordingly, affluent states standard for the benefit of all outlines the growing body of which recruit under the age of 18 children. It presents evidence to evidence that the enlistment should consider both the direct show why recruiting and training of minors in relatively affluent impact on their child recruits children for military purposes is countries exploits adolescent and the indirect impact of their inherently and disproportionately susceptibilities; is unambiguously policy in other parts of the world. harmful, including to those who harmful to the health, wellbeing, States are required to cooperate do not participate in hostilities. and socioeconomic trajectories of towards achieving the universal The report also argues that, young people; and violates their implementation of OPAC8, and the as currently conducted, the legal rights as children under Sustainable Development Goals recruitment of children by state the CRC and OPAC. The report oblige them to take measures to armed forces violates their rights concludes by showing that states eliminate the recruitment and use and may therefore be unlawful. can – and most do – successfully of child soldiers.9  In so doing, the report challenges staff their armed forces entirely the common assumption of a with adults; the recruitment of double-standard: that the military children is a political choice, recruitment of children in poorer not a military or demographic states of the Global South is necessity. harmful, but in economically The continuing recruitment of developed is not. children by some affluent states Although the experiences of has global consequences. The children differ, this report will practice blurs what should be show that recruiting them is 8. OPAC art 7. a red line around children’s invariably harmful, regardless 9. Sustainable Development involvement in military affairs, so of economic or political context. Goal 8.7: ‘Take immediate and creating legal and ethical latitude To make its case, the report effective measures to eradicate for others to exploit. Whereas focuses principally on affluent , end modern the international community has states subject to the rule of law. and and secure committed to the straight-18 the prohibition and elimination of Almost all such countries have principle in its efforts to end the worst forms of , committed in principle not to the use of children in armed including recruitment and use of recruit children without their conflict, states compromise their child soldiers, and by 2025 end consent or to routinely deploy credibility as advocates when child labour in all its forms.’ WHY 18 MATTERS Socioeconomically deprived Military training makes use Child recruits are more children, including in some of harsh discipline includ- likely than civilians of the 1cases those from ethnic minority 7ing humiliation and physical 13same age and background, and or migrant backgrounds, are punishment, in order to secure more likely than older recruits, to disproportionately targeted the unquestioning obedience of have problems with mental and for recruitment. recruits and to ensure that physical health, and self-harm they will kill on demand. (including suicide). Recruitment marketing mis- 2 leads children by sanitising Bullying and sexual miscon- Education provided to warfare in their imagination, 8 duct are substantially more chidren in armed forces glamorising military life, and common in military environments 14training is typically more basic obscuring its many risks. than in civilian employment or and narrower in focus than main- education. The youngest recruits stream provision in civilian life, Young people are more are at highest risk of . limiting the scope for essential inclined in mid-adolescence academic achievement. 3than as adults to make choices Alcohol and substance mis- based on emotive appeal; the 9 use are substantially more Military employment is ability to weigh a major decision common in the military than in incompatible with leg- against its long-term conse- civilian environments, including islation15 prohibiting minors from quences is not yet developed. in the younger age group. hazardous labour (‘employment that is likely to jeopardise health, As generally practised, the The military is com- safety or morals’). recruitment of children does 10 monly afforded exemp- 4not ensure that they are fully tions from national legislation Despite many states’ informed of the risks and so is designed to safeguard the undertakings not to not ‘genuinely voluntary’, welfare and fundamental rights use16 children in hostilities, some as required by law. of children. reserve the right to do so. Even when not deployed, as military Parental consent is an inad- Military instructors are personnel they may become equate safeguard when 11 not normally qualified as targets of hostile action. 5the information provided to par- teachers or social workers and ents is incomplete or misleading, often have no prior experience Socioeconomic outcomes or where parents themselves of working with vulnerable for enlisted children tend have habitually neglected their young people. 17to be poorer than outcomes for child’s best interests. demographically matched peers Research in the UK who did not enlist. Restrictions on children’s 12 and US has found that right to leave the armed the rate of violent offending by Recruitment of children 6forces before the age of 18 are young people increases after by state armed forc- incompatible with the legal military enlistment. es1 anywhere,8 even if lawful, requirement that their military weakens protection of children employment be ‘genuinely everywhere against their unlaw- voluntary’. ful recruitment and use.

Introduction Child Recruitment By State Armed Forces: An Overview

Canadian soldiers during a training scenario © Cpl Jasper Schwartz/Canadian Forces ‘The question at issue is not the difference between 16, 17 and 18 years of age; the fundamental point is the distinction between children and adults. No child under 18 should be recruited into armed forces, voluntarily or otherwise.’ Mary Robinson, former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (1)

EXTENT OF CHILD are Commonwealth countries, recruited for military purposes is RECRUITMENT including Canada, India, Pakistan, unknown and difficult to estimate. and the UK.10 Since a large minority of states and at least 50 non-state armed As of April 2018, 152 of the Child recruitment is particularly groups are known to rely on child 177 states with armed forces common among economically recruits, the number of children worldwide, have ratified OPAC. developed states with substantial drawn in to military organisations Approximately two-thirds of military commitments. Perhaps annually is likely to be in the high these have also committed to counterintuitively, among tens of thousands at minimum. the straight-18 standard: the professional state armed The extent of the practice in commitment not to enlist children forces the most affluent and some affluent states is shown in at all. While some of these still technologically advanced tend the table on the next page. rely on conscripting adults to staff to rely the most on children to their armed forces, most do not. make up recruit numbers. Four Nonetheless, almost 50 states of the five Permanent Members still rely on children to staff their of the UN Security Council still 10. As of April 2018, states armed forces. Together these permit the enlistment of children. believed to have a minimum enlistment age in national law/ countries encompass two-thirds (Although the fifth – Russia policy of 16 years or below were – does not enlist children, it of the world’s children, since Bangladesh, Brazil, Canada, Cuba, prescribes extensive combat they include the three most Dominican Republic, Egypt, El populous countries: China, India training in a network of militarised Salvador, Fiji, Guyana, India, Iran, and the United States. Most schools.) Of the G7 states, only Mauritania, Mexico, Pakistan, non-straight-18 states recruit two – Japan and Italy – no longer Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, from age 17. Around 20 states rely on children to staff their Singapore, Tonga, Trinidad and are believed to allow enlistment armed forces. Tobago, United Arab Emirates, in law from age 16, of which ten United Kingdom, and Zambia. See The total number of children www.childsoldiersworldindex.org CHILD RECRUITMENT Convention on the Rights  The right to a complete AND THE LAW of the Child education that supports Recognising the ‘inherent dignity’ children’s development to the Several regional and international of the human person, and the ‘fullest potential’, and the right treaties relate to the recruitment ‘special care and assistance’ to be prohibited from work if it of children for military purposes. due to children under the age interferes with their education Those most relevant to the of 18, the CRC has established or development. issues raised in this report are legally-binding safeguards for  The right not to be exploited highlighted below and should their personal development, for any purpose ‘prejudicial be considered in conjunction, education, and employment. to any aspects of the child’s since rights are independent and The CRC is binding on all states welfare’. indivisible; those enshrined in except the United States, which  one treaty cannot be ignored in has yet to ratify it. The right to the ‘highest the implementation of another. attainable standard of health’. Among the rights of children They must be safeguarded Where provisions may appear recognised in the CRC are:12 to contradict each other the against undue injury, and from higher standards of protection  The right to have their best ‘physical or mental violence’, should always take precedence. interests recognised as a including or In the context of an armed primary consideration in all abuse. conflict where both international actions concerning them,  The right, when in conflict with humanitarian law and human including legislation. the law, to a justice system rights law are applicable, the  The right to freedom of thought, designed specifically for most developed standards conscience, expression, minors. for protection of children peaceful assembly and should apply. association, and the right to be heard in ‘all matters affecting 12. CRC arts 3, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 24, them’. 28, 29, 32, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40.

Extent of child recruitment for military purposes by affluent states: illustrative examples (2013-2017)11

COUNTRY MIN AGE TOTAL INTAKE AGED UNDER 18 YEAR INTAKE (n) (%) AUSTRALIA 17 6,428 427 7% 2015

AUSTRIA 17 22,223 220 1% 2013

FRANCE 17 13,756 405 3% 2013

GERMANY 17 23,385 2,128 9% 2017

NETHERLANDS 17 1,514 82 5% 2014

NEW ZEALAND 17 428 49 11% 2016

UK 16 11,980 2,410 20% 2016

US 17 246,154 16,188 7% 2015

11. Sources: Australia, Austria, France, Netherlands, New Zealand (Letters from states to Child Soldiers International); Germany (155,233); UK (221); US (220). TYPES OF CHILD RECRUITMENT Child recruitment by the state armed forces as their 16th birthday as full members of the armed examined in this report can be divided into forces with a designated role, which they assume four types: as soon as they finish training (158). Child recruits to the British army have to give up to three months’ Recruitment by conscription notice to request discharge, cannot leave in the Some states operating adult conscription systems first six weeks, and once they turn 18 lose their right (from age 18) encourage or allow children to to leave for the next four years (158,159). A similar start early. Austria, China, Cyprus system operates in the US, where children are and Mexico are examples. Children often opt recruited from age 17 (125). for this to complete the obligation early and so minimise disruption to their education and career Recruitment through military schools development. In some cases, children are offered Military schools provide states with a further means incentives, such as privileged access to further of recruiting children, including in states where the education or a reduced minimum service period. enlistment age is ostensibly over 18 years. Children in military schools (who may be under 16 years of Recruitment for officer training age) are not usually recognised as ‘recruits’ but A few states recruit children in small numbers the boundary is frequently blurred. For example, for officer training and paid-for passage through children at military schools may undergo extensive university, followed by an obligatory minimum military training, be classified in law or policy as period of adult military service. Canada operates members of the armed forces, and be subject to a scheme like this. These recruits are military military law. Upon graduation, they are usually personnel, undergo military training, and are subject obliged to complete a minimum period of formal to military law. Children recruited in this way tend to service in the armed forces, which may last several be socioeconomically privileged by background. years. Schemes such as these operate in Israel, Russia and Tajikistan. Recruitment to the ranks In whatever manner children are formally Enlistment to the ranks is the most common child recruited, they all: recruitment practice in affluent states (including  the larger Western military powers: France, the UK, Are military personnel subject to military law, and the US). Children recruited in this way typically which suspends fundamental rights and includes come from socioeconomically disadvantaged obligations and offences that civilian law does not backgrounds. recognise;   The practice varies between states. In the Undergo military training, which uses Netherlands, a relatively small number of children psychologically coercive techniques to inculcate aged 17 are enlisted as trainees; they can leave at obedience and remove instinctive barriers to any time, cannot take up a formal role in the armed violence; and forces until they turn 18, and do not continue in  Enter a military environment typically service thereafter unless they agree in writing to do characterised by elevated rates of stress, physical so (143). In contrast, children in the UK are actively and psychological bullying, sexual harassment, targeted by recruiters and enlisted in large numbers and alcohol misuse. (140, 63). They may apply aged 15 and join as early

Child Recruitment by State Armed Forces: An Overview Therefore, the rights of children, the Child has suggested that the risks and consequences of as guaranteed by the CRC, are military settings, which entail their enlistment. These include, violated when their recruitment restrictions on rights and the for example: the psychological for military purposes: promotion of violence as a tool, coercion of military training; the mental or physical health; appear to be fundamentally suspension of certain civil rights; interrupts the education in incompatible with children’s rights the risks and legally-binding which civilians of the same age to an environment conducive to restrictions involved; and the typically participate; entails an learning and development. (12) ethical quandaries inherent in elevated risk of bullying or sexual military work. They must also harassment, involves physical Optional Protocol on the endeavour to ensure that children violence or is psychologically Involvement of Children are not involved in hostilities. coercive; restricts the right to in Armed Conflict leave at will; limits or suspends OPAC stipulates that children many of the civil liberties or must not be recruited unless: employment rights that civilian they are at least 16 years old; 13 children enjoy; or denies them it is their ‘genuinely voluntary’, 13. When states ratify or accede to OPAC they must submit a declara- their right to a juvenile justice ‘fully informed’ choice; and their tion specifying a minimum age for parents or legal guardians have system. enlistment into state armed forces, given their ‘informed consent’. In This report will show that, which must be no less than 16 addition, it requires states to ‘take by these measures, military years. The declaration is binding; all feasible measures’ to ensure employment violates the rights enlistment practice is unlawful child recruits do not participate if a state recruits below the age of children set out in the CRC. directly in hostilities until they specified. States may amend their On this basis, child recruitment turn 18.14 declaration to raise the minimum as currently practised around the enlistment age, but not to lower it. world may be generally unlawful. To meet these safeguards, 14. OPAC arts 1, 2, 3. military employers must ensure In its interpretation of the CRC, 15. ILO 138 art 3. that potential recruits and their the Committee on the Rights of parents fully understand all 16. ILO 182 art 3. As will be explored later, International Labour ILO 182 requires states to prohibit information provided to child Organisation (ILO) and end the worst forms of recruits and their parents Conventions 138 and 182 child labour, including ‘forced typically presents military life ILO Conventions 138 (Minimum or compulsory recruitment of in glamorous terms, omits Age Convention) and 182 (Worst children [under the age of 18] its risks and difficulties, and Forms of Child Labour) also have for use in armed conflict’.16 Like provides perfunctory details on implications for the legality of OPAC, ILO 182 does not prohibit legal obligations. Sophisticated child recruitment. ‘voluntary’ recruitment of children marketing techniques are used under 18, but it does reinforce ILO 138 reserves for adulthood to exploit vulnerabilities particular that this is only permitted insofar only ‘any type of employment to the adolescent psyche. Full as it is strictly voluntary. Where or work which by its nature or details of the recruit’s legal this is not the case, the practice the circumstances in which it is commitment are often provided violates the convention.  carried out is likely to jeopardise only at the moment he or she the health, safety or morals of signs up, with no time to analyse young persons’.15 It is left to states and absorb their implications. to determine which types of Often, applicants have yet employment are ‘hazardous’ for to develop sufficient literacy the purposes of the Convention, or maturity to comprehend which allows them to exempt for themselves their complex their armed forces. The principle terms of service and their remains, however, that those lasting consequences. In these under 18 should not be employed circumstances, child recruits and in hazardous work, and it is clear their parents are denied their that military employment carries rights under OPAC to be ‘fully several significant hazards to informed’, and so their choice the health and wellbeing of child cannot be considered ‘genuinely recruits. voluntary’.

Child Recruitment by State Armed Forces: An Overview The Child Recruit's Journey

Israeli youth dressed in army uniforms during a boot-camp simulation, © Sebastian Scheiner/AP ‘The Committee expresses deep concern about the fact that adolescent boys and girls are being recruited, including through the use of social media, by State armed forces.’ CRC General Comment 20 on implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence. (13)

TARGETING (15, 16, 17). The former head of adventure’ (21). In defence of CHILDREN FOR recruitment for the British army this approach, a spokesperson RECRUITMENT characterised his recruitment stated that ‘the German armed strategy as ‘drip, drip, drip’ from forces did not broach the issue The preceding section has shown about the age of seven (18). The of overseas military missions how military recruitment can be US Army’s ‘School Recruiting in their advertising just like harmful to children and violate Program Handbook’, instructs advertising for chocolate does their rights, even where it may recruiters to target children not mention the risk of getting 18 be lawful in principle. Since the below the minimum enlistment fat’ (21). Experts testifying best interests of children must age because ‘if you wait until to the German parliamentary be a primary consideration, they’re seniors, it’s probably too committee criticised this as ‘false which includes regard for all late’ (234). In Australia, children advertising’: can register their details from their fundamental rights, states ‘In view of what is involved the age of 10 with Defence do not enjoy unlimited discretion in the military profession, the Jobs Membership to receive in recruiting them for military potential to be killed and all the recruitment information and news purposes. The Committee on the dangers associated with this, from the armed forces (20). Rights of the Child has repeatedly this is irresponsible to young expressed concern to states Germany’s main newspaper people and in no way fulfills which enlist large numbers of for schoolchildren runs the protective function and the children, recommending they advertisements for the armed protection mandate which the increase efforts to recruit adults forces in most editions. Armed as a parliamentary and/or raise their enlistment age forces ‘Adventure Camps’ for army ultimately has.’ (22) to 18 (14).17 children aged 16 and above In practice, however, many states are advertised in an online target children as potential teen magazine for children recruits long before they become aged from 10 years (21), while 17. CRC art 38 also imposes a legal eligible to enlist. Research by UK online marketing is targeted at 14–17-year-olds, who are invited obligation on states which continue and US armed forces finds that to recruit children ‘to give priority to play online games linked to most recruits commit to signing to those who are oldest’ amongst up before they are old enough recruitment (22). The advertising them. does not mention risk, death or to do so; and young people are 18. In contrast, producers of less likely to join up unless they injury, focusing instead on ‘good tobacco and alcohol are required have become actively interested training, promotion prospects, to advertise their health risks, and in military life by their mid-teens comradeship and plenty of nutritionists have called for this to be extended to junk food. ‘Furthermore, the Committee is concerned that the ADF active targeting of schools for recruits through ‘work experience programs’ may unduly put pressure on young persons, especially from marginalised populations and from different linguistic backgrounds to volunteer, without full informed consent.’ CRC Concluding Observations: Australia 2012 (27)

SOCIOECONOMIC Concerns have been raised in them to enlist. The Israel Defense TARGETING some countries about targeting Forces (IDF) are presented as of ethnic minority children for ‘a major socialising framework In seeking child applicants, it is recruitment. The Canadian for those who wish to stay and usual for recruiters to focus on Coalition for the Rights of become citizens’, and includes economically depressed areas Children has protested the inducements such as help with where employment opportunities targeting of economically obtaining a high school diploma are limited (23). Described as deprived aboriginal youth and driving licence (29). Practices ‘skilled salesmen’ by the former through advertising on aboriginal such as these disregard the head of recruitment for the British and multilingual television clear recommendations of the army (18), recruiters promote stations (28). The proportion Committee on the Rights of the enlistment to disadvantaged of New Zealand armed forces Child to ensure that military youth as a gateway to personal personnel who identify as Maori recruiting efforts do not exploit power, social purpose, is double that in the general children from marginalised or camaraderie, and socioeconomic population.19 In the US, about vulnerable groups. mobility. The army promises to half of participants in the main put money in children’s pockets: school cadet programme, the ‘Age 16? Earn over £1,000 a JROTC, are reportedly people month while you train’ [$1,300] of colour (19). In Chicago, 93 – and congratulates its new per cent of JROTC cadets are 16-year-old recruits for earning African American or Latino, and 19. In 2012, 30 per cent of the New more than their civilian friends more than 70 per cent of JROTC Zealand Defence Force identified as Maori, versus 15 per cent in who stay in college to enhance programmes are in high schools the general population in 2013 located in post code districts their qualifications (24,25). The (222,214). 2017 army recruitment drive, with predominantly African 20. As of 2014, 19 per cent of the American or Latino populations entitled ‘This is belonging’, was US armed forces intake identified (236). Young African American targeted specifically at 16-24 as black non-Hispanic, versus 16 year-olds from families with males are over-represented per cent in the general population; an average annual income among new armed forces the greatest disparity was seen in of £10,000 [$13,000] (26). In recruits, particularly in the army.20 the army (215). Israel, an extracurricular military Reports indicate that some young 21. The significance of cadets’ use training programme targets Latinos who enlist do so in the of military uniforms and insignia socioeconomically deprived hope of helping relatives with should not be underestimated, as children, promising social mobility irregular immigration status (19). under international humanitarian and a better quality of life through Similarly, in Israel a programme law this is one of the factors distin- skills acquired in military service specifically for unaccompanied guishing lawful from civilians. (29). migrant children encourages at Gamescom, the world’s largest trade fair for video and computer games, © Jochen Tack / Alamy FANTASY MARKETING ‘The Committee… recommends that Recruiters frequently associate the State party… [p]rohibit all forms of military life with the idealised -hero of action films and advertising campaigns for the German videogames. In the US, scenes armed forces targeting children.’ from Hollywood blockbusters CRC Concluding Observations: Germany 2014 (30) (including Behind Enemy Lines and X-Men: First Class) have been spliced into military advertising. to assume that a soldier’s life is CADET FORCES In Israel, the UK and the US, one of intense excitement with no recruiters encourage children to moral ambiguity, gore or trauma. Military youth organisations such as cadet forces, many play officially scripted videogames Despite the fanciful nature of of which are embedded in which conflate a fantasy narrative action adventure films and schools, step up the state’s with real military life (31, 32). In the videogames, the British army’s engagement with children US, for example, young children research has found that they once they reach adolescence. are offered the chance to sit at inspire many younger recruits to With their participation usually a drone operator’s console and sign up (16). It is a striking irony subsidised by the Ministry of simulate attacks in Afghanistan, that the same children are barred Defence children in cadet forces as if it were a game, and play the from seeing graphic portrayals typically wear military-style army’s official 3D virtual reality of warfare in certain films and uniforms and many undertake videogame (33). In a similar vein, documentaries, which are rated training.21 The uniform children aged 13–15 visiting a for adults only due to their is one of many ways in which military training site in Germany disturbingly realistic depictions of cadet systems immerse children were told that the shooting mass violence and the suffering it in a simulacrum of military life, simulator ‘was a thousand times causes. The Deer Hunter and the in which the soldier’s role is better than any game on your documentary Cry Freetown are dissociated from its risks and console at home’ (34). examples. Perhaps most strikingly moral ambiguities. Despite this, Conversely, a selling point of of all, in 2016 a British television research has found that children’s war-based videogames is the channel broadcast a four-part repeated exposure to cadet realism of their first-person- documentary series following systems plays an important role perspective. To reach the 16- and 17-year-old army recruits in their later choice to enlist (16). younger market, however, game through initial training. To watch designers strip any graphic the series online, viewers had to Canadian and US cadet systems brutality from the violence they tick a box confirming they were offer scholarships and other depict. When military life is over 18 years of age as the content financial incentives. For example, compared favourably to these was considered unsuitable for Canadian cadets can be awarded games, children are encouraged younger viewers (241). a scholarship of up to $5,000 for

The Child Recruit's Journey post-secondary education, and required 47,360 children to take training’ into the curriculum, are offered small payments for the ASVAB (military aptitude) which entails a week of military participating in marksmanship test, without seeking the child’s training for children aged 15–17 courses on summer camps (237). or parents’ consent (239). at a military site, including the In the US, the Department of Recruiters, who have a legal right use of semiautomatic weapons Defense encourages contact of access (39), are instructed to (29). There is also a wider, between cadet instructors and be ‘so entrenched in the school compulsory school-based military military recruiters (19). scene that the Army is in constant curriculum for children in years demand’ (38). In some areas, 10 – 12, intended to prepare them The ‘Follow Me’ (‘Aharai’) military soldiers become a daily presence for conscription and promote a training programme in Israel is in the lives of American children, positive perception of the military. run by a civilian organisation in riding the school bus, turning up collaboration with the Ministry of While most military visits are at school dances, and coaching Defence and high-ranking officers at secondary level, primary sports teams after hours (37). (29). The initiative is targeted at schools are also visited. In New young people in underprivileged In the UK, the armed forces Zealand, the army takes assault areas, promising to enhance make over 11,000 school visits rifles into primary schools and participants’ social mobility (29). each year (40). The army’s main teaches children to assemble schools presentation shows the weapons and hold them in RECRUITING IN soldiers scuba-diving but not at the fire position (45). According SCHOOLS war (41). The Ministry of Defence to one 11-year-old student, provides teachers with curricular holding an assault rifle for the The Paris Principles and aids presenting a glossy first time felt ‘amazing and cool Guidelines on Children history of the in Iraq and … it’ll just be something that’s Associated with Armed Forces or Afghanistan, and schools can win imprinted on your brain’ (45). A Armed Groups state that: additional funding for adopting a corporal involved in one such visit ‘Measures must be taken to ‘military ethos’ or starting a cadet commented, ‘The kids just love prevent propaganda or active group (41,42,43). the guns, you know what kids are like… Most of the children’s recruitment taking place in Similar arrangements apply questions were about the kit, not or around schools and to in Australia, where secondary what the higher ideas are.’ (45) protect children in the school schools receive visits from environment.’ 22 armed forces career teams to Even kindergartens can become Yet the education system ‘provide information to potential a site for soft recruitment, based remains a major site for the candidates and influencers’ on symbolically militarised direct and indirect recruitment (44), and in Canada, where high activities. In Israel, military of children. Recruiters commonly school students are encouraged personnel can join kindergarten visit schools with military to attend navy recruiting events ‘graduation’ ceremonies, which hardware ranging from rifles to at their schools (238). include parades performed by the soldiers and children together attack helicopters, and teachers In Israel, military culture is (29). Kindergarten children are are encouraged to take their embedded in the education also taken to visit military bases. class on free away-days with the system. Uniformed soldiers are Sahar Vardi remembers: armed forces (18, 21, 35, 36, 37). present in state-run schools, In some countries, such as often teaching classes even ‘In kindergarten you bring gifts Germany and the US, the when they are not qualified to to soldiers. And then later there’s armed forces have a legal do so (29). Conversely, many worksheets to teach children right of access to all children’s teachers, and especially those how to count: you have on one contact details, which are sent in management positions, are hand the numbers 1 to 10, and automatically to recruiters (21, former ranking military officers, on the other different numbers 22, 39). Thereafter, all children and do not always have teaching of symbols like tanks and nearing enlistment age receive qualifications. ‘Youth Guides’ aeroplanes. You have to join military marketing materials. are stationed in schools by the them up.’ (46) The US army describes schools armed forces to encourage as the ‘cornerstone’ of its young people to enlist. Most recruitment strategy (38). In high schools also incorporate 2015, 1,021 schools in the US compulsory ‘youth 'The Committee is concerned that the period spent in the school (47). Students in these schools children who study in military schools also participated in operations to have military status and... are subject combat drug trafficking. to the Military Code of Justice.' The UK’s Defence Sixth Form CRC Concluding Observations: Mexico 2011 (47) College is a fee-paying pre-military school managed by the Ministry of Defence; school fees and the MILITARY SCHOOLS below show, the parameters of subsequent university bursary ‘military’ and ‘school’ are often are waived on condition that In addition to military activities blurred in practice, leading to students complete at least three inside civilian schools, in many the de facto recruitment and/or years’ service as an officer after countries some schools are run military training of children below graduation (53). by, or in conjunction with, the the recognised national minimum Military-operated schools are Ministry of Defence or armed age of enlistment. common in Russia. In many of these forces. OPAC permits this, but In the Netherlands, several institutions, children are required to only if the schools comply with military-vocational training undergo military training exercises the detailed requirements for programmes are available in as part of the curriculum from the children’s education laid out in the civilian schools as a study option age of 10 (46, 54). Russia also runs a CRC’s articles 28 and 29.23 These for children from the age of 15 system of ‘military training colleges’ include education on human years, 6 months (51). One, the for children from age 16, in which a rights and humanitarian principles, Security and Craftsmanship third of the curriculum is devoted to and the prohibition of degrading course lasting between 18 military practices. (54) punishments. and 48 months, is designed In Israel, some military high The Committee on the Rights of as a preparation for military schools admit children from the the Child has further indicated employment, and includes one age of 13 (29). Children typically that a military institution would not week per month at a military wear military uniform, undergo qualify as a 'school' where: site (51). Students who complete military training including the use the course have a shorter basic  Children are categorised as of firearms, and study a curriculum training programme once they join military personnel under military designed as a preparation for the military. Many of the instructors legislation or other statute and/ later military employment. Staff are current or former military or can be mobilised in case of are usually military personnel officers, supplied by the Ministry national emergency (48, 49). and some schools are located on of Defence. Former students have  military bases. The stated aim of Children are subject to military described being subjected to the Military Boarding School of law (47). harsh discipline and abuse:  Children have a legal liability Command, for example, is to train ‘One time, during military self- for formal military service upon officers for the army; children have defense, we were blindfolded. graduation (47). a career plan laid out for them The military instructor passed us upon enrolment which extends  Children are not permitted to by and beat people up, punching beyond graduation. Students at the leave the institution at will, and/ them in the stomach. Why? Just Air Force Technical schools have or their initial enrolment at the so we are in pain. He thinks that’s a commitment to serve in the Air institution is compulsory (47). funny.’ (51) Force upon graduation. Students  Military training and activities In Canada, officer cadets from age on military vocational courses at dominate the curriculum to the 16 are paid to study at university; the Amal High School carry out detriment of subjects normally they must render five years’ work at the air base, for which they studied by children of the same service as officers afterwards, are employed and paid by the age group in civilian life (50). or re-pay their fees and bursary military (29). Such conditions are detrimental in full (52). Until 2014, when the to the wellbeing of children for law was changed, students at 22. Principle 6.26.1. many of the same reasons as military schools in Mexico were 23. By extension, military schools formal recruitment, and can be subject to military law, and had should also comply with the Com- mittee on the Rights of the Child tantamount to military enlistment to serve in the armed forces as adult conscripts for at least twice General Comment No.1: ‘The aims of by the back door. As the examples education’.

The Child Recruit's Journey An Australian recruit during a training exercise ENLISTMENT © Sgt Rachel Ingram/Commonwealth of Australia AND CONSENT

OPAC requires that any military nature of military employment a ‘window of vulnerability’, when recruitment of children is in full, including its potential rapid and complex changes in the ‘genuinely voluntary’, recruits consequences, and are free brain affect decision-making and are ‘fully informed’, and their from undue external influence responses to stress (55). parents or legal guardians have or other coercive conditions. The Committee on the Rights of given their ‘informed consent’.24  That comprehensive the Child has reflected this in its To meet these requirements, information is provided to General Comment on health in military employers must ensure recruits and their parents adolescence, noting that: that potential recruits and their which fully informs them of the parents fully understand the ‘Adolescence is a period nature of military employment, consequences of their enlistment. characterised by rapid including its risks, hardships, These include, for example: physical, cognitive and social legal obligations, and rights. the risks and legally-binding changes… the gradual building up of the capacity to assume restrictions involved; the lasting Decision Making Biases adult behaviours and roles… psychological impact of military in Adolescence adolescence also poses new training; the suspension of Recent neuroscientific and challenges to health and certain civil rights; and the ethical psychosocial research has development owing to… relative quandaries inherent in military improved understanding of vulnerability and pressure from work. the developmental needs and society.’ (56) In particular, the putatively vulnerabilities of adolescent voluntary nature of child children. Adolescence — Consequently, states have an recruitment depends on two approximately between ages obligation under the CRC to have conditions, which must be met 10 and 20 — is an exploratory regard to adolescents’ particular consistently: period, when young people vulnerabilities, including by taking begin to understand their world ‘effective measures to ensure that  That recruits have the on their own terms and make adolescents are protected from all psychological capacity their mark on it. Psychologists forms of violence, abuse, neglect required to comprehend the have described this transition as and exploitation’ (56). Targeting ‘The lure of ideology is particularly strong in early adolescence, when young people are developing personal identities and searching for a sense of social meaning.’ Graça Machel, Impact of armed conflict on children (2) adolescents for recruitment with a traditionally masculine socio-emotional system in the is incompatible with this duty warrior who saves but never limbic region, which develops in insofar as military employment is hurts, marketing messages younger childhood and drives characterised by harsh discipline appear to promise a fast track short-term, emotionally-driven, including physical punishments, to adulthood, characterised by reward-oriented behaviour, and an elevated rate of bullying. power, attractiveness, belonging, including sensation-seeking and and purpose (63, 64, 65, 66, 67). risky actions. A second structure, a In affluent countries, the primary For example, an American army cognitive system in the prefrontal target group for recruitment are slogan is ‘There’s strong. Then cortex, provides the capacity to children in mid-adolescence. Two there’s army strong’. Similarly, the anticipate the consequences of vulnerabilities are salient when Israeli infantryman is ‘discovering choices over the long term, and children of this age are recruited: all your strengths’; the Russian so regulate emotionally driven a heightened susceptibility to is ‘beyond fear’, working for the behaviour. This cognitive control emotive persuasion; and an ‘safety’ of others (68, 69, 70); system develops relatively late in underdeveloped capacity for the British is ‘harder, faster, fitter, adolescence (55). Until it does, complex decision-making. stronger’, ‘helping people’, and young people are more inclined Susceptibility to has a deeper sense of belonging to take risks to explore the Emotive Persuasion than a civilian (71, 72). world around them, but remain susceptible to making complex, in Mid-Adolescence Researchers at the University of consequential choices unwisely. Compared with adults, children Tübingen told a parliamentary in mid-adolescence are more committee that such slogans Certain functions in the brain’s susceptible to persuasion by target the psychological cognitive control system which marketing messages based on insecurities of young people, are critical for complex decision- emotive appeal (57, 58). They are presenting the armed forces making, such as long-term also more self-conscious, and ‘as a solution to problems and planning and the capacity to their sense of self is malleable deficits which young people defer gratification, only begin to under external influence (57, 59).25 might experience in adolescence’ develop from around age 16 (55, Crucially, the stressful conditions (22). For the same reasons, 73). For this reason, it is more of an economically deprived British public health experts difficult for a young person at background, which is typical have criticised military marketing 16, than as an adult, to weigh of many enlistees, amplify this as ‘designed to appeal to the potential down-sides of an bias in adolescent decision- adolescent decision-making appealing career option. The making. That is, young people biases’ (59). developmentally limited ability who experience daily stress to make consequential decisions Capacity for Complex is particularly marked among are markedly more likely than Decision-Making in relatively unstressed individuals those living in conditions of Mid-Adolescence stress (55, 60, 61, 62). to make choices based on Public health experts have emotive appeal without rational argued that changes in the brain evaluation (55, 60, 61, 62). during adolescence are likely to 24. OPAC art 3. Whether knowingly or not, incline younger people to enlist 25. In particular, adolescents can military marketing capitalises on without critical awareness of what struggle to distinguish ‘identity’ from the adolescent’s impressionable military life involves (17,59). ‘role’: who a person is appears to be defined by the job a person does, search for an effective In this respect, two structures mature identity. In particular, so it can appear that adult maturity in the brain are particularly is achieved by doing the job one by associating military roles important (55). The first is a associates with it (59).

The Child Recruit's Journey Literacy in British recruitment brochures ‘that recruits could just leave the Mid-Adolescence are described as ‘guides’ to military after enlistment if they The underdeveloped literacy military life, but they omit the didn’t like it’ (78). In 2005 the of many child applicants further full terms of service and include US Government Accountability prejudices their capacity to no information to support a Office reported that recruiter make an informed choice child to form a balanced view of irregularities were frequent; 20 about enlistment. Literacy is military life (76). The brochure per cent of recruiters themselves critical for complex decisions, provided to potential young agreed (78).27 recruits to the army’s ‘junior particularly when far-reaching Unlike the duty of care required entry’ training site (for soldiers legal obligations, which suspend of medical professionals when aged 16–17.5) does not mention certain fundamental rights, are working with children (see any risks or legal obligations, involved. ‘Legal Standards of Consent’, nor does it mention that a Three-quarters of the British p. 28), military recruiters are third of the youngest enlistees army’s 16-year-old recruits have not accountable to the ethics leave or are dismissed during the literacy normally expected of of impartiality and may be training,26 or explain that child a child aged 11 or less, and some incentivised by recruitment recruits cannot leave the army have a reading age as low as quotas. Their role is to influence a for four years from the day they five (74). These recruits would be child to enlist. turn 18 (76). It emphasises sport unable to read and comprehend and recreational opportunities, In combination, the risks and for themselves the technicalities and does not include the words legal obligations that follow of the written enlistment papers, ‘armed conflict’, ‘war’, ‘death’, ‘kill’ enlistment; the superficial which are typically provided or ‘injury’. and misleading nature of to recruits only at the point of recruitment marketing; and the Children in the Australian armed signing. developmental vulnerabilities of forces interviewed by the adolescence, mitigate against an Recruitment Information Commonwealth and Defence assumption of informed consent As noted earlier, in signing up Force Ombudsman ‘commented when child recruits are enlisted. for military employment, child on the poor quality of advice That is to say, when the choice recruits commit themselves to provided at recruiting interviews’ to enlist is difficult to reverse; absolute control by the state, and ‘complained that the when recruitment marketing accept limitations to some information given to them about is misleading; and/or when fundamental civil and political life in the military was unrealistic, enlistees are not yet sufficiently rights, and face a markedly focusing only on exciting aspects’ mature to make consequential increased long-term occupational (77). decisions responsibly, the armed risk of serious injury or death. In some cases, recruiters . forces deny their recruits the right Child recruits enter a legally In 2006, US recruiters were to be sure that enlisting is in their binding contract, the terms of caught telling school students own interests. which could not be imposed that ‘the US was not at war’ and lawfully on a civilian of any age in most economically developed countries. If potential recruits are to be ‘fully informed’ before they ‘In addition to being forcibly recruited, enlist, they are entitled to be told youth also present themselves for without equivocation of these service. It is misleading, however, risks and obligations. to consider this voluntary. While In practice, even once the formal young people may appear to choose process of recruitment has begun, evidence from several military service, the choice is not countries shows that recruiters exercised freely. They may be driven continue to present military by any of several forces, including life in glamorous terms, omit its risks and difficulties, and cultural, social, economic or political sanitise warfare in the applicant’s pressures.’ imagination. For example, Graca Machel, Impact of armed conflict on children (2) Parental Consent ‘The Committee remains concerned As a safeguard, recruiters must also obtain the informed consent that... [s]afeguards for voluntary of parents, but many of the same recruitment are insufficient, problems apply. Parents are often particularly in the light of the very only peripherally involved in the recruitment process and may not low literacy level of the majority of be involved at all if the child is under-18 recruits and the fact that under the care of the state. Like briefing materials provided to child their child, parents are provided applicants and their parents only with material intended to promote a military career rather or guardians do not clearly inform than provide objective and them of the risks and obligations comprehensive information. that follow their enlistment.’ Consequently, they may be no CRC Concluding Observations: United Kingdom 2016 (75) better placed than their child to appreciate the consequences of enlistment in full. expectations of them, or at the discretion of the chain of In the UK, recruiters are not behaviour towards them, as command (84); parents have no obliged to meet or call parents at minors... This confusion has legal right to withdraw consent any point (79,80). Instead, they caused great distress for some after enlistment. give potential recruits a guide parents, particularly for those Some states reserve the right for their parents, which is silent who have not understood that the to waive the requirement for on the risks and obligations of ADF [Australia Defence Force] parental consent altogether. military life, and the consent form would not always be supervising is usually processed by post (81). their child’s non-training activities.’ Parents of child recruits have (77) In such cases, the parental 26. British army intake of minors, reported great reluctance to sign consent obtained by recruiters 2008-09 to 2012-13 inclusive: consent forms, and in some cases cannot be considered ‘fully 15,395; of whom dropped out during training: 5,310 (34.5%). Adult only did so for fear of their child informed’, as required by OPAC. intake, same period: 41,480; of running away from home or, in In many countries, recruiters whom dropped out during training: the case of separated parents, market military careers to children 9,700 (23.4%). (212,221). seeking a transfer of custody without parental consent, such as 27. The report defined ‘recruiter (82).28 One mother, whose son in schools and online. In Germany irregularities’ as ‘wilful and unwilful subsequently died in training, and the US, children’s personal acts of omission and improprieties described the feeling that she perpetrated by a recruiter to details are supplied to military had ‘signed my own son’s facilitate the recruitment process recruiters without the express death warrant’ on the day she for an applicant, including coercion, consent of parents (21, 39). In consented to his enlistment (82). falsification of documents giving some instances families have false promises, failing to disclose Although the Australian Defence complained to school authorities disqualifying eligibility criteria, and Force now ‘widely acknowledges for failing to notify them of the sexual harassment’. Between 2004 that it stands in “loco parentis” right to opt out (37, 78). Evidently, and 2005, 6,600 allegations of regarding recruits under the age these cases reveal not only an such irregularities were recorded, of 29 which 630 were later substantiated of 18’, the Commonwealth and absence of parents’ informed and 68 involved criminal violations. Defence Force Ombudsman in consent, but also their active 28. In the UK, a child living with Australia has noted that both opposition (78). only one parent does not need the children and parents have been Once given, parental consent formal consent of the other parent, confused about the nature of the to enlistment cannot always be which can incentivise a child intent armed forces’ legal responsibility revoked. In the UK, for example, on enlisting to live with whichever towards minors: of parental consent parent is more willing to allow the enlistment to take place (82). ‘There was little understanding after enlistment can result in or agreement about what might termination of a ’s service 29. Communication from Australian Government Department of be regarded as acceptable in the armed forces, but only Defence.

The Child Recruit's Journey In New Zealand and the US, 17-year-olds can be recruited into the armed forces without parental LEGAL STANDARDS consent if they are, or ever have been, married (85, 86).30 In OF CONSENT the UK, a child can be enlisted The standards of consent used for the military enlistment of without the consent of a parent minors differ markedly from those established by the medical or guardian if none can be profession, which recognises that a child’s wish to pursue a risky found (87). course of action does not itself imply his or her informed consent. The profession appreciates that a person is less able as a child than as an adult to provide consent, and more vulnerable to any ‘VOLUNTARY’ consequential harm. CONSCRIPTION In Australia, New Zealand, and the UK, the law requires that OF CHILDREN children under 16 can only consent to medical treatment if they have achieved (as worded in British law) ‘sufficient understanding OPAC requires that ‘States Parties and intelligence… to understand fully what is proposed’ (Gillick shall ensure that persons who vs. West Norfolk). This principle is commonly known as Gillick have not attained the age of Competence and is a pre-requisite for genuinely informed consent. 18 years are not compulsorily Health professionals must ensure that a child patient is fully aware recruited into their armed of the risks of treatment, has the maturity to comprehend them forces.’31 In fact, some states sufficiently in his or her own interest, and is not under persuasive which operate adult conscription pressure (208). The child must also retain the freedom to withdraw from age 18 allow 17-year-olds consent at any point. to opt to begin their compulsory service early (e.g. Austria, Cyprus, By these standards, informed consent to a course of action has Israel). When children choose four components: this, it is usually to limit disruption  Full comprehension of the benefits and risks; that conscripted service  Sufficient maturity and intelligence to evaluate the probable causes to their post- secondary consequences over time; education and civilian career  plans. The Austrian government Freedom from the persuasive influence of others; and describes its early conscription  Freedom to withdraw consent. arrangements as a ‘service’, In contrast, some or all of these conditions are typically absent allowing those who finish school when children are recruited into state armed forces, despite the aged 17 to find employment in substantial risks and obligations involved. the year before adult conscription would begin (88).32 Where citizens are liable for As noted, an essential requisite for women) (89). The same conscription from age 18, a of genuine consent is the applies in Cyprus, where 17-year- pragmatic decision to bring freedom to withdraw it. Yet old ‘voluntary’ conscripts cannot this forward – possibly under children who have opted to begin discharge themselves ‘regardless pressure from parents or their conscription early can be of any change of opinion either teachers – cannot be considered compelled to remain in service by him or his parents’ (90). ‘genuinely voluntary’ recruitment. against their will, which amounts In light of the recent death of an to the forced recruitment of 30. The minimum age for marriage Austrian conscript in training (see minors, and is prohibited by in New Zealand is 16 years, with parental consent. There is no 'The Military Training Process' OPAC article 2. In Israel, for example, children can opt for minimum age for marriage in many p. 29), and the allegations of US states. widespread abuse and bullying early conscription at age 17. At 31. OPAC art 2. (see 'Sexual violence, assault this point they become subject 32. It should be noted that there is and harassment' p. 37), it is also to the full force of military law, as an alternative civil service in Austria if they had been conscripted as questionable whether children that can be chosen instead of adults, and have no right to leave can, or should be allowed, to give military service, including for those consent to expose themselves to until they complete their service who start their national service early such risks. (36 months for men, 24 months (before age 18). THE MILITARY © TRAINING PROCESS

Obedience by Coercion their opponents in war are changes in the psyche that the Military training is a coercive depersonalised as ‘targets’, which training process aims to effect: will ‘fall when hit’ (63). Whereas a process. It makes use of ‘A healthy person’s innate civilian has the right to complain sustained stress and harsh aversion to killing other people or leave their job at will, a recruit discipline, including physical must be dulled, as must the who leaves without permission is and psychological violence, in natural tendency to appraise a arrested and returned to training, preparation for the violence of course of action on its merits even if still under the age of 18 armed conflict (see ‘Army Training before committing to it. To ensure (21, 81). In contrast, the army may Methods,’ p. 32). that the military group will work dismiss any recruit at any time Training practices are widely as a unit, personal individuality and for any reason. shared between economically must be suppressed and loyalties developed states, with some A 2017 report from the UK which realigned until recruits assume variation between the army, draws on over 200 studies of military culture as their own and navy and air force, and between army training from the last half- accept the supremacy of its recruitment for officers and for century, mainly from the UK and demands. In sum, the military the ranks. Stressors, such as the US, characterises initial training expects to gain dominance over of sleep and comfort, and as a process of psychological their thoughts, feelings, and , are routine. The conditioning, which ensures that behaviour.’ (63) recruits obey all orders by reflex, right to contact civilian friends The training process has been enables them to kill other people, and family is normally denied or described by US military officers and secures their loyalty to the tightly restricted. The training with expertise in military training military system (63). It shows that regime controls every aspect as ‘intense indoctrination’ under initial military training can have of daily life; trainers demand sustained stress (92).33 A former a profound impact on the mind, obedience in every detail and Austrian conscript explained altering fundamental beliefs and any mistake is punished. To that ‘[the army] is violent anyway. habitual behaviours and leading ensure that recruits will kill on It is all about discipline, and to lasting problems with mental demand, adrenalised aggression breaking human beings and health and re-adjustment to is stimulated repeatedly, and re-shaping them.’ (93) civilian life. It identifies specific

The Child Recruit's Journey Since the capacity of adolescents Rights, the European Committee ‘The mood was depressed, and for rational evaluation and of Social Rights, and the Inter- no one spoke to each other, and decision-making is compromised American Court of Human Rights they ordered us to stand in line. in conditions of high stress (94). It was late in the evening, we had (59, 60), initial military training 10 minutes to prepare the room, However, military training regimes capitalises on a specific and then had three or four hours routinely incorporate – either as developmental vulnerability of lessons. We were all very tired a formalised aspect of training to re-shape their attitudes and and some were asleep. Those techniques or informally as part behaviours for military use. who were asleep had to spend of the wider military environment the rest of the time standing. – most of the forms of violence Obedience They even slept while standing. Through Violence explicitly prohibited in CRC article The CRC obligates states to 19, including: ‘After the class, my mother called me. I couldn’t stop myself from ‘take all appropriate legislative,  Psychological maltreatment, crying when I heard her voice, administrative, social and mental abuse, and although I was already 21 then. educational measures to protect emotional abuse. the child from all forms of ‘After a few weeks you get used  Scaring, terrorising and physical or mental violence, injury to the everyday life. You get threatening. or abuse, neglect or negligent up, stand in line, get screamed treatment, maltreatment or  , name-calling, at and cursed, have to stand, exploitation, including sexual humiliation, belittling, and sometimes eight hours... You just abuse, while in the care of ridiculing. have to get used to the fact that parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any  Psychological bullying and you are always screamed at and other person who has the care of hazing35 by adults or other humiliated.’ (93) 34 the child’. children. 33. ‘The intense workload and There are no exceptions to  Corporal punishment, including sleep restriction experienced by this duty; no form of legalised hitting, punching, kicking, and military recruits leaves them little violence against children is stress positions. attention capacity for processing permitted. In elaborating what the messages they receive about  Physical bullying and . this means in practice, the new norms… Therefore, recruits Committee on the Rights of the A former Austrian conscript should be less likely to devote Child has clarified that states are described his experience of their remaining cognitive effort to required to ‘take the necessary entering military training: judging the quality of persuasive actions to prevent and prohibit messages and will be more likely to ‘The first day at the Bundesheer all forms of violence and abuse, be persuaded by the messages…’ [army] was terrible. After we got (92) Other military officers and including , corporal our things, we were told to get academics have characterised punishment and other inhuman, into buses. No one told us where initial training as ‘re-socialisation’, degrading or humiliating we were going. They shouted at ‘assimilation’, ‘psychological treatment or punishment in us and said we should keep our conditioning’, ‘programming’, and school, by school personnel as mouths shut and look straight simply ‘control’ (63) well as among students’ (56). ahead, no one was allowed to 34. CRC art 19. The Committee’s condemnation smoke or look at his cell phone. 35. ‘Hazing’ is defined as ‘rituals of has We were driven to Horn. I will and other activities involving been repeated in judgements of never forget the arrival... harassment, violence or humiliation the European Court of Human which are used as a way of initiating a person into a group’ (96). ‘Once recruited as soldiers, children generally receive much the same treatment as adults – including the often brutal induction ceremonies.’ Graca Machel, Impact of armed conflict on children (2)

Although this individual was aged to the head. No ducking, parrying noted ‘the tension between 21 at the time, 17-year-olds who or other boxing defence moves Army’s acknowledged training opt to be conscripted early go are allowed.’ (95) In other words, objective – to produce soldiers through the same regime. recruits, who may be only 17 who are tough and can cope years old at the time, must – and the need to protect and Wayne Sharrocks, who enlisted withstand being repeatedly encourage more vulnerable, for the British infantry at age punched in the head and face for younger soldiers as they develop 17 in 2006, describes similar one minute in order to progress these capacities’ (77). Army staff experiences: in training. Graphic footage of advised the Ombudsman that ‘If you get called into the office milling exercises can be found ‘soldiers are trained to kill face- you don’t know if you’re going online.37 to-face and must be able to do to get punched or made to do their jobs efficiently in hardship Children enrolled on military- press-ups or humiliated – they’ll conditions... Soldiers, according vocational courses in the think nothing of humiliating you to Army [sic], are expected to be Netherlands undergo much in front of everybody, just for a able to cope with more and they of the same basic military laugh, or brutally punishing you need to get used to this early.’ training as adult recruits, despite until you’re sick. These are all Some also commented that ‘if having not formally enlisted (51). things they use to make you stay minors did feel uncomfortable ‘Military self-defence’ training in line... or confused, that was simply forms a significant part of all part of the process of being ‘Bayonet training is teaching the vocational courses, some of “acculturated” into the military... you to kill a person with a blade which is carried out on military this was the only way for training on the end of a rifle. You’ll be bases. One child (enrolled in the to be effective.’ put through loads of physical course for children aged 15 years, punishments – you’re crawling 6 months) reported: As these remarks indicate, the through mud, screamed at and conflict between the needs and ‘We are often being belittled shouted at, kicked, punched priorities of the armed forces to see whether we can take it. while you’re on the floor, anything as an institution and minors as During running exercises, all of to get you angry – they want individuals in need of ‘special a sudden they [instructors] are you to release this insane care’38 will always be problematic, running right behind you and amount of aggression, enough and appears to be irreconcilable. start screaming “God-damn it, to stab another man when they At the least, such violent methods asshole” or “Son of a bitch, run say, basically, on the flick of a are unambiguously incompatible harder!” and then they push you switch.’36 (63) with states’ ‘immediate and in the neck.’ Routine basic training for the unqualified obligation’ to eliminate Students commonly described British army parachute regiment the violent and humiliating the training as including ‘scaring includes an exercise called treatment of children (96). students, screaming at students, ‘milling’. According to army policy belittlement of students, documents, ‘[m]illing consists combined with sleep deprivation, of 60 seconds of controlled 36. Other examples of ill-treatment physical exhaustion and food aggression, whereby two during British army training are deprivation’ (51). opponents of equal size and published in The First Ambush weight, wearing head guards, In Australia, a report by the report (63). gum shields and 18oz boxing Commonwealth and Defence 37 For example, (https://www.you- gloves... aim to dominate [their] Ombudsman into the care of tube.com/watch?v=YR2ZARY6SoE) (accessed 28 October 2017). opponent with straight punches minors in the armed forces 38. CRC preamble and art 1.

The Child Recruit's Journey ARMY TRAINING METHODS Based on research focused on the British and US The army uses operant conditioning armed forces (63), the training of army recruits, techniques to mould individual civilians into including those aged under 18, can be understood 2soldiers who act with collective obedience. Wayne in three parts: Sharrocks, who joined the British infantry at 17, explains: Recruits are ‘stripped’ of their civilian identities ‘At the start of training, if they told you, for and dominated by the army’s demands: instance, “Take all your clothes off and run around 1 the block naked...” you’d probably question it... Civilian ties are suppressed. For the first few but six months down the line for some reason you weeks, all contact with civilian friends and family is want to get into this thing so much... that you will prohibited or heavily restricted and recruits are not just do whatever they say whenever they say it.’ allowed to leave the military estate. Individuality is suppressed. Most obviously, all Recruits learn to kill on demand. Their recruits must wear the same uniform, but also the opponents in war are depersonalised as head is shaved, the use of first names is forbidden, 3‘enemy targets’, which will ‘fall when hit’. If training and time and space for privacy are denied. is effective, then the soldier imagines his or her Personal affairs are controlled. The army controls enemy without the humanity of a real person. every aspect of recruits’ behaviour, from how Recruits in close-combat roles are taken a stage they stand to how they fold a t-shirt. Any minor further. Their acute stress response (the fight- deviation is punished, which makes recruits or-flight mechanism) is stimulated repeatedly anxious to conform. to summon adrenalised aggression (animal Recruits’ psychological resistance is depleted. aggression) as the primary means to overcome a The army applies stress continuously by depriving situation of stress. Child recruits for infantry roles recruits of sleep and comfort, and ‘beasting’ are made to conjure furious aggression and direct them. (Beasting includes shouting insults into a it lethally by driving a blade into an effigy of their recruit’s face, giving orders intended to humiliate enemy. A short film of British infantry recruits from or exhaust a recruit, disrupting a recruit’s personal age 17 is available online (240): affairs [e.g. emptying their wardrobe across a ‘I wanna see it in your eyes that you wanna kill room], and varying degrees of physical force.) these fuckers. Imagine these dummies are the Conformity is enforced through punishments. fucking and they’ve just killed some of Recruits are punished collectively for an your mates. You wanna fuckin’ kill them. Show individual’s shortcoming, who may then be me your war face! [recruits yell] You need some punished again by peers. fucking more aggression, show me your war face. [louder] Show me your war face! [recruits roar] What do we wanna do to the enemy? [recruits yell as one – ‘Kill! Kill! Kill! Kill!’ – and at the dummies].’ ‘The Committee is also concerned that ... early enlistment is allowed for 16- and 17-year-old children who wish to leave the country at the time when they would be required to undertake military service, and for “those who are obliged to request early enlistment because of their studies”.’ CRC Concluding Observations: Mexico 2011 (47)

Even when not overtly violent, these deceased were aged under harmful (55). Relative to adults, the physical demands of military 18, their deaths indicate some adolescents are temperamentally training can be harmful to young of the physical risks to children more anxious, and more likely people who are still developing in military training, particularly to experience depressed mood physically. Research on the UK where there has been no and emotional volatility (58,73). armed forces has found that modification of training exercises Crucially, they are also more child recruits are more likely than to accommodate their physical reactive to stressors (58,73). adults to be discharged due to immaturity. That is, adolescents react to training injury, because their stressors with a greater anxiety bones and musculature are not Psychological Effects and then remain anxious for yet fully developed (63, 97, 98). Research into the mental effects longer (55,105). Accordingly, of military employment has under stress they experience Death in training is also a historically focused on veterans greater strain and are more likely risk. Between 2000 and returning from deployment, than adults to be overwhelmed 2016, 131 British armed forces but psychological stressors are (58). Under stress, adolescents personnel died during training present long before this, from are also more likely than adults or on exercise, equivalent to the start of training. US research to develop anxiety-related approximately one death in has found that between 2004 training every six weeks (99). A mental health problems, such as and 2009, the peak rate of US study found that between (55,73,105). A high attempted suicide during basic 1989 and 1992, ‘at least 700’ stress environment can even training was four times higher armed forces personnel disrupt the development of the than the peak rate of attempted died while engaged in such brain, which during adolescence suicide during deployment to training activities as swimming, is sensitive to repeated or Iraq or Afghanistan (104). Indeed, parachuting, weapons training, prolonged stress. Under chronic some veterans state that their and physical fitness exercises stress, the brain’s transition to initial training was more traumatic (100). In 2013 two British army full maturation is compromised, than deployment and blame recruits died from heatstroke particularly systems involved its psychological manipulation during training marches; three in the regulation of emotions techniques – which are not American recruits died in the (73,105). There is some evidence ‘de-programmed’ when they space of one week in 2016, that this can lead to lasting are discharged – for difficulties apparently from heat-related problems with anxiety in adjusting to civilian life afterwards problems during training adulthood (55,105). (63). exercises; and in 2017 an Austrian recruit died from heatstroke A measure of stress in caused by training exercises adolescence is healthy, but a (101,102,103). Although none of high-stress environment becomes

The Child Recruit's Journey ‘The actual pace and pattern of physical, psychological and social development varies not just from one individual to another, but also across different socio-cultural settings. However, there is evidence that significant changes occur between the ages of 16 and 18 years...’ The recruitment of children by the UK armed forces: A critique from health professionals (59)

While adult recruits can also be In addition to loading child and American research has affected by the same risks, the recruits with toxic levels of stress, found that enlisting in the army neuroscientific research indicates military training also influences increases the propensity of that the brain changes so rapidly attitudes and behaviours. Studies personnel to behave violently at in mid-adolescence that the have shown that the impact on home and in the community (63). reduction in vulnerability between recruits is profound: In summary, although intense the ages of 16 and 18 is typically ‘[Recruits'] aversion to violence physical and psychological critical. According to a report by is reduced, such that acts conditioning may be an essential public health experts on child normally considered wrong part of armed forces’ training, its enlistment in the UK: are now deemed legitimate harmful impact on young people ‘The actual pace and pattern of for military purposes. They in mid-adolescence is clear. physical, psychological and social have been trained to react to The objective and subjective development varies not just from adversity antagonistically with evidence of psychological harm one individual to another, but also aggression. They have also been inherent in modern military across different socio-cultural encouraged to valorise military training appears irreconcilable settings. However, there is culture as superior to the civilian with the right of children to an evidence that significant changes life they left behind. They carry environment conducive to their occur between the ages of 16 their soldier programming with development, in which the risks and 18 years, and that further them at work and at home, and of undue harm are minimised. change continues for several it persists after they leave the Evidently these training years beyond the age of 18 years army. Its marks are seen in, for conditions affect thousands of in many individuals.’ (59) example, elevated levels of young recruits who may never be anxiety, a greater likelihood of It should also be noted that the exposed to armed conflict itself. violent behaviour and, for many, youngest recruits tend to be Consequently, the prohibition debilitating feelings of shame concentrated in the riskiest army on deployment of under-18s, once actions on the battlefield roles (particularly the infantry), whilst important, does nothing are evaluated humanely, in their for which training is particularly to protect child recruits from the wider moral complexity.’ (63) stressful and coercive. Whereas permanent psychological harm in civilian settings, the presence In particular, training to kill that military training can cause. of family and established friends chronically stimulates aggression, Occasionally, military personnel can mitigate the effects of stress, depersonalises opponents, and responsible for training military rules prohibit or tightly makes a virtue of violence as acknowledge the harm it can restrict contact outside the base an effective conflict tactic. An cause to the younger age group. (63). analysis of the available British A review of arrangements for minors in the Australian define military training centres as its General Comment on the aims armed forces recorded the education institutions, and then of education, the Committee on view of some training staff that use this in defence of enlisting the Rights of the Child stated: ‘the requirements of some children. For example, the British ‘Education must also be aimed at employment categories may army training site for its youngest ensuring that essential life skills be inappropriate for minors. recruits, aged from 16, is titled the are learnt by every child... Basic The emotional, psychological Army Foundation College. skills include not only literacy or physical maturity required to In practice, military training and numeracy but also life skills undertake training, or in fact to centres do not operate to the such as the ability to make well- perform in the field on completion standards expected of civilian balanced decisions; to resolve of training, may simply be too education. Unlike civilian conflicts in a non-violent manner; much for someone under the age teachers, military instructors are and to develop a healthy lifestyle, of 18 years’ (77). not recruited on the strength of good social relationships and Other staff at the infantry training their experience of working with responsibility, critical thinking, course shared this view, noting children and young people, nor creative talents, and other that ‘apart from the very heavy does their basic training prepare abilities... [It must] reflect an physical requirements of the them for it. They do not normally appropriate balance between course, the psychological and apply to be instructors, but are promoting the physical, mental, emotional maturity required posted to a training centre by spiritual and emotional aspects are unlikely to be found in a order of the chain of command. of education, the intellectual, minor’ (77). A non-commissioned officer social and practical dimensions, at Deepcut barracks in the UK and the childhood and lifelong Insubstantial Education stated in a television interview aspects... [It should be] designed The CRC requires that education that many of the instructors at and provided in such a way that for children reflect ‘the spirit of the site ‘were actually put there it promotes and reinforces the understanding, peace, tolerance, because nobody else wanted range of specific ethical values equality of sexes, and friendship them. It sort of had a bit of a enshrined in the Convention, among all peoples...’ 39 The reputation of being a dumping including education for peace.’ Committee on the Rights of the ground to get rid of unwanted (12) Child is clear that the education NCOs [non-commissioned environment also matters, officers]’ (106).40 Similarly, the stating that ‘children should also Australian Commonwealth learn about human rights by Ombudsman has noted that seeing human rights standards postings in a training role are implemented in practice, generally unpopular due to the whether at home, in school, or long hours involved, intense within the community. Human course content, public scrutiny, rights education should be a lack of status and boredom. (77) comprehensive, life-long process Where child recruits are offered and start with the reflection of formal education as part of human rights values in the daily their training, it is rudimentary, life and experiences of children. determined by the needs of [...] A school which allows bullying the military institution, and has or other violent and exclusionary limited transferrable value to 39. CRC art 29. practices to occur is not one recruits after they leave the which meets the requirements of 40. Between 1995 - 2002 four armed forces and re-join the young recruits, including three teen- article 29(1).’ (12) jobs market (140). Child recruits agers, died from gunshot wounds The promise of ongoing are afforded little time for such at Deepcut army barracks. The education and vocational training education during their intensive deaths were recorded as suicide but the original investigations were is a prominent message in military training. criticised as deeply flawed and two recruitment literature provided to These arrangements stand in new inquests were ordered in 2014 potential child recruits and their contrast to the requirements for and 2016. Bullying, harassment and parents. It is common for states to education set out by the CRC. In were alleged to be commonplace at the site.

The Child Recruit's Journey A US Marine Corps drill instructor screams at a Marine recruit during a THE MILITARY boot camp assault course, © US Marines Photo / Alamy ENVIRONMENT

Risk of Abuse with children to be vetted family in civilian life, and which Once enlisted, children are (including criminal record substantially increases the risk of treated as adults and lose checks) to ensure they are abuse. many of the protections that suitable for the role. However, instructions acknowledge that are normally due them by right. in some countries (such as the armed forces accommodation For example, many practices UK) although the law defines puts minors at ‘risk of exposure which are routine in the armed a ‘child’ as anyone under to alcohol, drugs, unacceptable forces would be unlawful and/or the age of 18, the legislation behaviour and/or inappropriate criminal in civilian life if applied on criminal vetting does not relationships’ but does not to the care of children. The legal apply to children who are in require them to be housed exemptions which permit armed employment. Consequently, separately from adults (242). there is no legal requirement forces to circumvent these Counterintuitively, child recruits’ for armed forces personnel to safeguards exist solely for the vulnerability to abuse may be be criminally vetted for their convenience of the institutions higher in countries where they suitability to work with children, concerned. They do not support are recruited in relatively small despite the fact adult personnel the best interests of the child. numbers. Where a few children live and work alongside child In many countries, legislation are mixed with a large number of recruits in a degree of proximity requires adults working closely adults their particular needs can rarely encountered outside the ‘Adolescence is a life stage characterized by growing opportunities, capacities, aspirations, energy and creativity, but also significant vulnerability.’ CRC General Comment 20 on the implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence, 2016. (13)

be overlooked and safeguarding makes use of coercive methods ‘In forums to this day, names are arrangements may be weaker. in degrees which would not be still spreading, which instil fear This applies in particular to tolerated in a civilian workplace and horror. A lieutenant, who has girls, who are invariably a small or educational setting, making since passed away, left recruits minority among recruits and it diffcult for recruits ­— and their under the ice-cold showers for especially vulnerable to abuse. superiors —to recognise when hours. I have experienced many ‘robust’ training is abusive. things myself. The fact that the Many aspects of the military Ill-treatment also thrives Bundesheer is not beautiful, of environment increase the risk course, is clear to everyone, of abuse, including the rank when recruits are deterred but the first weeks are hell hierarchy, a hyper- masculine from complaining by a fear of on earth. Fear and panic rule, culture, high stress, physical retribution or being branded spread by the instructors. At demands, isolation from family, ‘weak’ in an environment the time, I thought this must be powerful group loyalty dynamics, where perceived weakness is how people in the internment and the subjugation of the self stigmatised. camps in the 1930s and 40s required by initial military training Accounts of physical and felt. The Bundesheer has three (63). Researchers in Canada have psychological bullying and advantages despite all this: one highlighted ‘the deep-seated ill-treatment in the military are learns to drink and how to sell hierarchical nature of military common internationally. For and buy drugs under constant cultures, and the degree to example, in 2017, following the observation. And if I feel bad which emphasis on the values death of an Austrian conscript in today — because of work or a of obedience, conformity and training, the German language relationship — then I think of respect for superiors can lead edition of Vice published that bad time and I feel better to abuses of power, [and] the numerous testimonies from immediately.’ susceptibility of junior members conscripts, exposing a culture of to negative social influence’ (243). (93): ‘I lived in constant fear for the four weeks of basic training. Fear These factors affect all recruits, ‘I still have nightmares of my time of what shit would come next.’ but children are more vulnerable with the Bundesheer [army]. I because, in an environment wake up screaming every time. It Sexual Violence, which regards civilian social has cost me several relationships. Assault and Harassment norms as inferior, children may ... At night, I was beaten up The military institution remains lack suffcient life experience by groups downstairs. Two pervasively masculinised, despite to recognise unreasonable instructors came to me regularly the minority presence of women behaviour or to respond and told me how they would and girls. British, American appropriately (63). This is celebrate my expected suicide, and Australian army doctrine exacerbated by the fact that, urinate on my grave and make encourages personnel to cultivate as seen above, military training jokes with the survivors.’

The Child Recruit's Journey ‘States parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse.’ Article 19 Convention on the Rights of the Child

the traditionally masculine she had to repeat “I am useless create particular conditions of attributes of a ‘warrior spirit’ or and I am a female”.’ (113) vulnerability.’ (243) ‘warrior ethos’ as the making of Confirming anecdote (114), Similarly, in 2016 the head of an effective soldier, irrespective research in the UK and US has the British army acknowledged of their gender (107, 108, 109). found that the sexual harassment its ‘overly sexualised’ culture Several studies have found of women by men is substantially (123). In France, in response that a soldier’s competence is more common in the armed to an official report into sexual routinely equated with masculine forces than in civilian life (115, harassment in the armed forces potency and a willingness to 116). British research has found in 2014, the controller-general dominate adversaries using that the youngest female recruits of the armed forces observed violence, whereas incompetence are the group most at risk of that ‘the great majority of cases is associated with impotence sexual harassment and violence, involve relatively young recruits and femininity (110, 111, 66). In exceeding the civilian rate by a – both male and female – from 2017, a female British officer large margin (113). The research relatively poor and uneducated advised women considering an also finds that the early exposure backgrounds’ (124). army career to be mindful of of boys to a heavily masculinised the dominance of men and their Despite widespread recognition culture leads to an increased risk expectations: of the elevated risk of sexual of violent behaviour, particularly violence in the armed forces, ‘You are going into a male against women (117, 118, 119, 120, particularly against younger dominated environment. You 121, 122). personnel, child recruits can lack should all be aspiring to meet the An investigation into sexual confidence to report it, for fear male standard. If you want to be assault and harassment in the that they will not be listened to respected by the males you are also or that their career will suffer going to be working alongside, noted the elevated vulnerability as a result (77, 115). Their fears this is what you need to do.’ (112) of younger recruits: are reasonable when sexual One consequence of a violence and harassment are so ‘With respect to the prevalence masculinised military culture is routine that they have become of sexual harassment and the frequent denigration of normalised in military culture. sexual assault, age, linked with women by their male co-workers. a lack of maturity, appears to One of many published examples be a prominent factor, given is that recorded by British that young persons are “still researchers in 2006: a group of exploring their sexuality” and men grabbed a female officer feel “invulnerable”. Further, while on exercise and ‘ducked the unique circumstances of her head in a bucket of water and training, operational deployment, each time she came up for breath and career courses, may ‘THE TRUTH IS THAT THE SCOURGE OF SEXUAL ASSAULT IN THE MILITARY REMAINS STATUS QUO’ Recent years have seen numerous investigations a soldier (age unspecified) (229). In November 2017 into serious and widespread sexual harassment and two female recruits (aged 18 and 22) were allegedly bullying in the armed forces in Australia, Canada, raped at the Toderdorf barracks in north Germany Germany, Israel, UK and the US. Many of the victims (245). In total at least 187 allegations of sexual were child recruits. assault were recorded by the German armed forces in 2017, and 11 allegations of rape (245). In Australia, a royal commission has investigated the physical and sexual abuse of teenage recruits in the In the UK, a second inquest was held in 2016 for armed forces since the 1960s (216). Recruits from Cheryl James, one of four young recruits who died the age of 15 were subjected to regular, repeated in suspicious circumstances at Deepcut Barracks violent sexual assault, including anal and oral gang between 1995 and 2002. The inquest revealed rape; some child recruits were forced to rape each evidence of widespread abuse, bullying, physical other. Victims who reported the abuse were not assault and sexual harassment at the base, where believed by staff, dishonourably discharged, or told many adolescent recruits were trained. Recruits it was a ‘rite of passage’. The Commission found were afraid to complain because the instructors in ‘widespread physical and sexual abuse of child charge of their welfare were often also responsible recruits’, which was ‘tolerated’ by senior staff (217). for the abuse (106). One recruit who trained with The Commission’s report found that the ‘institutional Cheryl James told the inquest, ‘We would tend to environment was such that abuse was allowed to ourselves, there was no accountability… [staff] had occur.’ (217) a power trip and they got a buzz off it. They were corporals or sergeants and we were recruits and In 2016, an anonymous survey of women in they thought they could take advantage.’ (210) The the found that one in six head of army personnel conceded at the inquest reported experiences of sexual harassment, with that the barracks had been ‘highly sexualised’ and most reporting multiple incidents (213). A survey ‘morally chaotic’, where the pressure on young of 43,000 Canadian armed forces personnel also recruits could be ‘intolerable.’ (210) In 2015, an published in 2016 found that 27 per cent of female official, anonymous survey of UK armed forces military personnel reported having been sexually personnel found that 13 per cent of women had had assaulted at least once during their military career a ‘particularly upsetting’ experience of sexualised (defined as ‘sexual attacks, unwanted sexual behaviour directed at them in the previous 12 touching, or sexual activity to which the victim is month, equivalent to approximately 1,000 women unable to consent’). Of female recruits aged 24 or affected each year (115). younger, 54 per cent had been assaulted in the past year (218). A major study in 2014 estimated that 26 per cent of female armed forces personnel in the US military In Germany, an investigation began in 2016 into the experienced sexual harassment in the previous sexual abuse of army recruits, including children, year, and 5 per cent had suffered one or more at Pfullendorf barracks. ‘Sadistic sexual practices’, sexual assaults. It further found that a higher which were filmed, were alleged to be widespread proportion of the youngest female recruits – 7 per (230). Criminal charges were subsequently filed cent – had been sexually assaulted (219). In 2016, against seven soldiers for grievous bodily harm, the US military received 6,172 complaints of sexual sexual assault and false imprisonment. At least four assaults, ranging from groping to rape; 58 per cent soldiers were dismissed as a result of the incidents of victims said they had ‘experienced reprisals but the criminal case was eventually dropped as or retaliation’ for reporting (211). Senator Kirsten the court was unable to establish definitively who Gillibrand commented that ‘the scourge of sexual was responsible for the abuse (244). In a separate assault in the military remains status quo.’ (211) case in 2017, 14 military personnel were under investigation in relation to the sexual harassment of

The Child Recruit's Journey A British soldier patrols a street in Iraq, © Shawn Baldwin/EPA PARTICIPATION IN HOSTILITIES

Until the adoption of OPAC, armed forces personnel, to the same conflicts, although no international law prevented regardless of age, where there the Ministry of Defence has states from sending children to is a ‘genuine military need’.43 committed to prevent this in the war. British personnel under the Similarly, Australian Defence future (129, 130). The Committee age of 18 fought and died in the Instructions oblige the armed on the Rights of the Child has Korean War of 1950-1953 and forces to ‘take all feasible judged that both states’ positions the Falklands War of 1982, and measures to ensure that Defence do not meet the requirements of participated in members under 18 do not the treaty (125, 131). operations in the Balkans. In the participate in hostilities’ but France, another major military 1990s, the US deployed 17-year- only ‘where it will not adversely power, does not allow recruits old children to the Persian Gulf impact on the conduct of under 18 to participate in military War, Bosnia and Somalia (246). operations’ (242). operations overseas, but has not By ratifying OPAC, more than The UK does not routinely expressly ruled out deployment two-thirds of states worldwide deploy children, but reserves the within France, for example in have committed in principle right to use them in hostilities relation to counter- (132). ‘to take all feasible measures if ‘operational effectiveness’ Similarly, the Committee on the to ensure that members of depends on it. The US believes Rights of the Child has expressed their armed forces who have the treaty allows it to deploy concern that New Zealand not attained the age of 18 underage personnel to any Defence Force orders only years do not take a direct part ‘forward’ (i.e. frontline) area prohibit ‘active service outside in hostilities’.41 The change where a firefight is not currently New Zealand and therefore has helped to protect many ongoing; if one breaks out, implicitly allow active service thousands of children from the child recruits may remain if inside New Zealand by soldiers consequences of participating in ‘military considerations’ make it below the age of 18’ (133). war, but this protection remains impractical to remove them (247). There is also wide discrepancy incomplete.42 Such reservations subordinate between states in relation to the best interests of the child While some states which still children performing armed to military expedience. recruit children, such as India, guard duties. This matters have committed not to deploy Between 2003 and 2004, the US because the effectiveness of them to any ‘operational area’ deployed nearly 60 17-year-olds an armed guard as a deterrent (126), others interpret OPAC to Iraq and Afghanistan (128); depends completely on his or narrowly. Cyprus, for example, between 2003 and 2010 the UK her readiness to open fire in reserves the right to deploy deployed at least 22 children the event that a military site is Not withstanding the fact child ‘The Committee remains seriously recruits are not deployed until concerned that the current policies and they have reached the age of 18, regulations, despite certain safeguards, the common practice of assigning do allow for the deployment of them roles that are most exposed in war subjects them 17-year-old service members to such to disproportionate risks across areas where they can be requested the course of their armed forces to perform inherently dangerous career. In the UK, for example, it is a matter of policy to enlist 16- and duties and may be at risk of direct 17-year-olds ‘particularly for the participation in hostilities.’ infantry’ (139), which suffers the CRC Concluding Observations: USA 2017 (125) army’s highest fatality rate and in which child recruits are over- represented (140). Thus, even though children enlisted by the UK are not normally sent to war until they turn 18, they face higher war risks than adult recruits across their military career as a whole. A study by ForcesWatch attacked by a hostile force. As state’s armed forces they ‘remain and Child Soldiers International such, armed guard duty can lawful targets for enemy forces in 2013 found that soldiers who become active participation in who, in many cases, may be had joined the British army at 16 hostilities at a moment’s notice. unable to distinguish them from and completed their training were approximately twice as likely to In view of these risks, some their older comrades’ (134). die or be injured in Afghanistan states prohibit the use of child Outside of situations of armed as those who enlisted aged 18 recruits as armed guards (e.g. conflict, military sites, such as or above (141).44 Although the Germany) whereas in others it is barracks, are particular targets effect of this elevated risk is not routine (e.g. UK). Israel Defense for some armed groups, putting experienced by soldiers until they Forces (IDF) training requires child recruits at risk. In 2010, reach adulthood, the risk itself recruits, including those under for example, three men were was assumed when the recruits 18, to patrol and guard military convicted of plotting an attack were still minors. bases, some of which are in the on an army base in Sydney, West Bank (29). Children from intending to cause as many age 15 also participate in the casualties as possible (135). In Israeli Police Force ‘Civil Guard’, 2012, rocket propelled grenades whose activities include acting were fired at the Pakistan Military 41 .OPAC art 1. as border guards, searching Academy in Abbottabad, causing 42. At the World Humanitarian Summit in 2016, states were en- for explosives, operating damage to the building but no couraged to ‘enact and implement checkpoints, and preventing acts casualties (136). In 2013, a soldier national legislation prohibiting of terrorism. Child volunteers in was killed outside his barracks members of their armed forces the ‘emergency squad’ section in London by two men targeting who have not attained the age of of the Civil Guard keep firearms soldiers in retaliation for British 18 years from taking a direct part in in their home and are on standby military action in Afghanistan hostilities’ (emphasis added), which for immediate deployment in and Iraq (137). Recent years have would be a stronger safeguard than event of emergency, such as an seen multiple attacks on Indian the requirement of OPAC to ‘take attack on a settlement, and work army bases and troop convoys all feasible measures’ to prevent participation in hostilities (209). in collaboration with the IDF (29). in Kashmir, killing at least 46 43. Cyprus, OPAC Declaration. Even where states do not use soldiers (138). All four of these state armed forces recruit below 44. A probable factor is the their child recruits to participate over-representation of minors in the the age of 18, such that child in hostilities, protection from the infantry. The study found no statis- effects of armed conflict remains reruits remain at risk from attacks tical difference in the risk of fatality incomplete. As members of a of this kind. among those who joined at age 17.

The Child Recruit's Journey British soldiers at Fort George, Ardersier in Scotland LEAVING THE © David Lichtneker / Alamy ARMED FORCES

Early Attrition than other recruits to struggle OPAC unless it is, among other during training, resist military conditions, ‘genuinely voluntary’.45 As reported in France, Germany, authority, and have debilitating On the principle that, insofar as the UK and the US (142), the mental health problems that consent is freely given it may be youngest military trainees are prevent them from continuing. freely withdrawn, the requirement more likely to leave the armed Minors are also significantly for recruitment to be voluntary forces during training or shortly more likely than adults to be prevents military authorities from afterwards. A third of British army discharged due to training injury, retaining a child recruit against trainees aged under 18 drop according to British research (63, his or her will. Otherwise, one of out during training, for example; 97). the main purposes of OPAC – to similarly high attrition rates for prevent the forced recruitment minors are found in Germany and Rapid disillusionment with military of children – would mean little. the Netherlands (22, 143). life is undoubtedly an important Consequently, it is logical to factor in attrition amongst Notably, research in the UK interpret the requirement for child recruits, resulting in part and US shows clearly that recruitment to be ‘genuinely from unrealistic expectations younger enlistees from poorer voluntary’ to mean that their encouraged by recruitment backgrounds face the highest military employment is not lawful marketing. The adverts’ promises risk of early attrition (81, 144, 145, unless their consent to it is of self-development, fulfilment, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151). In ongoing. In practice, this means excitement and camaraderie general, they are less tolerant of that child recruits must retain the prove false for many young frustration, more rebellious, more right to leave the armed forces recruits. anxious, and more vulnerable to at any time of their choosing, stress, all of which combine to The Right to Leave without penalty, as long as they increase the risk of attrition (150, As explored in detail above, remain children in law. 152, 153). Research in the US recruiting children for military found that they are more likely purposes is unlawful under 45. OPAC art 3. Statutory human rights bodies period, usually a few months, a martial for going absent without have supported this conclusion. child recruit may have no right leave after the right of discharge The UK Parliament Joint to leave the armed forces for had been introduced (161). Committee on Human Rights, several years. In Australia, for In the US, 17-year-olds can sign in reviewing the provisions for example, recruits are bound for up for the Delayed Entry Program child recruits to leave the armed at least two to four years; in the (‘DEP’) which allows them to defer forces on request, stated that UK, army recruits are bound for reporting for duty for up to a year, ‘without special provision for four years from the day of their while undertaking pre-military discharge (other than at the 18th birthday (157, 158, 159). preparation. Although children discretion of the commanding Harsh penalties are applied for who have enlisted under the DEP officer), there is a risk that attempting to leave the military are allowed by law to withdraw, continued service may not be without authorisation (i.e. going many child recruits have reported considered voluntary in the Absent Without Leave, which is a being harassed, verbally abused sense required by the Optional serious military offence). and threatened with fines or Protocol’, and recommended In Germany, military legislation imprisonment for seeking to do the introduction of a legal right allows recruits of any age to so (248). Recruiters are prohibited of discharge for minors (154). A request discharge within the first from making such threats, but German parliamentary committee six months of training, but child also instructed ‘to make every report similarly referred to expert recruits have no ongoing right to effort to resell [service in the evidence that ‘the obligation leave after this point even if they armed forces to] those individuals for recruitment to be voluntary are still below the age of 18 (21). who request separation [release for minor recruits, enshrined Children who attempt to leave from enlistment contract]’ (162). in the Optional Protocol, is without authorisation can be Applying this type of pressure circumvented... when individuals prosecuted under military law. to children, or 18-year-olds who have enlisted at the age who enlisted as children, is of 17 and whose six-month In Canada, child recruits who incompatible with the concept of probationary period ends before enlist in the Regular Officer a voluntary choice made freely their 18th birthday are no longer Training Plan or Reserve Entry without coercion or duress. able to leave the Bundeswehr Training Plan must pay a financial voluntarily and without facing penalty if they seek a discharge Whilst formal administrative sanctions’ (155). after the start of their second year procedures may be required to of training. Those who remain in implement a discharge request, Similarly, in relation to the programmes are obliged to these should be processed eliminating forced labour, the provide a minimum of two months as a matter of right and with ILO Committee of Experts on service in the armed forces for minimal delay. Allowing a the Application of Conventions every one month of subsidised child’s discharge only at their and Recommendations has education they received under commanding officer’s discretion, ‘requested that minors engaged the training programme (160). or complicating release with in a military career be able undue administrative hurdles, themselves to terminate their Since 2011, all child recruits in the delays, or penalties, restricts the engagement’ (156). British armed forces have had a child’s ability to leave the armed legal right of discharge until the forces at will and undermines the In practice, the right of enlistees age of 18, but the process is still principle of consent.  to withdraw consent to enlistment subject to a three-month ‘cooling afterwards is normally denied or off’ period and at least two severely restricted. After an initial children were prosecuted at court

The Child Recruit's Journey Quantifying the Impact

A member of the New Zealand Defence Force, © New Zealand Defence Force ‘States parties shall protect the child against all other forms of exploitation prejudicial to any aspects of the child's welfare’ Article 36, Convention on the Rights of the Child

MENTAL HEALTH health problems, drink heavily, not the only one. Pre-existing AND ALCOHOL behave violently in everyday life, vulnerabilities associated with MISUSE and experience poorer long-term a troubled childhood – more health (163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, common among those who enlist Research has shown that military 169, 170, 171, 172,). youngest — contribute strongly to later problems associated employment increases several Relative to UK civilian rates, for with military employment. These risks to health and wellbeing, example, anxiety/depression46 factors combine hazardously with with the youngest recruits most and harmful drinking are at least the stress and indoctrination of affected. Data fully disaggregated twice as common in the armed initial training (63, 104, 163, 175, by age, with minors as a distinct forces (63, 164, 165). Studies 176, 177). Even before they are category, is rarely available have found that post-traumatic sent to war, military personnel in but the studies examined for stress disorder (PTSD) is only the UK and US are more likely this report show, in general, a slightly more common in the than civilians to drink at harmful clear linear trend correlating armed forces than in the general levels, smoke, commit drug- decreasing age with increasing population, but twice as common related offences, and suffer from risk. The American Public Health among infantry personnel, stress-related mental health Association has found that which is the major role group problems (91, 104, ‘military service is associated with for the youngest recruits aged 164, 165, 167, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181). disproportionately poor health 16-17 (140, 173, 174). (British PTSD for those in late adolescence.’ (17) studies of military groups are not The prevalence of these Similar findings have been made usually carried out in anonymous problems increases after veterans elsewhere (63, 163). conditions, which is likely to lead leave the forces. Those who were UK and US research over the last to under-reporting (163).) decade has found that, compared These problems in military 46. In the studies, anxiety and de- pression are grouped as ‘common with civilians, military personnel populations are partly due to mental disorders’ (CMDs), which and veterans are more likely traumatic war experiences, include a range of anxiety disorders to have anxiety-related mental which are a major factor, but experienced as mild or severe. +45% Increased suicide rate among UK army’s youngest recruits compared to their civilian peers

in the British armed forces in and veterans are more likely has found that whilst serving 2003 but had left by 2013 have than both older recruits and the armed forces personnel have a been between two and three same-age general population lower suicide rate than civilians, times as likely as the general to experience PTSD, to drink the rate among male veterans population to have problems heavily, and to commit suicide, aged 18–24 is approximately with anxiety/depression, harmful (182, 183, 184, 185). Compared double that of civilians with the drinking, and PTSD. Over the with civilians aged 16-24, British same demographic profile (187). same period, even ex-forces personnel aged 18-24 are three Canadian research also found personnel who were not sent to times as likely to drink at harmful an elevated suicide rate among Iraq or Afghanistan have been levels (164, 184).47 army personnel (all ages), 2.5 times as likely as civilians to compared to the general Although suicide is generally screen positive for PTSD (163). population, particularly those less common in the military with lower levels of education, Research in the US has also than in the general population, and those assigned to combat found that military employment this is often not the case for the roles, as is typical among the has an adverse mental health youngest recruits. In the UK, impact before recruits are sent the rate of suicides among the youngest recruits (188). to war. The prevalence of both youngest army recruits over the depression and attempted last two decades has exceeded suicide increase during basic that of same-age civilians by 45 training (104). per cent (185).48 Over a similar period, the suicide rate among There appears to be no evidence 47. The figures for the military group male ex-forces personnel are extrapolated from Table 1 in to suggest that enlistment aged 16–19 was three times Head, et al., 2016 (164). improves the mental health of that for the same age group in 48. For details refer to Table 3 in the youngest recruits, but there the general population (186).49 source cited. is much to show the opposite. In Similarly, the Australian National 49. For details refer to Table 1 in the UK, the youngest personnel Mental Health Commission source cited. ‘Child soldiers may find it difficult to disengage from the idea that violence is a legitimate means of achieving one’s aims. Even where the experience of participating in ‘the cause’ has been positive …the transition to a non- violent lifestyle will be difficult.’ Graça Machel, Impact of armed conflict on children (2)

AGGRESSION AND and studies based in Canada, in increased violence among VIOLENCE Germany, and the US have young recruits. The same brain found that antagonistic attitudes development processes which Contrary to the common increase during army training and incline adolescents towards assumption that joining the persist afterwards (190, 191, 192). risk-taking (see 'Capacity for army reduces delinquent violent Military culture, by valorising the Complex Decision Making in behaviour in young people, ‘warrior hero’ ideal, is also likely Mid-Adolescence' p. 25) also research in Canada, Germany, to contribute, since research influence how violence is the UK, and the US has shown into the influence of dominant, perceived. Studies have shown that military training and culture traditionally masculine norms that young age is a risk factor reinforce several known risk has found repeatedly that they for developing a fascination with factors for violent behaviour.50 contribute to an increased risk violence, and also that fantasy Research in the UK and US in of violence (117, 118, 119, 120, 121, portrayals of violence in popular the last decade has found that 122). culture can inspire young people to sign up (16, 22). According violent offending became more The studies show that younger to evidence given to a German prevalent after enlistment, even recruits and those from poorer parliamentary committee: before personnel were sent to backgrounds are more likely war in Iraq or Afghanistan (167, than others to behave violently ‘[C]ompared with adult recruits, 189); and that violent offending (166, 167, 168, 177). American recruits who are minors was substantially more common and British studies have found report more of this fascination among military personnel that pre-existing problems, with violence. This develops than among civilians (167, 168, such as a history of anti-social fundamentally into a vicious 171, 177). The British research behaviour, combine with military circle of violence, that is to say, further discovered that the rate factors, such as being trained for the experiencing of violence is of violent offending increased a combat role, to drive up the always also associated with the again after personnel were sent prevalence of violent behaviour perpetration of violence and this to war, reaching double the pre- among personnel (168, 177, 193, can manifest itself in the form of enlistment rate (167). 51 194) . Since child enlistees are . It is not known why enlistment less mature than their older is accompanied by an increase counterparts, typically come from 50. For details and sources, refer to in violent behaviour before poorer backgrounds, and are The First Ambush, Tables 2 and 3, pp. 41-42 (63). personnel are deployed, but it over-represented in infantry jobs, is likely that initial training plays they carry more of the major risk 51. For a discussion of the associ- ation between violent behaviour, a role. The training process factors for violent behaviour (63). pre-enlistment history, military role stimulates aggression and Psychological development in assignment, and deployment, refer rewards dominance behaviours, adolescence may also be a factor to The First Ambush, section 8 (63).

Quantifying the Impact ‘Viable alternatives to joining armed forces or armed groups should be available for children, including adolescents. This will include educational and vocational programmes, income generating activities, and access to livelihood opportunities.’ The Paris Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups, Principle 6.3

This association is explained by and materialise in their lives as Although there appear to have the symptoms of post-traumatic a lower likelihood of dying as a been no studies exploring the illness in which a higher degree consequence of military service long-term health outcomes of of alertness can also lead to overall or at any particular age at child recruits in affluent countries, more aggressive behaviour and [the point of] enlistment.’ (195) they are more likely than adult recruits to carry the major risk at the same time a fascination In the UK, government statistics factors. For example, British with violence leads to more show that 74 per cent of veterans research shows that the youngest violence being perpetrated. reported being in good or very recruits are more likely than To sum up, in principle brain good health in 2015, vs. 78 per the older: to sustain a training development in adolescence cent of non-veterans; and 40 per injury (because their bones are means that young people make cent reported at least one long- underdeveloped) (97, 98); to drink more risky decisions and these term health condition, vs. 35 per at harmful levels (163, 183, 184); risky decisions help to explain cent of non-veterans (169). the risk factors in adolescence and to be discharged within a One reason for this is that, frequently described in research few months or years, struggling even before recruits are sent to find a new job afterwards (140, for both post-traumatic illnesses to war, they run a substantial 81). and aggressive behaviour, as risk of incurring a career-ending well as for the fascination with musculoskeletal injury during violence which young people SOCIOECONOMIC initial training, and again during OUTCOMES describe.’ (22) pre-deployment training (97, 197). Veterans’ higher rates of mental The Paris Principles and GENERAL HEALTH health problems, heavy drinking Guidelines on Children and smoking, combined with their Associated with Armed Forces or Although new recruits begin their relatively poor socioeconomic Armed Groups state that: military careers healthier than outcomes, are also likely to ‘Viable alternatives to joining their civilian counterparts, in later contribute to poorer general armed forces or armed groups life veterans are more likely to health in later life. have poorer general health and should be available for children, die prematurely (169, 170, 195, Research has shown that including adolescents. This 196). One wide- ranging review of camaraderie and the intense will include educational and the US research since the Second physical exercise during initial vocational programmes, income World War concluded that: training could buffer the health generating activities, and access impacts of military employment, to livelihood opportunities.’52 ‘...we find very little evidence to but there is no systematic Yet in contrast to this principle, support the notion that there are evidence of a health advantage states which actively recruit any benefits that accrue to men over civilian alternatives (63). children routinely present Indeed, British research months) (63).54 The average enlistment as an opportunity has found that veterans are career length of a British infantry to gain education, training, and substantially more likely than recruit who enlists below 18, a salary. These are significant non-veterans to be unemployed, completes training, and does incentives for young people particularly infantry veterans. not drop out of service early and their parents, particularly In financial year 2015/16, is 10 years (202). Although by those living in economically for example, 16 per cent of current standards this is a long deprived areas, as is typical of veterans from across the armed period for most young people child recruits in many countries. forces who had left before in their first job, the average However, contrary to the popular completing four years’ service trained infantryman re-joins the image of the military as a route were unemployed six months jobs market in their mid-20s, out of poverty for disadvantaged afterwards, which was three trained for a highly specialised young men, the long term times the national unemployment profession which has little socioeconomic prospects of rate and greater also than the transferability to civilian life. One enlisted personnel are relatively 13 per cent unemployment rate young British veteran described poor. Research in the US has for civilians aged 16-24 (200). A life in the armed forces as ‘a found that, since the end of the study in 2013 found that 30 per pause on normal life’, and that Second World War, veterans cent of infantry veterans who had on leaving ‘you’re just back at have been worse off than left the army within four years where you was to begin with’, as non-veterans, including those of enlisting – a disproportionate an adolescent before enlistment from economically deprived number of whom enlisted as (203). backgrounds (196, 198, 199). minors – were not in work, education or training 18 months In this context, it is important to afterwards (201). The national recognise that many children unemployment rate that year who join the armed forces leave 52. Principle 6.3. was 8 per cent (21 per cent for school to do so; they do not, 53. As of 2017, Australian armed 16-24-year-olds) (200).53 as is popularly assumed, enlist forces veterans also have an elevated unemployment rate: 30 having dropped out of education. British research indicates that per cent, compared to a national Recruitment campaigns which recruits who stay in the armed rate of 6 per cent (232). For further present military employment as a forces for a full career can analysis of the effect of early glamorous alternative to school outstrip the earning power of enlistment on young people’s long risk enticing children to leave full- their civilian counterparts, but term socioeconomic status, see The time education before they have these are the minority; most First Ambush, section 10.1 (63). gained essential qualifications recruits leave the armed forces 54. For details and discussion, refer to enhance their job prospects within a few years (with a large to The First Ambush, sections 10.3 throughout their working life. minority leaving after just a few and 10.4 (63).

Quantifying the Impact Veterans’ relatively poor This leaves many former child to research focused on the UK, socioeconomic outcomes are recruits struggling to re-join the group most likely to struggle partly explained by some of full-time education or looking for are ex-soldiers who enlisted at a the reasons for their relatively another job on the strength of young age (163). Multiple factors poor health in later life: a higher qualifications they gained up to increase this group’s vulnerability probability of living with physical age 16. to post-discharge socio economic injury, mental health problems, problems. As noted above, Recruits who enlist at a young and/or alcohol misuse. Another younger recruits are more likely age will not experience adulthood factor is the high rate of turnover to be prematurely discharged as civilians until they leave the in the armed forces, particularly from service (including during forces, typically in their mid- during initial training. initial training) which, in itself, is a 20s. Veterans often report that risk factor for increased stress- British research indicates that re-adjusting to civilian norms related mental health problems. early enlistment puts child is very challenging after their Similarly, having joined young recruits at a clear disadvantage military training enculturated and with few qualifications, relative both to their civilian them to denigrate civilians, the youngest recruits are more peers and to older recruits. This take orders uncritically, and likely to enlist for army roles is because enlisting adolescents value traditionally masculine that offer the least continuing from age 16 takes young people attitudes of dominance, for education and training and carry out of full-time education while example (63). British research the highest risks of physical subjecting them to a high risk shows that exit from the military of attrition from their military community is marked by a loss training. Specifically, while of social support networks and 83 per cent of young people fewer social activities, which are 55. Here, ‘disadvantaged’ is de- from economically deprived important buffers for stress (205). fined by eligibility for free meals at school, which applies to around 15 backgrounds in the UK now For these and other reasons, per cent of children (204). continue in full-time education the prevalence of stress-related 56. British army intake of minors, after they turn 16, those who mental health problems increases 2008-09 to 2012-13 inclusive: enlist in the armed forces do not markedly once veterans leave 15,395; of whom dropped out 55 57 (204). By the time the army’s the forces, especially those who during training: 5,310 (34.5%). Adult initial training course comes to leave within the first few months intake, same period: 41,480; of an end, a third of recruits aged or years (206). whom dropped out during training: under 18 have left (either by 9,700 (23.4%). (212, 221). Many veterans overcome choice or because the army has 57. For a referenced list of stress-re- these challenges to manage dismissed them); their attrition lated mental health problems which the transition to civilian life rate is 50 per cent higher gain in prevalence after discharge, successfully. However, according than that for adult recruits.56 see The Last Ambush, p. 25 (163). ‘...in principle brain development in adolescence means that young people make more risky decisions and these risky decisions help to explain the risk factors in adolescence frequently described in research for both post- traumatic illnesses and aggressive behaviour, as well as for the fascination with violence which young people describe.’ Evidence given to a Germany parliamentary committee (22)

and psychiatric trauma in war, and undesirable in, civilian life. particularly the infantry (140). Most soldiers struggle with the This in turn increases the risk of effects of institutionalisation ongoing mental health problems. when they are discharged but the An early entry into the military impact is much more profound environment reduces children’s among recruits who entered opportunities to build mature, training during adolescence supportive social networks in when personality and identity are civilian life, meaning younger at key stages of development. It recruits have more limited is sometimes suggested that an support structures to return to adverse childhood background when they leave the forces. – and not military employment – These recruits do not ‘resettle’ in accounts for the psychological, civilian life in the same manner social and economic problems adult recruits do – rather, they are found among young recruits building an independent adult and veterans. Yet the evidence identity and social structure from points clearly in the other scratch. direction.58 Research in the UK and US confirms that an adverse Recruitment advertising background is both common in targeted at adolescents typically children targeted for recruitment emphasises opportunities for and an important independent self-development, training and contributor to their relatively career progression. Experts have poor mental health as military criticised these claims as not personnel (176, 177). However, it only inflated but fundamentally also shows that military culture, unfulfillable (22). Commenting 58. The First Ambush (2017) especially the intensity of basic on the German army’s claim, explores the effects of military training, tends to exacerbate prior ‘We will make you fit for your training and culture, while The Last mental ill-health and behaviour Ambush (2013) explores the effect future in society’ a psychologist problems, and undermine the of traumatic war experiences (63, argued this cannot be the case socioeconomic prospects of 163). Both reports also discuss the as ‘the military functions in a disadvantaged young people in influence of pre-enlistment factors, fundamentally different way from such as a troubled childhood and the long-term (63).  civil society’ (22). Military life is anti-social behaviour. Together, founded on absolute hierarchy, the reports draw on around 250 control, and unquestioning academic studies, as well as official obedience which is atypical of, statistics and veterans’ testimony.

Quantifying the Impact CONCLUSION: THE CASE FOR STRAIGHT EIGHTEEN

A national holiday celebration with French army soldiers and the public, © Directphoto Collection/Alamy ‘[Y]oung people are a vulnerable group, young people go on developing and their development is not yet complete… [T]he main focus should be on protecting those in need of protection. What is important to bear in mind is not the interests of the Bundeswehr [army] but rather the interests of children and young people.’ Dr Tobias Hecker, Department of Psychology, Psychopathology and Clinical Intervention, University of Zurich 2017 (22)

THE HARM OF First, it exploits the health and behaviour problems, CHILD RECRUITMENT underdeveloped capacity of and of poorer general health adolescents to make complex, and socioeconomic outcomes This report has reviewed the consequential decisions in in later life. The report also recruitment of children under the an informed and responsible illustrated some of the reasons age of 18 for military purposes manner. And second, military why a military environment in affluent, democratic states, employment exposes children compromises adolescent subject to the rule of law. All of to multiple hazards, even before development and exposes the states discussed here have, they turn 18 and may be sent to children to disproportionate risk. in principle, committed not to war. On these two points alone, On all these counts, evidence has use child recruits in hostilities, there is a clear legal basis in the pointed to the underdeveloped or to recruit them without their rights recognised by the CRC to maturity of child recruits as a consent, and yet this report has set the threshold for enlistment critical vulnerability. no lower than 18. shown how drawing children into Many of the risks associated with military employment, wherever Specifically, the report has military enlistment cited in this and however it is practised, shown why the risks of military report also affect adult recruits, is pervasively harmful and employment, recruitment yet there is a clear inverse fundamentally detrimental to their practices which obscure these relation between age and risk, best interests. risks, and the developmental such that the youngest recruits Although the voluntary enlistment vulnerabilities characteristic of are the most adversely affected. of 16- and 17-year-olds by state adolescent decision-making, Although rates of maturation armed forces is not prohibited are incompatible with the state’s vary between individuals of the in international law, as currently duty to ensure that all potential same age, often widely, research practised it contravenes the legal recruits fully comprehend the has shown clearly that adults obligations conferred on states consequences of enlistment. It and older adolescents are more by the CRC, OPAC and other summarised evidence from the resilient to risk, and better able treaties. last decade showing that child to make complex decisions, recruits, relative to their civilian than they were as younger Child recruitment is inherently peers and to older recruits, adolescents. detrimental for two main reasons. face a higher risk of mental states46 worldwide still recruit children 151 do not

Furthermore, even where the to inculcate loyalty to the military recruiting children is detrimental risks faced by adult and child and absolute obedience to to their interests and, as recruits are the same or similar, orders. The military environment practised, does not meet the standards of protection is characterised by elevated international legal standards. required by law are not. States rates of alcohol misuse, violent have specific, additional behaviour, and sexual violence THE POSITIVE CASE obligations under international and harassment. They are taught FOR CHANGE (and often national) law towards to summon animal aggression children which they do not have and direct it lethally at an The substantial majority of in relation to adults. All people opponent, and yet in most states states worldwide have a below the age of 18 are legally are not entitled to buy the Call minimum enlistment age in children, entitled to ‘special of Duty videogame or watch The law of at least 18 and almost 61 63 care’. That care includes respect Deer Hunter. all of them, with some notable for their views and wishes, but A justification of child recruitment exceptions, abide by it. The also an appreciation of their based on the best interests of majority do so without recourse specific vulnerabilities, and young people would have to to conscription, including those the need to protect them from present verifiable evidence that whose armed forces are similar exploitation and any course the policy provides benefits in size (as a proportion of the of action which is not in their that adult recruitment or civilian national population) to the states best interests. To the contrary, education cannot, and is free discussed in this report. Evidently, children are morally and legally from undue risk of harm. It armed forces which still enlist entitled to enjoy an environment would have to show that the children do so as a policy choice, conducive to their ‘harmonious impact on children of this policy not a military or demographic development’, characterised has been explicitly assessed, necessity. by ‘happiness, love and and determined to be in their understanding’.62 best interests. This is a legal As shown in this report, military obligation on states, not subject 61. CRC preamble and art 1. employment meets none of these to any exercise of discretion. 62. CRC preamble. requirements. At enlistment, Such justification would have to children are bound by military demonstrate that the recruitment 63. Most editions of the Call of Duty series are rated for adults law, which restricts certain civil of children for military purposes, only (aged 18+) in most states in and political rights, including as practised, does not breach which videogames are regulated the right to leave a job at will. international legal standards, including Australia, Japan, and most Their training is a psychologically particularly those set out in the of Europe. An exception is North coercive process, which makes CRC. Yet the weight of evidence America, where the game may be widespread use of punishments overwhelmingly indicates that bought by 17-year-olds. Years of detailed study of the prescribing adult-only armed and CRC is for states not to enlistment of minors by the British forces elsewhere. recruit children at all. A universal army have shown that raising minimum enlistment age of In the 21st century the boundaries the enlistment age to at least 18 18 – the straight-18 standard – between recruitment, training, would provide marked financial – would also be a welcome deployment, active participation, benefits to the armed forces. accomplishment for humanity in a direct participation, indirect Military training is financially century which has thus far been participation, hostilities, civil costly, so a high rate of attrition marked by conflicts that have unrest, the ‘war on drugs’, among the youngest recruits is caused widespread, grievous the frontline, civilian sites, economically inefficient (207). harm to children and youth.  paramilitary policing, state armed Recruits who are more mature forces and state-allied armed at enlistment have more realistic groups – are so blurred that the expectations and so are less only certain way to implement likely to drop out of service early. their obligations under the OPAC They need fewer safeguarding measures during training and are more physically resilient, so can complete training more quickly than minors. They are RECOMMENDATIONS also more likely than child recruits 1) All states should avoid targeting armed forces recruitment to arrive with a higher standard materials and related matter at children below the age of 18. of education, which obviates 2) All states should raise the minimum age for voluntary enlistment the need for remedial education into the armed forces to at least 18 years. Recruits’ age should be programmes and so further determined by individual birth date, not the year in which the recruit reduces training costs. turns 18. International efforts to eradicate the military exploitation of 3) All states which practise conscription should ensure, through children have made significant amending legislation where necessary, that no person can begin progress since the 1996 Machel military service until after the date of his or her 18th birthday. study. It is easy to forget that the Exceptions to this rule should be eliminated. use of children in hostilities, now 4) All states which allow the armed forces or ministry of defence to an aberration, was once routine. operate, or participate in operating, schools for children below the The recruitment of children by age of 18 should ensure that: state armed forces, once seen as inevitable — even beneficial — is a. Students in such schools are recognised as civilians in law, cannot now exceptional. In the last two be mobilised under any circumstances, and are not subject to decades, at least 43 states have military law. raised their enlistment age to 18 b. Students are not obliged to enlist into the military upon graduation. or above. c. The content of education provided, and the manner in which it The international community has is delivered, is consistent with the requirements of Articles 28 and shown itself to be committed to 29 of the CRC. This includes, inter alia, prohibiting physical and the straight-18 principle in all its other degrading punishments. efforts to address the exploitation of children in armed conflict. 5) All states where the armed forces or ministry of defence No caveats or grey areas are operate cadet forces for children below the age of 18 should accepted. The states highlighted ensure that: in this report have supported, and a. Cadets are recognised as civilians in law, cannot be mobilised continue to support, action in this under any circumstances, and are not subject to military law. regard but their domestic policies undermine their ability to act as b. Cadets are not obliged to enlist in the armed forces. effective advocates for solutions. c. Cadet force regulations expressly prohibit any form of Major military powers which physical or other degrading treatment or punishment of children still routinely recruit and train participating in cadet activities. children lack credibility when

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While the overwhelming majority of states worldwide have accepted the principle that children under the age of 18 should not be used to participate in hostilities, approximately 50 states still recruit children into their armed forces. ‘Why 18 Matters’ challenges this practice, analysing the military recruitment of children through a child rights based approach and drawing on evidence from epidemiological research, official sources and the testimony of former child recruits. ‘Why 18 Matters’ highlights the ways in which military training and the military environment are inherently incompatible with many of the rights enshrined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The report shows that the military recruitment of children causes them material harm and as currently practiced, violates rele- vant international legal standards. In challenging the conceptualisation of child soldiers as an exclusively conflict-related issue, ‘Why 18 Matters’ advocates for a universal minimum enlistment age of 18 years as the only approach to military recruitment which fully protects the best interests of the child. Child Soldiers International was founded in 1998 and works to end the recruitment, use and exploitation of children by armed forces and groups. To achieve our goal, we build community resistance to child recruitment and use, uphold and strengthen crucial , policies and standards, and increase pressure on key actors to ensure better protection for children. Our sincere thanks and appreciation goes to the Design Corps, Pratt Institute students and teachers for this report’s design and typesetting.

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