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Perinatal Transmission of Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Diseases

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Perinatal Transmission of Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Diseases CLINICAL REVIEW Perinatal Transmission of Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Diseases Part I: Syphilis and Gonorrhea James L. Fletcher, Jr, MD, and Ralph C. Gordon, MD Augusta, Georgia, and East Lansing, Michigan Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) have reached epidemic proportions in the United States and have captured the attention of both laypersons and health profes­ sionals. Of special concern is that most STDs can be transmitted vertically to the off­ spring of infected mothers. Since the advent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, other STDs have been at risk of being relatively disregarded. This paper, the first of two parts, reviews issues of prevalence, morbidity, mortality, prevention and treatment of syphilis and gonorrhea as they affect the maternal-fetal dyad. J Fam Pract 1990; 30:448-456. he incidence of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) pneumonia, gastroenteritis, otitis, dermatitis, arid con­ Tand their complications have risen markedly during junctivitis. In addition, the fetus may be infected by he­ recent years. This increase has raised multiple concerns. matogenous transmission, resulting in fetal sepsis, menin­ A major concern is the significant number of young per­ gitis, and encephalitis. Placental and fetal infections have sons who are engaging in early sexual intercourse and been documented or suggested to be associated with experiencing the consequences, including STDs. Signifi­ growth retardation and low birthweight, malformations, cant numbers of teens are less than optimally prepared to spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, prematurity, and congen­ protect themselves against STD. Sexually transmitted in­ ital infectious syndromes.2 Infection may also occur at fections are also gaining attention because of their increas­ parturition. ing incidence among adults, improving laboratory tech­ In the midst of these circumstances, the fetus is a niques for their diagnosis, concern over their reproductive passive victim who cannot communicate symptoms and is and other chronic sequelae, and the mortality associated dependent on others for diagnosis and treatment. The with some STDs.1 consequences of sexually transmitted infections upon the The impact of STDs on pregnancy begins before con­ conception, growth and development, and birth of the ception, continues during the prenatal period, and extends fetus have serious implications and present a major chal­ beyond birth into the puerperium. Virtually all pathologic lenge to those providing health care to mothers and their organisms that are transmitted sexually can be passed to infants. This paper will review syphilis and gonorrhea, the fetus and newborn during the perinatal period, often two of the four bacterial STDs most problematic during with tragic consequences. In utero, the fetus may be pregnancy. affected by means of infected amniotic fluid with resulting chorioamnionitis and such secondary fetal infections as SYPHILIS Submitted, revised, February 20, 1990. Since the introduction in the 1950s of penicillin therapy, From the Department of Family Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, coupled with prenatal screening for syphilis, the incidence Georgia, and the Department of Pediatrics/Human Development, Michigan State of congenital syphilis in the United States had been rela­ University, East Lansing, Michigan. Requests for reprints should be addressed to James L. Fletcher, Jr, MD, Dept of Family Medicine - EG 225, Medical College of tively low. The recent increase in syphilis associated with Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912. drug abuse among women in their childbearing years, © 1990 Appleton & Lange________________________________________ _ 448 THE JOURNAL OF FAMILY PRACTICE, VOL. 30, NO. 4: 448-456,1$ perinatal TRANSMISSION OF STD however, is forcing clinicians to seriously reconsider this verely affected at birth are those infected at or after the congenital infection. 24th week of gestation.10 It is not uncommon to miss the diagnosis of congenital syphilis at birth when the newborn may appear normal. Epidemiology Among 460 cases of congenital syphilis recently reported to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the mean age of The general decline in reported cases of primary and infants was 2.1 months, although, retrospectively, only secondary syphilis in the United States after World War II 12% of these were asymptomatic at birth.4 It is imperative was reversed in the early 1960s,3 and by 1987 there were to document maternal serologic status for syphilis before 14.6 cases per 100,000 population, the highest rate since discharging a newborn from the hospital.6 1950.4-5 Incidence trends are currently greatest among women, blacks, urban dwellers, and in certain geographic Spectrum and Diagnosis of Congenital Syphilis locations. Florida, California, and New York together accounted for 57% of all reported cases in 1987.5 As in adults, congenital syphilis may be classified by An increase in primary and secondary syphilis among stage. The diagnosis should be considered in any neonate women of childbearing years is followed shortly by in­ or stillborn infant who manifests significant hepatospleno- creased morbidity and mortality associated with congen­ megaly, abdominal distention, significant renal dysfunc­ ital syphilis. In the second half of 1987 the rate of congen­ tion consistent with nephrotic syndrome or glomerulone­ ital syphilis in the United States increased by 21% to 10.5 phritis, hydropic appearance, hemolytic anemia, cases per 100,000 live births.5 The alarming rise in inci­ petechiae, a bullous eruption involving the palms and dence seems closely tied to increasing drug abuse (espe­ soles,1011 or necrotizing funisitis (umbilical cord cially of crack cocaine) among mothers of affected infants. inflammation).12 The prognosis of congenital syphilis evi­ The State of New York, where the incidence of congenital dent at birth is much poorer than that manifesting after the syphilis rose to 357 cases and represented over one half of first week of life.13 reported cases in the United States in 1988, has initiated a Early congenital syphilis may feature a flulike syn­ program to screen all its newborns for congenital drome associated with hemorrhagic nasal discharge (snuf­ syphilis.6 fles), a hoarse cry, multinodal lymphadenopathy, pur­ Congenital syphilis may be defined provisionally as pura, hepatosplenomegaly, ascites, mucocutaneous occurring in every child younger than 12 months of age lesions (including mucous patches), and perioral Assuring with one of the following: (1) a reactive nontreponemal (rhagades). Associated skin lesions include maculopapu- serologic test for syphilis confirmed by a reactive trepo­ lar, papular, bullous, and pustular lesions associated with nemal test, (2) a positive dark-field microscopic examina­ paronychia.10 Latent or late congenital syphilis may tion of a nonoral mucous membrane lesion, (3) a positive present to the clinician as a complication of the primary fluorescent antibody examination for Treponema palli­ disease (eg, deafness). dum from a lesion.7 It is difficult to describe the natural history of untreated Syphilis is a prenatal (intrauterine) infection. It may be congenital syphilis, but affected children have both the transmitted at any time during pregnancy and may be stigmata of early lesions (eg, dental problems) and lesions associated with a variable spectrum of outcomes. The resulting from ongoing inflammation. Later clinical find­ stage of maternal syphilis is an important determinant of ings of congenital syphilis include frontal bossing, short­ infectivity. Fetal infection is more likely to occur if the ened maxillae and relative mandibular prominence, saddle mother has primary, secondary, or early latent syphilis, as nose deformity, high palatal arch, Hutchinson’s teeth earlier stages are associated with higher numbers of cir­ (dysmorphic upper central incisors), interstitial keratitis, culating treponemes.8 The risk of fetal transmission is mulberry (polycuspid first lower) molars, eighth nerve estimated to range from 70% to 100% for untreated pri­ deafness, and saber shins and osteochondritis of long mary syphilis to approximately 30% for latent disease bones, which may lead to pseudoparalysis.101114 (when bacteremic relapses may occur).9 It is uncommon Bony involvement, especially of long bones, is the most for women with late syphilis, among whom the number of common manifestation of congenital syphilis. The CDC stillbirths approximates that of the general population, to has reported osteochondritis and periostitis as the most give birth to a child with congenital syphilis.810 Yet in common major signs of congenital syphilis in 460 cases prenatal cases of untreated primary and secondary syph- from a 3-year period; jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, and flis, from 40% to 50% of pregnancies will end in fetal or cutaneous lesions were the most frequent minor signs.411 perinatal death or premature birth.5-7 Spontaneous abor­ A diagnosis of congenital syphilis suggested by the tion is especially likely if the fetus is infected during the baby’s clinical appearance and mother’s epidemiologic first trimester.10 Surviving fetuses most likely to be se­ history and serologic results may be confirmed by dark- THE JOURNAL OF FAMILY PRACTICE, VOL. 30, NO. 4, 1990 449 PERINATAL TRANSMISSION OF STD TABLE 1. INFANTS OF SEROPOSITIVE* MOTHERS WHO TABLE 2. INFANTS OF SEROPOSITIVE MOTHERS WHO SHOULD BE EVALUATED FOR CONGENITAL SYPHILIS SHOULD HAVE CEREBROSPINAL FLUID EXAMINATION Any infant whose mother: Infants
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