NATIONAL IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION IN PAKISTANI MEDIA AFTER 9/11 SHAZIA SAEED INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATION STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, LAHORE, PAKISTAN 2019 NATIONAL IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION IN PAKISTANI MEDIA AFTER 9/11 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN COMMUNICATION STUDIES BY SHAZIA SAEED INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATION STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, LAHORE, PAKISTAN JULY 2019 DECLARATION I, Ms. Shazia Saeed D/O Ahmed Saeed, hereby declare that the matter printed in this thesis is my original work. To the best of my knowledge, this thesis does not contain any material that has been submitted for the award of any other degree in any other university, neither does this thesis contain any material published or written previously by any other person, except in the text for which due references are given. Shazia Saeed i CERTIFICATE It is hereby certified that the thesis entitled “National Identity Construction in Pakistani Media after 9/11” is based on original work carried out by Ms. Shazia Saeed and has not been previously presented for the higher degree. Ms. Shazia Saeed has done her work under my supervision. She has fulfilled all the requirements and is qualified to submit the accompanying thesis according to the prescribed format for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Communication Studies. Dr Bushra Hameedur-Rahman Associate Professor Institute of Communication Studies University of the Punjab ii DEDICATED TO AMMI & ABBU iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS THANK YOU – though not suffice but expresses my earnest indebtedness to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, Who enabled me to achieve yet another milestone in my life. His countless blessings have always lent me a hand to accomplish what I aimed for. To my mentor and supervisor, Dr. Bushra Hameedur-Rahman, I owe many kindnesses. Her guidance, affectionate help, and continuous encouragement helped me to persist in seeing this thesis through to the end. Her love is one of the most precious assets of my life. Thanks a million! I wish to render my grateful thanks and appreciation of kind, courteous, and prompt cooperation extended to me by Dr. Abida Eijaz. She proved to be a blessing for me at many occasions. Thank you for all the intellectual, moral, and logistics support! A special thanks goes out to a teacher and friend Dr. Noshina Saleem, Incharge ICS, who no doubt went out of the way to help me out. Her support makes me more sensible of her kindness. Thanks to Dr. Anjum Sabri, Chairperson DPCC, Dr. Muhammad Iqbal Chawla, Chairperson Dept. of History and Pakistan Study Centre, PU for their kind support. My gratitude extends to Mr. Abbass Rashid Butt and Mr. Farahat Ali for a kind response that helped me in statistical analysis. I am beholden to my colleagues Dr. Nasim Ishaq, Hajrah Syedah, Sahrish Imtiaz, and Hijab Zahra, Namrah Maqbool for all their cooperation. I owe a special thanks to Ms. Sahima Naureen because green tea has a memorable share in writing this thesis. I would like to acknowledge and express appreciation to my research assistants Niba Khalid, Waahiba Abbass, Syeda Fariha Zainab, Naveed Zafar, and my students Dania, Ayesha, Maryam, and Khadeeja Maqbool. iv Without gratifying cooperation of my sincere friend Seemab Far Bukhari, data collection and writing this thesis would not have been possible. Her absolute optimism is a source of power to me. Thanks to Tabina Sirhindi for intellectual input. The issues related to this thesis vexed her more than it rankled me. I cannot forget the moments of despair during the course of this research when she pulled me to the light, motivated me, cursed me for my pessimism, and above all believed in me. Thank you Rabia Noor! Thanks to Mr. and Mrs. Abdul Moin for their prayers! I am thankful to Dr. Zahid Bilal, Dr. Sumera Batool, Dr. Lubna Shaheen, Ms. Haleema Sadia, and Fahad Mehmood for their motivation and guidance. I wish to acknowledge the help of my dear Mrs. Firdous Arshad. Her unconditional love is a source of energy in my life. A big thank you is also due to Razia, and Sadiq. I recognize valuable advices and motivation extended to me from my friends, Ms. Sadaf Irshad, Ms. Noorul Saba, and Ms. Fatima Ashar, it was a beam of light and hope in the darkness! I extend earnest thanks to my sisters Aasma Aqil and Saima Irfan, all my nephews for their support especially to the apple of my eye, Mohsin Ahmad! Finally, when I started doctorate my mother was with me. She always supported me beyond her capacities that I realized after I lost her in the middle of everything. But I am sure she must be happy in the heavens seeing me through to accomplish this goal. This PhD was my father’s dream. I consider it as Abbu’s PhD, not mine. His miraculous support made it possible therefore, it is for you! Thank you! Shazia Saeed v TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration i Certificate ii Dedication iii Acknowledgments iv Table of Contents vi List of Tables xii List of Figures xv Abstract xvi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Rationale 6 1.1.1 Rationale for selecting newspapers 8 1.1.2 Rationale for selecting India, USA, and Afghanistan 9 1.2 Quaid-i-Azam’s vision of Pakistani nation 11 1.2.1 Concept of nation: “We are a nation” 11 1.2.2 Patriotism: Love for Pakistan 11 1.2.3 Hard work 12 1.2.4 Economic system 12 1.2.5 Role of education and students 14 1.2.6 National unity 15 1.2.7 Security 16 1.2.8 Minorities 17 1.2.9 Foreign policy 18 1.2.10 Role of sports 18 1.2.11 Role of Pakistani women 18 1.2.12 Violence 19 1.2.13 Advice to the press 19 Chapter 2: Background 21 2.1 Identity 21 2.2 Nation 21 2.3 Nationalism 22 2.4 National Identity 22 2.5 Pakistani National Identity 24 vi Chapter 3: Literature Review 26 3.1 National identity construction and print media 28 3.2 National identity construction and electronic media 37 3.3 National identity construction in films 39 3.4 Political speeches and national identity construction 42 3.5 Image of Pakistan in international media 43 3.6 Pakistan’s national identity construction in Pakistani media 45 3.6.1 Gender identity construction in Pakistan (media) 46 3.6.2 Sports and Pakistani national identity 48 3.6.3 Curriculum and Pakistani identity construction 50 3.7 National identity construction through “Self-Othering” 51 3.8 Research Questions 53 3.9 Hypotheses 53 Chapter 4: Theoretical Framework 57 4.1 Framing theory 57 4.2 Social identity theory 59 4.2.1 National Identity and self-categorization 60 4.2.2 Imagining 'Us' as the national community 61 Chapter 5: Research Design and Methodology 64 5.1 Quantitative content analysis (News Stories) 64 5.1.1 Universe 64 5.1.2 Sampling 65 5.1.3 Conceptualization of national identity 66 5.1.4 Variable 67 5.1.5 Topics/Frames 67 5.1.6 Operationalization of valence/tone as variable 68 5.1.7 Conceptualization of positive (self) national identity 68 5.1.8 Conceptualization of negative (self) national identity 69 5.1.9 Operationalization of valence/tone of Set-I (Positive Self-representation) 69 5.1.9.1 Politics 69 5.1.9.2 Economy 71 5.1.9.3 Education 72 5.1.9.4 Health 72 vii 5.1.9.5 Judiciary and judicial issues 72 5.1.9.6 Pakistan’s national security and military competence 72 5.1.9.7 Treatment of indigenous minorities 73 5.1.9.8 Culture and arts 73 5.1.9.9 National unity 73 5.1.10 Operationalization of categories Set-II (Positive Self -representation in comparison to negative-other representation) 74 5.1.10.1 Positive self-representation in comparison to India 74 5.1.10.2 Positive self-representation in comparison to US 75 5.1.10.3 Positive self-representation in comparison to Afghanistan 75 5.1.11 Language of newspaper 76 5.1.12 Type of rule in the country 76 5.1.13 Coding and reliability 76 5.1.14 Statistical analysis 77 5.2 Quantitative visual content analysis 77 5.2.1 Topics/Frames for visual content analysis 78 5.2.2.1 Positive valence/tone 78 5.2.2.2 Negative valence/tone 79 5.2.3 Operationalization of positive valence of topics/frames for pictures 80 5.2.3.1 Political development 80 5.2.3.2 Economic stability 80 5.2.3.3 Infrastructural development 80 5.2.3.4 Educational activities and facilities 80 5.2.3.5 Health facilities 80 5.2.3.6 Strong national security system 81 5.2.3.7 Minorities’ rights 81 5.2.3.8 Rich culture and traditions 81 viii 5.2.3.9 Beauty of landscape 81 5.2.3.10 Environmental protection 82 5.2.3.11 Celebrations 82 5.2.3.12 Women empowerment 82 5.2.3.13 Extending international cooperation 82 5.2.3.14 National heroes and achievements 82 5.2.3.15 Pakistan’s soft image 83 5.2.3.16 Pakistani people as patriotic 83 5.2.3.17 Pakistani people as hard working 83 5.2.3.18 Pakistani people as helpful to others 83 5.2.3.19 Pakistani people as sports loving 83 5.2.4 Operationalization of negative valence of frames for pictures 84 5.2.4.1 Protests and sit-in 84 5.2.4.2 Poverty 84 5.2.4.3 Poor infrastructure 84 5.2.4.4 Environmental degradation 84 5.2.4.5 Diseases or poor health facilities 84 5.2.4.6 Insecurity and terrorism 85 5.2.4.7 Injustice 85 5.2.4.8 Minorities’ rights violations 85 5.2.4.9 Ruined landscape 85 5.2.4.10 Pakistani people as victims of offensive acts 85 5.2.4.11 Pakistani people as violators of laws and rules 85 5.3 Semiotic Analysis 86 5.3.1 Anchorage/Caption 86 5.3.2 Theme of the picture 87 5.3.3 Signage/Relay 87 5.3.4 Composition of the picture 88 5.3.5 Modes of signs 88 5.3.6 Level of signification 89 5.4 Banal nationalist symbols 90 5.5 Discourse Analysis 90 5.5.1 Ruth Wodak’s framework of linguistic analysis 91 5.5.2 Van Dijk’s framework of discourse analysis 92 ix Chapter