UNIVERSITY COLLEGE DUBLIN

School of Architecture, Planning & Environmental Policy

Undergraduate Thesis in Landscape Architecture BSc (Hons) - Level 8

Tutor: Dermot Foley, Luke Byrne & Joanne Coughlan GIVING RIGHTS TO THE RIVER TOLKA May 2020 Landscape architects must address the impaired and threatened Irish water channels and bridge the link for a much needed urban ecological framework Lauren Hanney INTRO XL L M S XS

Statement 1 Irelands waterbodies 7 Chosen Watercourse 13 Conditions of River 35 Strategy 1 45 Strategy 2 55

Motivation 2 Polluted waters 8 River & Catchment 14 Farming at Rivers Edge 37 Land Ownership 46 Water System 56

Precedent study 3 Climate change 10 Topography 15 Land Cut Off s 38 Land Size 47 Plan 57

Disposition 5 C.C Impact on rivers 11 Small Stream Networks 16 Lack of Public Accessibility 39 Reclaiming 48 Filtration Detail 59

C.C and Sea Level 12 Land Uses 17 Fish Kill 40 Plan 49 Floodplain Detail 60

Bedrock 21 Flooding 41 Renderings 51 Plan Detail 61

Road Runoff 22 Polluted Stormwater Runoff 42 23 Water Retention Artifi cial Banks 43

Forestry 24

25 Journey along the River OUTRO River Banks 33 THESIS TITILE MOTIVATION

Giving Rights to the River Tolka The River Tolka over the past two centuries has not changed drastically in its course but its health has deteriorated signifi cantly. Once a river polluted with fi sh is now polluted with waste due to urban activity, from fertilizers of agricultural land leaching in, to direct waste pumping into the watercourse. The conditions of the river are not meeting the EU standards, despite being brought to court over the matter where the Irish Water pleaded guilty to off ences under the Water Waste Discharge. The river had a major fi sh kill THESIS STATEMENT in 2018, European Commission gave Ireland repeated warnings and little resolution has been made for these ongoing issues.

Landscape Architects Must Address the Impaired and Threatened Irish Water Channels and Bridge the Link for a Much-Needed Urban Ecological Framework

2 PRECEDENT STUDY KEY LESSONS FOR IRELAND

The Dutch are the world’s go-to water management experts. The newly introduced National Water Plan It is possible for the Dutch methods and systems to be applicable in Ireland. Firstly, by making the public provides the outlines, principles and direction of the national water policy for the 2016-2021 planning aware of the challenges and opportunities, instead of building to keep water out allow water in but manage it period, with an insight towards 2050 goals. The Cabinet is responding to predicted changes in the climate in a way where it has dual functions. in the long term, in order to prevent against fl ooding. The planning period will see logical measures being implemented that tackle the challenges in the short term and leave enough options open for taking further Unprecedented disruption and damage to infrastructure and agriculture following recent fl ooding and steps in the longer term. The Cabinet ties in with the results of the Delta Programme. The approaches increased rainfall in Ireland underlines that a new fi nancial, engineering and management strategy is makes the Netherlands a pioneer and a leading example at a global level. This National Water Plan is the necessary for Ireland’s water management. This should be integral to the general improvement of Ireland’s Cabinet’s next step to achieve a robust and future oriented design of our water system, targeted at eff ective infrastructure. protection against fl oods, at the prevention of pluvial fl ooding and drought, and at obtaining good water quality and a healthy ecosystem as the grounds for welfare and prosperity. Ireland could learn greatly from the Dutch experience in planning and design of eff ective water systems for The Cabinet goal is to adopt a comprehensive approach, by developing nature, shipping, agriculture, their contribution to agriculture, transport and above all defence against fl ooding. energy, housing, recreation, cultural heritage and the economy (including earning potential), as much as possible in conjunction with water tasking. (Government.nl, 2019) As Ireland fl ood magnitudes have been increasing at a rate of about fi ve per cent per decade since the 1960s and being surrounded by a coast, we should note how the Dutch has learned how to protect against fl ooding The aim is that by 2021 government authorities, businesses and citizens are more informed of the and developed a sophisticated system of almost 3,800 kilometres of fl ood defences, including earthen levees opportunities and threats of water in their own immediate surroundings. Everyone will take their own along the main rivers as well as sand dunes, coastal dikes and fi ve major coastal protection works and storm responsibilities in bringing about together a water-robust spatial design, restricting pluvial fl ooding and surge barriers along the coast. Based on studies of future sea level rises and storms associated with climate disasters, and responding effi ciently in extreme situations. (Government.nl, 2019) change, there are plans to raise the dikes by 1-3 metres over the next 100 years so Ireland must not only protect against the current climate conditions but also prepare for what is to come. Sea levels in Holland are predicted to rise more than three feet by the end of the century. This projection motivated the Dutch government, where they formerly used to wall water out at all costs, to reconsider, The second part of the Dutch strategy is a special river fl ood protection programme: ‘Room for the River’ and allow the water in instead. Farmers of Overdiepse Polder voluntarily gave up their own land so that introduced after the near-disasters during the 1993-1995 Rhine-Meuse river fl oods. The Dutch government it could utilised as a spillway for nearby rivers when it fl oods, with the intention to protect cities and towns continues to develop and implement measures to deal with expanding cities, industrial growth and potential downstream. Huge mounds were constructed, so that farmers were able to build brand new farms high eff ects of climate change. And, it is putting aside about 0.5% of GDP annually into a Delta Fund to develop above the fl oodplain, where they were happy to do so. and implement measures to deal with eff ects of climate change and to prepare for more extreme events in future. Ireland must make serious considerations to the importance of the measures that must be taken to Learning to accommodate water has led to innovation, for example, The Sand Engine (Zandmotor), a prevent the latter eff ects. 24-million-ton pile of sand that was dumped off on Holland’s south coast. From here nature was the engine that spread it into a fl ood barrier and later a beach. The Dutch had achieved a fortress of fl ood protection. Environmental awareness is key to the future development of Dublin, having regard challenges faced due Seen today, the Netherlands deems itself protected against a 10,000-year storm. to climate change, coastal erosion, fl ooding, European Directives and designations etc. In addition to the Through experimental facilities, they test proposed structures that will protect against the coast from ocean protection of the designated sites (SPA,SAC, NHA et al) an extensive network of natural and amenity space waves.The Netherlands’ landscape and economy were built on 1,100 years of strategic water engineering. will be essential to provide breathing space for high-density development, provide fl ood alleviation and Canals used for draining, collecting and moving water around were crucial, as 18 percent of the nation sustainable drainage solutions, protect water quality and facilitate wildlife protection and movement corridors. today is now considered water. (Government.nl, 2019)Management of the water in these canals, along with (Ham 2007) Local involvement is key, the Netherlands retains a strong regional system even with local large dikes, sustain the omnipresent system of polders, small units of low-lying land retrieved from the sea taxation. and rivers that exist below the natural water table. There is limited evidence of the original delta from which the Netherlands expanded on and it’s challenging to see the North Sea unless you are standing upon a Dutch NEN policy and the European Natura 2000 network of designated sites complement each other. If high fl ood control structure.But where high dikes aren’t present walling off the North Sea, you will uncover ecological corridors are to be developed in Ireland, the Dutch system could be used as a template for a top expanses of charming protected and restored vegetated dunes, natural infrastructure that off ers protection down Irish policy framework, in which ecological networks are embedded into national policy and also funded for communities, habitat for birds and are appreciated for their contributions to ensuring a high quality, at this level however stronger regional vision will also be needed to plan and implement strategic corridors in reliable water supply. the Dublin city region (Wright, M. 1976).

(Aljazeera.com, 2019) 3 4 DISPOSITION

This thesis is subdivided into fi ve chapters. These chapters are categorized by scale, ranging from XL XL to XS. The chapters provide a sense of scale and serve as a guide gradually approaching the Extra large provides an overview of smallest scales and the fi nal proposals. Irelands river networks, their health and repercussions. The fi rst two chapters including the introduction, XL and L provides an overview of the river networks in Ireland, the chosen river and catchment area analysis. L Large looks at the river Tolka and The next chapters include M, S and XS which its catchment area. It provides identifi es the conditions along the river and an comprehensive analysis of focuses in on two with design concepts and the current land uses and fabric. proposals.

Lastly, the conclusion, discusses and refl ects upon the proposals and the thesis subject as a M whole. Medium identifi es the harmful Disposition inspired by Rem Koolhaas’ publication conditions and impacts along the rivers ‘S,M,L,XL’. course and its current degraded state.

S Small focuses in and explains the condition land cut-off s. This is followed by a concept, a design strategy and a master plan. XS Extra small tackles the condition of lack of public accessibility. Between Clonee and Dunboyne reveals the proposal through visualisations, sections and plans.

5 6 N53.1424°N53.1424°

XL

W7.6921°

Ireland’s river network IRELAND’S POLLUTED WATERS WATERBODIES A river or a sewer

Ireland has abundant surface water resources, with over 70,000 km of river channel, 12,000 lakes, 850 km2 of estuaries and Polluted waters: Raw Sewage from Waterbodies, in particular rivers across Ireland 13,000 km2 of coastal waters. Groundwater is also abundant, 77,000 people is being released into have several ecological and environmental and it provides over 20% of water supplies nationally. (Epa.ie, the environment every day from mainly complexities. The continuous urbanisation 2019) coastal areas around the country, an and industrialisation have resulted in harsh In 2017, the results of a major study by the Environmental Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exploitations of our water resources. This has led Protection Agency (EPA) put the spotlight on Ireland’s polluted report has found. Half of this sewage to many of Irelands water bodies being polluted watercourses. In a demonstration of how river quality has comes from Arklow in Wicklow, Cobh and a degradation of our water qualities health. deteriorated in the past three decades, the EPA says that only in Cork and Kilmore Quay in Wexford, The discharge of waste directly into waterbodies, 21 sites are of “pristine” quality compared to over 500 in the the EPA report on Urban Waste Water from sewage and solids has been an issue for 1980s. “IRELAND FAILS to meet its own targets for improving water quality” according to the study (Irish Times, 2017). Treatment in 2018 published today decades, however, this practice for is not just an found. 36 towns and villages around issue of the past but continuing across our country Commenting on the study, the EPA’s Offi ce of Evidence and the country release raw sewage daily. today. Assessment said that more needs to be done protect Irish According to the EPA, 21 cities and The urbanisation and sprawl across our country waters. “We must do a lot more and work much harder at towns, including Dublin and Cork – had has resulted in increased settlements along the protecting this vital asset.” Clean and well-protected water is a key national asset and supports many important economic waste water treatment plants that didn’t rivers. Often there is very little buff er between activities such as agriculture, manufacturing and tourism the meet mandatory European Union (EU) developments and the rivers. Urban fabric has EPA spokesman said. standards, a reduction from 28 in 2017. an evident negative impact on river quality, they (Dwyer, 2019) are often treated as an open sewer rather that a But healthy rivers also support a vital community of native fl ora beautiful feature to the Irish landscape. and fauna, help prevent fl ooding, soil loss and siltation and provide landscapes that greatly enrich the lives of local people, especially in urban situations. The aim of my thesis is to explore the possibility of restoring degraded watercourses to a healthy network of blue-green infrastructure.

(The Irish Times. 2017) (Hanney, 2020)

7 8 CLIMATE CHANGE & prediction for the region. It is predicted that there The current state of the water quality in The Minister for Housing, Eoghan Murphy will be a decrease in soil moisture storage, this will have a knock-on eff ect for agricultural practices, Ireland is continuing to deteriorate across TD acknowledges the issues “Our WATER RESOURCES as the land will alter its wetting and drying the board. (EPA) The latest water quality wastewater system requires substantial report determines that half of Irish rivers schedules changing the nutrient status as the and sustained investment. Firstly, just soils. Also predicted, a reduction in groundwater are “unsatisfactory”, and our number of Climate change is an issue that aff ects us all and will to bring the systems up to the expected aff ect our future generations, action must be taken recharge this has a signifi cant impact on the once recorded pristine rivers have also standards of a modern service; then also to now. Physical impacts are occurring, and people are groundwater-surface, this alters the dynamics for degraded. The newest records state that provide for population growth and, fi nally, choosing to ignore them, such as extreme weather rivers. During the recharge period it is predicted only 53% of Irish surface waterbodies are to build resilience in the face of climate conditions that are out of the norm for our region. that extreme droughts due to the lack of winter determined to have satisfactory ecological change,” (Epa.ie. 2019). Including the drought in Ireland last summer as well or spring precipitation, where the groundwater health. There is a record low number of 20 as fl ooding and storms (Ophelia), these events will system can’t recover. in Autumn climate change pristine waterbodies in 2019, this fi gure a ruin our cities, landscapes and overfl ow our water will reduce streamfl ow considerably. Also, the seasonality of the streamfl ow is predicted to reduced drastically since 1980 when 500 9% channels capacities if they are not addressed. pristine waterbodies were recorded. increase, particularly in d spring with increased dry 196 Climate change will impact the hydrology and periods for Ireland during summer and autumn. 443 8% High Nitrogen and phosphorus from urban and water resources in Ireland and globally. The The alterations to the low fl ow number of days will 19% Good cause diffi culty for water resource management. agricultural lands wastewater discharge predictions suggest that the change will generate an increased energy leading to an intensifi ed It is likely that fl ooding events will increase, this are determined to have the harshest Moderate 1051 hydrological cycle. There is a delicate and extensive will impact property and fl ood plain development Poor impacts on Irish waterbodies resulting in 656 45% interaction between the climate and land-surface the security of fl ood defences, the water quality 28% the deterioration in recent recordings. One Bad hydrology, alterations to the cycle of precipitation itself along with insurance expenses. Finally, for third of rivers and lakes in Ireland and a and evaporation will have substantial impacts on the general predictions of climate change in Ireland, quarter of estuaries are not to meet the Fig. (Hanney, 2020) rest of the hydrological cycle. Not only the surface is that our waterbodies health and quality will required nutrient-based ecological quality Ecological status of river water elements of the hydrological cycle will be impacted decrease signifi cantly. Direct impacts is are standards. The number of “seriously bodies 2013–2018 (labels show from global warming but also the subsurface from the increase in water temperatures along polluted” river waterbodies has increased to number of water bodies and hydrological processes. in the South-east of Ireland. with the contamination of aquifers from saline percentage of water bodies). intrusion. Indirect impacts from climate change nine from six in the recordings. Statistics (EPA.ie 2019) The eff ects of climate change on water resources on the water’s health in the increased demand on are both diverse and complex. Although there are the restricted resources from human pressures variations depending on location there are general particularly during periods of low fl ow.

SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN WINTER

Rivers 196 1051 656 443 9

Lakes 17 96 72 28 11

Surface water Transitional ecological status M A M J J AS ON D J F 7 23 29 14 6 waters for rivers, lakes, transitional and 55 60 65 55 75 Coastal coastal waters and 55 60 80 75 75 65 50 10 26 8 1 waters groundwater status, 357101212 10 7 5 3 2 2 numbers represent waterbodies Groundwater 474 40 Statistics (EPA.ie 2019) 10 12 15 182019 17 14 10 8 8 8 Fig. (Hanney, 2020) 11 11 11 101112 10 12 12 13 13 10 0 20 40 60 80 100 % of water bodies precipitation mm max temperature High Good Moderate Poor Bad .

. min temperature precipitation days Fig. (Hanney, 2020) Ireland’s average temperatures and 9 10 precipitation- statistics: (EPA.ie 2019) IMPACTS ON RIVERS IMPACTS ON SEA LEVEL

Although summers are becoming drier, it is in soil and fl uvial erosion, an increase in the evident that Irish rivers have reduced extreme volume of suspended solids and alteration of Over 100 scientists from 36 countries have released Levels rose 6-7mm per year which, combined with low fl ows during the summer periods due nutrient loads of rivers. Related to the issues the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere stronger and more frequent storm surges, has caused to the groundwaters contributions. Those of water resource management as a result of in a Changing Climate. The report predicts sea serious fl ooding in the capital. (Independent.ie, 2019) rivers that are less dominant by groundwater climate change on the water quality, comes levels could rise over one metre by the end of the Dublin Bay’s sea level appears to be rising faster than contributions demonstrate an increased the contamination of aquifers, rivers and lakes century if greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise. initially forecast, and has risen by twice the global frequency in the low fl ow periods. Due to the resulting in issues for water supply and the It’s estimated the world is 1.2C hotter than in pre- average in the past 20 years, underlining the urgent predicted extent of climate change it is likely sustainability of freshwater ecosystems. industrial times. Scientists say it’s crucial the rise in need to build resilience to fl ooding, according to Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council. Met Éireann that the areas that currently don’t fl ood often (Sweeney, J. , Albanito, F. , Brereton, A. , temperatures stays under 1.5C - but that the world issued its fi rst ever Status Red warning for snow in would become prone to fl ooding in the future, Caff arra, A., Charlton, R., Donnelly, A., Fealy, is heading for a 3C rise. A worrying report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change showed Dublin during February 2018, which was followed by particularly those that are located near to the R., Fitzgerald, J., Holden, N., Jones, M. and the ocean is absorbing 90% of global warming one of the hottest summers on record during June and confl uence of major rivers. An increase in fl ood Murphy C. 2013), with massive consequences. It said if the damage July. This highlights the need to reduce “the impacts magnitude is prone to lead to higher levels of The diagram presents the eff ects of climate continues at this rate, extreme sea levels that that climate change is having on the environment, the erosion, particularly after prolonged dry spells. change on rivers. There are a series of occurred every 100 years could happen once a year economy and the citizens of Dublin”, the reports point Consequently, an increase in sedimentation interactions with related impacts on a river. A by 2050. And in Ireland, this means weather like the out. (The Irish Times, 2019) and increased suspended loads may change variety of direct impacts from climate change infamous Beast Of The East and Storm Emma that the quality of the rivers water and lead to be an prompt other indirect impacts on a river system, shut the country down last year could become more Map shows parts of Dublin would disappear under issue for aquatic life. Along with the extreme such as alterations in the pollutants chemistry common. (Dunne, 2019) water if earth warms by 2C, including The River Tolka Esuary Special Protection Area and South Dublin fl ow conditions,extremes of precipitation are and both directly and indirectly impacting river Bay Special Area of Conservation. Without human likely to impact water quality due to an increase biology aspects(Tripathi, Chauhan, Kumar 2017). Dublin below sea level: The IPCC report warns that 680 million people living in coastal areas around the interference it is predicted that the River Tolka would Reduced fl ow world are at risk from rising sea levels and storm join its route with the River Liff ey. Increased mixing in rivers of pollutants Increased surges as polar ice, mountain snow and glaciers Decreased microbial activity O supply begin to melt.

Abrupt Decreased pH Almost half the population of Ireland live within 5km Increase of rainfall of the sea and local authorities in Dublin have warned temperature in recent weeks that the sea level in Dublin Bay has Reduced growth changes of submerged risen at twice the global rate in the last 10 years. microfl oral communities Rise in Increased 250 dissolved Land use Runoff organic change 200 carbon

Increased nutrient (mm) 150 release from bottom sediments Other weather Increased mixing Atmospheric 100 induced of nutrients & deposition of pollutants impacts Changes of pullutants 50 dynamics of Hydrophobic Pollutants; metal Water stress in carbon pool sediment 0 aquatic plants; reduced breeding Algal blooms Sea Level Change of fi sh (increased -50 Year Fig. (Hanney, 2020) Nutrient enrichment cynobacterial toxins) 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 The eff ects of climate change on rivers Fig. (Hanney, 2020) 11 12 Statistics: (EPA.ie, 2019) L

River Tolka & Catchment TOLKA RIVER & CATCHMENT SIZE CHOSEN DEGRADED WATER COURSE: TOLKA RIVER & CATCHMENT CATCHMENT RIVER

The River Tolka catchment is the area of land where The River Tolka course is 57km total in length. The water collects when it rains and as it fl ows over the Tolka has many tributaries, the fi rst major one being The River Tolka over the past two centuries has not changed landscape it eventually feeds into the river. It can be the Castle Stream at Dunboyne. There are at least drastically in it’s course but it’s health has deteriorated signifi cantly. surface level or down into the soil or bedrock. fourteen minor infalls, many mistaken with drainage Once a river polluted with fi sh is now polluted with waste due lines. to urban activity occurring in both the rural and settlements course of the river. From fertilisers of agricultural land leaching in, to direct waste pumping into the watercourse. The conditions of the river is not meeting the EU standards despite being brought to court over 14150ha 57km the matter where the Irish Water pleaded guilty to off ences under the Wate Water Discharge. The river had a major fi sh kill in 2018, European Commission gave Ireland repeated warnings over the pumping of raw sewage into the river. Little resolution has been made for the issues.

The Tolka rises east of Dunshaughlin, Co. Meath, and has a course of 57kilometers before entering Dublin Bay between East Wall and Clontarf. The River Tolka has a catchment area of 14,150 hectares, 35 sub catchment areas and runs through three major local authority areas; Meath County Council, Fingal County Council and Dublin City Council. It elevates in Meath and is supplied by a network of smaller tributaries as it runs through Batter-stown, Rathbeggan, Piercetown, Blackbull, Dunboyne, Clonee, Mulhuddart, Blanchardstown, Fingal Bridge, Glasnevin, Drumcondra, NorthStrand and East Wall to access the sea east of the DART depot at Fairview Park. The emerged catchment is also drained by the River Liff ey along with

all the streams joining tidal water between Sea Mount and Sorrento Point, Co. Dublin. MEATH DUBLIN

Source: Dunshaughlin

Mouth: Dublin Bay

13 14 (Hanney, 2020) TOPOGRAPHY SMALL STREAM NETWORK

Topography impacts and contributes to water quality Topography determines the deposition along the The Tolka begins its course in the in rivers. As a result, in the variations of exposure to rivers course, it has the ability to impact the water highlands in Co. Meath where it is merely the elements such as sunlight or thermal pollution from quality issues further. Deposition is common where a stream. Small streams are highly surrounding environ will contribute to the temperature the topography is level, it reduces the velocity in the vulnerable to pollution and other human of rivers. The oxygen content in rivers is strongly river slowing the water down leading to sediments induced disturbances because of their high 60m 50m infl uenced by topography, in areas of steep elevation being deposited. The marine life is impacted by connectivity with adjacent land. 40m 30m 20m change causes rapids also referred to as “white water” topography as the pollution levels alter throughout 10m 1m increases the oxygen content signifi cantly. When a river its course due to the infl iltration of runoff . Diff erent Threats: 100m 200m 300m 400m 500m is manipulated by the topography there is an increase organism are tolerant to varying amounts of Low dilution capacity 60m in erosion along the banks of the river as it turns in pollution, determining the biodiversity network along It makes areas of lowland headwater 50m 40m 30m 21m accordance with the curvature of the land. Runoff water the rivers course. streams extremely vulnerable to both 20m is a large factor of topography that impacts the quality nutrient and sediment inputs from waste 10m of rivers in particular. As catchments are formed to drain In the case of the Tolka catchment area there is a treatment plants, along with agricultural 100m 200m 300m 400m 500m the water from areas of higher elevation this leads to drop of 140m over its course. Starting upstream point and sources of diff use. 50m all the pollution of these areas being drained into the towards the source of the River Tolka, the river is Vulnerability to channel modifi cation 40m 31m 30m 20m river also. Pollution levels will increase for the drainage stream like making it more vulnerable to the harmful Streams of low order are regularly directed 10m of surrounding lands regardless if the runoff is from a impacts occurring in the surrounding environments. into straight ditches and are subject to the 100m 200m 300m 400m 500m highly developed area or agricultural lands. Rural areas As it fl ows downstream the topography impacts direct fi eld runoff drains. Also, as Ireland are often mistaken to not have a negative impact on our the waters quality due to all factors mentioned, has a dense road network with interlinking 60m environmental features, however the runoff of fertilizers temperature, pH levels, Oxygen content, Erosion, with numerous of small streams, leads to 50m 40m 40m and pesticides degrades our rivers. deposition, runoff and pollution. an increase of contaminents along with a 30m 20m (Water Quality in Relation to Topography, 2020) decline in biological connectivity as weirs 10m act as barriers that prevent the movement 100m 200m 300m 400m 500m and migration of species.

100 Vulnerability to environmental change 90 The extreme weather conditions of 70m 60m 51m 90 90 droughts and summer fl ows, exacerbates 50m 40m 120 100 90 90 90 30m 90 the dilution ability in headwater streams. 20m 10m 80 High fl ows can lead to an increase of 80 100m 200m 300m 400m 500m 90 loadings of nutrient infi ltration from 90 80 80 90 terrestrial areas. 80 80 80 80 90m Small Streams represent 77% of the length 100m 90m 70 70 80m of the Irish river network, they provide us 70m 60m 70 70 70 80 with many benefi ts, Fish species used to 50m 40m 70 thrive in the shallow waters upstream of 30m 20m 90 10m 70 60 80 the Tolka river, particularly for trout and 80 60 100m 200m 300m 400m 500m 60 80 salmon. The juveniles of trout can spend 60 70 80 SCALE 1:5000 60 60 70 several years in these streams before 70 70 70 migrating downstream where they become 60 60 60 the catchable fi sh. (The importance of 50 50 40 40 the small stream network in Ireland - 30 30 30 Catchments.ie, 2018) (Hanney, 2020) 20 40 30 20 10 10 10

15 (Hanney, 2020) 16 LAND USES

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION

SCALE 1:75000

500m 17 18 (Hanney, 2020) LAND USES - GENERAL LAND USES BREAKDOWN

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION

When considering how land uses impact the water Surface water contamination is the more obvious quality of our rivers we must acknowledge both complexities contributing to the degraded water groundwater contamination and surface water quality. A variety of land uses within the watershed GREEN URBAN induced by human activity has detrimental impacts contamination. As recharge is uncontaminated it The severity of land use on water on our waters. Pollution sources that impact the is passed through contaminated groundwaters quality is directly linked to human surface water quality can be identifi ed in two before it reaches the river. Commonly disregarded PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION activity, that can be quantifi ed in categories, point and nonpoint. Point sources is is the contamination sources contributing to the terms of both intensity and land use. the discharge deriving from a specifi c location, underground pollution such as fuel tanks and buried For this reason it is imperative that such as sewage treatment plants, industrial septic systems that leak. There are many factors that SETTLEMENTS we measure the degraded water discharge that all eventually make its way into the impact how the contaminants make it way to the river, course as a whole not separated into river. Nonpoint pollution sources are those that including, the chemical nature of the contaminant, the rural andPRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION urban. Rural land use can cannot be as easily identifi ed they are diff used properties of the physical soil and aquifer material, and should be classifi ed as an urban PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION contaminants, such as runoff from roads and the volume of recharge as well as the direction of the activity that is having a negative groundwater movement. fi elds. (Land Use and Water Quality - river, eff ects, 500m impact on our waters from both important, salt, types, system, plants, source, PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION surface level and ground level. eff ect, 2019) For 25 years, land has absorbed TILLAGE LAND agricultural wastes. Up to 10,000 gallonsPRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION of slurry per acre is injected into the ground yet, like any sponge, supersaturation of land 500m by phosphorus has resulted in this element continually leaching into adjoining watercourses in very PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION alarming quantities.

GRAZING LAND NitrogenPRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION leaking to water bodies from agricultural land is a large issue in the south and southeast of the PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION country, with the EPA recommending 500m meaningful nitrogen reduction measures that must be carried out SCALESCALE 1:600001:60000 urgently.

Records show that a lot of farm land is not connected to main sewers

Green urban to be treatedPRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUD but fi nd its way into rivers. Phosphorus pollution due Urban fabric to wastewater discharge has been Hetrogeneous agricultural land identifi ed as a signifi cant problem. 500m Sport/leisure In Ireland there are 7.5 million

cattlePRODUCED BY AN AUT P and 2 million pigs produce 84 Pasture/ agricultural areas millionRODUCED BY AN A gallons of wastes daily. It is Mines, dumps, construction imperative that this waste is dealt Industrial, commercial, transport with accordingly to prevent our rivers becoming open sewers. (Pollution Non-irrigated arable land (Hanney, 2020) SCALE 1:200000 From Farming, 2017) Forrest area

19 20 UTO (Hanney, 2020) E O BEROCK ROAD RUNOFF

In contrast with majority of other EU countries, the bedrock aquifers within the Republic of Ireland have Road runoff pollution in rivers comes from spills of oil, diesel and petrol, and from the wearing of tyres and fi ssure permeability only. Most of the bedrock aquifers are unconfi ned. The majority of the “Regionally braking systems, which are residues that are eventually washed off the roads by rain and directed into Important” aquifers are karstifi ed limestones, with a high proportion of conduit fl ow. waterways. Road runoff pollution is one of the leading sources of damage to waterways.

The sand and gravel aquifers present which underlie roughly 2% of the country are the sole aquifers with A large factor that is a problem with preventing road runoff is the sources of the pollution are under the intergranular permeability. These aquifers are predominantly unconfi ned and are relatively thin, typically oversight of various government agencies and departments, which give greater attention to other areas between 5 - 15m saturated thicknes. such as economic benefi t, rather than the health of our rivers.

Rock weathering is a fundamental step in the fluvial erosion cycle. The end product of bedrock and water Hundreds of pollutants, such as heavy metals, are constantly found in road runoff , and they can kill fi sh interactions in river catchment areas is an assemblage of secondary minerals within soils and sediments. or other aquatic life and cause long-term damage to our rivers, and potentially to human health, as they can infi ltrate the drinking water sources, which must be extensively tested and expensively cleaned up if The relationship of geology and water chemistry in streams is a result of minerals being released by the pollutants are found to be present. weathering of parent bedrock. The input of dissolved chemicals will directly manipulate the pH levels, alkalinity, and ion concentrations and can ultimately change the proportion of vital nutrients available to However, by improving drainage before water treatment is needed, and providing natural barriers and organisms. Limestone bedrock undergoes a parallel incongruent weathering, which leaves a residue of fi lters, a lot of the road runoff pollution can be prevented from washing into the waterways in the fi rst place. decomposed rock. By planting appropriate vegetation near waterways can fi lter out some of the pollution, as well as creating and expanding natural wetlands. These will also provide habitats for wildlife and will help clean air pollution Historically groundwater monitoring within the Republic of Ireland was focused on protecting drinking from road traffi c. water supplies and investigating the eff ects of point source pollution. However, the WFD and the EU Directive on “the Protection of Groundwater Against Pollution and Deterioration” (Groundwater Directive) John Bryden, the head of improving rivers, behind the new research and maps, stated that “Pollution from have transitioned to a more holistic view of water resources, determining links between groundwater and roads is one of the least understood and most complex forms of river pollution. This research can fi nally associated surface water and ecological receptors. As a result, groundwater monitoring networks have help us identify the worst roads and start taking action to deal with this urgent problem.” been developed to improve knowledge of, and the links between, groundwater and the ecological health of associated receptors. (Groundwater :: Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland, 2018) The rising emergence of electric vehicles will help to cut down on some of the worst sources of road runoff , however, the toxins from tyre wear and braking residue will continue to be a problem. More and improved public transport will cut traffi c, and encouraging people to walk and cycle more will also be a key factor. (Road runoff pollution damages London’s rivers, study fi nds, 2016)

Dark limestone & shale

Calcareous shale, limestone conglomerate

Calcareous shale, limestone conglomerate

Nodular & muddy limestone & shale

Conglomerate, shale, limestone

Dark micrite & calcarenite, shale

Massive, unbedded limes mudstones

21 22 (Hanney, 2020) (Hanney, 2020) WATER RETENTION FORESTRY

Research has proven that there are three main space, or by planting native broadleaved species if they Natural Water Retention Measures (NWRM) are the multi-functional measures that attempt impacts of forestry on the water resources in will can survive. Siltation Site disturbing operations like to preserve water resources and address waterrelated complexities by restoration and Ireland. These include acidifi cation, siltation and cultivation, road building and harvesting when combined maintaining ecosystems along with natural features and characteristics of water bodies eutrophication. Water shortages as a result of the with heavy rainfall pose a high risk of silt runoff into utilising natural means and processes. presence of forests have generally not been an waterways. Silt has the impact of smothering streambeds complexity in Ireland as we experience ample rainfall and decreasing the oxygen levels within the water which Typical NWRM includes riparian woodlands, agricultural and upland drainage throughout the year.In regards to acidifi cation, many can greatly aff ect the fi sh and marine life and even alter modifi cations, non-fl oodplain wetlands, instream structures such as large woody debris, of Ireland’s older forests are located on upland and the structure of the physical habitat. and offl ine storage ponds. peatland areas. The soils in these areas are naturally Eutrophication is the process when a body of water It has been determined that NWRM improve water quality and can be eff ective for acidic. Conifers tree species dominate these forests acquires a high concentration of nutrients, particularly alleviating fl ooding in small catchments for frequent fl ooding. NWRM also has many as they are generally adapted to exposed sites and phosphates and nitrates. The impact of eutrophication is benefi ts beyond water quality and fl ood risk reduction, including habitat creation and acid soils. Conifer plantations, however, may increase aiming to promote excessive growth of algae which when enhancement, climate regulation, and the provision of amenity. site acidity through capturing air borne pollutants it dies and decomposes, depletes the water of available and concentrating these through surface waters. oxygen causing the death of other organisms such as Through the actions the NWRM measure in our Flood Risk Management Plans will provide Increasing the acidity of already acid systems can micro-invertebrates and fi sh. Eutrophication is a natural, us with an additional suite of measures to compliment traditional engineering solutions to have adverse aff ects on the aquatic ecosystem and slow-ageing process for a water body, however, human fl ood risk management while also achieving multiple benefi ts in other sectors. the life dependent on it. Liming is delicate and unless activity signifi cantly speeds up the process.Fertilization done carefully and regularly monitored can determine and harvesting are the two main forest operations that (Natural Water Retention Measures – implementing the Flood Risk Management Plans - the ecology of the waters and is diffi cult to sustain in can cause nutrient run-off to water bodies and contribute Catchments.ie, 2018) the long term. Another measure is to reduce the area to their eutrophication unless mitigating measures of conifers within a catchment by creating more open have been implemented. (Forestry and Water Quality - Forestry Focus, 2016)

Additional Broadleaves

Mature Other Broadleaves

Ash Ash Sitka Spruce MXM - Mixed Forest Mature Oak Norway Spruce Land is helping to slow down the overland Other Forest BMO - Mature Other Broadleaves

CMO - Mature Other Conifers

MXM - Mixed Forest Mature

Scots Pine BCH - Beech Broadleaved SYC - Sycamore

fl ow Coniferous BMO - Mature Other Broadleaves MXM - Mixed Water is moving quickly contributing to Forest Mature

Other BMO - Mature Other Forest Broadleaves Mature Other Oak Broadleaves fl ood risk Ash Sitka Spruce Mature Other Low -600 Broadleaves Mature Other Broadleaves BMO - Mature Other Broadleaves Medium Scots Pine BMO - Mature Other Broadleaves High 925 BMO - Mature Other Broadleaves

(Hanney, 2020) 23 24 (Hanney, 20202020)) JOURNEY ALONG THE RIVER TOLKA

RATHBEGGAN

BATTERSTOWN

CURRAGH WEST QUARRYLAND

PIERCETOWN LUSTOWN WOOD- PARK

PACE

BENNETSTOWN

BRACETOWN

LOUGHSALLAGH

DUNBOYNE PORTAN

DAMASTOWN

PARLSLICKTOWN

MULHUDDART CLONEE

LITTLEPACE HUNTS TOWN CORDUFF BLAKESTOWN

PHIBBLES TOWN/ ABBOTS HANSFIELD DUNSINK HARTS TOWN BLANCHARDSTOWN SCRIBBLESTOWN FINGLAS

GLASNEVIN

LEKNOCK

ASHTOWN CABRA DRUMCONDRA

MARINO

FAIRVIEW 25 26 (Hanney, 2020) EAST WALL, RIVER MOUTH

The area where the river meets the sea is a tidal estuary, designated as a Natural This is an area of great historical character; Richmond Road from 1760 and the civil Heritage Area (NHA), a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and Special Protection Area survey of 1649 indicates the Clonliff e estate as a 250 acre farm, however major industrial (SPA); important for feeding and migrating birds. Fairview park and East Point Business development began with the construction in 1873 of the Jones Road Distillery complex with Park are built on reclaimed ground using soil excavated during earlier city centre access from Distillery Road by a cast iron bridge. The Clondliff e Paper Mill (now the site of development. (Npws.ie, 2019) Clonliff e Square apartments) was constructed on the southern bank marking the extent of the tidal reach of the river and the 1889 map shows that the river course was altered to form The construction of the Port Tunnel created noise disturbance that did not enhance the two Mill ponds on the site currently occupied by Richmond Road builders providers. value of the park but construction is now completed; Fairview Park is very large and uses could be distributed more productively, incorporating naturalisation programmes The Richmond Road Action Plan proposes to provide public access to an 8m wide public particularly adjacent to the estuary on the far side of Alfi e Byrne Road facing the tidal walkway along the banks of the river. This walkway is contained within the boundaries of the mudfl ats bird sanctuary. individual development sites; also proposed is a 35-40m wide linear park at Clonliff e College The surrounding area was subject to redevelopment; East Point Business Park is being on the southern bank and three new pedestrian crossing points over the river. extended towards Dublin Port in the Docklands. East Point Village is a major new mixed- use development and entertainment hub located east of the subject area. It is likely that A apartment scheme developed on the south bank of the river at Drumcondra bridge has extensive lands will also become available in the future in Dublin Port and Docks therefore retained a walkway along the riverbank on the opposite side to Richmond Road and this is it is vital that recreation and nature opportunities are maximised to serve future intensifi ed to be welcomed, although there is no through connections possible due to the location of the populations. (Npws.ie, 2019) adjacent residential dwellings with sidewalls up to the edge of the river bank.

There are developments which face the river for example the terraced red bricks that One signifi cant omission is that the Richmond Road Action Plan study area stops short front onto East Wall road near the railway bridge. The 19th century two and a half storey upstream of Drumcondra Bridge and downstream of Luke Kelly Bridge thereby passing up redbricks on Cadogan Road demonstrate how the established urban fabric has totally an opportunity to restore public access to the river from these major nodes and create a turned its back on the river. Recent small infi ll apartment blocks do face the river but are more meaningful greenway along the full course of the river between Drumcondra Road too often contained behind high fl ood defence walls and piecemeal in nature, with no and Ballybough Road. In the absence of such a strategic approach the viability of three new walkway frontage onto the river. Public access to the riverbank remains an issue in the pedestrian bridge crossing is to be questioned if they are only to be utilised for north-south tightly knit inner city. pedestrian movement.

The mid 20th century Poplar Row local authority fl at complex on Richmond Road It is noted that the indicative line of the river walk is broken where residential development comprises long four storey blocks with external deck access and attractive brickwork and backs onto the river. Eff orts should be made to obtain access at two strategically important is designed so that its internal courtyard, refurbished in recent years with playgrounds and stretches; the fi rst just downstream of Drumcondra Bridge, where an old laneway still exists seating, faces the river , however high boundary railings act as a barrier and there is no to the rear of the houses along the river and the second is upstream of Luke Kelly bridge public route between Annesely Bridge and Luke Kelly Bridge. A riverside route could be and a pivotal site to aff ord potential access to the river at the start of the existing riverside provided either through the fl at complex or boardwalks at a lower level suspended from parkway along the northern bank at Richmond Road, currently railed off due to problems of the fl ood walls but above the high-water level. illegal dumping and anti-social behaviour The industrial buildings (furniture warehouse) and petrol station on the northeast bank by Luke Kelly Bridge could be redeveloped to provide public access to the river, although the design would have to address the level change as the river channel is several meters below street level particularly at low tide. The river is tidal in this location and fl ooding has occurred in East Wall (tidal) and Luke Kelly Bridge (from upstream) in recent years. DRUMCONDRA (Npws.ie, 2019)

From Drumcondra Bridge to Dean Swift Bridge, the Tolka fl ows mostly through landscaped RICHMOND ROAD parkland; this area was also subject to extensive fl ooding and fl ood works carried out including landform embankments and the raising of the pedestrian bridge in Griffi th Park, also raising the walls in the vicinity of Drumcondra bridge to prevent the river bypassing the Th e river Tolka is bound by residential development along Richmond Road immediately bridge and fl owing downstream on the roads as occurred in November 2002. downstream of Drumcondra Road, however further east there are extensive underdevelopment industrial and institutional lands either side of the river down to the The 19th century terraced redbrick houses generally either turn their back or side gable to Luke Kelly Bridge junction; including Tolka Park, St Vincents and Holy Cross College. the river, the terraces on Botanic Road face the river by virtue of addressing the roadway. Distillery Road Bridge is located midway between the Luke Kelly Road Bridge (Ballybough These fl ood walls are a visually jarring feature in this location and it could be concluded that Road) and Drumcondra Bridge and the river is tidal up to this point, where there is on the development should never have been allowed so close to the river, when the creation of north bank an old stone watermill, now converted to high end apartments. open space could have attenuated overfl ows.

27 28 While the layout of the original Victorian terraces does not address the river, perhaps the overlook the river from an elevation up the valley slope outside of the fl ood plan and late 20th infi ll development creates an even more unsatisfactory frontage. The estate of provide high quality landscaping in the valley including attenuation ponds, linear walkways terrace houses at College Manor are angled to the river but are visually disconnected due and a new pedestrian bridge over the river. The walkways through to the Holy Faith to the height of the boundary walls. Another missed opportunity is the apartment block convent are, however, barred by gates at the edge of Addison Park but it would be easy to Millmount Villas that has balconies facing onto the river but is built with boundary walls open them up if the convent lands were developed and provide for through routes. right up to the rivers edge, thus creating a barrier to an old section of narrow riverside verge that can still be discerned, naturalising, behind the metal side gates. The steep river valley retains its natural character through Addison Park, however the path through to the linear open space that fronts the Cremore and Violet Hill estates is Millmount Villas also blocks direct access along the river to Griffi th Park, which is instead unsurfaces leading west from the second pedestrian bridge and the link is in need of reached from the south bank via pedestrian bridge off Botanic Avenue at the end of streneghthening here; this could be an objective of any further phases on lands directly Woodville Road. Looking east from the end of the cul-de-sac here, there is an opportunity west of the Addison Park scheme. Future development should be kept well back from to create additional river side frontage on the backlands to the rear of Botanic Avenue, the river and ecological corridors or links should be retained between the cemetery and currently containing some shed structures. This could connect with a reopened section the river, having regard also to the biodiversity value of relatively untended sites such as to the front of Millmount Villas and link the pocket park at Dromcondra Bridge with Griffi th cemeteries and the wild meadow on the southbank that adjoin Prospect Cemetery and Park. care should be taken retain at least some linear elements of the natural character. The Griffi th Park is characterised by a variety of manmade riverbank conditions, with attractive old stone wall bounding Prospect Cemetery is visible on the far side of the bank walkways, two pedestrians bridges, wiers and terraces down to the water. Flood defence and is naturalised with riparian vegetation. works have increased the height of the wall particularly along the south bank where the width of the concrete used to buttress the old walls could have aff orded a walkway on top, however there are palisade barriers erected along the top of this wide wall that bounds TOLKA VALLEY PARK adjoining terraced dwellings erected, which both prevent this and create an ugly aspect. This may refl ect the general security concerns of adjoining landowners in the inner city, who may object to the creation of continuous walkways beside their properties. Tolka Valley Park is an important regional park of about 50 hectares. The river valley is rich in plant and animal life, a haven for biodiversity within the city, and local history. The Moving upstream, on the far side of Mobhi Road (Dean Swift Bridge) the dwellings Park is situated over a former city landfi ll, creating challenges to its management and that back onto the river have large back gardens, which off er potential for riverside design. development. The river is now leaving the tight urban fabric of the inner city and entering a less dense suburban environment from Glasnevin, where development does not Dublin City Council, with fi nancial support from the National Transport Authority, has been encrouach so much onto the river. constructing since 2011 a new regional cycling route along the River Tolka. The route will link Ashtown, Finglas and Glasnevin and is completely off -road. The fi rst phase, from Glasnevin to Finglas, is completed and Phase 2 with completion in 2013. Including a new BOTANIC GARDENS footbridge over the River Tolka, a major park extension, and new areas for angling. The middle reaches of the river concourse run through mid 20th century suburban estates Along this stretch the Tolka channel becomes more naturalised; the river is deeper, at Glasnevin and Finglas that are generally set well back from the river, similarly along narrower and faster fl owing with attractiver riparian vegetation and considerable the outer suburban reaches of fi ngal County Council more recent development is located biodiversity value particularly as it fl ows through the amenity lands such as the Botanic at a distance from the river systems, typically on the far side of a road that bounds a Gardens, Holy Faith Convent and the adjoining naturalised lands to the north of Prospect linear park. The urban morphology is characterised by medium density semi-detached cemetery where the slope of the banks become quite steep. There are two pedestrian dwellings that sometimes face towards the river valley, but often turn the side gable or bridges south of the old Finglas Road. rear garden towards the river leading to poor passive surveillance and enclosure. One of the interesting projects here is the ‘integrated constructed wetlands’ which were created It is important that this naturalised section of the river is protected and future development in 1999 as a novel way of treating the incoming waters of the Finglaswood Stream. This kept well back from the river. There is at the moment poor public access to the river and Stream was polluted by misconnected domestic drains. This project was jointly initiated the existing riverside walkway that leads from Griffi th park along St. Mobhi Drive stops by Dublin City Council Parks and Landscape Services Division, Drainage division and short at Glassnevin Bridge although there is a clear pedestrian desire line and clear views National Parks and Wildlife Service. Wastewater from dishwashers, showers, washing downriver into the Botanic Gardens Rose Garden. machines, kitchen waste, oils, car washings together with surface water runoff from The Holy Faith convent lands are a major resource and strategic development site with roads and houses was fl owing to an artifi cial pond in the Park, by the now culverted established woodlands, naturalised river bank and a network of tree lined walkways Finglaswood Stream, before ultimately fl owing into the nearby Tolka. The pollution from ranging from hedged walkways to informal forest trials and should be protected. Any these surface water sewers resulted in algae and scum, foul odours and an unpleasant redevelopment should be located on the higher elevations on manicured open space near appearance to the pond. Phosphates and Ammonia from household detergents were the convent and adjoining school and the lower steeply sloped reaches near the river also contributing to ‘eutrophication’, a term used to describe the excess application of retained for its amenity and biodiversity value. nutrients, in the Tolka river. Oxygen was low in the river and there was ‘weedy’ plant and algal growth that blocked light and choked streams – thereby worsening the environment A notable and rare example of development designed to address the river is Addison for fi sh, including Salmon (Salmo salar) and Trout (Salmo trutta). The construction of the Park, a recent high demsity development incorporating apartments and duplex which wetland has been a success on many fronts: trapping pollution, reducing bad odours, 29 30 DUNSINK

making the pond more pleasant, and creation of new wetland habitat for local biodiversity. The of Dunsink comprises a high ridge of ground sloping down to the river Tolka. Dunsink The Council had a survey conducted of the wildlife in the wetlands in 2008. (Dublincity.ie, is the last signifi cant tract of 400 hectares of green belt located within the M50 withing 2019) every reach of both city and countryside. It is located outside the Dublin City Council The middle reaches of the river concourse run through mid 20th century suburban estates boundary within Fingal County Council’s jurisdiction. While development in Fingal is set at Glasnevin and Finglas that are generally set well back from the river, similarly along the well back either side of the Tilka Valley Linear Park, most of this (with the exception of outer suburban reaches of fi ngal County Council more recent development is located at Castlecurragh ecology park) is manicured parkland and therefore the 400ha of mainly a distance from the river systems, typically on the far side of a road that bounds a linear untended lands at Dunsink are a vital source pool for the river valley ecosystem. Dunsink park. The urban morphology is characterised by medium density semi-detached dwellings is strategically located where the Tolka runs closest to the countryside to the north and that sometimes face towards the river valley, but often turn the side gable or rear garden the Liff ey Valley to the south with major potential for connectivety between these diff erent towards the river leading to poor passive surveillance and enclosure. ecosystems; for this reason it is included for analysis desoite having no directtrontage This stretch of the river near the bridge at Finglas Road is the most popular fi shing spot onto the Tolka. along the river asit contains relatively healthy stocks of trout in this location and, it is hoped in the future, salmon. The River Tolka is generally well stocked and the members Unfortunately while the existing roadside hedgerow and mature trees do provide some of several angling clubs use it on a daily basis. The largest of these clubs is The Tolka measure of canopy cover along the road link between Ashtown and the Pheonix Park, the Anglers with a membership of 400. This stretch could be developed with riverside access N3 remains a major barrier to connectivety and there are no green corridors through the to allow for informal recreation as well as fi shing. adjacent Pheonix Park Racecourse development that might link the park.

Moving west the river fl ows through Tolka Valley Park (Dublin City Council area), which Dunsink is located on the elevated north slopes withing the catchments of the Tolka Valley contains a pitch and putt course, civic centre and network of pathways across the steep at one of the highest points in Dublin (90mO.D) commanding magnifi cent views across slopes. There are serious issues of security and surveillance in this rather vast and the city, however it is an area of great contrasts and it has remained undeveloped partly windswept park and maintenance costs for mowing and landscaping must be high; there as it contains a former landfi ll site. Dunsink landfi ll was not designed to break down waste is potential to more intensively develop recreational clusters at the centrally located and has begun a remediation phase to decontanimnate the site of methane deposits and access points from Tolka Valley Road and Ballybogan Road and allow more remote other toxic substances which may eff ect the groundwater particularly considering the areas upstream to naturalise, thus reducing long term maintenance costs to off set new proximity of aquifers to the north and the Tolka river catchment. enhancements. Besides the former Dunsink Landfi ll the lands also contain several amenity features; the historic Dunsink Observatory, part of the Tolka Valley and Royal Canal, a public PALLETSTOWN golf course and a number of old houses, reains of estates and gardens. The city’s only observatory is a historic building founded in 1783 by Trinity College that now houses the Moving westwards the character changes as the windswept and steeply sloped Tolka Advanced Studies (DIAS) School of Cosmic Physics. 181 hectares at Abbotstown were Park gives way to the mandering and vegetated river banks along River Road with an recently subject to a variation proposal by Finglas County Council to be rezoned from old stone bridge at Cardiff sbridge and a rural character that contrasts with the suburban rural to high amenity and open space to allow for their development as a National Sports outskirts of Finglas, Palletstown, the area to the south of River Road, is a framework Campus by the National Sports Campus Development Authority (NSCDA) which was Development Area that was earnmarked for high density development and a major established the 1st of January 2007. A hospice is also developed adjoining the Connolly new district centre is currently nearing completion. The scale of development increases Hospital site. The subject lands formerly accommodated the State Laboratory, Marine dramatically at the Cardiff sbridge junction, where the six storey apartments are a highly Institute and the Department of Agriculture and Food Laboratories and Farm. visible feature in a landscape that retains many attractive features

Palletstown is better in terms of its urban design; it is a phased development of high- density apartments adjoining the new urban centre which is being created at Ashtown, designated as a Prime Urban Centre with a new railway station and commercial units. The four-fi ve storey apartments have frontage towards the river on the far side of River Road; a twisting road that is rural in character and bounded by mature hedgerows. Unfortunately, this road is to widened to serve the new development and it remains to be seen whether proposals to replant its boundary hedgerows will protect this valuable habitat.

Ashtown is where the course of the river fl ows nearest to the canal and railway corridors and also to the other major green wedge the Liff ey Valley Park, with the Phoenix Racecourse lands on the far side of the road and rail transport corridors. The proximity of these two river valleys presents opportunities for ecology links but no green corridors were included in the development brief for either the Racecourse or Ashtown. This area is characterised by a meandering river with informal pedestrian tracks containing natural wetlands on a wide fl oodplain and undulating landscape that rises steeply up to Dunsink to the north but there is evidence of illegal dumping and vandalism. The riverbanks are in a natural state and should be protected. 32 RIVER BANKS

As the river Tolka begins its course in Meath the river banks are in their most natural As the river continues its course down stream its banks gradually become more state. Biodiversity communities thrive and habitat formation within the buff er zone of restricted. The man made banks are implemented to protect settlements and adhere the bank. When the river fl ows through a farm land holding it is up to the farmer to for human activities. This has adverse eff ects on the rivers health, course and maintain the rivers banks. In the case of two diff erent land owners on either side of biodiversity. During construction phase has signifi cant harmful impacts on the river, the river each farmer must maintain the bank on their side of the land . excess materials along with the disturbance of habitats reshapes the entire aquatic Farmers have been made aware that eroded banks can mean permanently fl ooded system. Also, once the wall has been enforced toxins from the material leach into fi elds, losing grazing land and reducing eligibility for EU payments, which motivates the water such as tannins from concrete that is unmasked. This all contributes to the many of them to maintain the rivers bank however not all of them adhere to the degraded course of the river. regulations in place causing serious harm.

33 34 (Hanney, 2020) M

Conditions along the River Tolka CONDITIONS ALONG THE RIVER

The conditions along the river that are the main contributors the river Tolkas degraded state. They are ongoing complexities that are reoccurring with an opportunity to prevent.

LAND CUT OFF’S BY RIVER

POLLUTED FARMING ACTIVITY STORMWATER RUN-OFF AT RIVERS EDGE GLASNEVIN

ARTIFICIAL RIVER BANKS

LACK OF PUBLIC ACCESSIBILITY CLONEE DUNBOYNE

FISH KILL SOURCE LITTLEPACE FLOODING DRUMCONDRA BLANCHARDSTOWN (Hanney, 2020) 35 36 FARMING ACTIVITY AT RIVERS EDGE LAND CUT OFF BY RIVER

Two thirds of Ireland’s land is in agricultural use. Certain agricultural practices result in water pollution due to the run-off of fertilisers, slurry, silt, chemicals and pathogens 64600m²646 600m into rivers, streams and bays. This in turn leads to a reduction in water quality and the health of the water environment. The spread of animal slurry due to inclement weather or close proximity to water bodies, the over-application of fertilisers on grasslands, and poor management of farmyard wastes are the main off enders. The pressure that agriculture exerts on the aquatic environment is set to increase in the coming years. The EPA has established that the projected 50% increase in dairy production under Food Harvest 2020 will pose a ‘signifi cant threat’ to water quality. When a river fl ows through a fi eld it separates it into two parts. These small There are legislative gaps where there are no specifi c regulations in place to control fragments are along the entire course of the river. The fragments of land are less certain activities Agricultural pollution must be dealt with as a matter of urgency valuable to farmers as it is more challenging to access with livestock and with if we are to meet the targets of the Water Framework Directive. (Swan Ireland – machinery for maintenance. Also, when farmers are utilizing these fragments of land, Agriculture, 2019) they are likely harming the river and not following the regulations to maintain the rivers banks and health. By allowing the livestock to access these smaller fragments of land poaching occurs. Poaching destroys the habitats and formation on the river’s banks. This has adverse eff ects on the overall biodiversity of the river further downstream.

(Swan Ireland – On the Farm, 2020) (Swan Ireland – On the Farm, 2020)

37 38 LACK OF PUBLIC ACCESSIBILITY FISH KILL POLLUTION SOURCE

There is a long history of society inteacting with rivers. They WATERWAY USERS are an integral part of our local environment where we once depended on for food, shelter and basic survival. However, over time urbanisation has degraded rivers quality and 54% DOMESTIC importance, modern society has become less connected to VISITORS The river Tolka was once known as a popular fi shing destination, however there is ongoing contamination that has led to its waters being unable to support fi sh. There our local environment and people’s perception of rivers has 20% changed. Many people are unaware of the locations of their is not just one contributor to blame for the contamination, from raw sewage, to tyre’s LOCAL INTERNATIONAL local rivers and parks and open spaces are often the only VISITORS discharged directly into the water has led to the major fi sh kills over the years. USE places where urban rivers are visible, this is the case for 26% Dunboyne and Clonee. Irish water has faced trial over the harmful materials polluting the river. It is unfortunately not a singular case, the continuous pollution has killed the entire fi sh community of the river. A healthy environment is known to signifi cantly improve peoples quality of life. By restoring rivers aids high quality environments and allows people to interact with nature. In urban environments like Dunboyne town The most recent fi sh kill crisis in 2017, killed hundreds of fi sh due to a tyre in the and Clonee town this is particularly relevant, as restoring rivers can provide people with much needed sewer. It is estimated that 500 fi sh were killed as a result. The 3km stretch between green space, to off er people a place away from stresses and strains of areas with a higher density of Blanchardstown and Mulhuddart was aff ected directly. This has led to the water people, poor air quality due to vehicle emissions, poor housing and lack of green space. Research has quality being under scrutiny yet again. determined that regular physical activity reduces the risk of developing a range of serious diseases and (Fitzgerald, 2017) improves the quality of life in many aspects. River restoration within public open spaces allows for free, accessible and safe recreation for both children and adults. Society has determined the benefi ts of the environment on mental health for centuries. In recent times there is evidence that contact with nature and living things makes people feel good and positively improves their mental well-being while also contributing to reduce stress.

Rivers can play a important role in the community by promoting social interaction and bonding. Restoring the river between the two town will enable the two separated communities to mix. Voluntary groups cantered on protecting their river corridor will bring the two communities together in positive action to look after their shared local area fostering a community spirit, pride in the local environment and a sense of belonging. (Social benefi ts of river restoration - Healthy rivers provide us with a quality environment, 2014)

DUNBOYNE POPULATION 7272 CLONEE (Th e Irish Times 2017) POPULATION 828

(Hanney, 2020) 39 40 FLOODING POLLUTED STORMWATER RUN-OFF

Urban Flood Risk Management in Ireland has the Tolka suff ered a major fl ood in December 1954 Rivers are dependent on their surrounding lands (known as the watershed) for a consistent supply of historically been the remit of the Local Authorities. which was the largest fl ood on record at the time clean water. Urbanization has fundamentally altered the way that water moves through the landscape. Under the Local Authority Act 1946 the role to that the GDSDS Tolka Study was commissioned. When rainwater can’t soak into the ground, it runs along streets and parking lots and picks up enter and alter land in the incident of fl ood was The Tolka River has fl ooded on 20 occasions, pollutants. their sole responsibility. The Commissioner of see Table 2, with extensive impacts across the Public Works (Offi ce of Public Works) role in catchment area. Prior to this century in December Landfi ll sites have always been with us. The majority of though through time have been very local relation to river management has evolved over 1954 and October 1880 there were two major aff airs for villages and even individual habitations. It was only with the 20th century that sites time but the Arterial Drainage (Amendment) fl ood events. This century has since had three developed into major repositories of industrial, household and mixed source waste. Acts of 1995, 2004 and 2010 changed the role major fl ood events, with very diff erent impacts on forever - from land drainage to fl ood protection. the catchment. The fi rst event was in November Dunsink landfi ll is withing the river Tolkas water shed so as a result the polluted runoff drains directly (Hydrologyireland.ie, 2019) 2000 followed shortly by November 2002 and into the river adding the it degraded health. (Landfi ll Sites: The Known and Unknown. « Clean Rivers When the River Tolka fl ooded repeatedly in the October 2011. (Hydrologyireland.ie, 2019). As Trust, 2017) 1990s and early 2000, a combination of diff erent the 2002 study was underway, a fl ood of major parts of fl ooding legalisation was used to deliver proportions hit the Tolka on 15th November 2002. the project, as no single piece of legalisation could This fl ood resulted in peak river fl ows in Dublin be used. Since the completion of the Catchment City some 10% in excess of those estimated for Flood Risk and Assessment Management Plan 1954. At the same time, the fl ooding conditions in for the Tolka in 2002 there have been a number Dunboyne and Clonee were extraordinarily severe of key changes to the law and policy Historically, with large numbers of properties inundated.

Numbers represent the estimated fl ow TIMELINE AND MAGNITUDE OF FLOODING EVENTS at the outlet of the Tolka 2011 1901 1931 1932 1965 1954 2002 2012 1898 1948 2000 2009 1916 1968 1909 1915 1946 2008 1946 2016 1986 1880 YEAR

71 57 42 54 MINOR MINOR 59 57 97 30 80 m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec

45 37 MINOR MINOR 46 85 49 76 30 60 65 m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec m³/sec

(Buggy and Tobin, 2020)

(Hanney, 2020) 41 42 ARTIFICIAL RIVER BANKS

Artifi cial banks deprive people access to the river. They prevent habitats and ecosystems forming along the rivers edge. 3000m of the Tolka river before entering at Dublin Bay is canal like with settlements STRATEGY 1 either side of the river with little interaction between the two spaces.

The formation of artifi cial banks changes the temperature, chemical composition, dissolved oxygen levels and the physical properties of a river and LANDLAND CUCUTT OFFS are often not suitable to the aquatic plants and animals. The manipulated river UUppercourseppercours of the river bank prevents the formation and enhancement of biodiversity along the river.

As the bank runs so close to the rivers edge there is little room for the river to spread laterally, they only accommodate for the river variations vertically. This is a good short term solution, however, due to alarming rate of sea level rising these walls will only need to get higher. Eventually we will be living below sea level if we do not accommodate for the water.

STRATEGY 2

LACKLACK OF PPUBLIC ACCESSIBILITY BetweenBetween DunboyneD and Clonee

DUBLIN BAY

43 44 (Hanney,(Hanney, 22020)0 S

Land cut-off ’s upstream LAND CUT OFFS LAND OWNERSHIP

Land cut off s are the small fragments of land that stand alone due to the river intersecting a fi eld into two. These fragments of interest are primarily agricultural land that is under private ownerships. The river begins it’s course very small almost stream like making it very vulnerable to the farming activities. By giving small slots of land back to the river attempts to decrease the harsh impacts to its course and health. Creating a series of public open spaces on the fragments of land that have been formed due to the river The eight fragments of land cut off s fall under eight individual private intersecting a fi eld into two. These fragments fall below a threshold in size ownerships. By opening up these fragments to the public it creates a sense of and each fragment is developed based of its individual surroundings. Opening connectivity and community along the river Tolka. People will come together these fragments to the public will eliminate farming activity at the river’s edge as a community to look after and maintain the recreational spaces, such as on one side and will simultaneously resolve other conditions identifi ed along community volunteer cleaning up groups. the river Tolka’s course.

45 46 (Hanney, 2020) (Hanney, 2020) LAND SIZE & LOCATION RECLAIMING THE LAND

The 8 relatively small fragments of land that add up to be a signifi cant size

++++++=+ 64600m² In order to create a web of the land fragments along the river, the fragments must be obtained systematically. By acquiring two fragments a every two years will create the system of public open spaces along the river. Once it has been achieved, it should become easier to gain more fragments as the years go on. The farmers should note the benefi ts it will have to both them and their surrounding environment. Ireland will continue to get fi nes for our polluted water courses, by investing in these fragments of land it will help to avoid more fi nes in the future. All of the fragments of land fall below a threshold in size. Depending on their individual surrounding environs the spaces will either open up to the public or create a wildlife hub by being left fallow by the farmers.

Closer to the source there is less settlements which allows to open the fragments to wildlife and tackle the conditions of the river such as flooding.

Downstream there is evidence of more settlements and communities, opening up these fragments to the public allows locals to have a sense of appreciation for the river. While opening the fragments of the land to the public they will also simultaneously serve to the benefit the rivers health.

(Hanney, 2020)

47 48 (Hanney, 2020) LAND CUT OFFS ALONG RIVER RESOVLING CONDITIONS ALONG THE RIVER

FARMING AT RIVERS FLOODING EDGE CURRENT CONDITION PROPOSAL OF LAND LACKLA OF PUBLIC POLLUTED STORMWATER RUNOFF AACCESSIBILITY

FISH KILL POLUTION ARTIFICIAL RIVER BANKS 8 Area of intensive farming, river is a small stream and vulnerable at this upper stage of its course .

FRESH WATER WETLAND 8 7 Harsh farming at the banks of the river with little evidence of aquatic formation. 7 RIVER BANK RESTORATION

HEADWATERS 6 Area has an increased velocity rate, fl oodplain will prevent fl ooding further downstream.

FLOODPLAIN 6 5 Some existing herbaceous species, potential MARSHLAND to expand and link between the aquatic and 5 terrestrial ecosystems.

4

4 WETLAND WALK Access point from the main road and a local existing community promotes the appreciation and interaction of the river Tolka.

TRANSFER ZONE A linear dock just past the toll allows for drivers to have a safe WATERFRONT BOARDWALK 3 place to pull in and have lunch, and allow for fi shing as it is not 3 too close to the source of the river, it is now established.

2 Area prone to fl ood in high rainfall, plentyful trees and the proposal to increase, can form a retention forrest to reduce fl ooding and manage water run-off . WATER RETENTION FORREST 2 1 MULTIFUNCTIONAL INDUSTRIAL SQUARE Local communities and industrial workers have easy access to this fragment of land creating the link between the public and the river 1 while reducing agricultural harm. DEPOSITIONAL ZONE DEPOSITIONAL 49 50 PUBLIC INTERACTION WETLAND WALK

New entrances are proposed to open this ‘island’ connecting into existing communities, many Complimenting both natural fundamentals, of forest and water which are present along the of which are defi cient in access to nature and the river. A generous pathway will run through upper course of the river. This proposed wetland walk celebrates and show cases the wonderful the centre of the proposal, linking entrances and connecting to a high-Level view of this agricultural abundance of our country. By opening up this ‘island’ to the public, it will shift the enriched landscape. It will be provide and viewing platform, allowing visitors to understand perception of Wetlands within surrounding communities as local people discover what they had their place in this distinctive landscape. Proposing opening this ‘island’ to the public, which previously glimpsed beyond high grass bunds or though palisade fencing. The raised walkway was formerly part of grazing land opposite, will eliminate farming at the river’s edge on one surface is pourus allowing light and rainfall to acess the vegetation below. It’s elevation allows for side and the introduction of a buff er zone between the grazing land and the river will reduce the river to have its seasonal water run off which would allow for fl ooding beneath the walkway. the harmful impact on the rivers health. The open view to the agricultural land will also ensure that the farmers are adhering to the regulations set in place.

51 52 WILDLIFE HUB

Acquiring charm from the trees that grow in the surrounding environment and the natural growth on this little ‘island’ when left fallow, it becomes a nature reserve for large numbers of birds, fl ora and fauna. It creates a ‘green core’ of a naturalised landscape. Existing site habitats will be enhanced and extended to further enrich and diversify, increasing habitats for protected species and attracting a wide variety of new species to the site. This will improve the rivers health as there is no farming activity on one side of the river and it will increase the biodiversity network along the river as it fl ows downstream.

53 54 XS

Lack of public accessibility between Clonee & Dunboyne LACK OF PUBLIC ACCESSIBILITY WATER SYSTEM

The river tolka fl ows past Dunboyne town and Clonee town, however the is very little There is an existing tributary that is composed of the runoff from Dunboyne, it is acknoledgement or interaction with the river. Rivers have many benefi ts for people such as very polluted as it is a product of the urban town, it fl ows east and eventually joins recreational use, education about nature, healthcare and creating an identity. Although the the river Tolka contaminating the already degraded water. two town have their individual identities by sharing a common space in between them will create a stronger community bringing many more benefi ts to the residents of Dunboyne This proposal to link Dunboyne and Clonee to the River Tolka is directed by the and Clonee. existing tributary. Firstly, polluted water runoff is collected from Dunboyne town then it is cleaned as it fl ows through a series of fi ltration ponds before it is then discharged into the river Tolka. During periods of high rainfall the tract of land at In order forfor the public to appreciate and protect the River Tolka thetheyy must see and interact the east of the site acts as a fl oodplain, the tributarty which is now healthier will sit with it. The stratestrategygy was to use the river as a link between DunboyneDunboyne and CloneeClonee while in the fl oodplain before eventually being joined into the river Tolka. ssimultaneouslyimultaneously benefi ttingtting the river and the residents. The route is dictated bbyy both the eexistingxisting tributarytributary and the existingexisting fi eld boundaries. The existingexisting stormwater runoff tributarytributary rrouteoute fromfrom DunboDunboyneyne has transformedtransformed its course into a fi ltration systemsystem beforebefore joiningjoining withwith the river Tolka. This strategystrategy createscreates a necklace of pondsponds followingfollowing the fi eld patterns. The groundground level walkwaywalkway allows people to have close contact with nature. Some areas can onlyonly be used when there is low to moderate rainfall,rainfall, this encouragesencourages the public have an awareness ofof their environmental surroundings.surroundings. The raised walkwaywalkway can be used duringduring periodsperiods ofof heavyheavy rainfallrainfall to allow the lower course ofof the walkwaywalkway to fl ood, this is a positive environmentalenvironmental amenityamenity in the citycity as it preventsprevents fl oodingooding occurringoccurring furtherfurther downstream.

55 56

FILTRATION PONDS FLOODPLAIN

A necklace of ponds-and-mounds follows the fi eld boundaries and stormwater runoff route using simple cut-and-fi ll technique. These ponds create a stormwater fi ltrating and cleansing In times of heavy rainfall this proposed fl oodplain alleviates the risks of fl ooding further buff er before making its way down stream to joining the river Tolka while also stimulating downstream. The fl oodplain which was once grazing land has grooves in its surface, new vegetation growth and forming ecosystems. Stormwater from Dunboyne is collected resulting in water sitting during times of little rainfall. This 3.5 hectare slot of land can fl ood, into a tributary that runs unnoticed through the town, and then released directly into the river which alleviates the risks of fl ooding gurther downstream. The lower level path can only be Tolka. This proposal will fi ltrated and deposite this runoff through the ponds resulting in a used during periods of no or moderate rainfaill and the higher level route is used when the healthier tributary joining the river Tolka. Native wetland grasses and meadows are grown in site is acting as a fl oodplain. This encourages the public to be aware of ther surrounding and the ponds of various depths and the natural evolution process is initiated. know when they can access each route. 15-30 YEARS 0-15 YEARS As the development matures Early stages of the strategic over time vegetation fl oodplain is primarily growth is stimulated due planting that is related to to the fallow farm land and the existing biomass and exposure to the elements, habiats spreading of seed bank and species establishing habitat communities and diverse ecological matrix’s Pathway in between purifying ponds

LET IT FLOOD LET IT GROW

59 60

OUTRO

The main question of this thesis extracted from the statement is:

How can landscape architect address the impaired and threatened water channels?

The work presented seeks to answer the question through a series of visuals and strategies for the riverscape of The Tolka. By choosing the River Tolka, we naturally exclude other water courses in Ireland and elsewhere, which could also benefi t by adapting strategy 1 & 2. That however is outside the capacity of this thesis, but a subject worth further investigating. This thesis can be an example for future investigation of degraded watercourses, and potentially become a design manual for future attempts to give rights back to the rivers. References

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