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FINAL PROJECT REPORT ON

“STUDY OF IN ”

A report Submitted to Ishan Institute of Management & Technology, Greater Noida as a partial fulfillment to full time post graduate diploma in management.

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF Dr. H P Pandey

Submitted to: Submitted by: Dr. D.K. Garg, Rajeev Pandey Chairman, ENR .MMR4044 IIMT, Gr. Noida 15th batch

ISHAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOIDA

1 CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project work done on “Study of Sericulture in India” submitted to Ishan Institute of Management and Technology, Greater Noida by Rajeev Pandey in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of PG Diploma in Management, is a bonafide work carried out by him/her under my supervision and guidance. This project work is the original one and has not been submitted anywhere else for any other degree/diploma. Date : Seal/Stamp of the Guide Name of the guide Dr. H P Pandey Address:

2 Acknowledgement I express my profound sense of gratitude towards my guide, Dr. H P Pandey, Dept. of Botany, ISD college, Allahabad University; for his valuable time and support. In the last but not the least I sincerely thank Dr. D K Garg, chairman, Ishan Institute of Management and Technology; who gave me this opportunity to learn a subject which otherwise was an alien to me. Rajeev Pandey

3 Declaration The final project on “Study of Sericulture in India” under the guidance of Dr. H P Pandey is the original work done by me. This is the property of the Institute & use of this report without prior permission of the Institute will be considered illegal & actionable. Date: Signature:

(Rajeev Pandey) Enr. No. : MMR4044

4 CONTENTS 1. Introduction to Sericulture 7

a. Origin and history of Sericulture 12 b. route 16 c. World output of silk, other natural fibres and man made fibres17 2. Morphology of silk gland silk proteins and their synthesis. 26 3. fibres and Silk 32 a. Introduction to textile fibres – Natural fibres vs man made fibres.34 b. Physical and chemical properties of silk 34 c. uses of silk 35 4. Silk industry in the World 40 5. Silk industry in India 42 Mulberry area, Cocoon production, silk production Number of reeling units 6. Prospects and problems of Sericulture 77 A. Prospects of Sericulture 78 a. Qualities of different types of Textile fibres 80 b. Advantages of silk fibres over other fibres 83 c. International demand for silk 85 B. Constraints in silk production 86 a. Diseases and pests of Silkworm 86 i. Diseases-Protozoon disease, Bacterial diseases, Viral diseases, Fungal diseases 88 ii. Silkworm pests 92 b. Other constraints 92 7. Organisations of Sericulture industry in India 97 a. Government of India 97 b. Central Silk Board 100 c. State Departments of Sericulture 110 8. Mulberry silkworm and its food plants-Mulberry sericulture 112 a. Silkworm races 114 b. Classification of Mulberry silkworm on the basis of its origin and voltinism 116 9. Non-mulberry silkworms and their food plants 119 a. Different of non-mulberry silkworm 121 b. Brief account of : i. Tasar food plants 121 ii. Muga food plants 121 iii. Eri food plants 122

5 c. Types of cocoon and silk produced by them 122 10. Out line of different reeling machineries and reeling process 126 a. History of Reeling Industry -Charka, Cottage basin, Filature basin, Multi end basin, Semiautomatic and Automatic reeling machinery 126 b. Different types of cocoon stifling 128 c. Different types of cocoon cooking 130 d. Principles of reeling 132 e. Reeling process 133 11. Marketing of cocoon and silk 135 a. Marketing set-up in different States 135 b. Market operation 137 c. cocoon and silk 143 i. cocoon grading 143 ii. Silk grading 144 d. Silk Conditioning and Testing 145 12. Employment Generation under rainfed and Irrigated Mulberry 147 a. Direct i. Up to Raw silk 148 ii. Up to Fabric production 148 b. Indirect i. Marketing 153 ii. Materials and Machinery Manufacturing 154 13. Seed organization 156 a. Need for seed organization 158 b. seed cocoon production at different levels- 159 14. Twisting and 163 a. Twisting machinery and processing 164 b. Handloom Weaving ( Different types ) 164 c. Power weaving ( Different types ) 166 d. Printing- , Calendaring and . 167 15. Utilization of by products and Seri wastes 170 16. Role of women in Sericulture – women participation in Mulberry garden and Rearing management – silk reeling – Weaving and Finishing. 177 17. Findings and Conclusion 181

Bibliography 189

1. Introduction to Sericulture

6 The record’s of man’s use of , dates back thousands of years before the birth of Christ. Our knowledge of the early development in textiles is very meagre as they are not evident through proper records. Textiles were first developed as a means for carrying food and as mats in shelter. Only in later stages it is used as . When early people realised they needed more than their own hair and skin to protect them from the weather, they looked around to see what was available. People lived in a cold climate, saw with skins that kept them warm. They hunted these animals for food and used the fur to cover their body. Once they started to hunt they used the skin of animals as clothes. This skin when continuously used becomes harder and made difficult for them to hunt. For this purpose he started to treat the skin to preserve its softness. Later the bones of animals were used as needle and nerves were used as thread to the hides. Ancient people used Grasses, reeds, leaves and stems to cover their body. He also learned to spin the , convert it into and these are interlaced to form a cloth. and were the first of the fiber to be used because they were easier to twist into yarn than . They also used the hair of animals as bed, in due course, this hair tangled with each other and formed as a fabric. This method is only followed while making cloth. After thousands of years of wandering, people learned that they could live in one place with other humans and grow what they needed. This is known as an agrarian society. People learned how to raise certain animals for the meat and the skins. They learned to grow certain plants for food. People no longer had to spend all their time hunting and farming. People learned how to spin bits of plants, reeds, horse hair, and bark into one continuous strand, or yarn. Then they discovered how to take these long pieces of yarn and weave them into fabric, just like they wove the grasses. People began to look around for other they could use to make yarn. The cotton, wool, silk, and flax that they found are still the most common natural fibers today. Other fibers, such as from and angora from rabbits, were discovered, but, even today, these fibers are too scarce and expensive to be widely used. For thousands of years the four natural fibers used by men are flax, wool, silk and cotton. Man made fibers were introduced only at the beginning of the 20th century. From ancient times to the middle of the 18th century, and weaving were-done by hand. Progress in this area culminated in the industrial revolution, which was the start of the factory system and mars production. From Ancient times colours have been used in fabrics. Dyestuff from plants and were used until the synthetic dyes were discovered. PURPOSE OF CLOTHING: Clothing is used to cover the body, to make you feel more attractive, and to communicate with others. People wear clothes for many different reasons. Some of these reasons are physical. You wear clothes for comfort and protection. Others are for psychological and social reasons. Clothes give you self-confidence and express your personality. Clothes also help you identify with other people. All people have basic human needs. Meeting these needs provides satisfaction and enjoyment in life. Clothing helps to meet some of these needs. Knowing something about the role of clothing helps you to understand yourself and others better. Clothing is a complex but fascinating part of everyone’s life. Therefore clothes are worn for: 1. Protection:

7 Our skin is uncovered and exposed. We can be easily affected by the elements-rain, snow, wind, cold, and heat. We can be harmed or injured on the job or while participating in sports. In some cases, we need to protect us with our clothing. Clothing aids to your comfort. It absorbs perspiration, prevents sudden chills, and acts as a buffer between your body and accidental burns, scratches, and rough surfaces. The right garments can insulate your body against extremely hot or extremely cold temperatures. People who live in severely cold climates, such as the Eskimos, keep warm by wearing pants and with fur linings. The fur traps the warm air from their bodies and creates a life-saving insulating layer of warmth. Desert nomads keep the harmful hot sun from dehydrating their bodies by covering up with long flowing and headdresses. Their clothing actually keeps them cooler. 2. Safety: Clothing also serves to protect your skin from harm or injury. Some sports and occupations require protective clothing for safety reasons. Football players wear and protective padding to help prevent injury during rough play. Some people’s work requires them to be in dangerous or hazardous conditions. Clothing can offer protection. Some items are even labeled with the term “safety” to identify them from regular day-to- day clothes and accessories. Fire-fighters wear clothing in hazardous situations. Police officers wear bulletproof vests. Road workers wear florescent orange vests so that drivers can see them easily and prevent accidents. 3. Sanitation: Special clothing and accessories are often worn for sanitation reasons. People who work in factories that produce food and medical products wear sanitary clothing, face masks, and hair covering. This precaution prevents contamination of the products by germs. In operating rooms, doctors and nurses wear special disposable sanitary , gloves, and face masks. 4. Modesty: Modesty refers to what people feel is the proper way for clothing to cover the body. Different groups of people may have different standards of modesty. For example Clothes that a woman might wear to a fancy party would probably be unacceptable at work the next. 5. Identification: Clothing can also identify people as members of a group. Certain types of clothing, colors, and accessories have become representative of certain groups, activities, and occupations. Or by simply dressing alike, people can show that they belong to the same group. Eg. Air Crews, Air hostess, Doctors, Pilots, etc. 6. Uniforms: A is one of the easiest ways to identify group members. Uniforms can provide instant recognition or create a special image for the group. Members of the police force, fire department, and military wear uniforms so that they can be recognized quickly and easily for public safety. Athletic teams wear different colors to identify their team and to tell them apart from their opponents. People who work in service occupations, such as restaurant workers, airline personnel, and hotel staff also wear special uniform. These uniforms help to identify the worker to their customers, as well as create an image for the company.

8 7. Styles and Colors: Some occupations require a unique style of . Judges wear the traditional black . Ministers, priests, and other clergy members may wear special clothing for conducting religious services. The style of the clothing often dates back many centuries to show visually that what they are doing is linked to the past. Many people wear special styles and colors of clothing for special occasions in their lives. Graduates may wear ling robes and mortarboard with tassels. 8. Insignias: Insignias are badges or emblems that show membership in a group. Patches or emblems can be worn on or pockets. A school letter with a sports pin can be worn on a or to indicate participation in athletics. 9. Status: Kings and queens wear crowns to set them apart from the rest of their subjects. Their crowns indicate their status, or position or rank within a group. Clothes and other accessories are used by people to show their level of importance. They may also be used to give the wearer a sense of feeling important. Status symbols are clothes or other items that offer a sense of status for the ordinary person. Usually these items are more expensive or the latest in design. For some people, status symbols can be fur , expensive jewelry, or designer clothes. 10. Decoration: People decorate themselves to enhance their appearance. They wear clothes, jewelry, and cosmetics in hopes of improving their looks and attracting favourable attention. , or decoration, also helps people to express their uniqueness and creativity. Clothing and accessories can be used to improve appearance in different ways. Clothing can also be decorated to make it special and unique.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS: Fibres are the fundamental units used in fabrication of textile yarns and fabrics. It is an individual, fine, hair like substance. Fibers usually are grouped and Twisted together into a continuous stand called yarns. Fibers may be from natural sources or they may be man-made. The details of these fibers are discussed in the following chapters. Sericulture is an agro-based industry. It involves rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk, which is the yarn obtained out of cocoons spun by certain species of insects. The major activities of sericulture comprises of food-plant cultivation to feed the silkworms which spin silk cocoons and reeling the cocoons for unwinding the silk filament for value added benefits such as processing and weaving. Sericulture is both an art and science of raising silkworms for silk production. Silk as a weavable fiber was first discovered by the Chinese empress Xi Ling Shi during 2,640 B.C. and its culture and weaving was a guarded secret for more than 2,500 years by the Chinese. Silk was a profitable trade commodity in . Traders from ancient Persia (now, ) used to bring richly coloured and fine textured from Chinese merchants through hazardous routes interspersed with dangerous mountainous terrains, difficult passes, dry deserts and thick forests. Though, commodities like amber, glass, spices and tea were also traded along with silk which indeed rapidly became one of the principal elements of the Chinese economy and hence, the trade route got the name ‘SILK ROUTE’. Even today, silk reigns supreme as an object of desire and fabric of high . Being a rural based industry, the production and weaving of silk are largely 9 carried out by relatively poor sections of the society and this aspect of sericulture has made it popular and sustainable in countries like China and India. Sericulture means cultivation of silkworms which finally produces SILK. The word silk sounds luxury and class. Till today, no other fabric can match it in lustre and elegance. As long as human desire for silk garments continues, the demand for sericulture activity remains. Silk is the queen of textile and the naturally produced fibre. Sericulture is an ancient industry in India dating back to at least second century B.C. In its long history sericulture has passed through periods of great prosperity as well as decline. Sericulture involves agriculture, art and industry; silkworm rearing is an art in the hands of rural people; reeling of the silk from the cocoons formed by the worms is an industry ofdifferent financial investiments. Scientific sericulture is the meeting place for agriculture and art, art and industry, ancient culture and civilization, the rich and the poor it reflects the interdependence of these. Silk is a way of life in India. Over thousands of years, it has become an inseparable part of Indian culture and tradition. No ritual is complete without silk being used as a wear in some form or the other. Silk is the undisputed queen of textiles over the centuries. Silk provides much needed work in several developing and labor rich countries. Sericulture is a cottage industry par excellence. It is one of the most labor intensive sectors of the Indian economy combining both agriculture and industry, which provides for means of livelihood to a large section of the population i.e. mulberry cultivator, co-operative rearer, silkworm seed producer, farmer-cumrearer, reeler, twister, weaver, hand spinners of , traders etc. It is the only one cash crop in agriculture sector that gives returns within 30 days. This industry provides employment nearly to three five million people in our country. Sericulture is cultivated in , Bengal, , , Jammu & Kashmir, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Orissa etc. Though India is the second largest silk producer in the World after China, it accounts for just 5% of the global silk market, since the bulk of Indian silk thread and silk cloth are consumed domestically. Germany is the largest consumer of Indian silk. The sericulture industry is landbased as silk worm rearing involves over 700,000 farm families and is concentrated in the three Southern states of Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh. (The states of and are also involved in the industry to a certain extent). Silk, the queen of the fabrics still commands passion of consumer right from 2200 BC to till today, nationally and internationally. The export potential of Indian Sericulture Industry is evident from the fact that the annual export is Rs.2879.56 crores during the year 2004-05. The Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India has been acting as a facilitator for planning, development and monitoring of sericulture industry between the States and Central Govt. The subject of Research is the exclusivity of the Central Silk Board and its sub-ordinate Research and Training Institutes. The sericulture industry entails everything from cocoon and raw silk production and business transactions by various processes, such as breeding and maintenance of silkworm races, mulberry breeding and cultivation, silkworm egg production, silkworm rearing and mounting, cocoon drying, silk reeling, raw silk testing, to the production of silk products by manufacturing and weaving, as well as the silk thread and silk industry. The sericulture

10 industry requires much technology and a certain level of investment, and the linkages of a large variety of related businesses. As such, in order to work a sericulture production, organizations and traders who will purchase cocoons produced by sericulture farmers are needed. In other words, before silkworm rearing at sericulture farms can be established, silk reeling companies and brokers to purchase the cocoons are prerequisites. Silk reeling companies must manufacture raw silk of the quality and the price demanded by process manufacturers of the that use raw silk. In turn, in order to build a silk reeling business, these process manufacturers who will purchase the raw silk and produce silk products for domestic and international demands are needed. A well-established relationship of supply and demand from downstream to upstream, from processed products and sales to sericulture farmers, based on both domestic and international consumption needs, and that can cooperate towards operations growth, is major premise for the establishment of sericulture and silk reeling industry. Domestic demand is especially needed. Since cocoons and raw silk must face competition in the international free market, domestic demand is initially important in order to endure the competition. In particular, a unique domestic demand with historical and ethnic characteristics is an important factor for the sericulture industry and its development. Silkworm larvae are fed mulberry leaves, and, after the fourth molt, climb a twig placed near them and spin their silken cocoons. The silk is a continuous-filament fiber consisting of fibroin protein, secreted from two salivary glands in the head of each larva, and a gum called sericin, which cements the two filaments together. The sericin is removed by placing the cocoons in hot water, which frees the silk filaments and readies them for reeling. The immersion in hot water also kills the silkworm pupae. Single filaments are combined to form thread. This thread is drawn under tension through several guides and wound onto reels. The threads may be plied together to form yarn. After drying the raw silk is packed according to quality. Stages of production: The stages of production are as follows: 1. The silk lays eggs. 2. When the eggs hatch, the caterpillars are fed mulberry leaves. 3. When the silkworms are about 25 days old, they are 10,000 times heavier than when they hatched. They are now ready to spin a silk cocoon. 4. The silk is produced in two glands in the silkworm's head and then forced out in liquid form through openings called spinnerets. 5. The silk solidifies when it comes in contact with the air. 6. The silkworm spins approximately 1 mile of filament and completely encloses itself in a cocoon in about two or three days but due to quality restrictions, the amount of usable silk in each cocoon is small. As a result, 5500 silkworms are required to produce 1 kg of silk. 7. The silk is obtained from the undamaged cocoons by brushing the cocoon to find the outside end of the filament. 8. The silk filaments are then wound on a reel. One cocoon contains approximately 1,000 yards of silk filament. The silk at this stage is known as raw silk. One thread consists of up to 48 individual silk filaments. a. Origin and history of Sericulture

11 Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, is the most widely used and intensively studied. According to Confucian texts, the discovery of silk production by B. mori dates to about 2700 BC, although archaeological records point to silk cultivation as early as the Yangshao period (5000 – 10,000 BCE). About the first half of the 1st century AD it had reached ancient Khotan, and by AD 140 the practice had been established in India. Later it was introduced to Europe, the Mediterranean and other Asiatic countries. Sericulture has become one of the most important cottage industries in a number of countries like China, Japan, India, Korea, Brazil, Russia, Italy and France. Today, China and India are the two main producers, together manufacturing more than 60% of the world production each year. Historical evidence shows that silk was discovered in China and that the industry spread from there to other parts of the world. The Chinese has used silk since the 27th century B.C. During the Roman Empire, silk was sold for its weight in gold. The Chinese domesticated silk worms and fed them with mulberry leaves. They unwound the silkworms' cocoons to produce long strands of silk fiber. Silk is one of the oldest fibers known to man. Its discovery as a weave able fiber is credited to the Lady Xi Ling Shi, the 14-year-old bride of the Emperor Huang Ti, the so- called 'Yellow Emperor'. One day in 2640BC, according to Confucius, she was sitting under a mulberry tree, drinking a cup of tea into which a silk cocoon fell from above. She noticed the delicate fibers start to unravel in the hot liquid and has been credited as the first person to 'reel' or unravel a silk cocoon and use the filament to create a yarn for weaving. Whether or not the legend holds true, it is certain that the earliest surviving references to silk production place it in China and that for nearly 3 millennia, the Chinese had a global monopoly on silk production. Sericulture or silk production has a long and colorful history unknown to most people. For centuries the West knew very little about silk and the people who made it. Pliny, the Roman historian, wrote in his Natural History in 70 BC “Silk was obtained by removing the down from the leaves with the help of water…” For more than two thousand years the Chinese kept the secret of silk altogether to themselves. It was the most zealously guarded secret in the history.

Since the 27 th century B.C., the Chinese have produced and used silk fabric. In fact, raising silk worms was one of the many chores of the farm women in China. From China, silk was exported via the Silk Route.

The Chinese never let out the secret of how the silk was produced. However, in later years, Christian monks smuggled the eggs out of the country; hence introducing silk manufacture in other nations as well. ORIGIN OF SILK: Chinese legend gives the title Goddess of Silk to Lady Hsi-Ling- Shih, wife of the mythical Yellow Emperor, who was said to have ruled China in about 3000 BC. She is credited with the introduction of silkworm rearing and the invention of the loom. Half a silkworm cocoon unearthed in 1927 from the loess soil astride the Yellow River in Shanxi Province, in northern China, has been dated between 2600 and 2300 BC. Another example is a group of ribbons, threads and woven fragments, dated about 3000 BC, and found at Qianshanyang in Zhejiang province. More recent

12 archeological finds - a small ivory cup carved with a silkworm design and thought to be between 6000 and 7000 years old, and spinning tools, silk thread and fabric fragments from sites along the lower Yangzi River – reveal the origins of sericulture to be even earlier.

SILKWORM AND THE FAMILY: There are many indigenous varieties of found in a number of different countries. The key to understanding the great mystery and magic of silk, and China's domination of its production and promotion, lies with one species: the blind, flightless moth, Bombyx mori. It lays 500 or more eggs in four to six days and dies soon after. The eggs are like pinpoints – one hundred of them weigh only one gram. From one ounce of eggs come about 30,000 worms which eat a ton of mulberry leaves and produce twelve pounds of raw silk. The original wild ancestor of this cultivated species is believed to be Bombyx mandarina Moore, a silk moth living on the white mulberry tree and unique to China. The silkworm of this particular moth produces a thread whose filament is smoother, finer and rounder than that of other silk moths. Over thousands of years, during which the Chinese practiced sericulture utilizing all the different types of silk moths known to them, Bombyx mori evolved into the specialized silk producer it is today; a moth which has lost its power to , only capable of mating and producing eggs for the next generation of silk producers.

THE SECRET OF SERICULTURE: Producing silk is a lengthy process and demands constant close attention. To produce high quality silk, there are two conditions which need to be fulfilled – preventing the moth from hatching out and perfecting the diet on which the silkworms should feed. Chinese developed secret ways for both.

* The eggs must be kept at 65 degrees F, increasing gradually to 77 degrees at which point they hatch. After the eggs hatch, the baby worms feed day and night every half hour on fresh, hand-picked and chopped mulberry leaves until they are very fat. Also a fixed temperature has to be maintained throughout. Thousands of feeding worms are kept on trays that are stacked one on of another. A roomful of munching worms sounds like heavy rain falling on the roof. The newly hatched silkworm multiplies its weight 10,000 times within a month, changing color and shedding its whitish-gray skin several times.

*The silkworms feed until they have stored up enough energy to enter the cocoon stage. While they are growing they have to be protected from loud noises, drafts, strong smells such as those of fish and meat and even the odor of sweat. When it is time to build their cocoons, the worms produce a jelly-like substance in their silk glands, which hardens when it comes into contact with air. Silkworms spend three or four days spinning a cocoon around themselves until they look like puffy, white balls.

*After eight or nine days in a warm, dry place the cocoons are ready to be unwound. First they are steamed or baked to kill the worms, or . The cocoons are then dipped into hot water to loosen the tightly woven filaments. These filaments are unwound onto a spool. Each cocoon is made up of a filament between 600 and 900 meters long! Between five and eight of these super-fine filaments are twisted together to make one thread.

13 *Finally the silk threads are woven into cloth or used for work. Clothes made from silk are not only beautiful and lightweight, they are also warm in cool weather and cool in hot weather.

Literary sources such as The Book of History, and The Book of Rites give further information about sericulture. Reeling silk and spinning were always considered household duties for women, while weaving and embroidery were carried out in workshops as well as the home. In every silk-producing province the daughters, mothers and grandmothers of every family devoted a large part of the day for six months in a year to the feeding, tending and supervision of silkworms and to the unraveling, spinning, weaving, dyeing and embroidering of silk. By the fifth century BC, at least six Chinese provinces were producing silk. Each spring, the empress herself inaugurated the silk- raising season, for silk production was the work of women all over China. The technique and process of sericulture were guarded secrets and closely controlled by Chinese authorities. Anyone who revealed the secrets or smuggled the silkworm eggs or cocoons outside of China would be punished by death.

SILK DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA: When silk was first discovered, it was reserved exclusively for the use of the ruler. It was permitted only to the emperor, his close relations and the very highest of his dignitaries. Within the palace, the emperor is believed to have worn a robe of white silk; outside, he, his principal wife, and the heir to the throne wore yellow, the color of the earth.

Gradually the various classes of society began wearing of silk, and silk came into more general use. As well as being used for clothing and decoration, silk was quite quickly put to industrial use by the Chinese. This was something which happened in the West only in modern times. Silk, indeed, rapidly became one of the principal elements of the Chinese economy. Silk was used for musical instruments, fishing-lines, bowstrings, bonds of all kinds, and even rag paper, the word's first luxury paper. Eventually even the common people were able to wear garments of silk.

During the Han Dynasty, silk ceased to be a mere industrial material and became an absolute value in itself. Farmers paid their taxes in grain and silk. Silk began to be used for paying civil servants and rewarding subjects for outstanding services. Values were calculated in lengths of silk as they had been calculated in pounds of gold. Before long it was to become a currency used in trade with foreign countries. This use of silk continued during the Tang as well. It is possible that this added importance was the result of a major increase in production. It found its way so thoroughly into the Chinese language that 230 of the 5,000 most common characters of the mandarin "alphabet" have silk as their "key".

A SECRET OUT TO THE WORLD: In spite of their secrecy, however, the Chinese were destined to lose their monopoly on silk production. Sericulture reached Korea around 200 BC, when waves of Chinese immigrants arrived there. Silk reached the West through a number of different channels. Shortly after AD 300, sericulture traveled westward and the cultivation of the silkworm was established in India.

14 It is also said that in AD 440, a prince of Khotan ( today's Hetian)--a kingdom on the rim of Taklamakan desert -- courted and won a Chinese princess. The princess smuggled out silkworm eggs by hiding them in her voluminous hairpiece. This was scant solace to the silk-hungry people of the West, for Khotan kept the secret too. Why share it with the westerners and kill a good market?

Then around AD 550, two Nestorian monks appeared at the Byzantine Emperor Justinian's court with silkworm eggs hid in their hollow staves. Under their supervision the eggs hatched into worms, and the worms spun cocoons. Byzantium was in the silk business at last. The Byzantine church and state created imperial workshops, monopolizing production and keeping the secret to themselves. This allowed a silk industry to be established in the Middle East, undercutting the market for ordinary-grade Chinese silk. However high-quality silk textiles, woven in China especially for the Middle Eastern market, continued to bring high prices in the West, and trade along the therefore continued as before. By the sixth century the Persians, too, had mastered the art of silk weaving, developing their own rich patterns and techniques. It was only in the 13th century—the time of the Second Crusades—that Italy began silk production with the introduction of 2000 skilled silk weavers from Constantinople. Eventually silk production became widespread in Europe.

SILK AND ITS TRADE: Silk became a precious commodity highly sought by other countries at a very early time, and it is believed that the silk trade was actually started before the Silk Road was officially opened in the second century BC. An Egyptian female mummy with silk has been discovered in the village of Deir el Medina near Thebes and the Valley of the Kings, dated 1070 BC, which is probably the earliest evidence of the silk trade. During the second century BC, the Chinese emperor, Han Wu Di's ambassadors traveled as far west as Persia and Mesopotamia, bearing gifts including silks. A Han embassy reached in AD 97, and important finds of Han silks have been made along the Silk Road. One of the most dramatic finds of Tang silks along the Silk Road was made in 1907 by Aurel Stein. Some time around 1015, Buddhist monks, possibly alarmed by the threat of invasion by a Tibetan people, the Tanguts, sealed more than ten thousand manuscripts and silk paintings, silk banners, and textiles into a room at the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas near Dunhuang, a station on the Silk Road in north- west Gansu.

From about the fourth century BC, the Greeks and Romans began talking of Seres, the Kingdom of Silk. Some historians believe the first Romans to set eyes upon the fabulous fabric were the legions of Marcus Licinius Crassus, Governor of . At the fateful battle of Carrhae near the Euphrates River in 53 BC, the soldiers were so startled by the bright silken banners of the Parthian troops that they fled in panic. Within decades Chinese silks became widely worn by the rich and noble families of Rome. The Roman Emperor Heliogabalus (AD 218 - 222) wore nothing but silk. By 380 AD, Marcellinus Ammianus reported, "The use of silk which was once confined to the nobility has now spread to all classes without distinction, even to the lowest." The craving of silk continued to increase over the centuries. The price of silk was very hight in Rome. The best Chinese bark ( a particular kind of silk) cost as much as 300 denarii (a Roman

15 soldier's salary for an entire year!). Many sources quote that Roman citizens' demand for imported silks was so great as to be damaging to the Roman economy.

Silk was even beginning to have a civilizing effect on the barbarians. In 408 AD when Alaric, a Goth, besieged Rome, his price for sparing the city included 5000 pounds of gold, 3000 pounds of pepper, 30,000 pounds of silver and 4000 tunics of silk.

SILK TODAY: World silk production has approximately doubled during the last 30 years in spite of man-made fibers replacing silk for some uses. China and Japan during this period have been the two main producers, together manufacturing more than 50% of the world production each year. During the late 1970's China, the country that first developed sericulture thousands years ago dramatically increased its silk production and has again become the world's leading producer of silk.

Silk in Ancient Rome (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) This is the article Serica in William Smith's Dictionary of Greek & Roman Antiquities. The Roman to prohibite the use of silk garments to men.

b. Silk Route

The Chinese kept the secret of the beautiful and value added material that, they were producing from the rest of the world for more than 30 centuries. Travelers were searched thoroughly at border crossings and anyone caught trying to smuggle eggs, cocoons or silkworms out of the country were summarily executed. Demand for this exotic fabric eventually created the lucrative trade route now known as the 'Silk Road,'. of which mention is made as early as 300BC in the days of the Han Dynasty, taking silk westward and bringing gold, silver and to the East. Silk was exported along the Silk Road (the ancient trade route linking China and the Roman Empire). This trade brought China a great wealth, but the Chinese did not give away the secret on how silk was produced. The Chinese could not keep their monopoly forever. The industry is said to have spread to Tibet when a Chinese princess, carrying silkworm eggs and mulberry tree seeds in her headdress, married the king of Khotan in Tibet. From Tibet the industry spread slowly to India and Persia. According to Western historians, mulberry-tree cultivation spread to India through Tibet during 140 BC and cultivation of mulberry trees, rearing of silkworms began in the areas flanking the Brahmaputra and Ganges rivers. According to some Indian scholars silkworms (Bombyx mori) were first domesticated in the foothills of the Himalayas. Evidences in ancient literature reveals that certain kind of wild silks were cultivated in India from time immemorial. When British came to India, the flourishing silk trade exploited and developed silk centres in many parts of the country. The Company exported large quantities of silk produced in West Bengal to England. The Company’s monopoly was abolished in 1836 and the entire trade turned over to private enterprise, due to improper organized system the silk industry in West Bengal declined. By the time other silk producing states in the country viz., Jammu & Kashmir, Mysore have developed the industry.

16 c. World output of silk, other natural fibres and man made fibres

The previous year data shows that the world silk production in the year 2010 was 1,26,995 tonnes. Out of which India contributed 15.5% of the total silk production in the world which is 19,690 tonnes. Trend shows that the silk production in India during the previous years has faced ups and downs. In the year 2007 the silk production in India increased from the previous year production but the very next year it declined. In the later years there was increase in silk production yet this decline in production could no be compensated for two consecutive years. After two years it was the year 2010 which led to a steep climb in Indian silk production and it reached the unparalleled heights. Other natural fibres and man made fibres: Fiber (also spelled fibre) is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues together. Human uses for fibers are diverse. They can be spun into filaments, string or , used as a component of composite materials, or matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest engineering materials are generally made as fibers, for example carbon fiber and Ultra- high-molecular-weight . Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural fibers, but for clothing natural fibers can give some benefits, such as comfort, over their man-made counterparts. Natural textile fibers – cotton, wool and silk – dominated the world textile market until mid-century. The beginning of cellulose and synthetic fibers and their sudden spurt changed the textile fiber consumption pattern overnight. The post-war years’ review by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) points out 52 per cent jump in the world consumption of fibers during 1948-58 due to rise in population and better living standards. During this post-war decade though the usage of natural fibers rose substantially; cotton by 53 per cent, wool by 70 per cent and silk over 100 per cent, the newly emerged manmade over took all targets and its consumption shot up by 2,000 per cent. Even the beginning years of the 21st Century has not changed the rising trend of manmade. Though natural fibers have lost their share in global textile fiber consumption, these fibers have successfully withstood severe competition from manmade and by the beginning of the 21st century; their production and consumption are slowly rising. The ecology conscious people in Europe and USA are seeking natural textiles; cotton, wool and silk. Manmade blended with cotton, wool or silk have gained wide acceptance in the world market. The blends provide comfort of natural fibers with properties of wash and wear and durability of manmade. This trend has given boost to production of cotton, silk and cellulose fibers dominated by versatile modified . Natural fibers include those produced by plants, animals, and geological processes. They are biodegradable over time. They can be classified according to their origin: • Vegetable fibers are generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin: examples include cotton, , , flax, , and . Plant fibers are

17 employed in the manufacture of paper and textile (cloth), and dietary fiber is an important component of human nutrition. • Wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms include groundwood, thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps. Kraft and sulfite, also called sulphite, refer to the type of pulping process used to remove the lignin bonding the original wood structure, thus freeing the fibers for use in paper and engineered wood products such as fiberboard. • Animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are , sinew, , wool and hair such as cashmere, and angora, fur such as sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox, beaver, etc. Mineral fibers comprise asbestos. Asbestos is the only naturally occurring long mineral fiber. Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite, attapulgite and halloysite. Natural Textiles – Cotton: Cotton has been hailed as ‘King’ of textile fibers and despite manmade fibers rising over cotton production through engineered chemical process, cotton continues to command royal respect and is much sought after among consumers of textiles the world over. Cotton has a long history dating to 3,000 B.C. with India claiming credit for origin of cotton. The Greek historical Herodotus (484 B.C.) made the first historical mention of cotton. He wrote after his trip to India, “There are trees in which fleece grew... and natives made cloth”. The ancient globetrotters, Marco Polo, Vasco-de- Gama and Columbus too mentioned about weaving and spinning of cotton and sheer silk in China and India. In the following centuries cotton spread to east and west. It seems Chinese developed spinning wheel and despite their efforts of keeping it secret, cotton spinning spread to Japan and elsewhere. Arabs took cotton craft to Spain and from there cotton cultivation and spinning became popular all over Europe. In America, Virginia claims credit for first cultivation of cotton in USA in 1607. Cotton, one of the world’s leading agricultural crops, provides textile fibers for a wide range of uses from clothing through home furnishings to fabrics for industrial uses. Cotton is most comfortable to wear, quite durable, resistant to abrasion, washable and relatively inexpensive. Non-woven cotton made by bonding of fibers together is extensively used for disposable products like towels, tea bags, tablecloths, bandages and disposable hospital sheets. Modern textile finishes have made cotton crease resistant, stain resistant and shrink resistant. Cotton is also ideal for blending with manmade and other natural textile fibers. World cotton production almost doubled within three decades from 1930 to 1960s but since then the growth rate staggered with manmade’ production making strides since 1970s. According to International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC) the present production of cotton is 19,800,000 m. MT (2001), with China bagging lion’s share of 4, 000, 000 m. MT, USA 3, 750, 000 MT, India 2, 280, 000 m. MT followed by Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Turkey and others. The main consumers are China – 4, 700, 000 m. MT, India – 2, 850, 000 m. MT and USA 2, 460, 000 m. MT. The total global consumption which exceed production is estimated around 19, 700, 000 m. MT during end of 1990s. Wool and Worsted Fibers: Man discovered wool even earlier than cotton. Man hunted the sheep both for food and clothing in the Stone Age, some 1, 75,000 years ago. Both sheep and wool seem to have been introduced by Central Asia to Europe. The finest, breed, the Phoenicians took Marino into Spain long before the Christian era. The finer qualities of wool from Marino are at present found in warm and dry regions of Australia, South

18 and Argentina. The other breed of sheep wool, mostly found in Asia is long wool type suitable for carpets and mixed wool fabrics. Wool yarns are classified as woollen or worsted types according to spinning method employed. Woolen yarns are from short fibers loosely spun with little twist; worsted yarns are smooth with higher twist and make closely woven fabrics. Like cotton, wool production rose mostly during the 20th century reaching record production of 1,590,000MT raw wool by 1970. But during 1970-90 wool production was stagnant till 1993. The production declined over 3 per cent from 1,657,000 m. MT in 1993 to 1,429,000 m. MT in 1997. Wool and worsted yarn are extensively used for clothing, blankets, carpets and durries. The main fine quality wool producing countries are Australia, Russia, New Zealand, Argentina and . India, Pakistan, China, Middle East and North Africa are suppliers of wool suitable for carpets and furnishings. Leading consuming countries are European Union, United States, Japan and Russia, though the woolen clothes are also in demand in other countries in temperate regions. Synthetic or man-made fibers: Era of Manmade Fibers Manmade fibers are the result of man’s urge to probe deep into secrets of nature and make a small wonder by him. The first man to visualize the possibility of manmade fiber by imitating the silkworm’s spinning process was an English scientist, Robert Hooke, who in 1664 put his imagination in a book called ‘Micrographia’. The next man to carry forward Hooker’s dream was a French scientist who in 1734 predicted that manmade fibers would be made from gums and resins. A century elapsed, nothing happened. Again in 1845 an weaver named Louis Schwabe and the Swiss chemist, C.F.Schonbein made news with the former fitting a machine with a nozzle which forced out artificial fibers from a liquid and the latter discovering nitrocellulose, a preparatory step towards rayon manufacture. It was however, let to the genius of Count Hilarire de Chardonnet who produced first rayon from pulp made of mulberry barks during middle of the nineteenth century. He is known as ‘Father of Rayon’. The successful launching of rayon in Europe and America gave necessary impetus to the chemists and fiber technologists the world over and began a feverish research activity to discover new manmade fibers. A major triumph of man’s efforts came during the 1930s when ‘’, a true was developed by a sheer accident in the laboratory of a well-known American firm, E.I. Due Pont de Nemours. The firm had started studies on polymerization: “how and why certain small molecules unite to form giant molecules such as those found in rubber, cotton or silk”. One of the chemists after experimentation was trying to remove polymer from a vessel and he found to his surprise that a fiber could be drawn from that sticky tissue. Some more research undertaken to form nylon, first called ‘Polymer 66’, and was placed in the market in 1938 as bristles in tooth brushes. Year later nylon hit the textile fashion and within a year edged off silk from the hosiery market and gradually nylon became a household word the world over. The post-war period brought out a host of several other true synthetic fibers, which can broadly be put under three groups – , acrylic and polyvinyl groups. The basic method of manufacture of manmade fibers in its crude form is the imitation of the silkworm’s spinning system. There are three basic techniques of producing manmade fibers, though all of them in a simple way forced a chemical solution known as polymer through a spinneret, a nozzle with tiny holes. A polymer is the union of simple molecules or monomers into a giant molecule (macro-molecule). The process is called

19 polymerization. Thus all fibers including natural ones are composed of molecules, held together within a macro-molecule by the manmade fibers, and represent man’s attempt to arrange molecules in the same way as nature arranges them and later converting them into fibers by taking a clue from the silkworm, the master spinner. The manmade fibers are broadly classified into four groups: (1) cellulose fibers, (2) synthetic fibers, (3) protein-base fibers, and (4) inorganic fibers. The cellulose fibers include: (a) viscose rayon, (b) cuprammonium rayon, and (c) acetate. The synthetic fibers cover , polyester and other true synthetic fibers. A host of new manmade fibers have burst upon the world textile scene in recent years. Fiber manufacturers and textile laboratories are emerging with newer fiber concepts to meet wide range of specific end-uses. Modern research and development work on manmade fibers is the key to rising success and growing versatility of manmade. In fact, the manmade fibers have given rise to almost a new textile technology by revolutionalising almost every phase of textile production from fiber-spinning through weaving and wet- processing to marketing and after-sales service. There are several new manmade fibers, which have come out of experimentation recently claiming a measure of commercial success. New concepts have emerged both among rayon and synthetic fiber ranges. The international trade in manmade fibers is divided into three phases: the first phase covers the period from 1890 when rayon was first introduced to the world to early 1920s; the second phase spreads through 1920s through end of 1930s – the period marked with active commercialization of rayon and the birth of true synthetic nylon in 1939. There was a complete dislocation for about a decade from 1940 to 1949 with the Second World War destroying heavily the fiber-producing capacity of Japan and Germany. The third phase covers the post-war period from 1950 to the beginning of 21st century – the period of phoenix-like resurgence of manmade fibers and their phenomenal rise to the present world status. Until 1920s the traditional practices of international textile trade were based on cotton, wool and silk with cotton playing the premier role seconded by wool. The cotton production accounted over 85 per cent and wool 15 per cent of the total global output. During the second phase this conventional ratio changed. The process began in 1922 when rayon (92m.kg.) accounted for one per cent of the total output; rayon’s share rose to two per cent by 1927, seven by 1935 and 12 per cent by 1940 – a year when nylon was added to rayon. During the Second World War the combined output of rayon and nylon ranged between 12 and 15 per cent of the world production of textile fibers. Its output was less than 1,200 m Kg a year. It was during the third phase – the post-war years – which the manmade fibers blossomed into versatile fibers. While rayon remained somewhat stagnant, synthetic fibers diversified. Nylon introduced in 1939-40, shot to world popularity; and a host of other synthetic fibers, including polyester and acrylic hit the market. Multifibers, and Blends: The manmade fibers have opened up an era of multifibers and ushered in a new textile philosophy of co-existence among fibers. The tremendous rise of manmade, particularly of non-cellulose fibers during the past fifty years has completely revolutionized the traditional formulae, which hitherto governed the world trade in fibers and fabrics. The manmade fibers account for over 52 per cent of the total world output of major textile fibers and surpass the natural ones in both performance and economic values. But no more manmade make a bid to compete with natural fibers;

20 on the contrary, through a new concept of blends the manmade seek a harmonious development of all fibers to meet the rising demand of fibers for clothing and industrial uses. In fact, the time has arrived when manmade fibers are no more grouped separately from the natural ones. All are just fibers – each playing its own role in meeting the world demand. The modern manmade fibers are blends – two or more different fibers blended before they are spun. There is a difference between the intimate blending of two or more fibers before they are spun into yarn and mixed yarn, in which yarns spun from distinct fibers are combined by weaving into a single fabric. The most popular manmade are cotton- rayon, nylon-wool, nylon-cotton, polyester-cotton, polyester-wool and acrylic-wool. Then there are solution-dyed or spun-dyed fibers, which are dyed before spinning. Such colored fibers show remarkable resistance to fading when exposed to sunlight or constant wear and washing. A host of new manmade fibers with versatile properties are entering into the global textile market each year. In recent years microfibers with polyester blends have entered the commercial fibers with ‘silk look’, but despite all efforts to endow silk like look and silky touch, manmade have yet to go a long way to meet the environment friendly and healthy characteristics of natural fibers. Synthetic or man-made fibers generally come from synthetic materials such as petrochemicals. But some types of synthetic fibers are manufactured from natural cellulose, including rayon, modal, and the more recently developed . Cellulose- based fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cupro- ammonium process and modified cellulose such as the cellulose acetates. Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls into two classes: (i) short fibers, also known as discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of fiber length to diameter) between 20 to 60, and (ii) long fibers, also known as continuous fibers, the general aspect ratio is between 200 to 500. Cellulose fibers: Cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose. The cellulose comes from various sources. Modal is made from beech trees, bamboo fiber is a made from bamboo, seacell is made from seaweed, etc. Mineral fibers: Mineral fibers can be particular strong because they are formed with a low number of surface defects. • Fiberglass, made from specific glass, and optical fiber, made from purified natural quartz, are also man-made fibers that come from natural raw materials, silica fiber, made from sodium silicate (water glass) and made from melted basalt. • Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, aluminum or iron. • are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonized polymers like PAN, but the end product is almost pure carbon. • Silicon carbide fibers, where the basic polymers are not hydrocarbons but polymers, where about 50% of the carbon atoms are replaced by silicon atoms, so-called poly-carbo-silanes. The pyrolysis yields an amorphous silicon carbide, including mostly other elements like oxygen, titanium, or aluminium, but with mechanical properties very similar to those of carbon fibers.

21 Polymer fibers: Polymer fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than arising from natural materials by a purely physical process. These fibers are made from: • polyamide nylon, • PET or PBT polyester • phenol-formaldehyde (PF) • polyvinyl alcohol fiber (PVA) vinylon • polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC) vinyon • polyolefins (PP and PE) • acrylic , pure polyester PAN fibers are used to make carbon fiber by roasting them in a low oxygen environment. Traditional is used more often as a synthetic replacement for wool. Carbon fibers and PF fibers are noted as two resin- based fibers that are not thermoplastic, most others can be melted. • aromatic polyamids () such as , and thermally degrade at high temperatures and do not melt. These fibers have strong bonding between polymer chains • polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely long chains / HMPE (e.g. Dyneema or Spectra). • can even be used, e.g. although urethane fibers are starting to replace spandex technology. • polyurethane fiber • Coextruded fibers have two distinct polymers forming the fiber, usually as a core- sheath or side-by-side. Coated fibers exist such as nickel-coated to provide static elimination, silver-coated to provide anti-bacterial properties and aluminum-coated to provide RF deflection for radar chaff. Radar chaff is actually a spool of continuous glass tow that has been aluminum coated. An aircraft-mounted high speed cutter chops it up as it spews from a moving aircraft to confuse radar signals. Microfibers: Microfibers in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber (such as polyester drawn to 0.5 dn). Denier and Detex are two measurements of fiber yield based on weight and length. If the fiber density is known you also have a fiber diameter, otherwise it is simpler to measure diameters in micrometers. Microfibers in technical fibers refer to ultra fine fibers (glass or meltblown thermoplastics) often used in filtration. Newer fiber designs include extruding fiber that splits into multiple finer fibers. Most synthetic fibers are round in cross-section, but special designs can be hollow, oval, star-shaped or trilobal. The latter design provides more optically reflective properties. Synthetic textile fibers are often crimped to provide bulk in a woven, non woven or knitted structure. Fiber surfaces can also be dull or bright. Dull surfaces reflect more light while bright tends to transmit light and make the fiber more transparent. Very short and/or irregular fibers have been called fibrils. Natural cellulose, such as cotton or bleached kraft, show smaller fibrils jutting out and away from the main fiber structure. man-made fibre, fibre whose chemical composition, structure, and properties are significantly modified during the manufacturing process. Man-made fibres are spun and woven into a huge number of consumer and industrial products, including garments such as , , and hosiery; home furnishings such as upholstery, carpets, and drapes; and industrial parts such as tire cord, flame-proof linings, and drive belts. The chemical

22 compounds from which man-made fibres are produced are known as polymers, a class of compounds characterized by long, chainlike molecules of great size and molecular weight. Many of the polymers that constitute man-made fibres are the same as or similar to compounds that make up plastics, rubbers, adhesives, and surface coatings. Indeed, polymers such as regenerated cellulose, polycaprolactam, and polyethylene terephthalate, which have become familiar household materials under the trade names rayon, nylon, and Dacron (trademark), respectively, are also made into numerous nonfibre products, ranging from cellophane envelope windows to clear plastic soft-drink bottles. As fibres, these materials are prized for their strength, toughness, resistance to heat and mildew, and ability to hold a pressed form. Man-made fibres are to be distinguished from natural fibres such as silk, cotton, and wool. Natural fibres also consist of polymers (in this case, biologically produced compounds such as cellulose and protein), but they emerge from the process in a relatively unaltered state. Some man-made fibres, too, are derived from naturally occurring polymers. For instance, rayon and acetate, two of the first man-made fibres ever to be produced, are made of the same cellulose polymers that make up cotton, hemp, flax, and the structural fibres of wood. In the case of rayon and acetate, however, the cellulose is acquired in a radically altered state (usually from wood- pulp operations) and is further modified in order to be regenerated into practical cellulose-based fibres. Rayon and acetate therefore belong to a group of man-made fibres known as regenerated fibres. Another group of man-made fibres (and by far the larger group) is the synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibres are made of polymers that do not occur naturally but instead are produced entirely in the chemical plant or laboratory, almost always from by-products of petroleum or natural gas. These polymers include nylon and polyethylene terephthalate, mentioned above, but they also include many other compounds such as the acrylics, the polyurethanes, and polypropylene. Synthetic fibres can be mass-produced to almost any set of required properties. Millions of tons are produced every year.

Silk Survives, Succeeds: Silk enters the 21st century as strong, smooth, much-sought- after environment friendly, healthy (next to human skin) textile fiber. Despite shrinking of sericulture in Japan and Korea due to high cost industrialization and severe competition from manmade, silk has not only survived but has succeeded globally in raising its production and demand. The world silk demand shot up from 68,000 MT in 1993 to over 86,000 MT in 1998 registering 21 per cent rise within a span of five years (Courtesy International Silk Association, Lyon). Though this a miniscule percentage of world textile fiber production, silk continues to rule as ‘Queen’ of textile fibers, just as cotton is considered ‘king’ of fibers. Though historical development and international trade in silk is discussed in depth in the book, it is necessary to highlight the salient features of silk development during close of the century. There are three emerging trends, which have completely changed the production and consumption pattern of silk industry. First, Japan and Korea are gradually abandoning sericulture due to high labor cost and pressure from high-tech industries, but China, India, Thailand and Brazil seem successful in raising silk productivity and production. The second important development is availability of medium priced silk garments; crease-resistant silk apparels, which are in big demand among middle class

23 professionals particularly women workers. The demand for both high-priced and medium-priced silk garments continue to rise due to growing concern for protecting environment, particularly among industrial countries which are even prohibiting use of certain chemicals, dyes and prefer natural to chemical fibers. Thus natural textiles – cotton and silk are witnessing a new era of global demand, which may sharply rise in the next millennium. The Secretary General of the International Silk Association (ISA) forecasts rising global demand for silk and points out factors behind the rise: (i) New Concept: Until 1980s silk was worn only for special occasions but silk is no more a luxury or ; it is now a , and even ; (ii) New products: This includes thermal wear, sportswear, , shirting and crease-resistant fabrics. The sand-washed garments which were popular during mid 1990s have lost their share in the market; (iii) New Prices: Silk was hitherto confined to a small affluent minority but thanks to new industrial production methods and economy of scale, combined with low wages in many developing countries, prices of silk have come down during 1990s; (iv) New Channels of Distributions; silk, no more an exclusive product for high-priced boutiques, has now become more visible and touchable on the shelves of the super markets and departmental stores; (v) New Consumers: Silk was confined mostly to women’s wear and men could expect at the most a silk tie. Now men can find shirts, , , T-shirts, and few other items, which are exclusively made from natural silk. According to ISA Secretary General a large scale import of silk garments “have not captured the market share once held by traditional products but have created a new market in which silk was never present in any appreciable quantities’. Though there are no in-depth market studies on this aspect, he feels “it seems unlikely that there has been a transfer of consumers from traditional up-market, luxury products to inexpensive everyday products”. Thus France, Italy and Switzerland continue to process raw silk to turn out most expensive scarves, ties and women wear for high fashion aristocratic clients. Even in Asia, though Japanese ‘kimono’ has lost its appeal among young ones, the silk consumption has shot up with Japanese going for western clothing. In India, traditional silk ‘’ continues to hold its sway over women, both young and old for ceremonial wear, the young generation loves silk as dress material. The wave of sand-washed silk garments seems to have ebbed in Europe and USA and several ilk lovers did call this development as ‘vulgarization’ and condemned the flood of cheap silk garments as damaging the queenly status of silk. Even some purists also condemn the growing concept of silk blends. But such fears are not likely to lower the prestigious position of silk. “It is the quality of the product which will make people continue to buy silk”, according to ISA, which feels quality can be guaranteed with adoption of ISO 9000 standards, which are designed to offer the consumer guaranteed performance and quality. The future of silk through the 21st century seems quite bright. Though consumption is likely to rise despite its high prices, the question mark is whether the silk production will keep pace with the shooting demand. Japan is foremost in silk consumption; Chinese enjoying high standard of living are also boosting demand for silk within the country and almost 85 per cent of rising silk production in India is consumed within the country and has to import up to 5,000 MT every year to meet shortfall in demand. The ecology factor is pushing demand for silk in Europe and USA. And the Middle East Arabs adore silk for

24 the flowing robes, prayer mats and carpets. The global production during the twenty-first century may not rise and with the spread of industrialization and shortage of farm labor, the availability of natural fibers may shrink substantially. In fact, during 1998, the global production of cotton is reported to have declined 6 per cent and wool production seems to have dropped by two per cent. The fiber trend also covers silk. The worldwide survey by Fiber Organon (December 1998) reports that the future global growth impacts appear to be dependent on technical breakthroughs, perhaps from genetic engineering leading to high yield per acre and a more competitive cost position versus synthetic fibers. China, the world’s leading silk producer continues to lose its mulberry acreage, cocoon production and is not able to raise its raw silk output. Brazil is also witnessing stagnant silk production. India and Thailand produce mainly multivoltine silk and raw silk not suitable for automatic reeling. Unless India’s recent success in producing bivoltine silk in tropical climate succeed commercially and quickly covers most of silk producing regions in the country, there is no hope of higher silk production during the century. The purity and sanctity of silk can be best promoted through introduction of ‘silk mark’ and promotion campaigns. This is also ISA recommendation; it deplores lack of promotion for silk even while advertising high-priced . It is necessary for ISA to evolve a joint strategy for silk promotion with world’s top fashion designers and large departmental stores marketing their high priced silk.

25 Chapter 2: Morphology of silk gland, silk proteins and their synthesis The silk gland of larva Bombyx mori is a typical exocrine gland secreting large amounts of silk proteins. The gland consists of three divisions. The posterior division secretes fibroin which is the main silk component of a simple sequence of amino acids. The gelatinous silk components, 3 types of sericin which the fibroin, are secreted by different regions of the middle division. The anterior division is a mere duct lined with a thick cuticular intima, and does not contribute to the secretion of silk materials. Tracheal branches are distributed along the posterior and middle divisions. The silk gland is basically a tube made up of huge polyploid cells, each with an extremely ramified nucleus containing numerous nucleoli. Nuclear ramification develops gradually as the larvae grow and reach conspicuous size in the 4th and 5th instars. Ramification considerably enlarges the nuclear surface and apparently facilitates the transfer of materials related to the silk synthesis between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The latter shows a basophilic striped structure with a faintly stained layer of fibroin. The 3 types of sericin secreted from different parts of the middle gland division, are called the inner, middle and outer layer sericin. Shibukawa reported that the inner layer sericin also reacts strongly in the histochemical Millon test for xanthoproteins. However a weak response in histochemical protein tests is obtained with the outer layer sericin which seems to contain predominantly lipids and polysaccharides. The three types of sericin can also be distinguished by X-ray analysis. According to secretory products and other characteristics the middle silk gland division is further divided into a posterior part (piece), distal and proximal portions of a medial part, and an anterior part. The silkworm Bombyx mori possesses a pair of long, tubular organs called the silk glands which are divided into anatomically and functionally distinct regions (Suzuki, 1977). The silk glands produce the major classes of silk proteins. Fibroin, the silk fibre protein is synthesized in the posterior silk gland (PSG) (Couble et al., 1983; Kimura et al., 1985), and sericins, a group of adhesive proteins that coat the fibroin are produced in the middle silk gland (MSG) (Ishikawa and Suzuki, 1985). The genes that encode these proteins are actively expressed in a developmental stage specific manner mainly during the fifth instar of larval development (Suzuki,1977; Prudhomme and Couble, 1979). The silk glands of B. mori are fully formed at the end of embryonic development (Goldsmith and Kafatos, 1984) and no further cell divisions take place afterwards. However, the cells grow much larger in size as development progresses. The nuclei of silk gland cells undergo dramatic changes in morphology in the course of larval maturation. During larval development, DNA synthesis in the middle and the posterior silk glands continues without cell division. The DNA content of these polyploid nuclei increases by about 2×105 times over that of the diploid nuclei (Gage, 1974; Tashiro et al., 1968). Many rounds of endormtotic DNA replication (Suzuki et al., 1972; Suzuki, 1977; Tazima, 1978; Perdrix-Gillot, 1979) occur during the last 3 instars: an average of 18-19 doublings in the posterior, 19–20 in the middle, and 13 in the anterior silk gland. Due to polyploidization the nuclei of silk gland cells become progressively ramified. In fact, at the middle of the fifth instar an extremely ramified nucleus spreads all over within the cell (Akai, 1983). Fragility, the highly lobate nature of the ramified nuclei and the

26 presence within the cells of a large amount of silk proteins, which are either easily transformed into insoluble masses or coprecipitate with nuclei, pose major difficulties in preparing pure nuclei (Suzuki and Giza, 1976). It requires special care to isolate nuclei of such unusual morphology. We have standardized a simpleprocedure to isolate the nuclei in sufficient purity. The pure preparations of nuclei were used to analyse the histone-and low-salt-extractable proteins. Electrophoresis of the extracted proteins from middle and posterior silk gland nuclei on different days of the fourth and fifth instars was carried out to examine any tissue and developmental stage specific variations. The silk gland of Bombyx mori has served as a convenient model system for the study of tissue specific and developmental stage specific gene expression (Suzuki, 1977; Prudhomme and Couble, 1979). The MSG and PSG are made up of approximately 255 and 520 cells respectively (Goldsmith and Kafatos, 1984). During larval development, the cells continue to grow larger in size without division. The nuclei also do not divide; however, the DNA replication continues. As a result, the nuclei grow enormously large in size and become ramified. It has proved to be a formidable task to isolate intact nuclei from the silk gland. Isolation of nearly satisfactory preparations of nuclei from the silk glands have been recently reported (Ichimura et al., 1985; Kondo et al., 1987). Fluorescence microscopy of the nuclei after staining with acridine orange and their macromolecular composition demonstrated their purity. Our nuclear preparations were clean and were devoid of cytoplasmic contamination. However, the fragility of the ramified nuclei was evident even in our preparations. It was of interest to investigate the origin and the molecular mechanism of the formation of the higher order structure of the giant ramified nuclei and the chromatin in the nuclei of silk gland cells of B. mori. The MSG and PSG of different days of third, fourth and fifth instar, when treated with collagenase and stained with dyes (orcein or acridine orange) showed the ramified morphology of the cell nuclei. The ramification of the nucleus starts from the late third instar and due to progressive ramification the nucleus occupies almost the entire cell volume by the middle of the fifth instar. The silk glands of B. mori are highly differentiated to produce the silk proteins. The production of silk occurs in a tissue-specific and development stage specific manner. From the reported literature on the control of gene expression in analogous systems, it is evident that the formation of appropriate chromatin structures is necessary for the control of in vivo transcription. The association and distribution of proteins on the chromatin are expected to show differences depending on the state—expressing or non-expressing—of the genome. The histone protein pattern in MSG or PSG did not show any differences at any stage. The presence of a 50 kDa nonhistone protein, however, in both MSG and PSG nuclei only during the fifth instar was conspicuous; this protein was absent in the fourth instar. Since it is known that massive silk production starts only towards the end of the fifth instar, the appearance of this protein during the fifth instar may be of significance. The synthesis of silk involves the production of fibroin and sericin, and other accessory proteins, as well as the necessary gearing-up of the system. Since the 50 kDa protein was found in both MSG and PSG, it may not be directly related to fibroin synthesis but rather may be involved in the regulation of expression of any or all of fifth instar protein(s) including the silk-related proteins. In order to assign a specific function to this 50 kDa protein in silk glands, we have begun by taking an immunological approach to detect it in nuclear extracts.

27 Although this protein was not highly antigenic, we could demonstrate the presence of specific antibodies in serum of immunized rabbit by the sensitive Western blotting method. We propose to use this antibody to isolate and purify the specific protein(s) from the fifth instar glands by the immuno-affinity procedure. The relation, if any, between the appearance of the 50 kDa protein in a developmental stage specific manner in both MSG and PSG and the synthesis of silk proteins is not evident at this point of time. With its many inherent merits, the silkworm Bombyx mori has been established as a domesticated exploited for sericulture and as a model system for basic research. The growing collection of the silkworm genetic stock worldwide – some 3000 genotypes – places B. mori second to Drosophila for genetic studies in insects (Nagaraju et al., 2001). Amongst the biological processes investigated in B. mori, the study of the differentiation of the silk gland, the organ that synthesizes, secretes, and organizes the silk proteins into a thread, has attracted constant attention. The silk gland is very simply organized as a one-cell layered glandular epithelium that comprises two distinct types of secretory cells, the one that produces fibroin and the other that synthetizes sericins, the two components of silk. The high specialization of these cells provides an excellent opportunity to study the repertoire of regulatory factors that specify each of them. Investigations on the regulation of silk protein genes have identified a series of transcription factors, which may also play key functions in the development of the silk gland. They have, moreover, suggested that chromatin- remodeling activities are very important in modifying the accessibility of the transcription factors to their target DNA sequences in the two categories of secretory cells. Thus, both qualitative and quantitative differences in regulatory gene expression probably induce the selective activation of the promoters of the different silk encoding genes in the two categories of cells. One challenging problem that remains is to understand how these transcriptional differences are achieved during the course of development of the silk gland and how they are maintained during the impressive postembryonic growth of the organ. This review aims at summarizing our current knowledge on the development of the silk gland and the mode of production of silk proteins. The Functioning of the Silk Gland: 1. The Silk Gland Epithelium: The silk gland of B. mori is a tubular epithelium p0015 divided in three regions with precise cell-to-cell boundaries and a fixed number of cells (Figure 1). The posterior (PSG) and the middle (MSG) silk gland are secretory territories specialized for the massive production of the silk proteins. The domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori Linn., a lepidopteran molecular model and an important economic insect that are emerging as an ideal molecular genetic resource for solving a broad range of biological problems. The silkworm, B. mori produces massive amount of silk proteins during the final stage of larval development. These proteins are stored in the middle silk gland and they are discharged through the anterior duct and spinneret, at the end of the fifth instar. Two kinds of silk proteins have been distinguished as major components of silk cocoons, the first being fibroin, a fibrous protein composed of heavy (H) chain, Light (L) chain and glycoprotein linked by disulfide bonds and the second being sericin a natural macromolecular protein, serving as an adhesive to unite fibroin for making silk cocoons of silkworm, B. mori. Recently, silkworm is being used as biofactory for the production of useful protein using the silk gland, which has promoted the technological development in sericulture. With the above background silkworm can be classified as a

28 value added biomaterial for medical application, application of silk protein fibroin and sericin as a biomaterial and other seri-byproducts. The present paper overviews some important studies carried out on sericin and fibroin of silkworm, Bombyx mori Linn. Insects mainly belong to two families, viz., Saturnidae and Bombycidae, which spins silk fibre. Bombyx mori belongs to Bombycidae produces a delicate twin thread of silk fibroin, which is coated by a protective cover of sericin. Silk protein is a kind of protein like collagen, elastin, keratin, fibroin, sporgin etc.,is an essential constituent of cocoon filament (Komatsu, 1975). The silk fiber protein is synthesized by silk gland cells and stored in the lumen of the silk glands. Subsequently, it is converted into silk fibres. When the silkworms secrete the liquid silk during the spinning, it passes through the anterior gland and expelled out through the spinneret opening (Shimizu,2000). Quantity and nature of sericin are fundamental characteristics in conferring distinctive traits to the cocoon (Sadov et al., 1987). Sericin is insoluble in cold water, however, it is easily hydrolyzed, where by the long protein molecules brakes down to smaller fractions, which are easily dispersed, or solubilised in hot water (Gulrajani, 1988). Sericin protein is useful because of its special properties viz., resists oxidation, antibacterial, UV resistant and absorbs and release moisture easily, inhibitory activity of tyrosine and kinase etc. (Fig 1). Sericin, a major component of silk fiber, has been selectively removed from fibroin during the silk manufacturing process to make silk lustrous and the removed sericin goes as waste material. Nowadays Seri- waste products and Seri- byproducts are used as a value added products. After Degumming, the leftover is fibroin made up of two brins. Silk fibre can be used for many purposes including textile, medical and industrial applications. The silk fibre is thin, long, light and soft. It is well known for its water absorbency, dyeing affinity, thermo tolerances, insulation properties and luster (Fig 2). It is the raw material for producing precious fabrics, parachutes, tyre lining materials, artificial blood vessels and surgical sutures. Phillips et al., (2005) reported that ionic liquid could hold the key to the production of designer silk fibers with enhanced mechanical and optical properties. The silk fibers have outstanding natural properties, which rival the most advanced synthetic polymers, yet unlike synthetic polymers the production of silk does not require harsh processing conditions. It is reported that the introduction of ionic liquids to silk processing opens an exciting avenue for controlling the microstructure to tune the macroscopic properties. It is estimated that out of about 1 million tons (fresh weight) of cocoons produced world wide approximately 4, 00,000 tons of dry cocoon are generated, that have 50,000 tons of recoverable sericin. Indian production of 1,600 tons of silk can be source of about 250 to 300 tons of sericin per year (Gulrajani, 2005). If this sericin protein is recovered and recycled, it would be a significant economic and social benefit. SILK GLAND: The natural silk synthesized by the silkworm and spun in the form of a silk cocoon is originally synthesized in the silk gland. Silk gland of B. mori is a typical exocrine gland secreting large amount of silk proteins. It is a paired organ consisting of modified labial/salivary glands located at the two lateral sides under the alimentary canal. Each gland is basically a tube made of glandular epithelium with two rows of cells surrounding the lumen.

29 The cells constituting the gland are huge polyploid cells each with extremely ramified nucleus containing numerous nucleoli. Nuclear ramification develops gradually as the larva grows and reaches conspicuous size in the 4th and 5th instars. Ramification considerably enlarges the nuclear surface and apparently facilitates the transfer of materials related to the silk synthesis between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. According to its morphology and function, the silk gland can be divided into three distinct regions (Fig 3). The posterior part, about 15 cm long and is composed of about 500 secretary cells, which synthesize silk fibroin. The middle silk gland in the lumen of which silk proteins are stored until spinning, is about 7 cm long and contains about 300 secretory cells producing silk sericin, the protein which cements the fibroin thread of the cocoon. The anterior part about 2 cm long is a thin duct composed of about 250 cells with no known secretory function. Akai et al., (2005) reported that the Bombyx mori silk gland secretes one fibroin and three layers of sericin from the each posterior and middle silk gland in a normal larva. The Nd-sD mutant is silk fibroin secretion deficient. In the mutant, a disulfide linkage between the heavy (H) chain and light (L) chain is not formed because of partial deletion of the L-chain gene, which is essential for the intercellular transport and secretion of fibroin. To utilize the inactivity of the mutant L-chain, Inoue et al., (2005) investigated the possibility of using the NdsD mutant for the efficient production of recombinants in the silkworm. The posterior silk glands are not sufficiently developed and the liquid fibroin is scarcely secreted, but there is no such disorder in the middle silk glands. Yamamoto et al., (2002) have introduced a new silkworm race which produces only sericin in Japan in the name of “Sericin Hope” introducing Nd-sD mutant. Feiying et al., (2005) studied the analysis of protein variety of middle silk gland cells of the fifth instar larvae of silkworm, B. mori at different developmental stages. The silk gland has the capacity to produce large amount of silk proteins. In order to use as a foreign proteins, piggyBac vectors were developed to express transgenes in the silk gland using silk gene promoters to drive the expression of the integrated foreign genes. Several promoters were tested to synthesize foreign proteins like procollagen III or globular ones and successfully produced in the silk glands of Bombyx mori (Chavancy, 2005). COMPOSITION OF THE COCOON FILAMENT: Gulrajani (1988) reported that the silk fiber is almost a pure protein fiber composed of two types of proteins viz., sericin and fibroin. Sericin is chemically a non-filamentous protein. Besides sericin, raw silk also contain other natural impurities namely, fat and waxes, inorganic salts and colouring mater. Rui (1998) studied the outer layer of the silk fiber and revealed that the sericin content is more in outer layer, where in fibroin content is less. SILK PROTEIN FROM THE SILK GLAND: Silk fibroin secreted in the lumen of posterior silk gland (PSG) of B. mori consists of three protein component: High (H)- chain 350 k Da (Shimura et al., 1982, Zhou et al., 2000), Low (L) - chain 26 k Da (Yamaguchi et al., 1989), and Glycoprotein P25 30 k Da (Chevillard et al., 1986a, 1986b). These three types of fibroin (H-chain, L-chain and P 25) are common among different silk producing insects in , although the fibroin of Saturnidae species

30 secreted as dimer of Hchain. Quantitative enzyme linked immuneosorbent assay (ELISA) with specific antibody for each protein component showed that the molar ratio of H- chain, L-chain, and P 25 is 6:6:1 for the fibroin secreted into the posterior silk gland (PSG). The N-linked oligosaccharide chain of P25 has been suggested to be involved in the later interactions (Inoue et al., 2000). Fibrohexamer was proposed as a functional name of P25 and its central role is maintaining the structure of elementary unit. The disulfide linkage between Cys-172 of the L-chain and Cys-c20 of the H-chain (Tanaka et al., 1999) is not responsible for the maintenance of the once formed elementary unit (Inoue et al., 2000). But the H-L linkage is essential for the large-scale production of fibroin (Mori et al., 1995), because fibroin is retained in endoplasmic reticulum in the absence of disulfide linkage between the H and L-chains (Gamo and Sato, 1985). Akai et al., (1987) observed the fine structural change of liquid columnar fibroin in the lumen of silk gland during the passage from the posterior to the anterior silk gland during the spinning stage, in order to analyze the mechanism involved in the formation of a single cocoon filament. In the posterior part of the posterior silk gland, the columnar fibroin located in the lumen consisted of numerous spherical masses of fibroin fibers (MFFs). These MFFs adhered closely together showing a higher concentration in the posterior part of the middle silk gland, and become homogeneous and compact in the anterior silk gland. By the observation of various portion of silk gland, it is concluded that the cocoon filament is composed of oriented elementary fibroin fibers and these fibers are derived from MFFs as they undergo structural change during the passage through the silk gland lumen. Komatsu (1975) postulated molecular aggregating structure of sericin and its changes. The part of the liquid sericin in the middle silk gland that is easily crystallized by drying is possibly made of amino acid residues with short side-chains and is folded into the globular matrix made of stretches with longer side-chains, crystallizing less readily and on drying, become film of unoriented crystal structure. When this film is swollen in water, stretched and dried, it changes to oriented fiber structure. However, since the orientation is unstable by hot water treatment and thus there is a reversible relationship between the orientation and non-orientation.

31 Chapter 3 Textile fibres and Silk Merely mentioning silk causes the mind to think luxury. Reading how silk is made and the history behind the production of silk is absolutely fascinating... and makes understanding the cost associated with silk seem like a bargain! The variations in silk prices come from the variety of silkworms and the quality of the cocoons associated with the type of worm. Sericulture is the production of raw silk by raising silkworms. The main producers of silk are China and Japan. China is credited with the first production of silk around 3000BC. Production of silkworms relies on many environmental elements which affect the feasibility of silk production in other parts of the world. Silk fibers are collected from cocoons of the silk worm which is the caterpillar stage of the silk moth Bombyx mori. The silk worms are treated to a luxurious life to produce their cocoons. Their environment is kept at controlled temperatures through their life cycles to insure they will live to produce a cocoon. The worm stage is fed crushed mulberry leaves around the clock, allowing it to multiply its weight 10,000 times within a month.

Each silkworm cocoon is made up of a single fiber that is 600 to 900 meters long. Five to eight strands of the filament that are unwound from a silk worm cocoon are used to create silk thread. The silk thread is then used to create silk fabric. Imagine how many silkworms were breed to produce one silk ! Silk in eleven language: Chinese-Si, English-Silk, French-Soie, German-Seide, Indian- Resham, Italian-Seta, Japanese-Kino, Korean-Soi, Latin-Sericum, Russian-Solk, Spanish- Seda The textile tradition in India has been conditioned by a number of factors, like geography, climate, local culture, social customs, availability of raw material etc. A variety of raw material like silk, cotton, wool, jute etc is used in India for creating fabric. The geo- climatic and bio diversity of India has given birth to a myriad of textiles and weaving throughout India. Local, foreign markets and export potential dictate the traditional textile scenario of today.The hilly and alpine region of the country has a rich array of woolen textiles. The world famous and shahtoosh of Kashmir are fine examples of the woolen textile of our country, so are the shawls and garments from Himachal Pradesh and the North Eastern states. Shawls from these regions are also popular abroad. The textiles from the arid and semi arid regions are bright and have rich embroidery on them. The people in the coastal areas of the south and eastern regions prefer garments made of white fabrics. Cotton and silk textiles are popular in these areas. Utilitarian items such as cushions, bed sheets, covers, table mats, napkins, curtains etc are produced throughout the country. Each state has its own unique contribution in making these utilitarian items.

Silk and cotton weaving predominate the weaving traditions in India. Silk weaving is common in most parts of the country, important centers being Mysore, Assam, Banaras, Murshidabad, Surat, Kanchipuram and Paithan etc. There are numerous centers, which specialize in silk and cotton sari weaving. Some of the sari traditions which are popular

32 are-Banarsi , Maheshwari, Pochampalli, Kancheevaram, Patola, Paithani, Baluchari etc to name a few. The famous and mushroo fabrics of Hyderabad are splendid examples of mixed fabric (cotton and silk).

The mulberry silk which is largely produced in Assam is also a rare variety of silk used for making saree and traditional dress material. It's a traditional custom to wear mulberry silk outfit in the new year festival of Assam called bihu. This is a yellowish and brown colored delicate material produced from the mulberry silk cocoon which survives on mulberry tree leaves.

The tradition of Appliqué and embroidery is well known to Indians since ancient times. is famous for its work, which is a rich form of Appliqué. Appliqué work from Kutchh region of Gujarat is also very ornate and is done on bright fabrics. It is also famous amongst the tribals of Orissa, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. The city of Lucknow is world famous for its Chikan style of embroidery, so is the crewelwork from Kashmir. Gujarat, Punjab, Karnataka, Rajasthan and West Bengal all have their distinct styles of embroidery.

Tie and dye, hand printing and block printing are common across the country and come in numerous styles, influenced by local factors. The Tie and dye technique of printing in particular is popular in the arid and semi arid regions of the country where people prefer brightly coloured clothes. The states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh are main centers for block printing. What is silk: Man is always inquisitive for silk products. SILK - The Queen of Textiles, spells luxury, elegance, class and comfort. Mankind has always loved this shimmering fibre of unparalleled grandeur from the moment Chinese Empress Shiling Ti discovered it in her tea cup. It withstood many a daunting challenges from other natural and artificial fibres and yet, remained the undisputed Queen of Textiles since centuries. Exquisite qualities like the natural sheen, inherent affinity for dyes and vibrant colours, high absorbance, light weight, resilience and excellent drape etc. have made silk, the irresistible and inevitable companion of the eve, all over the world. Chemically speaking, silk is made of proteins secreted in the fluid state by a caterpillar, popularly known as 'silkworm'. These silkworms feed on the selected food plants and spin cocoons as a 'protective shell' to perpetuate the life. Silkworm has four stages in its life cycle viz., egg, caterpillar, and moth. Man interferes this life cycle at the cocoon stage to obtain the silk, a continuous filament of commercial importance, used in weaving of the dream fabric. Why is silk: Silk is a high value but low volume product accounting for only 0.2 % of world's total textile production. Silk production is regarded as an important tool for economic development of a country as it is a labour intensive and high income generating industry that churns out value added products of economic importance. The developing countries rely on it for employment generation, especially in rural sector and also as a means to earn the foreign exchange.

33 Where do we find silk: Geographically, Asia is the main producer of silk in the world and produces over 95 % of the total global output. Though there are over 40 countries on the world map of silk, bulk of it is produced in China and India, followed by Japan, Brazil and Korea. China is the leading supplier of silk to the world with an annual production of 153942 MT (2006).Out of Which the Mulberry raw silk product is 115092 MT.

India is the second largest producer of silk with 18475 MT (2006-07) and also the largest consumer of silk in the world. It has a strong tradition and culture bound domestic market of silk. In India, mulberry silk is produced mainly in the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir and West Bengal, while the non-mulberry silks are produced in Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa and north-eastern states.

Types of silk: There are five major types of silk of commercial importance, obtained from different species of silkworms which in turn feed on a number of food plants. These are: Mulberry, Oak Tasar & Tropical Tasar, Mugaand Eri.

a. Introduction to Textile Fibres – Natural Fibres vs. Man Made Fibres

A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network (interlacement/interloping/bonded) of a natural or artificial fibres. The term textile is a latin word taken from the word ‘texere’ which means ‘to weave’. The term textile covers fibres, yarns and fabrics. Production methods include two processes-dry processing and wet processing. Dry processing method includes- fibre processing, dry spinning, weaving, , crocheting, felting, braiding, knotting, netting. Wet processing includes following steps- wet spinning, preparation process, coloration process, finishing process. Fibre is a basic and fundamental unit of textiles. It is a long slender thread like structure of cell. It is the smallest entity of textiles we wear. Thickness of these fibres tends to range from about 10µm to 50µm. b. Physical and Chemical Properties of Silk

Physical properties: Silk fibers from the Bombyx mori silkworm have a triangular cross section with rounded corners, 5-10 μm wide. The fibroin-heavy chain is composed mostly of beta-sheets, due to a 59-mer amino acid repeat sequence with some variations. The flat surfaces of the fibrils reflectlight at many angles, giving silk a natural shine. The cross-section from other silkworms can vary in shape and diameter: crescent-like forAnaphe and elongated wedge for tussah. Silkworm fibers are naturally extruded from two silkworm glands as a pair of primary filaments (brin), which are stuck together, with sericin proteins that act like glue, to form a bave. Bave diameters for tussah silk can reach 65 μm. See cited reference for cross-sectional SEM photographs. Silk has a smooth, soft texture that is not slippery, unlike many synthetic fibers. Silk is one of the strongest natural fibers but loses up to 20% of its strength when wet. It has a good moisture regain of 11%. Its elasticity is moderate to poor: if elongated even a small amount, it remains stretched. It can be weakened if exposed to too much sunlight. It may also be attacked by insects, especially if left dirty.

34 Silk is a poor conductor of electricity and thus susceptible to static cling. Unwashed silk may shrink up to 8% due to a relaxation of the fiber macrostructure. So silk should either be washed prior to garment construction, or dry cleaned. Dry cleaning may still shrink the chiffon up to 4%. Occasionally, this shrinkage can be reversed by a gentle steaming with a press cloth. There is almost no gradual shrinkage nor shrinkage due to molecular-level deformation. Natural and synthetic silk is known to manifest piezoelectric properties in proteins, probably due to its molecular structure. Silkworm silk was used as the standard for the denier, a measurement of linear density in fibers. Silkworm silk therefore has a linear density of approximately 1 den, or 1.1 dtex. Chemical properties: Silk emitted by the silkworm consists of two main proteins, sericin and fibroin, fibroin being the structural center of the silk, and serecin being the sticky material surrounding it. Fibroin is made up of the amino acids Gly-Ser-Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala and forms beta pleated sheets. Hydrogen bonds form between chains, and side chains form above and below the plane of the hydrogen bond network. The high proportion (50%) of glycine, which is a small amino acid, allows tight packing and the fibers are strong and resistant to breaking. The tensile strength is due to the many interseeded hydrogen bonds, and when stretched the force is applied to these numerous bonds and they do not break. Silk is resistant to most mineral acids, except for sulfuric acid, which dissolves it. It is yellowed by perspiration. c. Uses of Silk.

Silk's absorbency makes it comfortable to wear in warm weather and while active. Its low conductivity keeps warm air close to the skin during cold weather. It is often used for clothing such as shirts, ties, , formal dresses, high fashion clothes, , pyjamas, robes, dress , sun dresses and Eastern folk . Silk's attractive lustre and drape makes it suitable for many furnishing applications. It is used for upholstery, wall coverings, window treatments (if blended with another fiber), rugs, bedding and wall hangings.[citation needed] While on the decline now, due to artificial fibers, silk has had many industrial and commercial uses; parachutes, bicycle tires, comforter filling and artillery gunpowderbags. A special manufacturing process removes the outer irritant sericin coating of the silk, which makes it suitable as non-absorbable surgical sutures. This process has also recently led to the introduction of specialist silk underclothing for children and adults with eczema where it can significantly reduce itch.[citation needed] New uses and manufacturing techniques have been found for silk for making everything from disposable cups to drug delivery systems and holograms. To produce 1 kg of silk, 104 kg of mulberry leaves must be eaten by 3000 silkworms. It takes about 5000 silkworms to make a pure silk kimono. The construction of silk is called sericulture. The major silk producers are China (54%) and India(14%). Silk: Silk has been intermingled with the life and culture of the Indians. Though India is producing all the varieties of silk i.e., dress materials, scarves/stoles, readymade garments, etc., the silk sarees are unique. The saree is almost synonymous with the word silk. It is the traditional of Indian woman since time immemorial. There are innumerable references in Indian literature about this and the style of

35 wearing differs from time to time, region to region and people to people. The silk sarees of India are among the living examples of the excellent craftsmanship of the weavers of the country. The artistic and aesthetic sense of Indian weavers is not content with striking colours they choose for the fabrics, but lies in their mastery over the creation of floral designs, beautiful textures, fine geometry and the durability of such work. The weaver not only weaves with yarn but with intense feeling and emotion. In India, there are a number of silk weaving centers spread all over the country, known for their distinct and typical style and products. For Indians, particularly ladies, silk is lifeline - the elixir. Silk is always woven interwoven with way of life and culture of a region. Craftsmen all over the Indian sub-continent tried to master the weaving of sarees as exclusive as one can think of, putting motif designs, colours, pattern and versatility in them. No two sarees can be of same design left to the choice of weaver, thus there is innumerable pattern or diversity. Over the years, specific centres sprung and developed to promote a particular pattern of design / weaving and they became distinct. Some of the famous silk centers in India are as under:- State Silk centre 1 Andhra Pradesh Dharmavaram, Pochampalli, Venkatagiri, Narainpet 2 Assam Sualkuchi 3 Bihar Bhagalpur 4 Gujarat Surat, Cambay 5 Jammu & Kashmir Srinagar 6 Karnataka Bangalore, Anekal, Ilkal, Molakalmuru, Melkote, Kollegal 7 Chattisgarh Champa, Chanderi, Raigarh 8 Maharashtra Paithan 9 Tamil Nadu Kanchipuram, Arni, Salem, Kumbhakonam, Tanjavur 10 Uttar Pradesh Varanasi 11 West Bengal Bishnupur, Murshidabad, Birbhum The Brocades of Banaras: Situated on the banks of the holy river Ganges, Varanasi is famous for its finest silk sarees and brocades. These sarees are known for rich and intricately woven motifs of leaf, flowers, fruits, birds, etc. on a soft colour background. They are enriched with intricate borders and heavily decorated pallus. The centre is also known for its gauzi silver and gold tissues, which are ultra light in weight and delicate. The kinkab of Banaras is legendary. It is a glittering weave of gold and silver threads. The pure silk with a touch of gold is called baftaand the finely woven of variegated silk is known as Amru. The tricks of tie and dye: The resist dyeing techniques has been practiced in India since centuries. There are two distinct traditions in this technique. Thepatola or ikat technique involves the dyeing of the tie-resist yarn. Thebandhej or bãndhini involves the dyeing of the fabric. The tie and dye weaves of Orissa known as ikats employ the yarn resist method for both with diffused effect. But the overall pattern is boldly articulated as in confident strikes of a brush. Both mulberry and tasar silks are used in the weaving of these ikats. The patolas are known for their precision subtlety and beauty. Here, both warp and weft are dyed by dye resist method in a range of five or six traditional colours like red, indigo,

36 blue, emerald green, black or yellow. The exact and highly skilled process ensures that when the fabric is woven, the design will appear precisely and create a magnificently coloured and figured ground of great richness and beauty with birds, flowers, animals, dancers, etc. in a geometrically stylized perfection. In bandhej or bãndhini, the finely is knotted tightly and dyed to achieve a distinct design. The sarees, odhnis () and of these regions are a medley of brilliant colours. The bãndhini of Kutch is unmatched for their fineness of the minutely tied knots, the magnificence of the colours and the perfect designs. The tanchoi brocade was named after the three Parsi brothers called choi who learnt this art in China and introduced it to Surat. The choi brocade is usually a dark weave, purple or dark red in ground colour, embellished with motifs of flowers, creepers, birds all over design. South India is the leading silk producing area of the country also known for its famous silk weaving enclaves like Kancheepuram, Dharmavaram, Arni, etc. While the temple towns like Kancheepuram are renowned for their magnificent heavy silk sarees of bright colours with silver or gold zari works, the centers like Bangalore and Mysore are known for their excellent printed silks. The traditional handloom silks always score over the powerloom silks in the richness of their textures and designs, in their individuality, character and classic beauty. Handloom weaving remains a symbol of versatility and creativity of living craft. Today, Indian silks, especially the handloom products, remain the most beautiful and cherished the world over. Sericulture is an agro-based industry. It involves rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk, which is the yarn obtained out of cocoons spun by certain species of insects. The major activities of sericulture comprises of food-plant cultivation to feed the silkworms which spin silk cocoons and reeling the cocoons for unwinding the silk filament for value added benefits such as processing and weaving. Why sericulture: • High employment potential • Provides vibrancy to village economics • Low gestation, high returns • Women friendly occupation • Ideal programme for weaker sections of the society • Eco-friendly activity • Satisfy equity concerns High employment potential • 60 lakh persons are engaged in various sericulture activities in the country • It is estimated that Sericulture can generate employment @ 11 man days per kg of raw silk production (in on-farm and off-farm activities) throughout the year. This potential is par-excellence and no other industry generates this kind of employment, specially in rural areas, hence, sericulture is used as a tool for rural reconstruction. Provides vibrancy to village economics: About 57 % of the gross value of silk fabrics flows back to the cocoon growers with share of income to different groups as under:- • 56.8 % to cocoon grower • 6.8% to the reeler • 9.1% to the twister • 10.7% to the weaver

37 • 16.6% to the trade Thus , large chunk of income goes back to the villages from the cities. Low gestation, high returns • Estimated investments of Rs.12,000 to 15,000 (excluding cost of land and rearing space) is sufficient for undertaking mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing in one acre of irrigated land. • Mulberry takes only six months to grow for commencement of silkworm rearing. Mulberry once planted will go on supporting silkworm rearing year after year for 15-20 years depending on inputs and management provided. • Five crops can be taken in one year under tropical conditions. • By adopting stipulated package of practices, a farmer can attain income levels up to Rs.30000 per acre per annum. Women friendly occupation: Women constitute over 60 % of those employed in down- stream activities of sericulture in the country. This is possible because sericulture activities starting from mulberry garden management, leaf harvesting and silkworm rearing is more effectively taken up by the women folk. Even silk reeling industry including weaving is largely supported by them. Ideal programme for weaker sections of society: • Sericulture can be practiced even with very low land holding. • ¾ acre of mulberry garden and silkworm rearing can support a family of three without hiring labour. • Features such as low gestation, high returns make sericulture an ideal programme for weaker sections of the society. • Vast tracts of forest based tasar food plantations available in the country, if judiciously exploited for rearing tasar silkworms, can offer supplementary gainful employment for tribals. Eco-friendly activity • As a perennial crop with good foliage and root-spread, mulberry contributes to soil conservation and provides green cover. • Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs to garden. • Dried mulberry twigs and branches are used as fuel in place of firewood and therefore reduce the pressure on vegetation/forest. • Being a labour intensive and predominantly agro-based activity, involvement of smoke-emitting machinery is minimal. • Developmental programmes initiated for mulberry plantation are mainly in upland areas where un-used cultivable land is made productive. • Mulberry can also be cultivated as intercrop with numerous plantations. • Mulberry being a deep-rooted perennial plant can be raised in vacant lands, hill slopes and watershed areas. • Currently, only about 0.1 % of the arable land in the country is under mulberry cultivation. Satisfies equity concerns • Benefits of sectoral value-addition primarily accrue to rural households. As the end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money flows from high end groups to low end groups.

38 • Cases of landless families engaged in cocoon production using mulberry contracted from local farmers are common in some states. Tips on silk care: Precautions during washing • Always wash silks in soft water. Add a pinch of Borax or Ammonia, if water is hard. • Use a good neutral soap in the form of either flakes or solution. • Light detergent may also be used in the case of hard water. • Wash in lukewarm water by kneading and squeezing or suction. • Rinse in warm water 2-3 times to remove traces of soap. • Add a few drops of citric acid or acetic acid to the final rinse in cold water. • Silk with doubtful colour fastness may be steeped in cold water with a small amount of citric or acetic acid for 1-2 minutes before washing. Squeeze lightly by hand to remove water. • Always dry flat, in shade. Precautions during • Use low to medium heat. • Never spray water to dampen silk before ironing. This will cause water spots on the fabric. • Silk should always be ironed on the reverse side if still damp. Precautions for storing • Store your silks in a clean and dry environment. • If storage is prolonged, periodic airing and brushing is advisable. • Protect silk from insects, dust, excessive moisture and light. • Avoid direct contact with wood. • zari sarees in cotton cloth to avoid discoloring of zari. • Keep silica sachets in storage racks.

39 Chapter 4 Silk industry in the World -, Japan, South Korea, , India, USSR, France, Italy, Brazil, Thailand, Iran, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan and other countries

Making of silk fabric: The process of making silk is delicate and involves a number of steps.The first stage is called sericulture. This is the cultivation of the silk worms. The most popular species for obtaining mulberry silk is Bombyx mori. The worms are raised in a controlled environment and are fed mulberry leaves. The worms form a cocoon around themselves by secreting a protein from the top of their head. The farmers collect these cocoons and deliver them to the factory, where they are subject to filature operations. The first step is to sort the cocoons according to color, size, shape and texture. Then, the cocoons are made to go through a serious of hot and cold immersions. In this way, the sericin (the gummy substance that holds the fibroin strands in the silk filament together) is softened. Once this is done, the filament is unwound from the cocoon and combined to produce a thread of raw silk. This is the process of reeling. Usually, three to ten strands are reeled at a time. Finally the skeins into which the filament was reeled, are packed into bundles called books which are then put into bales to be exported to the mill. In the mill, the silk fiber is woven into silk fabric, using either a hand loom or a power loom.

QUALITY IS THE ISSUE: Silk must be a quality item, it is a natural fiber and appeals to a lot of people for its smoothness, shine, softness and insulating properties. Silk, however, is being widely attacked by chemical fibers that sometimes are called in misleading ways to remind, yet in a wrong way to the customer of silk. Most of the time products are not silk- made, the customer is either deceived or does not really care and the silk market is endangered. On the whole if we look at the market, the movement in depth is that silk is still used by fashion and trend designers in leading fashion countries; but the offer in shops that follows is not always to the same level owing to slashed price-policy and silk like garments and accessories. In Paris, Milan, London, New York, Tokyo, Shanghai and Delhi, present silk in the collections and the themes of comfort, legendary aspects, glamorous looks, which make thriving forever. HIGH VALUE IS THE SECRET OF SUCCESS: Creativity is besides quality an important factor. Above all, in order to be seen, silk must be in the right trends for colors. This gives value to the base fabric that otherwise will be used as a fabric among others. Designers do not like polyester or acetate or polyamide better. They like the added value, the image content value that is based on communication for the products. If silk is struggling to find a market or

40 if you continue to see appalling apparel with poor fashion oriented designs or if you give it the ‘granny’ award for creativity with losing colors and trims, and last but not least if you dump the prices in a fierce blind competition; then, no doubt silk will be killed. On the other hand, show it on computer presentation, your public to admire the qualities of silk, explain, educate, teach, play, make silk a real show business with real qualities behind that you can trust, talk of the strength of silk as to back the speech with relevant information and then the audience will feel the magic of a luxury mix. With the amount of research that is put into the development of new technologies for hybrids production, trans-genetics and breeding in labs, and sericulture farms around the world, silk has got a very bright and shining future. Just as smooth as silk.

There are three big sectors, viz., Apparel, Accessories, which is more or less a sub-sector of apparel and Furnishing. According to these market sectors, people in countries where the standard of living is high may buy silk because to them it represents something that is needed for their social, personal or sensual needs. It is also important to note that we’ll focus here on silk with a touch of class and high range products. Silk, Indeed is scarce, the last available report showed that it represents some 0.18% of all the world fibers. Such a quantity is quite a strong argument for selling silk. However, it must always be made quite clear that silk demands a level of excellence at every stage of production.

The brisk markets for silk are to be found in the USA for apparel, accessories and furnishing; in Japan mostly for accessories but also garments; in Europe for accessories, furnishing and apparel; but also in China and in India where both countries have a part of their population that enjoys a standard of living as high as some Europeans or North Americans. On the whole the market for silk is having some difficult time as far as the exchange of raw materials is concerned. Silk fabric weavers, printers and finishers in Western countries have to face fierce competition from Asian countries where the level of quality is improving very quickly and where creative fabrics are more and more to be found. For made ups, the sector of accessories is the head of the sector pulling all markets upwards. The U.S.A, Japan, Europe, but also China and India are consuming very high value products from fashionable designers. They put a lot of money in spending on branded goods. QUALITY IS THE ISSUE: Silk must be a quality item, it is a natural fiber and appeals to a lot of people for its smoothness, shine, softness and insulating properties. Silk, however, is being widely attacked by chemical fibers that sometimes are called in misleading ways to remind, yet in a wrong way to the customer of silk. Most of the time products are not silk- made, the customer is either deceived or does not really care and the silk market is endangered. On the whole if we look at the market, the movement in depth is that silk is still used by fashion and trend designers in leading fashion countries; but the offer in shops that follows is not always to the same level owing to slashed price-policy and silk like garments and accessories. In Paris, Milan, London, New York, Tokyo, Shanghai and Delhi, present silk in the collections and the themes of comfort, legendary aspects, glamorous looks, which make thriving forever.

41 HIGH VALUE IS THE SECRET OF SUCCESS: Creativity is besides quality an important factor. Above all, in order to be seen, silk must be in the right trends for colors. This gives value to the base fabric that otherwise will be used as a fabric among others. Designers do not like polyester or acetate or polyamide better. They like the added value, the image content value that is based on communication for the products. If silk is struggling to find a market or if you continue to see appalling apparel with poor fashion oriented designs or if you give it the ‘granny’ award for creativity with losing colors and trims, and last but not least if you dump the prices in a fierce blind competition; then, no doubt silk will be killed. On the other hand, show it on computer presentation, train your public to admire the qualities of silk, explain, educate, teach, play, make silk a real show business with real qualities behind that you can trust, talk of the strength of silk as to back the speech with relevant information and then the audience will feel the magic of a luxury mix. With the amount of research that is put into the development of new technologies for hybrids production, trans-genetics and breeding in labs, and sericulture farms around the world, silk has got a very bright and shining future. Just as smooth as silk.

The global demand for natural textiles fibers has been rising despite growth of manmade fibers with their diversified properties and cheaper prices; and the world consumption of silk is also increasing despite its limited, stagnant production and high prices. Its popularity is no more confined to super-rich or haute couture; silk is now an affordable luxury for the middle class in Europe and USA, and continues to hold its way in Asia as traditional ceremonial wear. Here are gathered, indeed, the main information and analysis regarding the history of production and trade of this exceptional textile fiber, from the origins of silk to the 21st century, covering the important changes in the silk scenario, notably in the course of the 20th century, which explain today’s situation and enlighten the future. Japan, the top silk producer until 1970s has receded to much lower place. Though Japan has made significant advance in sericulture and silk technology, China has leaped forward both in silkworm rearing and post- cocoon silk processing and is enjoying a singular hold over the world market. India has doubled its silk production and has emerged as the second biggest source to the world clothiers. India’s recent advances in evolving better bivoltine silkworm strains and upgrading rural processing technology have encouraged many tropical countries to adopt sericulture for uplifting their rural population. The technical sections are also particularly interesting, since they cover sericultural technologies (mulberry culture, silkworms rearing, seed production) as well as modern industrial technologies regarding cocoon processing, reeling, weaving and dyeing-printing. The chapter dedicated to the current results and orientations of research is of a particular interest and it is quite original in a book dedicated elsewhere to economical aspects and marketing. The present source book traces recent global status of silk and describes in depth the sericulture practices country- wise, both in temperate and tropic regions of the world, as also silk processing, and marketing of raw silk, finished silk and ready-to-wear including high fashion couture creations of Italy, France and Switzerland. The 20th century ushered in revolutionary inventions in science and technology and the global textile scenario too underwent spectacular changes with advent of manmade fibers during middle of the century. The world of textile fibers, which had remained passive for three thousand years, has been changing almost every year since middle of the century. The

42 change over from hard labor to mighty machine during the ‘Industrial Revolution’, development of cotton gin during the close of the 19th century, emergence of rayon and astonishing development of manmade have completely upset the traditional formulae which hitherto operated the natural fiber industries.

Chapter 5 Silk industry in India West Bengal, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and other states (Mulberry and non -Mulberry Sericulture) India is mainly an agriculture based country, with 65 per cent of its populationdependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Further, about 70 per cent of the people live inrural areas and more than 40 per cent of the rural population still live below the poverty line.In developing countries like India, the small sized holdings of a large proportion of farmers’are considered as one of the main factors causing rural poverty and hindering agricultural growth. Small holders are able to realize only a part of the production potential due tophysical, technological and institutional constraints. Government of India is committed toprovide employment guarantee to one person from each family of below poverty line in therural areas. Further, in order to control migration of rural poor to urban places, Government of India has been encouraging regular income and employment oriented farming occupation, one such potential farming is sericulture. Sericulture is an important agro based rural industry that helps our economy and generates higher income and employment. It is practiced in a wide range of agro-climatic regions like forests, hilly areas and plains. In fact, the recent technological advancements have made it possible to practise it on an intensive scale, mainly due to increased profits obtained from it as compared to most of the crops and enterprises. According to historians, raw silk was exported from India to Rome during the reign of Kanishka in 58 B.C. During 2006-07 export of Indian silk products earned a foreign exchange of Rs.2463.87 crores. Silk has a place of pride in the social and cultural lives of Indians, since it is superior to other textile fibres in qualities like durability, lustre and low weight. Hence, it is regarded as the “Queen of textiles”. Sericulture has a special place among the agro-based cottage industry of our country. The Government of India initiated various programmes to promote sericulture in the country, following which sericulture took a rapid stride towards progress, emerging as one of the most economically viable, small scale agro based industries. India has the unique distinction of being the only country in the world which produces all the four, known, commercial varieties of silk viz., mulberry, tasar, eri and muga. India is the second largest mulberry silk producing country after the Republic of China in the world accounting for 19 per cent of the total global raw silk production. India holds the world monopoly in the production of muga, the golden yellow silk. In India, during 1980 mulberry

43 area was just 1.55 lakh hectares, it increased to 1.85 lakh hectares during 2004 and silk cocoon production slightly decreased to 1.17 lakh tonnes. During 2006-07, India had produced 16,525 metric tonnes of raw silk of which mulberry silk accounts for about 90 percent. Sericulture industry supported millions of rural people in our country by way of providing employment. The majority of them belong to the economically backward sections of the society, as well as to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and adivasis. Sericulture in India has turned out to be a highly remunerative enterprise with minimum capital base and yielding reasonably good returns vis-à-vis other enterprises. It is one of the most stable enterprises which provides regular flow of returns in the tropical states of the country throughout the year. Sericulture effectively transfers urban wealth to rural producers. It provides not only periodical return within a short period of time but also assure potential family employment opportunities round the year. About 57 per cent of the gross value of silk fabrics flows back to the cocoon growers. Indian silk goods are exported to over fifty countries, important among them being U.S.A., U.K., U.A.E., Italy, Honduras, Spain, Germany, France, Saudi Arabia, and Kong. The foreign exchange earnings from the export of silk are also increasing in the recent years. It was reported that the country earned Rs.2463.87 crores from the export of silk goods during 2006-07. Sericulture industry, concerned with the production of silk, is divided into five phases, viz., cultivation of mulberry, silkworm seed production, rearing of silk worms, reeling of raw silk and weaving of silk. Cultivation of mulberry and rearing of silk worms are farm based activities managed by the silk cocoon producers. Mulberry leaf is the host plant for mulberry silk worm. It is possible to harvest four to six crops per year in tropical areas. Although sericulture has been practiced on small or medium sized holdings in our country, the remunerative returns from sericulture have enabled a few large scale ventures also. Mulberry leaves form the major share of the cost of cocoon production. Production of silk depends upon the quantity and quality of the mulberry leaves produced, and in turn, on cocoons produced. Since sericulture is a state subject, the Government of Karnataka launched intensive programmes like Karnataka Sericulture Project with the assistance from the World Bank to develop sericulture industry in the state. The idea was to expand the production base and to provide a sound infrastructure to the industry. A large chunk of labour is employed in all the sericulture activities and the industry is a boon to the labour-surplus countries like India. Sericulture also employs a sizeable share of women labour. The women participation in sericulture ranges between 55 and 60 per cent. The year 1994 was observed as “The Year of Women in Sericulture”. The area under mulberry and production of silk cocoons in Karnataka during 2006-07 was 97,637 hectares and 58,967 tonnes. Yield gap refers to the difference between the potential yield (Research Station Yield) and actual farm yield (realised on the farmers’ field). Several studies have revealed the existence of wide yield gaps between the potential yield and actual yields. The estimated

44 yield gaps ranged from 30 to 300 per cent. Such wide ranging yield gaps have been attributed to varying resource management and cultural practices. These facts, nevertheless, signify the broad scope for increasing the crop yields through proper application of inputs at the recommended levels and better management practices. It is apparent that for the success of new production technologies, proper resource mix and appropriate cultural practices become prerequisites which are often within the reach of majority of farmers due to a number of techno-economic and institutional reasons. The yield gap analysis is a potent research technique that has been introduced in the 1970s. Developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), it is extensively used to measure and analyse determinants of the yield gaps. The concept of yield gap provides the information base in this regard. This approach has gained widespread popularity with researchers, research administrators and policy makers. The findings of such research have many implications for policy formulation, aimed at alleviating the constraints causing the yield gaps. Yield gaps can be conceptually divided into two components; Gap-I and Gap-II. Gap-I is the gap between experiment stations and the potential farm yield as obtained by an efficient farmer or in demonstration plots, since the conditions in experiment station cannot be duplicated on farmers’ fields. It is hypothesised that yield differences exist between the levels obtained at experiment station and the potential of the same varieties on farmers’ fields. The difference or gap is attributed to environmental differences between the experiment station and farmers’ fields and to non-transferable technology. A gap or difference is also observed between the potential farm yield, (defined as the highest yield that can be obtained on farmers’ fields, using modern technology) and the actual yields obtained by the farmers. This gap, called Gap-II, mostly arises because farmers use inputs or practices other than optimal, resulting in lower yields. This non- optimal use of improved practices may be due to inefficient or inadequate extension activities, besides other physical or socio-economic factors affecting the farming community in the area. It is this gap that is the focus of this study. In India, sericulture has made significant headway in the eighties. This has been mainly because of the introduction of new agricultural technology in the early eighties. However, it has been somewhat uneven. Varying soil and climatic conditions within the regions and different levels of economic conditions among the farming population have tended to cause this distortion. Together with existing disparities, these have led to further widening of the levels of sericultural development between traditional and non-traditional sericultural areas. It is also observed that, even though the production level has increased to a great extent in the recent past; still there exists a wide gap between the actual yield obtained by the rearers and the production level actually possible with the existing modern technology. In the agricultural sector, India, which has exhibited average crop yield of 1040 kg ha-1 for soybean, has still a yield gap index of 78.79 indicating that only 21.21 per cent of existing production potential of soybean is being realised in the country (Bhatia et al., 2006).

45 Similarly in sericulture, such yield gap can be observed. Hence, the crux of the problem of growth in agriculture as well as sericulture is how to increase the output per unit of input and thereby reduce these gaps. One way of approaching the problem of increasing production is to adopt modern inputs and improved technology of production within the farms and examining how efficiently the farmers are using their resources. Since resource use is inefficient, production can be increased by making adjustments in the use of factors of production in the optimal direction. Currently, the problem of concern to all is that, even though the cocoon yield level has increased, there still exists a gap between what is achieved and what could be achieved in cocoon yield among the rearers. The general belief is that, the silkworm rearers are not fully exploiting their resources in order to achieve higher yields. Therefore, an attempt is made to analyse the magnitude of the gaps in attainable cocoon yields and to explore the possibilities of relaxing existing constraints in order to bridge the attainable yield gaps and to assess the efficiency of silkworm rearers in resource use. In this regard the following specific objectives were formulated. Sericulture means cultivation of silkworms which finally produces SILK. The word silk sounds luxury and class. Till today, no other fabric can match it in lustre and elegance. As long as human desire for silk garments continues, the demand for sericulture activity remains. Silk is the queen of textile and the naturally produced animal fibre. Sericulture is an ancient industry in India dating back to at least second century B.C. In its long history sericulture has passed through periods of great prosperity as well as decline. Sericulture involves agriculture, art and industry; silkworm rearing is an art in the hands of rural people; reeling of the silk from the cocoons formed by the worms is an industry ofdifferent financial investiments. Scientific sericulture is the meeting place for agriculture and art, art and industry, ancient culture and civilization, the rich and the poor it reflects the interdependence of these. Silk is a way of life in India. Over thousands of years, it has become an inseperable part of Indian culture and tradition. No ritual is complete without silk being used as a wear in some form or the other. Silk is the undisputed queen of textiles over the centuries. Silk provides much needed work in several developing and labour rich countries. More than 10 million farmers raise silk in China today. Sericulture is a cottage industry par excellence. It is one of the most labour intersive sectors of the Indian economy combining both agriculture and industry, which provides for means of livelihood to a large section of the population i.e. mulberry cultivator, co-operative rearer, silkworm seed producer, farmer-cum-rearer, reeler, twister, weaver, hand spinners of silk waste, traders etc. It is the only one cash crop in agriculture sector that gives returns within 30 days. This industry provides employment nearly to three five million people in our country. Sericulture is cultivated in Karnataka, Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Gujrat, Kerala, Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajastan, Bihar, Orissa etc. In view of its potentiality for job oriented or self employment positions at various levels can be suitable to +2 students after successful completion of vocational sericulture course by providing suitable syllabi with maximum exposure to practical and or field work. With this knowledge and application skills these can enter as entreprenuer or as an employ for effective results in sericulture industry.

46 Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk. Silkworm larvae are fed mulberry leaves, and, after the fourth moult, climb a twig placed near them and spin their silken cocoons. The silk is a continuous-filament fiber consisting of fibroin protein, secreted from two salivary glands in the head of each larva, and a gum called sericin, which cements the two filaments together. The sericin is removed by placing the cocoons in hot water, which frees the silk filaments and readies them for reeling. The immersion in hot water also kills the silkworm pupae. Single filaments are combined to form thread. This thread is drawn under tension through several guides and wound onto reels. The threads may be plied together to form yarn. After drying the raw silk is packed according to quality.

If fashion is a fine art, then silk is its biggest , and if silk is the canvas, then all its weavers, dyers, designers, embroiderers are the greatest artists. Indian silk has enthralled fashion watchers and all categories of consumers across the world with its vast repertoire of motifs, techniques and brilliant hues. India’s traditional and culture bound domestic market and an amazing diversity of silk garments that reflect ‘geographic specificity’ has helped the country to achieve a leading position in silk industry.

Present status: India is the second largest producer of raw silk after China and the biggest consumer of raw silk and silk fabrics. An analysis of trends in international silk production suggests that sericulture has better prospects for growth in the developing countries rather than in the advanced countries. Silk production in temperate countries like Japan, South Korea, USSR etc., is declining steadily not only because of the high cost of labour and heavy industrialization in these countries, but also due to climatic restrictions imposed on mulberry leaf availability that allows only two cocoon crops per annum. Thus, India has a distinct advantage of practicing sericulture all through the year, yielding a stream of about 4 – 6 crops as a result of its tropical climate.

In India, sericulture is not only a tradition but also a living culture. It is a farm-based, labour intensive and commercially attractive economic activity falling under the cottage and small-scale sector. It particularly suits rural-based farmers, entrepreneurs and artisans, as it requires low investment but, with potential for relatively higher returns. It provides income and employment to the rural poor especially farmers with small land- holdings and the marginalized and weaker sections of the society. Several socio- economic studies have affirmed that the benefit-cost ratio in sericulture is highest among comparable agricultural crops.

Currently, the domestic demand for silk, considering all varieties, is nearly 25,000 MTs, of which only around 18,475 MTs (2006-07) is getting produced in the country and the rest being imported mainly from China. Indian domestic silk market has over the years been basically driven by multivoltine mulberry silk. Due to inferior quality of the silk produced, India could not meet the international quality standard. Though, R&D efforts have been made to improve the quality of multivoltine silk, even the best of multivoltine silk produced could not match the bivoltine silk in quality. Therefore, it is essential to enlarge the production base and improve current productivity levels of bivoltine silk to meet the international standards and quality demands of the power loom sector. Steps

47 need to be taken to ensure that export oriented units having automatic state of the art weaving machinery.

Types of silks in India: India is a home to a vast variety of silk secreting fauna which also includes an amazing diversity of silk moths. This has enabled India to achieve the unique distinction of being a producer of all the five commercially traded varieties of natural silks namely, Mulberry, Tropical Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri and Muga. Silk obtained from sources other than mulberry are generally termed as non-mulberry or Vanya silks. The bulk of the commercial silk produced in the world is mulberry silk that comes from the domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori L. which feeds solely on the leaves of the mulberry ( sp.) plant. Tasar silk is copperish in colour, coarse in nature and is mainly used for furnishing and interiors and secreted by the Tropical Tasar silkworm, mylitta which thrives on Asan and Arjun ( sp.). Rearing is done on naturally growing trees in the forests and is the main stay for many tribal communities in the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Oak Tasar is a finer variety of Tasar produced by the temperate Tasar silkworm, Antheraea proylei which feeds on natural oak plants (Quercus sp.) and is found in abundance in the sub-Himalayan . is a silk spun from open-ended cocoons and secreted by the domesticated silkworm, Samia cynthia ricini that feeds mainly on castor leaves. Muga silk is golden yellow in colour and an exclusive produce of India, primarily the state of Assam where it is the preferred attire during festivities. Muga silk is secreted by Antheraea assama that feeds on aromatic leaves of naturally growing Som (Persia bombycina) and Sualu (Litsea polyantha) plants.

Trends in Indian sericulture: Over the last six decades Indian silk industry has registered an impressive growth, both horizontally and vertically. Plans and schemes implemented by central and state agencies and relentless efforts of thousands of dedicated persons in the fields of research and extension have helped in this context. For instance, the age old multivoltine hybrids have been replaced by multivoltine × bivoltine and bivoltine hybrids. The sericulture industry has witnessed a quantum jump in raw silk productivity. The average yield of 25 kgs of cocoons/100 dfls in the recent past has increased and currently the average yields are in the range of 60 – 65 kgs/100 dfls. The new technology, besides doubling yields has also led to qualitative improvements in cocoon production with considerably reduced renditta and has also helped break the climate barrier. The market share of Indian silk exports in the global silk trade is 4 – 5 % which is not significant considering the fact that India is the second largest producer of raw silk. This is because India has a large domestic market for silk goods and about 85 % of silk goods produced are sold in the domestic market. However, India exports approximately 15 % of its output of all types of silk goods (including value-added items). The export of Indian silk products consists of finished goods like fabrics, made-ups, ready-made garments and furnishing materials like curtains, carpets, bed spreads, cushion covers etc. The export of silk products has been showing a steady growth and the export earnings showed a rapid increase during the last decade

48 Indian position in global sericulture: The global raw silk production was around 1,25,605 MTs in the year 2005-06, with China as the major player with 81.65 % share followed by India with around 14 % (Table 3). Though, Indian breeds/hybrids have the potential to produce the same quality, our system of sericulture practices is entirely different from those of the Chinese. The strict maintenance of discipline and better linkage from farmers to weavers, large-scale operation of egg production, reeling and weaving using modern machineries, strict control measures for diseases, uniform adoption of new technologies, supply of required quantity of quality eggs in time to avoid the chances of contamination of young silkworm etc. make the Chinese sericulture more vibrant, economically sound and sustainable. Another area of difference is that the entire production is state controlled with no open marketing/auction systems for silk cocoons and yarns. The comparative statistics (Table 4) indicate the strength of China in the areas of seed production and distribution system, higher unit area productivity and quality thus reducing the costs of production.

Science, Technology and Sericulture

Science and technology is used as an effective instrument of growth and change. It is being brought into the mainstream of economic planning in the sectors of agriculture, industry and services. The country's resources are used to derive the maximum output for the benefit of society and improvement in the quality of life. About 85 % of the funds for S&T come directly or indirectly from the Government. Central Silk Board (CSB), Bangalore under the Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India is the body for overall development of sericulture and silk industry in India. The functions assigned to the Board are to promote development of the silk industry by all appropriate measures like undertaking, assisting and encouraging scientific, technological and economic research, improvement of mulberry cultivation, production and distribution of healthy silkworm seed, production of quality raw silk and promotion of silk market etc. In addition, the board is responsible for advising and reporting to the Govt. of India on all matters relating to the development of the raw silk industry, including the import and export of raw silk. Indian sericulture is not only vast, widely dispersed but also multidisciplinary in nature involving silkworm seed sector, cocoon sector (cultivation of food plants and silkworm rearing) and post cocoon sector (silk reeling, spinning, twisting, processing and weaving). Therefore, Central Silk Board, recently, is coordinating and implementing collaborative research activities in association with National level R&D Institutions, State Sericulture Research and Development Institutes, Universities, Department of Science and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, CSIR/ICAR/IARI/IITs/IIMs and other Private and International Research and Development Institutions to promote applied research and development of appropriate technology towards attaining higher quality and productivity levels of Indian silk. R&D achievements of CSB like technologies patented and commercialized are given in Table 5 and discussed below:

Mulberry Improvement

49 1. High yielding mulberry varieties like V-1 (leaf yield-70MT/ha/yr), G-4 (9% more than V-1); G-2 and G-5 (20% - 30% more than existing S36 i.e., 45MT/ha/yr).

2. Moisture stress rainfed improved mulberry varieties like AR-10 and AR-11 (15- 20 % more yield than existing S-13 i.e., 10-12MT/ha/yr), C-1730 (leaf yield-13.3 MT/ha/yr and suitable to red lateratic soil of West Bengal)

3. Alkaline and saline tolerant improved mulberry varieties like AR-12 and AR-14 (alkaline tolerant; 15-20% more yield than existing S-34), C776 (saline tolerant with yield potential 37/MT/ha/yr suitable for West Bengal).

4. Water stress triploid mulberry variety like S-1635 during rainy season in high rainfall areas of West Bengal and Assam. It has a potential to yield 6225 kg/ha/crop.

5. Shade tolerant mulberry variety like K2 x Kosen for cultivation under mulberry- coconut tree intercropping with potential yield of around 44 MT/ha/yr.

6. Low fertilizer input and better yield mulberry varieties like RC1 and RC2 (low fertilizer inputs i.e., 50% fertilizers and 40 % irrigation and 10 – 20 % more leaf yield than V1 variety).

7. Low cost tender mulberry shoot propagation using dried sugarcane leaf in place of white polythene sheet as cover. Under the “Development of economically viable module of mulberry plantation” intercropping with Lentil recorded a maximum yield with a return of Rs. 10,800/crop.

Mulberry Productivity

1. Paired row system [(90 +150) x 60 cm] of mulberry propagation with 350:140:140 Kg NPK/ha/yr and 20 MT/ha of FYM under irrigated condition for higher leaf productivity and improvement in leaf quality.

2. Moisture conservation technique of mulberry propagation with 90 x 90 cm spacing and NPK @ 100:50:50 Kg/ha/yr for improved the leaf quality and higher yield. Evaluation of micro-jet system recorded an optimum yield of 64 MT/ha/yr, followed by micro-tubing systems (63 MT/ha/yr) like PC Dripper and in-line system of drip irrigation to save 40% irrigation water.

50 3. Package of practices for the cultivation of mulberry in alkaline soils like 90 x 90 cm plant spacing, application of 40 MT press mud and fertilizer at 250:120:90 kg NPK/ha/yr.

4. ‘In-situ’ vermi-compost supplemented with 50% recommended dose of NPK fertilizer to improve soil organic carbon content without affecting leaf yield and leaf quality.

5. Application of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus megatherium) along with rock phosphate to mulberry garden to increase leaf yield by 1.8 MT/ha/yr with a net saving of Rs. 1745/ha/yr towards phosphate fertilizer cost.

6. Application of Azotobacter biofertilizer supplemented with 50% nitrogenous fertilizer along with foliar application of n-Triacontanol twice @ 125 ml/ 600 lt. water. The leaf productivity remained on par with full dose application of nitrogen fertilizer application. The cost benefit ratio of 1:1.98 indicates the positive response of the technology. Over 32 thousand farmers recorded an average increase in leaf yield by 15-20 %.

7. ‘Seri-boost’- Triacontanol based micronutrient formulation for spaying (@ 2.5 ml/l water twice per crop) to enhance leaf yield by 10-15%. Inoculation of Vesicular - Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) fungi to mulberry roots to help supplementation of phosphate fertilizers by 75%. Spraying of plant growth regulators like Maleic hydrazide (MH) and 2 - Chloroethyl trimethyl ammonium chloride @ 5 to 100 ppm to improve leaf yield by 2-10% marginally.

Mulberry Protection

1. ‘Raksha’ (Trichoderma harzianum) to control the root rot disease.

2. ‘Nursery-Guard’ (Trichoderma pseudokoningii) to prevent nursery disease.

3. ‘Bionema’ (Verticillium chlamydosporium) to reduce root knot disease.

4. Neem formulation to suppress leaf roller infestation.

5. Acaciacide (an eco-friendly bio-nematicide) to reduce root gall and incidence of tukra disease.

6. Ethanolic extracts of Eucalyptus to supressMyrothecium leaf spot disease.

51 7. Aqueous ethanolic extracts of two Cassia species to reduce powdery mildew disease.

8. Eco-friendly technology involving a bio-nematicide and neem oil cake for the control of root knot nematode disease results to increase leaf yield and additional income of Rs. 7300/ha/yr.

9. Growth promoting bacteria ‘Azotobacter chroococcum’, ‘Bacillus megaterium’ and ‘Pseudomonas fluorescens’ toinduce systemic resistance in mulberry against leaf spot and leaf rust diseases.

Integrated Pest Management and Disease Control

1. Cost-effective integrated package comprising of biological agents (Cryptolaemus montrouzierie), mechanical removal of affected parts and chemical measures (0.2 % DDVP) for effective management of mealy bug causing tukra – a serious disease results in a leaf yield loss up to 30 %. Adoption of IPM in three southern sericulture states, covering 1105 ha of mulberry plantation led to 67% pest suppression and 62% disease loss.

2. IPM for management of Leaf roller (Diaphania pulverulentalis) includes spraying of DDVP and release of egg Trichogramma chilonis and pupal Trichogramma howardii.

3. IPM for management of Whitefly (Bemisia spp) includes use of chemical pesticides and botanicals like 0.05% Acephate, 0.05% Monocrotophos, 1% Rakshak and 0.1% Dichlorvos as well as release of natural predators of whitefly viz., Brumoides suturalis, discolor, Micraspis crocea and Serengium persesstosum to reduce pest population below economic threshold Limit up to 14 days.

Silkworm Improvement

1. Productive Bivoltine hybrids like CSR2 x CSR4 and CSR2 x CSR5 (shell ratio- >23.0%; raw silk -19-20%; average cocoon yield- 70-80kg /100 dfls; renditta-5.2 to 5.5 and silk grade-3A to 4A), CSR12 x CSR6, CSR3 x CSR6, CSR16 x CSR17, CSR3 x CSR6 and CSR16 x CSR17 (average cocoon yield of 60-70kg /

52 100; raw silk-18- 20% and silk grade-2A to 3A) for commercial exploitation during favorable months during September to February.

2. Robust Bivoltine hybrids of relatively temperature tolerant like CSR18 x CSR19 and Chamaraja (survival- >80 % @ 36±1°C; average cocoon yield-60 – 70 kg/100 dfls; renditta- 5.5 to 6.0 and silk grade- 2A to 3A) for rearing throughout the year.

3. Double hybrid for high egg recovery like (CSR6 x CSR26) x (CSR2 x CSR27) for rearing foundation crosses at P1 level for high egg recovery (10 –15 % more).

4. Bivoltine hybrid for longer filament like CSR48 x CSR5 (filament length- >1300m; thin filament size-2.45d; relatively tolerant to high temperature-77% survival @ 36±1°C and 85±5% RH; low boil-off loss-23.8%).

5. Productive bivoltine hybrids with high silk content like CSR21 x CSR16 (raw silk: 20.9%; survival- >80% @ 36 ±1°C and 85±5 % RH; high level of cocoon uniformity- SD 7.2 and low boil-off ratio-23.6%).

6. Bivoltine hybrid of shorter larval duration and superior characters like SD7 x SD12 (larval duration-28 h; pupation rate- >90%, cocoon weight- 2.076 g and shell ratio- 24.4%).

7. Bivoltine hybrid of superior characters like CSR48 x CSR5 of thin filament size, CSR2A x CSR4A and BL-67A x CSR 101 for artificial diet during chawki worm stages, 1HT x 7HT, 2HT x 6HT and 8HT x 5HT tolerant to high temperature (36±10C), high humidity (85±5 %) and resistance to BmNPV and BmIFV @ 1x105 PBOs/ml. The above hybrids are characterized with superior qualitative and quantitative characters like higher cocoon yield, higher renditta and gradable silk etc.

8. Productive Multivoltine x Bivoltine hybrids like Cauvery and Jayalakshmi (average cocoon yield- 60-70 kg/100 dfls; survival-90-95 %; shell ratio- 20 - 22%; renditta- 5-6; silk grade- 2A to 3A) for commercial exploitation under irrigated areas throughout the year.

9. Region specific productive Multivoltine x Bivoltine hybrids like BL23 x NB4D2 (26 kg /100 dfls with 8.5 renditta) under rain fed and BL24 x NB4D2 (47 kg /100 dfls and 7.5-8 renditta) under irrigated condition with gradable silk of 3A.

10. Season specific productive Multivoltine x Bivoltine hybrids like for spring season (CSR6 x Pam101, Pam101 x A70, RSJ13 x RSJ15 and RSJ14 x RSJ11), summer

53 season (Pam 111 x B72 and A70 x CSR6), and autumn season (A70 x CSR6, Pam 112 x A60, RSJ3 x RSJ1 and RSJ3 x RSJ4).

11. Sex limited Multivoltine x Bivoltine hybrids like PM x CSR8 (SL) for separation of male / female pupa through cocoon color in grainages. Four sex-limited colored bivoltine breeds viz., SL4, SL5, SL6 and SL7 for better productive traits like >90 percentage pupation and 22% SR this male Bivoltine component with multivoltine females minimizes the production cost of Cross Breed layings.

Silkworm Productivity

1. Multi-bivoltine hybrids of higher feed conversion efficiency like BL68 x CSR5.

2. Promising Bivoltine hybrids with higher performance at field level like CSR2 x CSR5, CSR2 x CSR4 and CSR18 x CSR19 (average cocoon yield- 56 and 70 kg/100 dfls; renditta- 6-6.5; silk grade- 2A – 4A).

3. Evaluation of season specific hybrids showed maximum shell ratio of 23.63% in CSR2 x YS3 out of 113 hybrids reared during spring 2001; and Pam109 x KY1 recorded maximum shell ratio of 22.13% out of 91 reared in autumn. Among the multivoltine hybrids evolved, hybrids namely Sharavati, Cauvery and Tippu have a potential to yield about 70 kg/100 dfls with a filament length of 900 m and silk grade of 2A-3A.

4. Application of Phyto-ecdysteroid on CSR hybrids to shorten rearing period and completes spinning within 18 hr after mounting against 26 to 47 hr under normal rearing conditions.

5. Semi synthetic artificial diet for rearing young age silkworms.

6. Improved Tropical Bivoltine silkworm rearing technology package for young and late age worms together with proper incubation method for successful crop.

Silkworm Protection

1. Sandwich ELISA assay for detection of pebrine spores up to a concentration of 10 4 /ml. using polyclonal antibodies (from Rabbit) and monoclonal antibodies (from mouse) MA-575.

54 2. Silkworm body disinfectant like ‘Vijetha’, ‘Vijetha Supplement’ and ‘Resham Jyothi’ to prevent disease outbreak.

3. ‘Uzicide’ - an ovicide against Uzi fly and ‘Uzi trap’ - a chemical formulation to trap the adult to control the menace of uzi (a major pest of silkworm) infestation.

4. IPM technology package for the control of Uzi fly through Nesolynx thymus along with Uzicide and Uzitrap. Dermestid causing damage to seed cocoons in grainages be controlled by mechanical removal of grubs / adults and spraying Deltamethrin (0.03%) in the cocoon storage rooms. An insecticidal based chalk stick developed against ant attack in rearing house.

5. Simple staining technique for effective detection of intermediary stages of N. bombycis(Pebrine spores) in larval mid-gut tissue.

6. Eco-friendly and biodegradable chemical based bed disinfectants utilizing 7 plant products and 4 eco-friendly products for effective management of common pathogens of silkworm.

Silkworm Rearing Technology Innovation

1. Egg transportation bag provides optimum environmental conditions during transportation of silkworm eggs.

2. Low cost incubation device for the incubation of silkworm eggs.

3. Loose egg incubation frame toprovide optimum environmental conditions duringincubation for loose eggs, these frames are also useful during incubation, black boxing and brushing. Adopted in all NSSP / DOS grainages engaged in bivoltine egg production.

4. Blue polythene sheet during chawki rearing to reduce leaf drayage and reduce leaf input cost.

5. Wrap up method to avoid moisture loss (all four sides of the paraffin paper are folded from the rearing bed to increase humidity by 15-20%). This technique gives an additional 3-4 kg more cocoons per 100 dfls at no extra cost.

55 6. A simple device for preservation of chawki leaf (made of a rectangular bamboo tray, bamboo mat and a central funnel) in which chawki leaves can preserve for 10-12 hours without any deterioration in leaf quality and leaf drayage.

7. Plastic bottlebrush mountage to help silkworm to mount itself thereby save 40% time towards labour.

8. Jobarai method of mounting to save 20% time towards labour for mounting silkworms manually and harvest quality cocoons.

9. Nylon net rearing technique for tasar silkworm larvae has been devised.

Innovations in Sericultural Machines

1. Mulberry Pruning Machine attached to power tiller to prune 15 cm dia. stumps from one acre of mulberry plantation in 5 hr.

2. Machine for preparation of Cuttings to facilitate quick preparation of cuttings @ 2000 cuttings/ hour.

3. Shoot crushing Machine to crush shoots into small bits / pieces @ 250 – 300 kg shoots/ hour.

4. Litter separator machine for separation of left over leaves and litter for use in biogas plant.

5. Cocoon De-flossing Machine to de-floss cocoons @ 60 kg/day against manual de-flossing of 10 – 12 kg/day.

6. Powder to dust disinfectants over silkworm body in prevention of silkworm diseases.

Non-Mulberry Host plant and Silkworm

1. Standardization and recommendation of micro propagation technique for cultivation. Six strains of Antherea proylei was evolved and 82 genotypes of Terminalia arjuna and T. tomentosa were screened for genetic selection of high yielding ones.

56 2. Survey and collection of wild tasar cocoons from various eco-regions of Bihar yielded five promising eco-races. 9 biotypes, 4 evolved lines and 3 mutant lines were evolved based on Blue, Yellow and Almond colour. Raily, Modal and Daba as well as 3 hybrid combinations Sarihan x Laria, Sarihan x Daba and Laria x Modal were identified as best hybrids for most of the commercial characters.

3. Adoption of seed cocoon selection procedure and use of cooling device to reduce preservation loss upto 14.8% in Trivoltine [TV] and 21.1% in Bivoltine [BV] breeds. The mating percentage of moths rose to 93.9% in Trivoltine [TV] and 94.7% in Bivoltine [BV]. Overall, the egg production increased to 49.3% in TV and 60.1% in BV.

4. Egg laying nylon bag where the average ovipositor period is 178 hr and fecundity of 48 hr. Female moth preservation frame designed and fabricated to prevent pre-mating ovipositor, up to 20 hr without any loss of eggs.

5. New moth examination technique for pebrine detection through pricking method developed over the conventional method of moth crushing and discarding.

6. Integrated Tasar Rearing Technology Package includes incubation, brushing of neonate larvae, feeding and guarding young and late age larvae against diseases, pest and predators.

7. Ideal grainage house and techniques for Tasar egg production.

8. Tasar Keet ousadh for control of Tasar silkworm disease was developed.

9. Comprehensive package for chawki garden maintenance to enhance production.

10. Sun-pack collapsible mountages for indoor cocoon spinning for quality cocoons.

11. Foliar spray with desired level of bacteria during rearing consistently to reduce virosis and bacteriosis and significant gain in effective rate of rearing.

12. Neem based compound (Azadiractin) against pest of silkworm larvae.

13. Integrating cultural, mechanical and active compound of neem derivatives as suitable control measures against major defoliators of primary tasar food plants.

14. Biological control measure against Uzi fly includes - nucleus culture of N. thymus,Tetrastichus howardi, Trichopria spp., Dirhinus spp. and Brachymeria lasus maintained on the puparia of uzi fly.

57 15. Nursery technique for raising of som (Machilus bombycina) seedlings.

16. Oviposite device for muga silkworms.

Post Cocoon Technology

1. Biopril-50 a substitute for dry reeling reeled on Tasar Reeling Charkha (TRC); spinning of tasar silk waste, blends with the fibers on pedal spinning wheel and NMC along with improved preparatory processes of weaving were transferred for commercial use.

2. Standardization of tasar cocoon processing / cooking technologies of different commercial cocoons on TRC and Motorized /Pedal operated reeling cum twisting machine.

3. Multi-fuel smokeless economic oven reeling machine an improved charaka and multi-end reeling machine capable of producing gradable silk of A-B grade.

4. Silk knitted fabrics in light and medium weight range in all silk and combination of Silk-Cotton and Silk-Modal yarn. The blends have silk on the face of the fabric and cotton or modal yarn on the inside/back of the fabric, combining the luxury of silk and comfort of cotton, at the same time reducing the cost of the fabric substantially.

5. Dupion silk reeling machine and technology package for production of superior grade dupion raw silk (CSTRI, Bangalore). The advantages of the new dupion silk reeling technology are-higher renditta in multivoltine cocoons, less de-gumming loss, improve quality character of dupion raw silk produced and economics of the technology indicate profitability than that of conventional technology. These models can cater the needs of small-scale charka reelers and reelers who have better facilities like boiler and cooking equipments.

6. Bivoltine silk reeling technology package to produce International grade raw silk suitable to Indian conditions. In addition, long skein book making machine, reel permeation chamber, stationery pressurized cooking and pressing disc etc. developed by CSTRI, Bangalore demonstrated in the reeling units.

Seri-Biotechnology

58 1. Identification of DNA marker for NPV resistance in silkworm through multi- institutional net work project (CDFD, Hyderabad and CSB/state level institutions).

2. Identification of DNA markers linked to QTLs (cocoon weight and cocoon shell weight) through collaborative project. Code for anti-viral (BmNPV) protein partially characterized.

3. Genetic linkage map for the silkworm established employing 518 simple sequence repeat or microsatellite markers.

4. Large numbers of Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) have been made available to the scientific community (as India joined “International Consortium on Lepidoperon Genomics”) both for mulberry and non-mulberry silk.

5. High yielding productive silkworm hybrids (viz., Swarnandhra, Hemavathy and Kalpavatharavu) developed using DNA marker technology and released to farmers of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

6. Luciferase and green fluorescent proteins were successfully expressed utilizing silkworm as a bioreactor (Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore).

7. Process for degumming of silk with fungal protease enzyme has been standardized and found economically viable without chemical hazardous.

8. Mapping populations of mulberry for water use efficiency and genotyping of trait-specific mapping population of mulberry is under progress.

9. Transgenic mulberry lines with HVA-1 gene for abiotic stress tolerance have been developed (University of Delhi). Field evaluation has been initiated jointly with sericulture institute

Indian Silk Fabric:

India is the second largest producer of silk after China and the largest consumer of silk in the world. As per the 2001-02 records, India produced 17550 MT of silk.

59 Types of Silk Fabric :

There are innumerable varieties of silk moths, but only four main types of commercially valuable natural silk:

Mulberry silk Tasar silk: This is a copperish colored silk. It is coarse and is used mainly for furnishings. It is produced by the silkworm Antheraea mylitta , which mainly thrives on the plants Asan and Arjun. It is reared on trees in the open. Muga silk: This is a golden yellow colored silk that is produced in Assam. It is obtained from the semi-domesticated silkworm, Antheraea assamensis which feeds on the aromatic leaves of Som and Soalu plants. Eri silk: This is got from the domesticated silkworm, Philosamia ricini that feeds mainly on castor leaves. The eri cocoons are open-mouthed.

In India, mulberry silk is produced in many states such as Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir and West Bengal. The other types of silk are produced in Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa and the north-eastern states.

There are a wide variety of silk textiles made from these four kinds of natural silk. These may be handwoven or woven in power . In the mulberry silk variety, some of these silk fabrics are:

Plain silk : This variety of silk textile may be produced on both the hand loom and the powerloom. Available in various shades and patterns, and an entire range of qualities. : This is a very thin silk cloth that is made of highly twisted yarn. Crepe : This silk textile is woven from‘s' and ‘z' twisted yarn. The crepe sarees of Mysore are very beautiful. Satin : An extremely elegant type of mulberry silk fabric. Banarasi satin sarees are very popular. Matka silk : A thick kind of silk fabric, used for furnishing. By varying the amount of yarn used, the texture and thickness may be modified. It is produced in Bhagalpur in India. Murshidabad silk : Produced in the Murshidabad district of West Bengal, this type of silk cloth is used to make sarees and scarves. It is available in varying qualities. Dupion : This type of Indian silk fabric, is a specialty of the handlooms in Bangalore, India. It is available in a number of shades; and used for both garments as well as soft furnishings. Charka silk : This is a thick variety of silk from India that is used to make zari sarees. It is woven on a handloom. Chiffon : A very soft and light variety of silk fabric, it is made of highly twisted yarn that is woven on a power loom. It is a very thin, but strong fabric. Chinnon : This is a very soft and crimped silk textile. It is woven of twisted yarn on a power loom. Tabby silk : This variety is produced in Kashmir and is used to make sarees and scarves.

60 Silks of India: Silk has been intermingled with the life and culture of the Indians. Though India is producing all the varieties of silk i.e., dress materials, scarves/stoles, readymade garments, etc., the silk sarees are unique. The saree is almost synonymous with the word silk. It is the traditional costume of Indian woman since time immemorial. There are innumerable references in Indian literature about this draped garment and the style of wearing differs from time to time, region to region and people to people. The silk sarees of India are among the living examples of the excellent craftsmanship of the weavers of the country.

The artistic and aesthetic sense of Indian weavers is not content with striking colours they choose for the fabrics, but lies in their mastery over the creation of floral designs, beautiful textures, fine geometry and the durability of such work. The weaver not only weaves with yarn but with intense feeling and emotion. In India, there are a number of silk weaving centers spread all over the country, known for their distinct and typical style and products. For Indians, particularly ladies, silk is lifeline - the elixir. Silk is always woven interwoven with way of life and culture of a region. Craftsmen all over the Indian sub-continent tried to master the weaving of sarees as exclusive as one can think of, putting motif designs, colours, pattern and versatility in them. No two sarees can be of same design left to the choice of weaver, thus there is innumerable pattern or diversity. Over the years, specific centres sprung and developed to promote a particular pattern of design / weaving and they became distinct

Brocades of banaras: Situated on the banks of the holy river Ganges, Varanasi is famous for its finest silk sarees and brocades. These sarees are known for rich and intricately woven motifs of leaf, flowers, fruits, birds, etc. on a soft colour background. They are enriched with intricate borders and heavily decorated pallus. The centre is also known for its gauzi silver and gold tissues, which are ultra light in weight and delicate. The kinkab of Banaras is legendary. It is a glittering weave of gold and silver threads. The pure silk with a touch of gold is called bafta and the finely woven brocade of variegated silk is known as Amru.

The resist dyeing techniques has been practiced in India since centuries. There are two distinct traditions in this technique. The patola or ikat technique involves the dyeing of the tie-resist yarn. The bandhej or bandhini involves the dyeing of the fabric.

The ikats of Orissa: The tie and dye weaves of Orissa known as ikats employ the yarn resist method for both warp and weft with diffused effect. But the overall pattern is boldly articulated as in confident strikes of a brush. Both mulberry and tasar silks are used in the weaving of these ikats.

The patolas are known for their precision subtlety and beauty. Here, both warp and weft are dyed by dye resist method in a range of five or six traditional colours like red, indigo,

61 blue, emerald green, black or yellow. The exact and highly skilled process ensures that when the fabric is woven, the design will appear precisely and create a magnificently coloured and figured ground of great richness and beauty with birds, flowers, animals, dancers, etc. in a geometrically stylized perfection. In bandhej or bandhini, the finely woven fabric is knotted tightly and dyed to achieve a distinct design. The sarees, odhnis (veils) and turbans of these regions are a medley of brilliant colours. The bandhini of Kutch is unmatched for their fineness of the minutely tied knots, the magnificence of the colours and the perfect designs.

The tanchoi brocade was named after the three Parsi brothers called choi who learnt this art in China and introduced it to Surat. The choi brocade is usually a dark satin weave, purple or dark red in ground colour, embellished with motifs of flowers, creepers, birds all over design.

South India is the leading silk producing area of the country also known for its famous silk weaving enclaves like Kancheepuram, Dharmavaram, Arni, etc. While the temple towns like Kancheepuram are renowned for their magnificent heavy silk sarees of bright colours with silver or gold zari works, the centers like Bangalore and Mysore are known for their excellent printed silks.

The traditional handloom silks always score over the powerloom silks in the richness of their textures and designs, in their individuality, character and classic beauty. Handloom weaving remains a symbol of versatility and creativity of living craft. Today, Indian silks, especially the handloom products, remain the most beautiful and cherished the world over.

Mulberry area Cocoon production Mulberry foliage is the only food for the silkworm (Bombyx mori) and is grown under varied climatic conditions ranging from temperate to tropical. Mulberry leaf is a major economic component in sericulture since the quality and quantity of leaf produced per unit area have a direct bearing on cocoon harvest. In India, most states have taken up sericulture as an important agro-industry with excellent results. The total area of mulberry in the country is around 282 244 ha. The details of the area under mulberry cultivation in different states in India is shown below

Area under mulberry in different states

State Area (ha)

Andhra Pradesh 38 084

62 Assam 2 813

Jammu & Kashmir 4 717

Karnataka 166 000

Kerala 1 164

Madhya Pradesh 2 043

Manipur *25 975

Tamil Nadu 9 491

Uttar Pradesh 5 665

West Bengal 21 358

Other 4 934

SPECIES AND VARIETIES UNDER CULTIVATION: There are about 68 species of the genus Morus. The majority of these species occur in Asia, especially in China (24 species) and Japan (19). Continental America is also rich in its Morus species. The genus is poorly represented in Africa, Europe and the Near East, and it is not present in Australia.

In India, there are many species of Morus, of which Morus alba, M. indica. M. serrata and M. laevigata grow wild in the Himalayas. Several varieties have been introduced belonging to M. multicaulis, M. nigra, M. sinensis and M. philippinensis. Most of the Indian varieties of mulberry belong to M. indica.

63 In China there are 15 species, of which four species, Morus alba, M. multicaulis, M. atropurpurea and M. mizuho are cultivated for sericulture. In the former M. multicaulis, M. alba, M. tartarica and M. nigra are present.

Though mulberry cultivation is practised in various climates, the major area is in the tropical zone covering Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states, with about 90 percent. In the sub-tropical zone, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh and the northeastern states have major areas under mulberry cultivation. The details of the mulberry varieties under cultivation in different states of India is given in Table 2.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Mulberry is a fast growing deciduous woody perennial plant. It has a deep root system. The leaves are simple, alternate, stipulate, petiolate, entire or lobed. The number of lobes varies from one to five. Plants are generally dioecious. Inflorescence is catkin with pendent or drooping peduncle bearing unisexual flowers. Inflorescence is always auxiliary. Male catkins are usually longer than the female catkins. Male flowers are loosely arranged and after shedding the pollen, the inflorescence dries and falls off. These are four persistent parianth lobes and four stamens implexed in bud. Female inflorescence is usually short and the flowers are very compactly arranged. There are four persistent parianth lobes. The ovary is one-celled and the stigma is bifid. The chief pollinating agent in mulberry is wind. Mulberry fruit is a sorosis, mainly violet black in colour.

Most of the species of the genus Morus and cultivated varieties are diploid, with 28 chromosomes. However, triploids (2n=(3x)=42) are also extensively cultivated for their adaptability, vigorous growth and quality of leaves.

Climatic requirements

Mulberry thrives under various climatic conditions ranging from temperate to tropical located north of the equator between 28° N and 55°N latitude. The ideal range of temperature is from 24 to 28°C. Mulberry grows well in places with an annual rainfall ranging from 600 to 2 500 mm. In areas with low rainfall, growth is limited through moisture stress, resulting in low yields. On average, mulberry requires 340m3/ha of water every ten days in case of loamy soils and 15 days in clayey soils. Atmospheric humidity in the range of 65-80 percent is ideal for mulberry growth. Sunshine is one of the important factors controlling growth and leaf quality. In the tropics, mulberry grows with a sunshine range of nine to 13 hours a day. Mulberry can be cultivated from sea level up to an elevation of 1 000 m.

MULBERRY CULTIVATION IN SOUTH INDIA UNDER RAINFED CONDITIONS

Suitable mulberry varieties

Kanva-2, S-13 and S-34 varieties are recommended for rainfed (rainfall: 500-800 mm) regions of South India (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu).

64 Kanva-2. Belongs to Morus indica. Diploid. Widely cultivated in Southern India. Selection from natural population of Mysore local variety. Inflorescence and sorosis: female, profuse flowering, many soroses. Production characteristics: medium leaf maturity, yields about 30 to 35 tonnes/ha/year under irrigated conditions. Leaf moisture content 70 percent, protein content 21 percent and sugar content 11.5 percent. High rooting ability (80 percent) and wide adaptability. Resistant to leaf spot. Moderately resistant to leaf rust and powdery mildew.

S-13. Belongs to M. indica. Selection from open pollinated hybrids of Kanva-2. Recommended for rainfed areas of South India during 1990. Inflorescence: male, profuse flowering. Production characteristics: yields 8-12 tonnes/ha/year under rainfed conditions, depending on rainfall. Moisture content 70.6 percent protein content 24.3 percent and sugar content 13.8 percent. Resistant to leaf spot and powdery mildew, moderately resistant to leaf rust and tukra infestation.

S-34. Belongs to M. indica Diploid. Selection from progeny of S30 x Berc 776. Recommended during 1990 for rainfed areas with black cotton soils of South India. Inflorescence and sorosis: male, profuse flowering, occasionally few soroses. Production characteristics: under rainfed conditions, yields about 15 tonnes/ha/year. Moisture content 70 percent, crude protein content 23.7 percent. Soluble sugar content 13.2 percent. Resistant to powdery mildew and leaf rust. Moderately resistant to leaf spot and susceptible to tukra infestation.

Establishment of mulberry

Land Preparation. Land for mulberry cultivation is ploughed deep with a heavy mould board plough up to a depth of 30-35 cm. Thereafter the land is repeatedly ploughed two or three times with a country plough to bring the soil to a fine tilth. The land should be properly levelled. A basal dose of welldecomposed farmyard manure (FYM) or compost is applied at the rate of 10 tonnes/ha and thoroughly incorporated into the soil.

Spacing. The spacing commonly followed for a rainfed garden is 90 x 90 cm Pits of 35 x 35 cm are prepared. About 1 kg FYM/pit should be added.

Stakes and planting. Branches of 8-10 months old and about 50 mm in diameter should be used for the preparation of stakes of 22-25 cm length with five to six healthy buds. Three stakes are planted per pit in a triangular form with a spacing of 15 cm, leaving only one bud exposed above soil surface. If planting is done with saplings, then one sapling is sufficient perpit. Planting should be done during June/July after the onset of the monsoon.

Intercultivation: During the first year, intercultivation should be done manually. Once mulberry plants are established, bullock ploughing is carried out.

Fertilization: 50N:25P:25K (kg/ha/year) in two doses. First dose: suphala (15:15:15) 167 kg, after 2 months of planting. Second dose: urea 55 kg or cam (100 kg) or ammonium

65 sulfonate (125 kg), at end of September or early October before cessation of monsoon rains.

Pruning and leaf harvest. The first crop should be harvested six months after plantation when the mulberry is well established. Two more crops are harvested during the first year by the leaf picking method. Mulberry should be pruned after one year at the onset of the next monsoon. Pruning is done by sharp sickle or pruning saw at a height of 25-30 cm from the ground.

Green manuring and mulching. Green manure crops can be grown as an intercrop with mulberry during the monsoon only. Green manure crops (cowpea, horse gram, dhaincha) should be incorporated into soil by ploughing before the flowering starts and well before the rains cease. Subsequently, plots may be mulched with any dry material or plants that will not cause needs.

Maintenance under rainfed conditions (second year onwards)

Recommended inputs (per ha per year) for gardens maintained under rainfed conditions at a spacing of 90 cm x 90 cm:

 FYM or compost, 10 tonness in a single dose at the onset of monsoon

 Azotobacter biofertilizer, 4 kg/crop, twice a year (during rainy season)

 VAM inoculum, 1 000 kg, once in mulberry lifespan (inoculation through maize rootlets)

 Suphala, 167 kg, first crop

 Single super phosphate, 156 kg, first crop

 Muriate of potash, 42 kg, first crop

 Urea (55 kg) or cam (100 kg), third crop

 Green manuring, 15 kg

Crops such as horse gram, cowpea, sun hemp and dhaincha should be incorporated into the soil by ploughing before flowering and cessation of the monsoon.

Leaf harvest. Individual leaf harvesting should be carried out. The expected yield (tonnes/ha/year) for different varieties is: Kanva-2, 10-12; S-13, 14-15; S-34, 14-15.

CULTIVATION IN SOUTH INDIA UNDER IRRIGATED CONDITION

66 Suitable mulberry varieties

Kanva-2, S-36, S-54, DD, MR-2 (especially in Tamil Nadu) and Victoria-1 varieties are recommended for irrigated conditions.

Kanva-2. Belongs to M. indica. Diploid. Widely cultivated in southern India after it was recommended for cultivation in 1969 by CSRTI (Mysore). Selection from natural population of Mysore local variety. Inflorescence and sorosis: Female, profuse flowering, many soroses. Production characteristics: Medium leaf maturity, yields 30-35 tonnes/ha/year under irrigated conditions. Leaf moisture content 70 percent, protein content 21 percent and sugar content 11.5 percent. Resistant to leaf spot. Moderately resistant to leaf rust and powdery mildew. High rooting ability (80 percent) and wide adaptability.

S-36. Belongs to M. indica. Developed at CSRTI and recommended during 1984. Evolved from Berhampore local by chemical mutagenesis. Cultivated in southern India. Moderate rooting ability. Production characteristics: yields 38-45 tonnes/ha/year under assured irrigated conditions of South India. Moisture content 76 percent, CP 22 percent and carbohydrate content 28 percent. Tolerant to leaf spot and powdery mildew. Moderately susceptible to leaf rust and to tukra infestation. Most suited to young age silkworm rearing. Sapling plantation recommended because of moderate rooting ability.

S-54. Belongs to M. indica. Developed at CSRTI and recommended during 1984. Selected from Berhampore local by chemical mutagenesis (EMS). Recommended for assured irrigated conditions of South India. Production characteristics: yields about 45 tonnes/ha/year under assured irrigated conditions. Highly responsive to agronomical input. Moisture content of leaf 70.5 percent, CP 23.9 percent and sugar content 13.8 percent. Moderately resistant to powdery mildew and leaf rust and resistant to leaf spot. Loses moisture very quickly. Good rooting ability.

DD. Selected from natural population of Dehra Dun variety and recommended by Karnataka State Sericultural Research and Development Institute, Thalaghattapura. Recommended for southern India. Morphology: erect, thin branches, coarse leaves, greenish grey bark. Lower branches spreading, leaves unlobed, big size, ovate shape. Yields 35-40 tonnes/ha/year under assured irrigation conditions.

MR-2. Belongs to M. sinensis. Diploid. Selection from open pollinated hybrid population. Developed at CSRTI and recommended for propagation in Tamil Nadu. Mainly cultivated in Tamil Nadu under both irrigated conditions in the plains and rainfed conditions in hilly regions. Production characteristics: yields 30-35 tonnes/ha/year under irrigated conditions of Tamil Nadu. Moisture content 68 percent, protein content 23.2 percent, sugar content 13.2 percent (Fig. 7). Resistant to powdery mildew disease. Suitable for hilly areas.

Victoria-1 (V-1). Belongs to M. indica. Recently developed from a cross of S-30 and Berc 776 at CSRTI. Recommended during 1996 for assured irrigated conditions. Flower: male, profuse flowering, occasionally few soroses. Production characteristics: yields about 70

67 tonnes/ha/year under assured irrigated conditions. Very high sprouting. Moisture content 78.9 percent and 72.5 percent in young and matured leaves respectively, protein content 24.6 percent and total sugar content 16.98 percent. Moderately resistant to leaf rust and tukra infestation and resistant to leaf spot. Quick sprouting ability and very high rooting ability (> 94 percent) high photosynthetic rate and higher water use efficiency are additional advantages. Moreover, leaves are suitable for both young and grown bivoltine silkworm rearing.

Establishment of mulberry

Selection of site. Mulberry flourishes well in soils that are flat, deep, fertile, well drained, loamy to clayey, and porous with a good moisture holding capacity. The ideal range of soil pH is 6.2 to 6.8. Mulberry can be grown in saline, alkaline and acidic soils after suitably amending the soils.

Preparation of land. Land for mulberry cultivation is ploughed deep with heavy mould board plough up to a depth of 30-35 cm. Thereafter the land is repeatedly ploughed tw or three times with a country plough to bring the soil to a fine tilth. The land should be properly levelled. A basal dose of welldecomposed FYM or compost is applied at the rate of 20 tonnes/ha and thoroughly incorporated into the soil.

Planting. Plantations can be raised by using both cuttings and saplings. The varieties ideally suited for irrigated conditions are Kanva-2, S-36 and V-1. Branches of 6-9 months old and about 15 ml in diameter should be used for the preparation of cuttings of 15-18 cm in length with three to four healthy buds for raising in the nursery or for planting directly in the field.

Spacing. Plant spacing of 90 x 90 cm is ideal for mulberry. Two cuttings per pit to be used for direct planting. When using saplings, only one sapling/pit is necessary. A paired row plantation with spacing of (90 + 150) cm x 60 cm, is recommended.

Inter-cultivation. Two months after planting, weeding is carried out. A second weeding is done after another two to three months. Thereafter, intercultivation should be carried out after every shoot or leaf harvest.

Irrigation. The plantation should be taken up during the onset of the monsoon to take advantage of the rain. If the rain is not sufficient, the land should be irrigated at regular intervals of 8-14 days depending on the type of soil. About one and a half to two acre inches of water is required/irrigation.

Fertilization. The total dose of fertilizer to be applied in the first year is 100 N: 50 P: 50 K/kg/ha/year. This is applied in two doses. The first dose is applied when the plantation is about two months old at the rate of 50 N: 50 P: 50 K/kg/ha. The second dose is applied after leaf harvesting at the rate of 50 kg N/ha.

68 Pruning. After six months of plantating, mulberry attains a height of 1.5 to 1.75 m and is ready for harvest. The first harvestíng is by bottom pruning. The second leaf harvesting is 12 weeks from the first leaf harvest and the third harvest 12 weeks from the second harvest by shoot harvest. From the second year onwards, harvesting is done at an interval of 70 days by the shoot harvest method.

Maintenance under irrigation (second year onwards)

Spacing. 90 x 90 cm or (90 + 150) cm x 60 cm

Recommended inputs:

 FYM (20 tonnes) in two equal doses with one tonne of vermicompost

 Azotobacter (20 kg) in five equal doses

 N-triacontanol (250 ml) in two equal doses (sprays): first between 10-15 days after pruning, second, ten days after thefirst spray

 VAM inoculum (1 000 kg) One dose in plantation of lifespan (inoculation through maize as the host the plant). Not required for plantations established with saplings inoculated with mycorrhiza

 Ammonium sulphate (750 kg), urea (325 kg) or calcium ammonium nitrate (600 kg) in five equal doses

 Single super phosphate (375 kg) in two equal split doses (crops 1 and 3)

 Muriate of potash (200 kg) in two equal split doses crops 1 and 3 days after first spray

Leaf harvest. Leaves are harvested either by individual leaf harvest or shoot harvesting. The latter is more economical and used for the shoot method of silkworm rearing. The expected yield (tonnes/ha/year) of varieties is Kanva-2, 32-35; S-36, 38-45; and Victoria- 1, 60-70.

CULTIVATION IN HILLY AREAS

Suitable varieties

S-1, S-7999, S-1635, S-146, Tr-10 and BC-259 varieties are recommended for the hilly regions of north and northeastern India.

Establishment of mulberry

69 Land preparation. If the land has a gentle slope, it can be levelled by minor land shaping and providing suitable type of bunds across the slope. If the slope is greater, contour bunding terrace planting or contour line planting can be adopted. In more sloping areas, platforms for individual plants on contour lines are more suitable since this involves less soil cutting.

Spacing. Spacing for tree planting depends on soil topography, the extent of land available for cultivation and training method. For gentle slopes, 3´ x 3´, 5’ x 5’ may be adopted. In sloping more land 10’ x 10’ can be adopted. Pits are to be prepared for plantation. In deep textured loose soils, 45 x 45 cm and in hard shallow soils 60 x 60 x 60 cm pits are to be prepared. For each pit, 5 kg (one iron pan) of FYM or compost must be applied.

Planting. Saplings of five months age with five to six roots are suitable for planting during the regular onset of the monsoon. One sapling per pit should be planted. The saplings should be supported with a stick to ensure straight growth.

Maintenance. After one month, all the buds except the top five to six should be removed carefully without damaging the bark. Weeds around the plant should be removed and regular pot watering given. After three months of plantings second weeding should be done and 25 g of suphala/plant should be applied in a trench and should be covered with soil. A second dose of fertilizer (25 g urea/plant) should be applied before cessation of the monsoon. Plants must be protected from grazing.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HILLY AREAS (TROPICAL HIGH LAND)

Spacing. 90 x 90 cm.

Recommended inputs:

 FYM/compost (20 tonnes) in one single dose in January or February

 Azotobacter (7.5 kg) in three equal doses

 VAM inoculum (1 000 kg) in a single dose in lifespan plantation.

 Calcium ammonium nitrate (200 kg) in three equal doses

 Single super phosphate (156 kg) in two equal doses

 Muriate of potash (84 kg) in two equal doses

Since the recommendations are general, quantities of fertilizers and amendments may be applied on the basis of soil test reports.

70 INPUTS FOR CULTIVATION IN TEMPERATE AND SUB-TEMPERATE REGIONS

The varieties Goshoerami and China white are suitable for temperate. Chak majra and S- 146 for sub-temperate regions. For Kashmir, 20 tonnes/ha/year of FYM should be applied under irrigated conditions (bush or dwarf tree) after the annual pruning in July-August, and 300:150:150 of NPK in two equal doses in April-May and in June-July.

The expected leaf yield of these varieties is: Goshoerami and China White 15-20 tonnes/ha/year and for Chak Majra 20-22 tonnes/ha/year.

MIXED FARMING

Mulberry can be successfully grown as an intercrop (medium mixed tree) between rows of tea/coffee as shade plants. Besides providing shade, a substantial quantity of leaves can be obtained for silkworm rearing and for feeding cattle and goats. Furthermore, the pruned shoots are a good source of firewood.

Mulberry can also be grown as an intercrop for cultivation in coconut plantations. A survey has shown that mulberry is intercropped with coconut in the areas of Channapatna, Ramanagaram, Kanakapura and Bangalore in the state of Karnataka.

INSECTICIDE/PESTICIDE/FUNGICIDE AND OTHER INPUTS

The following products should be applied per ha/year, if needed, at the recommended doses:

 DDVP (Nuvan), 1.25 litres (in 480 litres of water), spray, to control tukra and leaf roller. Washing soap (non detergent), 5 kg mixed with DDVP solution (not required for leaf roller)

 Ladybird (CSRT), 625 adult beetles as biological control of mealy bug

 Bionematicide (shelf life of 180 days), 80 kg split in three doses every four months during intercultivation operations to control root knot disease

 Neen oil cake, two tonnes in four split doses every three months during intercultivation operations to control root knot disease

 Raksha (shelf life of 120 days), 1 kg for 100 plants with 50 kg FYM for root rot disease

 Bavistine (Carbendazim: a.i. 50 WP), at 0.2 percent, 1 kg dissolved in 500 litres of water and sprayed to prevent leaf spot and powdery mildew diseases

71  Kavash (Choro-tholonil: a.i. WP), 1 kg dissolved in 500 litres of water and sprayed to prevent leaf rust

 Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb: a.i. 75 WP) 1 kg dissolved in 500 litres of water and sprayed to prevent leaf blight due to fungi and bacteria

 Zinc sulphate (agro grade) 4.4 kg in 440 litres of water to increase leaf quality and quantity

 Glyphosphate (agro grade) at 41 percent, 8.1 litres in two split doses (2 and 4 crop) to control weeds.

ANIMAL FEEDING PRACTICES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL USES

Mulberry is known in India as "Kalpa Vruksha" as all the parts of the plant have many uses. It is essential to sericulture as the foliage constitutes the sole feed of the mulberry silkworm. Mulberry is a fast-growing tree which, for the convenience of sericulture practices, is maintained as a bush. It produces very large amounts of renewable biomass in the form of branches, shoots, leaves and fruit. If mulberry is used for silkworm rearing it is possible to obtain 30-35 tonnes/ha of leaf every year. By growing mulberry, a farmer obtains fodder, fuel and fertilizer. With regard to fodder for animals, farmers in India feed their cows and goats with leftover branches and leaves from silkworm rearing. Many farmers feed their animals with surplus foliage but always mix it with straw. Farmers also use the mulberry branches for fuel after pruning. Leftover twigs are allowed to dry in the garden itself. Residues of rearing are also converted to valuable FYM for mulberry gardena by putting them in a pit for four to five months prior to use. As mulberry is mainly propagated by cuttings in the tropics and sub-tropics, a certain quantity of pruned branches can be used for the preparation of cuttings and the remainder as fuel. One hectare of mulberry garden yields about 12.1 tonnes of mulberry sticks. The energy generated/ha (50 percent moisture loss) is 27 830 Kcal (@ 4 600 calories/kg of mulberry wood). Mulberry could be exploited as an "energy crop" in cultivable, wasteland, low- lying areas, canal bunds, by roadsides and at fringe areas of the forest, etc. under various afforestation, watershed development and soil conservation programmes.

The uses of the various species of the genus Morus are enumerated below:

M. laevigata

The trees of this species produce sweet fruits that are used in juice and jam making in central India. In northeast India the wood is utilized as firewood; in house building and furniture making; for making stocks, spokes, poles, shafts of carriages and casts. The wood is suitable for plywood making and panelling, carving and making of toys and tea chests. It is also used for making tennis rackets. The straight log of the tree is used as a support in house-building work.

72 M. serrata

The wood is used for furniture making and carving, toy making, sports goods, agricultural implements and cheap types of rifles and guns.

M. alba

This species is cultivated in the hilly and plain areas of India (Himalayan region) for silkworm rearing. It is also used as a tree in roads and in social forestry. The fruit are made into juice, liquor and stews. The wood is used in the sports goods industry. It is also used for house building; agricultural implements; furniture; for making spokes, poles, shafts and bent parts of carriages and carts. The stem bark is used for making paper.

M. indica

The cultivated forms that are utilized in silkworm rearing belong to M. indica. There are a few profuse fruiting varieties occurring in Maharastra and Meghalaya that can be utilized as the female parent in breeding programmes. The fruit is used for jam, jelly and juice making in Maharashtra. The pruned branches are used as fuel.

Medicinal uses

The various parts of the mulberry plant find use in Ayurvedic preparations. The leaves have diaphoretic and emollient effects and are used for making a decoction that can be used as a gargle that throat inflammation. The fruits are used to treat sore throat, depression, high fever and are both a coolant and laxative. The root extract has hypoglycaemic properties. The root bark is used as an anthelmintic, purgative and vermifuge. Mulberry root juice is administered to patients with high blood pressure. The Chinese use the leaf tips from young leaves to boil with tea to control blood pressure. The milky latex is used as a plaster for sores and for the preparation of dermal creams.

FRUITING HABIT

In South India, fruits are observed in two seasons a year: during October-November and during March-May. However, whenever mulberry is pruned or defoliate flowering takes place together with sprouting of auxiliary buds followed by fruit formation. This feature of mulberry is utilized in mulberry breeding programmes. The immature fruits are green in colour but change to purplish to violet black. In certain species such as M. alba the fruits are white to pinkish and very sweet. In M. laevigata the fruits are very long, sometimes measuring up to 18 cm. Silk Production

SERICULTURE, the technique of silk production, is an agro-industry, playing an eminent role in the rural economy of India. Silk-fibre is a protein produced from the silk- glands of silkworms.

73 Historically, sericulture was introduced for the first time, into China by Hoshomin, the Queen of China. For a long time, sericulture was considered to be a national secret by the Chinese Government, and as an industry it was not known in other countries. Later, it was introduced into Europe and Japan as well. According to reports available, sericulture was introduced into India about 400 years back and the industry flourished as an agro- industry till 1857, with an annual production of two million pounds of silk fibre. The industry survived the onslaught of the Pebrine disease during the period from 1857 to 1895. However, after 1928, the sericulture industry showed a decline in its production owing to the fierce competition from advanced sericulture countries, such as Japan, China and European countries. After the Independence, the industry is flourishing as an agro- industry, giving employment to over 3.5 million people in the Country.

The annual production of silk in the world is estimated at 45,000 tonnes of which Japan and China contribute 18,936 and 13,200 tonnes respectively. South Korea, USSR and India are the other leading sericultural countries in the world. The industry has survived the stiff competition with the man-made fibres and it is now estimated by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations that the total requirement of silk by 1980 would be of the order of 80,000 tonnes, leaving a demand of 35,000 tonnes. Japan, which is the premier silk-producing country, owing to its recent industrialisation, high cost of labour and the shortage of land available foe mulberry cultivation, has its limitations in increasing its production. Further, owing to heavy internal consumption, Japan has become an importer of silk, thus widening the gap between production and demand. This situation has given a boost to the sericulture industry in the developing countries, e.g.India and South Korea.

Among the developing countries, India enjoys a very favourable position for doubling the present status of of silk porduction of 2,969 tonnes owing to the low cost of labour. sericulture is ideally suited for improving the rural economy of the country, as it is practised as a subsidiary industry to agriculture. Recent research has also shown that sericulture can be developed as a highly rewarding agro-industry.

BACKGROUND OF THE INDUSTRY

In developing countries, e.g.India, agriculture and agro-based industries play a vital role in the improvement of rural economy.The limited availability of land, the limited cash returns, and agriculture being confined to one or two seasons in the year, have made villages to look for supporting rural industries, such as sericulture. Agriculture and sericulture are adopted simultaneously by the agriculturists in regions where the ecological conditions are favourable. In India, over three million people are employed in various fields of sericulture. It is a cottage industry and provides ample work for the womenfolk in the rural areas in rearing silk worms, while the male members work in the fields. Recently the enforcing of new ideas by research institutions both in mulberry cultivation and silk-worm-handling among sericulturists, the industry is now practised as a main profession and as a major cash crop, of the country.

74 Five varieties of silk worms are reared in India for producing this natural fibre. Bombyx mori, the silk worm, feeds on the leaves of Morus to produce the best quality of fibre among the different varieties of silk produced in the country. Antherea assama is confined to only Brahmaputra Valley of India in the world.It produces the famous mugasilk.Tasar silk is a product of Antherea mylitta, which feeds onTerminalia tomentosa grown in the thick jungles of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The recent introduction of Antherea royeli and Antherea perniyi has enabled the country to produce the oak tasar silk, Phylosamia ricini, the eri silkworm, which feeds on Ricinus communis, is raised in Assam and Orissa commercially.

Of the total production of 2,969 tonnes of silk in India, as much as 2,445 tonnes is produced by the mulberry silkworms,Bombyx mori.

Mulberry silk is produced extensively in the states of Karnataka, West Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir. About 85 per cent of the country's production is contributed by the Karnataka state by rearing multivoltine hybrids of silkworm and this activity enables the sericulturists to harvest five to sixcrops a year. Jammu and Kashmir, owing to its salubrious climate during autumn and spring, is producing silk by rearing univoltine silkworms. Other states, namely, Andhra pradesh, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh,Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, contribute roughly 1.8 percent to the total production of mulberry silk in India.

Tasar silkworms are reared traditionally by the tribal people of Madhya Pradesh,Bihar, Orissa. These 3 states mainly contribute to the production of tasar silk in the country. The recent rearing ofAntherea royeli & Antherea perniyi has enabled the country to produce the oak tasar silk in the sub-Himalayan belt & in Manipur. Muga silk is grown exclusively in Assam & it is still considered to be a ceremonial dress by the local population. Assam produces as much as 90% of eri silk in the country by rearing eri silkworms on castor leaves.

The systematic cultivation of mulberry, the food plant of Bombyx mori, is the first step in the production of mulberry silk. The total area under mulberry in India is 1,20,567 hectares, of which only 28,781 hectares is irrigated Whereas, mulberry is raised as a bush plantation in Karnataka & West Bengal, it is grown as trees in Jammu & Kashmir. Four Indian species of Morus, namely Morus alba, M.indica, M. serrata & M. laevigata, are raised as main food plants of silkworms.

The propagation of mulberry in Karnataka & west Bengal is through vegetative propagation, whereas root-grafting & bud-grafting are practised in the hilly areas of Jammu & Kashmir & Uttar Pradesh. Considering the ecological conditions, such as rainfall & the nature of soil, different systems ofplantations for raising mulberry are practised in India.In the rain-fed areas,mulberry is planted at a distance of 7.6*7.6 cm whereas under irrigation the spacing of 5 cm* 5cm & the row system ( 4 cm between rows & 15 cm between plants) are followed. In West Bengal, a modified system of rowplantation, popularly called 'Malda System' is practised even under rainfed

75 conditions, because of the rich soil & heavy rainfall.Recently, tree plantation have ben introduced into Jammu & Kashmir.

The cost of producing mulberry has a direct impact on the cost of producing cocoons, as nearly 605 of the total cost of production of cocoons goes to the production of mulberry leaves.

Experiments conducted in the moriculture divisions of the research institutions to evolve new varieties of mulberry & improved methods of cultivation have shown that over 30,000 kg of quality leaf can be produced per annum at competitive costs against 15,000 kg by adopting the traditional methods under irrigation. Many high-yielding varieties have been introduced into the country, & they not only double the leaf yield, but also maintain the succulence of the leaves, a factor which is very important under tropical conditions.

Number of reeling units (Charka, Cottage, Basin, Filature basin, Handlooms and Powerlooms)

There are 5 Govt. Silk reeling units and 3 Market cum Reeling units are functioning in TamilNadu State. Govt. Silk Reeling Units

1. Hosur – O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Hosur

2. Vaniyambadi – O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Vaniyambadi

3. Talavadi – O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Talavadi

4. Nannagaram – O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Tenkasi and

5. Salem - O/o the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Salem.

Market cum Reeling units

1. Pudukottai – O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Trichy

2. Nagercoil – O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Tenkasi and

3. Sivagangai – O/o. the Asst. director of Sericulture, Dindigul

Factors influencing Quality Silk Production: Raw silk reeling is a set of processes, which aims at efficient extraction of silk filament from cocoons. It is a process of combining number of ends of the cocoon filaments together to form a single thread of desired denier. Silk reeling is carried out with the reeling devices viz, Charka, Cottage basin and Multiend reeling machines. Multiend reeling machine is a suitable reeling device to

76 produce gradable raw silk economically under Indian conditions. Important factors which have a direct bearing of productivity and quality of silk are as follows.

1. Raw material quality : Cocoon characteristics like race, size, shape, built, reliability, filament denier, length, etc.,

2. Processing parameters adopted for stifling, cooking, reeling and re- reeling.

3. Machinery / devices : Machinery / devices used for drying, cooking, reeling and re-reeling processes

4. Water quality : Water source, and water’s characteristics

5. Human skill: Human skill involved in manual and mechanical operations

Charka Reeling: Presently, silk is produced mainly using three reeling technologies namely Charka, Cottage basin / domestic basin and Multiend reeling technology in the country. About 50% silk produced is of Charka and about 35 to 40 % is of cottage basin and small quantity is from multiend reeling.Due to inherent inadequacies in charka, it is not possible to produce good quality silk. Even though the cottage basin produces better quality silk compared to charka, it still falls short of international grade.

The main reason why charka is still dominating is that the bulk of raw silk produced is used by handloom sector, wherein the cost factor of raw material has to be kept low. Poor quality cocoon can only be reeled economically on charka.In order to achieve better reeling performance, following have to be considered

1. Casting of cocoons to be such to have raw silk of uniform denier 2. The broken end during reeling has to be knotted to improve the winding quality. 3. Water has to be changed after it becomes turbid to improve reeling performance and colour of the silk. 4. Water quality has to be maintained to get clean silk. 5. Motorised charka to maintain uniform reeling speed and reduce labour cost is must. 6. CSRTI economic oven reduces fuel cost. 7. Drying during reeling to reduce gum spots is important 8. Silk waste should be stretched, dried and stored properly.

Cottage basin Reeling / Domestic basin Reeling: Cottage basin reeling is an improved technology over that of charka system, where in cooking process is separated from reeling process. Silk is reeled on small reels first and then re-reeled on bigger reels to

77 improve the winding quality. Some of the practices, which are in vogue in cottage reeling, are discussed in the following paragraphs.

1. Stifling of cocoons play a role in production of quality silk yarn. Cocoons stifled by steam generate lot of slugs during reeling leading to reduction in reeling efficiency and quality of silk.

2. Open pan cooking leads to production of poor quality silk.

3. High-speed reeling affects the uniformity and elongation characteristics of raw silk.

4. Many of the cottage basin reelers are not introducing required croissure length, which results in poor cohesion and tenacity of raw silk.

5. Usually, reeling basin water temperature is not maintained uniformly throughout the reeling process. This affects cleanness, reeling efficiency and reelability.

6. Re-reeling is also carried out at very high speed. This results in improper drying of silk leading to gum spots.

Multiend Reeling

Raw silk reeling is a set of processes, which aims at efficient extraction of silk filament from cocoons. It is a process of combining number of ends of the cocoon filaments together to form a single thread of desired denier. Silk reeling is carried out with the reeling devices viz, Charka, Cottage basin and Multiend reeling machines. Multiend reeling machine is a suitable reeling device to produce gradable raw silk economically under Indian conditions.

Multiend reeling machine is an improved machine over that of cottage basin having 10 ends as against 6 ends in the Cottage basins. It is also provided with a jetteboutes for easy attachment and maintenance of denier of silk. Unlike cottage basin the speed of machine is fixed as constant, unlike that of cottage basin it will improve the tenacity and elongation, cohesion of the silk. The croissure pulley are arranged in improved way so as the length of the croissure is not less than 1.5 to 2.0 cm to improve the cohesion strength of the filament. The optimum speed 120 to 150 mts per minute enable the reelers to produce required denier silk with less average size deviation and less number of breakages. The individual reel stop motion device provided in the machine helps the reeler to increase the productivity. Quality raw silk with required denier with less breakages better cohesion, better elongation can be produced in the multiend reeling machines.

78 The multivoltine and multibivoltine cocoon can be used for production of quality raw silk in the machine. The usage of steam boiler in cooking and re- reeling improves the quality of silk and reduce the cost of fuel. Quality gradable silk of 2A to 3A grade can be produced by using this machine.

Multiend reeling machine developed by CSTRI, Bangalore is an improved version of the cottage basin and is a suitable reeling device to produce gradable quality raw silk economically under Indian conditions. In addition to multiend reeling machine, good quality raw material, proper process parameters, proper post reeling operations and required water quality are essential to obtain the gradable silk.

Automatic Reeling Unit: The filature adopts the latest technology in silk reeling consists of the latest machinery imported from China. It is the first of its kind in TamilNadu. This unit aims to produce superior quality raw silk of 3A - 4A Grade from Bivoltine Hybrid Cocoons. It has a capacity of 40 basins and in capable of producing around 35 MT of Bivoltine Silk per annum. The unit started its production on 23rd August 2008.

The Government of India through the Central Silk Board (CSB) is supporting for the establishment of multi-end reeling units and automatic reeling units for the benefit of Silk Industry under the Catalytic Development Program (CDP). The Government of India through CSB has so far supported the establishment of 46 multi-end reeling units in Tamil Nadu. This information was given by the Minister of State for Textiles, Panabaaka Lakshmi in the Lok Sabha, in a written reply to a question by Sivasami C.

The Minister further said that with a view to facilitate production of quality raw silk of international standards, support was provided for the establishment of one automatic reeling unit in Gobichettypalayam under the X plan. The said automatic reeling unit was inaugurated during August, 2008 and has started commercial production. This reeling unit can absorb the cocoon produced in Udumalpet, Pollachi and Puravipalayam areas due to its proximity to Gobichettypalayam.

Under the XI Plan, Government of India through Central Silk Board (CSB) is extending support for the establishment of two automatic reeling units, one in Udumalpet (Erode District} and the other in Edappadi (Salem District), the Minister added.

79 Chapter 6 Prospects and Problems of Sericulture

If the goal of sericulture is to eradicate poverty, low-cost sericulture by rearing methods adjusted to the economical and technical conditions of local farmers is desired, even though the quality of cocoon may be lower. However, if the goal is production (cocoon, raw silk) for export, quality at the international level and a volume of trade are required, so technologies and equipments close to the level of of sericulture developed countries such as Japan and China are required. Also, the silkworm race has been bred to achieve high quality and high-yield, and needs a large amount of high quality of mulberry leaves, and is prone to disease in comparison with other silkworm races such as the tropical silkworm. As such, high quality mulberry leaves produced from a mulberry field with good fertility management and a clean rearing environment is needed to rear silkworms. Hence, a higher level of mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing technologies are required than sericulture, as well as a higher cost for mulberry field management, rearing equipment, and sterilization. Research and development: Sericulture involves growing of host plants, rearing of silkworms, reeling, twisting, weaving and marketing of various value added products and services. In order to meet this new varieties of mulberry silkworm, to various agro climatic conditions and to increase productivity, quality and profitability of sericulture, number of products, methodologies, package of practices, etc., have to be developed and released. In this context, Central Silk Board has established Central Sericultural Research & Training Institutes, each at Mysore, Berhampore and Pampore, Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory at Bangalore, Seri-biotech Research Laboratory at Bangalore, Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre at Hosur for mulberry sericulture

80 research. National Silkworm Seed Organization Head Quarters is located in Bangalore. For non-mulberry sericulture research, two institutes namely, Central Tasar Research & Training Institute at Ranchi and Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute at Ladoigarh are functioning. The post-cocoon related research is carried out at Central Silk Technological Research Institute at Bangalore. IMPACT OF CSB'S R&D ON SERICULTURE IN INDIA • Leaf productivity has increased from 35 to 60 mt /ha/yr • Cocoon productivity increased from 40 to 60 kg /100 dfls • The cocoon productivity per ha increased from 659 kg/ha in 2002 to 706 kg/ha in 2007 • The raw silk production per ha increased from 75.2 kg in 2002 to 86.12 kg in 2007 • The renditta has improved from 8.7 in 2002 to 8.1 in 2007 • 40 Technologies were filed for patenting of which 16 technologies have been commercialized • 12 mulberry silkworm hybrids have been authorized (5 Bv x Bv, 6 Mv x Bv and 2 Mv x Mv) for various states and regions for commercial use. • Total technology management package for multi-end reeling has improved over to 2A to 4A International grade silk. • Cocoon productivity per unit of 100 dfls has increased from 45 to 60 kg during the X Plan. Authorized region specific mulberry varieties viz., S1635, S36, S13 and S34 for the tropical climatic zones; S1 and S799 for the Eastern and Northern Zones ; S146, BC-259, TR10, Chak Majra and Chinese white for the North Western Zone. Recently, a high yielding mulberry variety V1 has been evolved which has a potential yield 60 MT/ha under irrigation in the Southern zone; variety AR12 for alkaline soils and AR10 variety for semi arid zones. In recent years, several new silkworm breeds have been evolved. Authorised 36 region and season specific hybrids ( 21 Bv x Bv and 13 Mv x Bv and 2 Mv x Mv) for commercial use. Integrated technology packages for mulberry cultivation have been developed which include new mulberry variety, plant spacing, fertilizer and manure application including bio-fertilizer, shoot harvest, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and separate mulberry garden for young age (chawki) and late age silkworms. A comprehensive rearing technology package for bivoltine silkworms have been developed, which include egg incubation, chawki rearing, shoot-cum-shelf rearing, use of more effective disinfectants and improved mountages have resulted in higher productivity. To reduce drudgery, several machineries have been designed and developed for mechanization in mulberry cultivation including pruning, cultivator, leaf litter separator and leaf chopper. A shoot crushing machine for compost preparation. Similarly equipments like loose egg washing table, winnover, cocoon cutting, cocoon deflosser, egg transportation box, incubation chamber, hand duster, Uzi trap, improved Acid Treatment Bath, light weight rearing tray, Tewari Grainage tray and the like have been developed. In silk reeling, to obtain international grade silk, several machineries and accessories have been developed, which are fitted to multi-end reeling machine. The other innovations are denier detecting device, permeation chamber, water softening kit, multi

81 fuel economic oven, ushnakoti, besides various gadgets like cocoon cage, reeling button, slit button, slub- catcher, tail-end cutter, brushing unit, panel winder, soaking recipe, etc . In recent years, seri-biotech research has acquired prominence to harness the benefit of molecular biology research in sericulture. Genome analysis of mulberry silkworm using molecular markers has led to DNA profiling of silkworm genotypes through PCR based RAPD and DNA fingerprinting with micro-satellite probes. Distinct and unique DNA profile which is specific to diapausing and non-diapausing strains has been identified. Over the years, CSB R&D Institutions have developed many products / innovations / technologies for the benefit of sericulture community. As at the end of January, 2008 there are around 81 technologies filed for patenting / commercialization. Of which, 16 technologies have been patented and 30 innovations commercialized. A. Prospects of Sericulture

When the world is chasing behind green planet and green revolution we should also approach green concept in our attire and be organic in life style. If we creed to be green in attire, we may have no choice other than wearing silk every time. However, the idea may sound interesting and attractive [because silk made dresses are simple astounding] but it is not feasible because silk fabric is too sensitive for regular use. However delicacy of silk fabric does not make vulnerable because silk fabric is one of the strongest natural fibers and keeps body cool in summer and naturally warm in wintry seasons. The summer textures of silk fabric are different than winter worn silk fabrics.There are different hybrid qualities of silk fabrics, and some of the popular varieties of silk fabrics are brocade, crepe, faille, , Organza, and chiffon fabric. Whereas for everyday use attires silk is not a durable option, for party and celebrations, there is nothing parallel to silk. Wedding made of silk, scarves, kurta, silk made sarees, suits and evening wears for men are popular all over the world for expensive elegant look and gorgeous but sublime appeal of its magical presence. Silk is not used in attire only. Rich and affluent elegant people all over globe uses silk made upholstery for their house and it adds gorgeous and expensive look to the house interiors. However silk made upholstery are quite expensive to maintain therefore it is not advisable to use silk made up holstery where it may face regular abrasion and harsh climate like direct sunlight or over humid air. Silk made bed sheets, pillow cases, and throws are excellent for use although these silk items demand delicate care. In home furnishing silk is used in making rugs, wall hangings, wall coverings, window treatments etc. These silk made furnishing items are quite expensive and tough to maintain but these items carry richness in their projected appeal which is quite irresistible. Although conventionally silk fabrics are widely used in attire and home furnishings, nowadays, thanks to advancement of technology, a special kind of medicated silk has been developed which is extremely good for treatment of wounds, cuts, bedsores, and burn injuries because these special type of medicated silk fabrics are antibacterial and help in keeping wounds safe and un-affected. Silk fabric is widely used in making bridal dress and this is the reason often silk is called bridal fabric. Hypo-allergic silk is processed by reaction with water, steam, and heat but without use of chemicals. As dust mites do not prefer to stay in silk, silk resists dirt and bad odor, and

82 silk is not a congenial place for fungus and molds to grow, this fabric is recommended for people with allergic problems. Common varieties of silk available in market are chiffon, china silk, mulberry silk, muga silk, and etc. Except muga, mulberry, and tussar silk all silk varieties are chemically processed and man-made varieties and hence less expensive, which are also greatly used in making less expensive silk items. When the world is chasing behind green planet and green revolution we should also approach green concept in our attire and be organic in life style. If we creed to be green in attire, we may have no choice other than wearing silk every time. However, the idea may sound interesting and attractive [because silk made dresses are simple astounding] but it is not feasible because silk fabric is too sensitive for regular use. However delicacy of silk fabric does not make vulnerable because silk fabric is one of the strongest natural fibers and keeps body cool in summer and naturally warm in wintry seasons. The summer textures of silk fabric are different than winter worn silk fabrics.There are different hybrid qualities of silk fabrics, and some of the popular varieties of silk fabrics are brocade, crepe, faille, Georgette, Organza, and chiffon fabric. Whereas for everyday use attires silk is not a durable option, for party and celebrations, there is nothing parallel to silk. Wedding gowns made of silk, scarves, kurta, silk made sarees, suits and evening wears for men are popular all over the world for expensive elegant look and gorgeous but sublime appeal of its magical presence. Silk is not used in attire only. Rich and affluent elegant people all over globe uses silk made upholstery for their house and it adds gorgeous and expensive look to the house interiors. However silk made upholstery are quite expensive to maintain therefore it is not advisable to use silk made up holstery where it may face regular abrasion and harsh climate like direct sunlight or over humid air. Silk made bed sheets, pillow cases, and throws are excellent for use although these silk items demand delicate care. In home furnishing silk is used in making rugs, wall hangings, wall coverings, window treatments etc. These silk made furnishing items are quite expensive and tough to maintain but these items carry richness in their projected appeal which is quite irresistible. Although conventionally silk fabrics are widely used in attire and home furnishings, nowadays, thanks to advancement of technology, a special kind of medicated silk has been developed which is extremely good for treatment of wounds, cuts, bedsores, and burn injuries because these special type of medicated silk fabrics are antibacterial and help in keeping wounds safe and un-affected. Silk fabric is widely used in making bridal dress and this is the reason often silk is called bridal fabric. Hypo-allergic silk is processed by reaction with water, steam, and heat but without use of chemicals. As dust mites do not prefer to stay in silk, silk resists dirt and bad odor, and silk is not a congenial place for fungus and molds to grow, this fabric is recommended for people with allergic problems. Common varieties of silk available in market are chiffon, china silk, mulberry silk, muga silk, and tussar silk etc. Except muga, mulberry, and tussar silk all silk varieties are chemically processed and man-made varieties and hence less expensive, which are also greatly used in making less expensive silk items.

83 a. Qualities of different types of Textile fibres

Natural fibres are greatly elongated substances produced by plants and animals that can be spun into filaments, thread or rope. Woven, knitted, matted or bonded, they form fabrics that are essential to society. Like agriculture, textiles have been a fundamental part of human life since the dawn of civilization. Fragments of cotton articles dated from 5000 BC have been excavated in Mexico and Pakistan. According to Chinese tradition, the begins in the 27th century BC. The oldest wool textile, found in Denmark, dates from 1500 BC, and the oldest wool carpet, from Siberia, from 500 BC. Fibres such as jute and have been cultivated since antiquity. While the methods used to make fabrics have changed greatly since then, their functions have changed very little: today, most natural fibres are still used to make clothing and containers and to insulate, soften and decorate our living spaces. Increasingly, however, traditional textiles are being used for industrial purposes as well as in components of composite materials, in medical implants, and geo- and agro-textiles. In this section we present profiles of 15 of the world's major plant and animal fibres. They range from cotton, which dominates world fibre production, to other, specialty fibres such as cashmere which, though produced in far smaller quantities, have particular properties that place them in the luxury textiles market. Plant fibres Plant fibres include seed hairs, such as cotton; stem (or bast) fibres, such as flax and hemp; leaf fibres, such as sisal; and husk fibres, such as coconut. Abaca - Once a favoured source of rope, abaca shows promise as an energy-saving replacement for glass fibres in automobiles Coir - A coarse, short fibre extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, coir is found in , mattresses, brushes, geotextiles and automobile seats Cotton - Pure cellulose, cotton is the world's most widely used natural fibre and still the undisputed "king" of the global textiles industry Flax - One of nature's strongest vegetable fibres, flax was also one of the first to be harvested, spun and woven into textiles Hemp - Recent advances in the "cottonization" of hemp fibre could open the door to the high quality clothing market Jute - The strong threads made from jute fibre are used worldwide in sackcloth - and help sustain the livelihoods of millions of small farmers Ramie - Ramie fibre is white, with a silky lustre, and is one of the strongest natural fibres, similar to flax in absorbency and density Sisal - Too coarse for clothing, sisal is replacing glass fibres in composite materials used to make cars and furniture

Animal fibres

84 Animal fibres include wool, hair and secretions, such as silk. Alpaca wool - Alpaca is used to make high-end luxury fabrics, with world production estimated at around 5 000 tonnes a year - The silky white wool of the Angora rabbit is very fine and soft, and used in high quality knitwear - The best fibre is found on the Bactrian camels of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia, and baby camel hair is the finest and softest Cashmere - Cashmere is exceptionally soft to the touch owing to the structure of its fibres and has great insulation properties without being bulky Mohair - White, very fine and silky, mohair is noted for its softness, brightness and receptiveness to rich dyes Silk - Developed in ancient China, where its use was reserved for royalty, silk remains the "queen of fabrics" Wool - Limited supply and exceptional characteristics have made wool the world's premier textile fibre In contrast to natural fibres, the composition and structure of man-made fibres can be determined by man. This lends man-made fibres special properties and renders them useful for many different purposes.

With the exclusion of ceramic or glass fibers all man-made fibers as well as natural fibers are organic fibers.

In order to manufacture man-made fibres, viscous, stringy liquids are needed. The matter that results from dissolving or heating is called the spin mass. Today, three manufacturing processes are primarily used: polymerisation, polycondensation and poly-addition. The resulting spinnable matter from these processes is called a polymer.

As a rule, a distinction is made between man-made fibres from synthetic polymers and those from cellulosic polymers which both belong to the class of organic fibers. The ACRYLIC-, POLYAMIDE-, POLYESTER- and ELASTANE FIBRES belong to the man-made fibres made from synthetic polymers. In the case of man-made fibres manufactured from cellulosic polymers the distinction is e.g. between the VISCOSE- and the ACETATE FIBRES. Among all fabrics available silk fabric is the most expensive and rich. It is considered in all countries irrespective of the culture and dressing sense. Silk may vary from countries to countries, name can be changed but the main material of the fabric that is silk is unchanged and maintains the elegance throughout ages and styles. There are many other types of fabrics like Cotton, Crepe, Georgette, Faux, , Viscose, Soft Crush, Satin, Chiffon fabric, stretch fabric, Tissue, Brasso ,organza& Jacquard types. Apart from cotton and Silk all others are man made fabrics. Here are some talks on silk fabric. Silk fabric can be used as a clothing fabric or an upholstery fabric. Silk is simply unmatched when its sensuous touch and softness counted. When you will decorate your home, choose the curtains you will like to have

85 silk fabric as your curtain maker. Silk fabric has the natural luster and softness. This natural fabric is also one of the most durable fabrics that are made from silk fibers. Associated with luxury and style, silk fabric has its own style statement. Not only in past but today also silk is the symbol of richness, wealth and success. The durability of silk is proved and tested. Among all natural fabrics used for clothing silk fabric is strongest. The test is simple. At first take a steel filament of a diameter and take a silk fabric of same diameter. You will experience the steel filament getting destroyed earlier than the silk fabric. The other advantages of buying silk fabric is it is lustrous in look and gives all clothes either it is a or an evening or a party dress. You can choose silk fabric as bridal fabric. You can make beautiful embroidery on the fabric or wear it simple without any embroidery work. Silk fabric is also comfortable and airy as its moisture absorbing capacity is great which makes it cool in summers and warm in winters. Silk fabric is actually protein fabric and its high lustrous quality and softness is because of protein. Silk fabric is such a fabric which is made from threads and it is spun by the silk caterpillars. To produce silk fibers, silk worms are cultivated in large numbers. Silk caterpillars live on some specific tress and eat their leaves to live. These tresses are cultivated in order to cultivate these worms. Before hatching of silk worm into moth the cocoons are soaked in hot water to produce filaments. These filaments are then spun to form silk fibers which are processed to silk fabric. You can find number of silk in market like chiffon fabric, china silk, cotton silk, organza; crape silk, satin silk etc but they are all chemically made. There are mainly four types of natural silk fabrics. These are mulberry silk, taser silk, muga silk and eri silk. Among these mulberry silk is the most popular and expensive one. It is produced by Bombyx mori that completely feeds on the leaves of mulberry plant. Like Silk Fabric or Chiffon Fabric, Bridal Fabric is also needed by people. The best place to shop for these materials is Redtex. Inc. b. Advantages of silk fibres over other fibres

Most people think of silk as an expensive fabric that is the ultimate in luxury, smoothness but everyone should know how it could also benefit your health too. Besides its luxurious softness and lustrous beauty, there are various other benefits of silk that other fabrics that man-made fabrics simply cannot match. These advantages of silk have rightly earned silk its reputation as the queen of fabrics. If Why Silk is still a question in your mind, the following benefits of silk should remove any doubts. It is not just a question of comparison with other fabrics, some of these benefits and advantages place silk in a league of its own. An all-climate fabric, silk is warm and cosy in winter and comfortably cool when temperatures rise. Its natural temperature-regulating properties give silk this paradoxical ability to cool and warm simultaneously. Silk garments thus outperform other fabrics in both summer and winter. Silk worn as a second layer warms without being bulky Here's how...Natural: Silk is a 100% natural fabric Breathing: Silk is naturally hypoallergenic.

86 • Because of its natural protein structure, silk is the most hypoallergenic of all fabrics • Silk is highly absorbent: it can absorb up to 30% of its weight in moisture without feeling damp. Silk will absorb perspiration while letting your skin breathe • Silk is made from the cocoons. Like nearly anything in nature, there are natural occurring substances in the cocoon of the silkworm that protect from various threats. Because the process of turning those cocoons into silk is a gentle one that does not strip away those natural substances, the benefits of them are still in the silk when you purchase silk products. Sensitive Skin • Silk works in two ways to assist sensitive skin. • Thanks to silk’s natural thermostatic properties, silk clothes will keep you warm in winter and cool in summer. • Silk is 100% natural, and contains many amino acids in common with the human body, these acids help moisture penetrate the skin (aid in absorption) and aid in skin healing. • Silk will keep you warm without being bulky. • Silk is fine, durable, light. The individual fibres are approximately a half a mile long, which is what gives the fabric its lustre and ultra smooth surface so beneficial to sensitive skin. It has been said on more than one occasion that the amino acids in silk are good for a person's skin and help delay wrinkling in the skin as well as being good for a person's hair. They are also said to be helpful to the central nervous system helping to calm a person. Together these benefits will help:- • Eczema • Sensitive Skin • allergic rash • skin inflammations (psoriasis) • shingles • post-chemotherapy sensitive skin • post surgery sutures Durability • A fiber of silk that is of the same diameter as a fiber of steel is said to be stronger than the steel. • One silk thread is typically four to eight of the silk thread filaments twisted together. And because silk naturally tends to adhere to itself, the silk filaments bond themselves making them less likely to pull apart even after years of use. • Silk will not deteriorate over time because of its natural fungal repellency and because chemicals are not used in processing. • In spite of its delicate appearance, silk is relatively robust. Its smooth surface resists soil and odors well. Silk is wrinkle and tear resistant, and dries quickly • While silk abrasion resistance is moderate, it is the strongest natural fiber and, surprisingly, it easily competes with steel yarn in tensile strength • Silk takes color well; washes easily; and is easy to work with in spinning, weaving, knitting, and

87 Silk is a protein fiber that is often woven into textiles in many different types of clothes. Silk comes from several different insects, but the type of silk we wear is most often woven by the larvae of the Bombyx mori (mulberry silkworm) which is raised in captivity for production purposes. Silk is a versatile fabric that is used in many different types of clothing because of its many benefits. Temperature o Silk is a fabric that can be worn in all climates. The fabric is comfortable and cool during the summer and cozy and warm in the winter. The temperature-regulating properties of silk give it the ability to warm and cool at the same time. When silk is worn as a second layer, it can warm the body without adding the bulk of some other fabrics. Allergies o As silk is a natural structure of protein it tends to be one of the most hypoallergenic of all the fabrics. It is thought that since silk is a substance created during a protective period for silkworms, the cocoon-derived fabric protects against natural threats like allergens. Dust mites, fungus and various other growths tend to stay off of silk materials, keeping your bed or clothes more allergy free. Skin and Hair o It is believed that the amino acids of silk are the same that are found in the human skin and hair. This may cause the skin to be healthier and to delay the appearance of wrinkles. In addition, it may cause hair to be healthier as well due to its constant exposure to important nutrients. Other conditions silk may be able to prevent are arthritis and vascular sclerosis. Other Properties There are many other properties of silk which make it an extremely useful fabric. Silk is naturally flame retardant which makes it safe for cushions and bedding. The fabric absorbs perspiration and lets the skin breath. It has a tensile strength that is nearly as strong as steel yarn and it resists blemishes like soil and odors. Silk washes easily, takes color well, and is easy to work with in weaving, knitting, spinning and sewing. All silkClick.com products will definitely bring an elegant touch to your home decor or a luxurious detail for your outfit. Whether it is a silk cushion cover, a table runner, an elegant silk or a , it won't go unnoticed. But silk is not just about how it looks, silk also has innumerable other advantages, among which: • Silk is a 100% natural fabric. • Silk is a natural protein structure, therefore silk cloth is among the most hypoallergenic of all fabrics. • Thanks to silk’s natural thermostatic properties, silk clothes will keep you warm in winter and cool in summer. • Silk will keep you warm without being bulky. • Silk absorbs perspiration while letting your skin breathe. • Silk is a natural fire retardant material, making silk one of the safest fabrics for bedding or cushions! • Silk has the same type of amino acids as human skin, therefore it is said that silk fabric can prevent vascular sclerosis, arthritis and delay the appearance of wrinkles. Besides its luxurious softness and lustrous beauty, there are various other benefits of silk that other fabrics, whether natural or man-made, simply cannot match. These advantages

88 of silk have rightly earned silk its reputation as the queen of fabrics. If Why Silk is still a question in your mind, the following benefits of silk should remove any doubts. It is not just a question of comparison with other fabrics, some of these benefits and advantages place silk in a league of its own. [For general silk information, please visit the All About Silk section, which covers various related subjects, such as Silk History, Silk Care, and Scarf Tying Guide.] Because of its natural protein structure, silk is the most hypoallergenic of all fabrics An all-climate fabric, silk is warm and cozy in winter and comfortably cool when temperatures rise. Its natural temperature-regulating properties give silk this paradoxical ability to cool and warm simultaneously. Silk garments thus outperform other fabrics in both summer and winter. Silk worn as a second layer warms without being bulky Silk is highly absorbent: it can absorb up to 30% of its weight in moisture without feeling damp. Silk will absorb perspiration while letting your skin breathe In spite of its delicate appearance, silk is relatively robust. Its smooth surface resists soil and odors well. Silk is wrinkle and tear resistant, and dries quickly While silk abrasion resistance is moderate, it is the strongest natural fiber and, surprisingly, it easily competes with steel yarn in tensile strength Silk takes color well; washes easily; and is easy to work with in spinning, weaving, knitting, and sewing Silk mixes well with other animal and vegetable fibers c. International demand for silk

Future demand for silk: The present global silk production is fluctuating around 70, 000 to 90, 000 M.T. and the demand for silk is annually increasing by 5%. With the increase in population and also with the increased demand for fashionable clothing items due to fast changing fashion designs in developed countries, the demand for silk is bound to increase even more. For increasing the silk production we require highly productive mulberry varieties and silkworm races and also silkworm races tolerant to adverse climatic conditions and diseases which can come mainly from the sericultural germplasm resources and also from the wild relatives of Bombyx available in the natural habitats.

B. Constraints in silk production

Disease of silk worms, shortage and high wage rates of labour, non availability of good quality leaf and improper disinfection of the rearing house were the most serious constraints perceived by the farmers to the realisation of potential cocoon yields. As high as 54.17 per cent of the respondents perceived that the attack of pest like uzi fly and the disease was the major constraint for not attaining the potential yield, followed by shortage and high wage rates of labour (51.67 per cent), about 48.50 per cent of respondents were unhappy with technical guidance given by the extension personnel and improper disinfection of rearing house (41.67 per cent). About 39.17 per cent of the respondents were felt that water problem and high temperature during summer, high cost of silkworm rearing equipments (29.17 per cent), difficulty in procuring mountages (24.17 per cent). About 18.33 per cent of the respondents felt that non availability of good quality leaf, non availability of inputs in time (16.67 per cent) and difficulty in obtaining DFL (11.67 per cent) were the other reasons for not getting the potential yield.

89 a. Diseases and pests of Silkworm

One of the major constraints in silk production is the diseases in silkworm rearing .Silkworm Bombyx moriis domesticated for silk production and are reared in colonial forms. A code of conduct for rearing silkworm is practiced to ensure survival of silkworm and cocooning. All the major pathogenic microbes cause disease in silkworm and the most common among them are nuclear polyhedrosis , bacterial and viral flacherie, muscardine and pebrine. Nuclear polyhedrosis is caused by a baculovirus Bombyx mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV, Bcauloviridae). The viral flacherie is caused by Bombyx mori infectious flacherie virus (BmIFV, Picarnaviridae), Bombyx moridensonucleosis virus (BmDNV, Parvovoridae) and Bombyx mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus ( BmCPV, Reoviridae) . Bacterial flacherie are caused primarily by serretia marcescens, Streptococcus sp, and Staphylococcus sp of bacteria. Muscardine is caused normally by Beauveria bassiana and Spicaria prassina. Pebrine, a dreaded uncommon disease is caused by bombycis, and several other microsporidians Variomorpha, Pleistophora, Thelophania, etc. Survey on the prevalence of diseases in silkworm in different sericulture areas have been conducted during different seasons of the past couple of decades. An estimated cocoon loss of 12-15 kg/ 100 dfls has been reported A loss of 35 million Rupees was estimated by Central Silk Board, India when muscardine was rampant during 1974-75 in Karnataka, India (Anon.,1975). Pebrine disease was on rampage in 1991-92 causing crop loss of over 2000 million Rupees. Among the diseases, the point prevalence of nuclear polyhedrosis, in final instar, is reported to be 1.16% in winter, 2.34% in summer and 1.52% in rainy seasons while for the flacherie disease it is 0.92% during winter, 3.4% in summer and 1.23% in rainy seasons. The point prevalence of muscardine is 0.79% during winter, 0.03% in summer and 1.08% in rainy season ( Selvakumar et al., 2002). A survey has been conducted to determine the loss due to different diseases ( Patil et al 1993). The loss due to nuclear polyhedrosis was determined as 11.90+ 3.65% ,14.77+ 5.7% and 5.90+ 1.25% during summer, rainy and winter seasons. The loss due to flacherie and muscardine was 22.97+ 3.82% and 0.36+ 0.29%, 11.39 1.84% and 4.08+ 1.10% , and 6.29+ 09% and 12.51+ 6.92% during summer, rainy and winter seasons respectively. Factors influencing the cause of diseases in silkworm Diseased silkworm extrudes pathogens into the rearing environment, which form the source for the diseases in the colony. The pathogens are extruded by infected silkworms along with gut juice ( most viral diseases and pebrine disease) and faecal matter (Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis, pebrine and bacterial disease). It also enters into the rearing environment through breakage of fragile integument ( nuclear polyhedrosis, septicemia) or form the body surface ( muscardine and aspergillosis). The dead and the fermented larva. moth also form source of diseases. The wild insects may also form a source of for diseases especially, pebrine and muscardine . In addition, the pathogens are light, easily drift in air and have the ability to remain in active state in rearing environment, for longer period ( three to several years). The pathogens contaminate the mulberry either in mulberry garden or in the rearing house it self and infect silkworms when fed on them.

90 The silkworm rearing practices followed in sericultural areas are not fool proof for prevention of diseases. Silkworms are reared in rearing cum dwelling houses. Most of these houses are unhygienic, badly ventilated and dark and damp helping in pathogen survival. Silkworm rearing is continuous with little time for disinfection. In fact , most sericulturists do not disinfect the rearing house at all . As the disinfectant Foramline cause discomfort to the residents. Farmers are not self sufficient with rearing appliances , such as rearing trays and chandrike and borrow them leading to contamination. Silkworm bed cleaning practices involving cleaning with hand helps in contamination. Diseased larvae are not picked and even if picked, most farmers do not discard them but rear in separate tray forming a source of infection in the rearing house. The bed refuse are transported in baskets or gunny bags that are sometimes also used for transportation of mulberry leaves to feed silkworms. While transportation, the bed refuse and diseases silkworms are dropped on the way to litter pit. In some cases the bed refuse is transported directly to the mulberry field which it self gets contaminated. In addition to unhygienic condition, the rearers do not practice rearing and personal hygiene. All these factors lead to prevalence of diseases in silkworm rearing and crop failure or low yield. MANAGEMENT OF DISEASES IN SILKWORM REARING Silkworm diseases are best prevented than cured. The diseases in silkworm are prevented through proper disinfections and rearing hygiene. The disinfections aims at destruction of pathogens in the rearing house and on appliances before the start of the rearing and during rearing of those pathogens that enters into rearing area mainly from the infected larvae. Personal hygiene and rearing hygiene aims to prevention of entry of the pathogen into the rearing house and secondary contamination during rearing. Disinfection of rearing house and appliances eliminates the persistent pathogen. However, the disinfection performed at the beginning of the rearing has no effect on the pathogens that gain entry into the rearing environment during the rearing. The practical approach for the management of disease in silkworm rearing is as follows. • Disinfection of silkworm rearing house, surroundings and rearing equipments using physical and chemical methods of disinfection. • Rearing early instar silkworms following strict hygienic, congenial environmental and nutritional conditions. • Rearing later instar silkworms under optimum rearing area, feeding sufficient quantity and quality mulberry under suitable environmental and hygienic. • Prevention of entry of pathogen from outside through meticulously practice of rearing and personnel hygiene during the silkworm rearing. • Prevention of spread of silkworm diseases by using silkworm body and rearing seat disinfectant. In addition to the above, early diagnosis, nutrious mulberry, sufficient ventilation and rearing space adds to the prevention of diseases in silkworm rearing. CONSTRAINTS IN MANAGEMENT OF DISEASES IN SILKWORM REARING The major constraint in silkworm disease management is the need for a disinfectant suitable to the infrastructural facilities available with sericulturists. Formalin was used as a disinfectant in sericulture for the past several hundred years. The unsuitability of the disinfectant under the infrastructural facilities available with sericulturists and its hazardous nature has been responsible for improper disinfection and hygiene. Recently

91 disinfection with bleaching powder solution was introduced as a disinfectant in sericulture. While the disinfectant eliminated the constraints associated with formalin, its high corrosiveness, unsuitable nature and unsure of quality lead to the similar situation as formalin. i. Diseases-Protozoon disease, Bacterial diseases, Viral diseases, Fungal diseases

Since mulberry silkworms are domesticated, they are suseptible to disease and pest attack. Proper disinfection and strict hygiene will prevent diseases and ensure successful harvest. Common silkworm diseases are Grasserie, Pebrin, Flacherie and Muscardine. Foliar. Leaf spot, leaf rust, powdery mildew, leaf blight and bacterial blight Soilborne. Root rot and root knot Nursery diseases. Stem canker, cutting rot, collar rot and dieback 1. Viral Disese

Symptom: • The larvae will be sluggish with swollen intersegmantal region • The integument of diseases larvae will be fragile and brakes easily • On infury milky fluid containing many polyhedral inclusion bodies oozes out from the larval body • The diseases larvae do not settle for moult and showshining integument • The larvae appear to be restless • The dead larvae hand by hind legs head downward Management 1. Sun drying of rearing appliances for one/two days 2. Disinfection of rearing room and appliances with 5% bleaching powder 3. Disinfection of worms, trays and discarding of diseased worms 4. Ensure proper ventilation and air circulation 5. Provide proper bed spacing 6. Feed the larvae with nutritious mulberry leaves 7. Collect and burn infected larvae, faecal matter and bed refuses 8. Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots 9. Dust the bed disinfectant, Vijetha (or) Resham Keet Oushadh on the larvae, after each moult and ½ hr. before resumption of feeding (3 kg/100 dfl). 10. Spray 1% of extract of Psoralea coryleifolia on mulberry leaves, shade dry and feed worms once during third instars. 2. Bacterial Diseases

Bacteria and viruses cause the disease individually or in combination. Fluctuating temperature and humidity and poor quality mulberry predispose the disease development. • The diseased larvae will be stunted in growth, dill lethargic soft and appear flaccid • The cephalothoracic region may be translucent • The larvae vomit gut juice, develop dysentery and excrete chain type fecus.

92 • The larvae on death putrefy, develop different and emit foul smell Management 1. Maintenance of hygienic condition 2. Disinfection of rearing room and appliances 3. Disinfection of worms, trace and discarding of sick worms 4. Avoid injury to the worms, overcrowding of trays and accumulation of faeces in the rearing bed 5. Sound management, improving the rearing environment and feed 6. Feeding the larvae with healthy nutritious leaves. 7. Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots 8. Avoid spraying commercial B. t. insecticides in nearby mulberry field. 9. Apply antibiotics like Streptomycin/Tetracyclin/Ampicillin 3. Fungal Diseases Powdery mildew is caused by the fungal pathogen Phyllactinia corylea and is more common in temperate region. In tropics, it is common during winter and rainy season. Temperature 22-26C and RH of 60-70% favour the spread of disease. The disease is characterized by white powdery patches on the lower surface of the leaves in the beginning. As the disease advances, the patches spread to the entire leaf surface and turn to blackish brown in colour. White muscadine is caused by a fungus Beauveria bassiana and the green muscadine is caused by a fungus Spicaria prasina. Aspergillosis is common in young age silkworms and the infected larvae will be lustrous and die. Dark green (Aspergillus flavus) or rusty brown ( Aspergillus tamari)mycelial cluster are seen on the dead body. • The diseases larvae prior to death will be lethargic and on death are flaccid • oil specks may be seen on the surface of larvae • They gradually be fome hard, dry and mummify into a white or green coloured structure • The diseases pupae will be hard, lighter and mummifies Magagement 1. Sundry the rearing appliances. 2. Disinfect the rearing room and utensils with 5 per cent bleaching powder 3. Avoid low temperature and high humidity in the rearing room 4. Keep the rearing bed thin and dry 5. Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots 6. Apply Dithane M45 (3 kg/100 dfls) / Vijetha supplement as disinfectant on the larvae 7. Disinfect rearing rooms and trays with 4 per cent pentachlorophenol to control Aspergillosis. 4. Protozoan disease : Pebrine • Diseases larvae show slow growth, undersized body and poor appetite. • Diseases larvae reveal pale and flaccid body. Tiny black spots appear on larval integument. • Dead larvae remain rubbery and do not undergo putrefaction shortly after death. Management of Pebrine 1. Produce healthy eggs 2. Disinfection of rearing room and utensils

93 3. Maintain strict hygienic conditions during rearing 4. Surface disinfect the layings in 2 per cent formalin for 10 minutes before incubation. 5. Collect and burn the diseased eggs, larvae, pupae and moths, bed refuses, faecal pellets, etc Grasserie Symptoms • The larvae will be sluggish with swollen inter-segmental region • The larvae will be fragile • On piercing, milky fluid containing many polyhedral inclusion bodies oozes out from the larval body • The diseased larvae do not settle for moult • The larvae appear to be restless • The dead larvae hang by hind legs head downward • Young age larvae may get infected with grasserie if the silkworm egg surface is not disinfected Causes • The Pathogen comes from infected eggs laid by infected mother moths • May exist in rearing facilites or Mulberry gardens as spores • Comes from wild insects naturally infected with Nosema bombsycis Control • Disinfect silkworm rearing house, its surrounding and appliances before brushing • Conduct additional disinfection with 0.3% lime solution. Rear young silkworms as well as late age silkworms under strict hygienic condition • Avoid high temperatures (28-35°C), low rearing temperatures (10-20°C) and rearing humidity (less than 70%) • Dust lime uniformly when larvae settle for moult • Dust every time the larvae come out of moult • Feed quality Mulberry leaf Flacherie Symptoms The diseased larvae will be: • Stunted in growth • Dull and lethargic • Soft and appear flaccid • The thoracic region may be translucent • The larvae vomit gut juice • The larvae on dying rot and emit a bad smell Control • Clean and disinfect rearing trays once again. The pathogens contaminate the rearing tray, bed and Mulberry leaf in the bed. They survive in teh rearing tray/bed for a long time and cause the disease if they are not disinfected effectively. • Control humidity as per guidelines above. If the temperature and humidty is too high in the tray/bed, the accumulation of faeces, wasted leaves and poor air circulation are suitable for the bacteria to multiply in the larvae and rearing bed. Muscardine

94 Symptoms • The diseased larvae prior to death will be lethargic and on death are flaccid • Oil specks may be seen on the surface of the larvae • They gradually become hard, dry and mummify into white or green • The diseased pupae will be hard, lighter and mummified Control • Disinfect rearing house and appliances • Reduce silkworm bed humidity by dusting lime powder after bed cleaning • Collect the entire diseased larva and burn them • Practice rearing and personal hygiene during rearing • Practice control measure against mulberry pests Nosema bombycis is a microsporidium that kills 100% of silkworms hatched from infected eggs. This disease can be carried over from worms to moths, then eggs and worms again. This microsporidium comes from the food that silkworms eat. If silkworms get this microsporidium in their worm stage, there are no visible symptoms. However, mother moths will pass the disease onto the eggs, and 100% of worms hatching from the diseased eggs will die in their worm stage. To prevent this disease, it is therefore extremely important to rule out all eggs from infected moths by checking the moth’s body fluid under a microscope. Botrytis bassiana is a fungus that destroys the entire silkworm body. This fungus usually appears when silkworms are raised under cold conditions with high humidity. This disease is not be passed on to the eggs from moths, as the infected silkworms cannot survive to the moth stage. This fungus can spread to other insects. Grasserie: If grasserie is observed in chawkie stage, then the chawkie larvae must have been infected while hatching or during chawkie rearing. Infected eggs can be disinfected by cleaning their surface prior to hatching. Infections can occur as a result of improper hygiene in the chawkie rearing house. This disease develops faster in early instar rearing. Pebrine is a disease caused by a parasitic microsporidian, Nosema bombycis Nageli. Diseased larvae show slow growth, an undersized, pale and flaccid body, and poor appetite. Tiny black spots appear on larval integument. Additionally, dead larvae will remain rubbery and do not undergo putrefaction after death. ii. Silkworm pests

Silkworm pests include the Rats, Birds, Safari and Black ants, Snakes, Lizards. Key pests of mulberry: Maconellicoccus hirsutus (mealy bug) - causing tukra in mulberry Diaphania pulverulentalis - Leaf roller Spilarctia obliqua - Bihar hairy caterpillar (sporadic pest) Minor pests of mulberry: Thrips, jassids, scale insects, shorthorned grasshopper. Tolerance of varieties to pests: The tukra incidence in rainfed areas was found to be maximum in the S-34 variety followed by MR-2, Berc 776, MS-7 and S-13 (Srinivas et al., 1996). The spread of tukra in the V-1 variety is less compared to other varieties such as Local, K-2, S-13, S-34, S-36, suggesting that the V-1 variety is relatively tolerant to tukra (Anony. 1998; Sujatha, 1997). Screening of germplasm maintained at CSRTI indicated the variety TOGHWASE - Acc. No. 257 was found to be tolerant to pest attack (unpublished data).

95 Pest Control: Put coffee tray wire on all the windows, crevices and any other openings in the rearing house. Maintain cleanliness both within and outside the house. Sprinkle one layer of bleaching powder (calcium chloride) around the rearing house

b. Other constraints- labour, land, environmental conditions, skill and production cost The art of silk production is called sericulture that comprises cultivation of mulberry, silkworm rearing and post cocoon activities leading to production of silk yarn. Sericulture provides gainful employment, economic development and improvement in the quality of life to the people in rural area and therefore it plays an important role in anti poverty programme and prevents migration of rural people to urban area in search of employment. Hence several developing nations like China, India, Brazil, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, , Iran, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Turkey, Papua New Guinea, Mexico, Uzbekistan and some of the African and Latin American countries have taken up sericulture to provide employment to the people in rural area. Apart from silk, there are several other bye-products from sericulture. The mulberry fruits are rich in minerals and vitamins and from the roots, barks and mulberry leaves several ayurvedic and herbal medicines are prepared. Some of the woody mulberry trees provide timber which are resistant to termites and the timber is used for making sports items, toys etc. The mulberry branches after silkworm feeding are generally dried and used as fuel particularly in the villages. The foliage of mulberry is used as a fodder for cattle. The mulberry trees are also planted in the embarkment area for protection of the soil to prevent soil erosion, and mulberry trees are planted as avenue trees. The silkworm pupae are rich in oil content and pupal oil is used in cosmetic industry and the remaining pupal cake is a rich source of protein suitable for poultry and fisheries. In some tribal population, the people eat eri pupa as a source of protein and nourishment. The silkworm litter is used for bio-gas production and used as a fuel for cooking in the rural area. Thus sericulture not only provides silk for fashionable , it also provides several very useful bye products to the human society. Therefore, sericulture development provides opportunities to improve the living standards of people in the rural area in developing countries. The present global silk production is fluctuating around 70, 000 to 90, 000 M.T. and the demand for silk is annually increasing by 5%. With the increase in population and also with the increased demand for fashionable clothing items due to fast changing fashion designs in developed countries, the demand for silk is bound to increase even more. For increasing the silk production we require highly productive mulberry varieties and silkworm races and also silkworm races tolerant to adverse climatic conditions and diseases which can come mainly from the sericultural germplasm resources and also from the wild relatives of Bombyx available in the natural habitats. Though accurate data are not available on the silkworm germplasm in different countries of the world, an approximate information indicate that there are 4310 silkworm germplasm accessions available in different countries (Table 1). There is every likelihood that some of these silkworm accessions are duplicated; for instance the silkworm germplasm from China, Japan, France, Russia and India might be represented in the germplasm collection of other countries since these are the principal source of sericultural

96 germplasm and also several countries might have exchanged some silkworm germplasm for silkworm breeding and hence a proper documentation on the availability of silkworm germplasm in different countries is very much required. A very recent compilation of silkworm genetic stocks indicate that there are around 3000 genotypes of Bombyx mori at the global level, which includes mutants, parthenoclones, polyploids and geographical races (Nagaraju et. al 2001). In fact much of the genetic diversity of Bombyx mori is derived from the inbred lines of land races and elite stocks evolved by the silkworm breeders and also from hybridisation of different geographical races; mainly the Japanese, Chinese, European and tropical races, which are distinct for several economic characters. The geographical races also possess several heritable characters for a variety of morphological, biochemical and quantitative characters. Among the four geographical races, the bivoltine and univoltine races of temperate origin and multivoltine races of tropical origin differ widely and exhibit contrasting characters. The bivoltine and univoltine races produce high quantity of good quality silk, whereas the multivoltine races are hardy, tolerant to pathogen load and thereby resistant to diseases compared to the bivoltines but produce low amount of poor quality silk. Thus, these geographical races are very valuable genetic stocks for further improvement of silkworm races and evolution of superior breeds of B. mori. Apart from a rich biodiversity of geographical races, there are also a large number of mutants. The silkworm genetic stocks include more than 500 mutants for a variety of characters viz., serosal colours; larval and adult integument colours; skin markings and body shapes; cocoon colours and shapes; physiological traits such as diapause, number of larval moults and timing of larval maturity; food habits and biochemical features such as digestive amylase, blood and egg esterases, larval integument esterase, alkaline and acid phosphatases; haemolymph proteins; silk production and fibroin secretion; homeoproteins and body plan determination etc. and the various mutants, gene locus and phenotype were documented recently (Nagaraju et. al, 2001). Apart from the geographical races and mutants there is a large genetic stock of B.mori evolved by the breeders mostly utilising the geographical races and mutants of larval, pupal and cocoon colour variants of sex limited races, particularly in Peoples Republic of China, Japan, India and erstwhile United Soviet Socialist Russia (USSR) and some of these breeds are commercially exploited in these countries for silkworm rearing to produce raw silk and the remaining breeds are maintained in the silkworm germplasm of these countries as breeders genetic stocks and they are utilised as the genetic material in the silkworm breeding programmes for evolution of more superior and elite races. Thus, the geographical races, mutants and the elite breeders stock constitute the major portion of the present day silkworm germplasm at the global level apart from the parthenoclones, triploid, polyploids and wild relatives of Bombyx andBombycidae The domesticated silkworm species, Bombyx mori L. evolved almost 4600 years ago from the wild species, Bombyx mandarina Moore, which is a native of China and Palaearctic region (Hampson, 1892; Hirobe, 1968). The eggs of silkworm,B. mori were first introduced from China into Japan and Korea in the first century and subsequently into Middle Eastern and European countries and later into the neighbouring countries around China in the sixth century. The historical background of silkworm entry into India is still a mystery; and the historical evidence indicates that a flourishing silk trade was practising between India and Rome/Greece during Kaniska period (56 B C).

97 This is the authentic historical record of silk production and trade in India, which indicates the early history of Indian sericulture. The rich tradition of silk and silk use are evident from ancient sacred literature like the Rigveda, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharatha, which are more than 2000 years old, but the information about indigenous silkworm races and their stock maintenance are not well documented. Silkworm rearing was prevalent in Kashmir and North Eastern states during sixteenth century, the Moghul period where the univoltine and multivoltine silkworms were respectively reared and the Tippu Sultan introduced silkworm rearing in south India in 1875. During eighteenth century, the British rule in India, quite a few univoltine and bivoltine races were imported from Italy, France, Russia and China, and the races were bred and maintained by the farmers (Krishna Rao, 1997); and there was no systematic maintenance of the silkworm germplasm and hence only few races survived under Indian climatic condition. At present only few old indigenous races are surviving viz. Barapolu, Chotapolu, Nistari, Sarupat, and Moria, whereas the indigenous univoltine Kashmiri races are almost extinct. Systematic silkworm stock maintenance and breeding started in the early nineteenth century. Prior to 1922, only pure races were reared and hybrid silkworms were introduced later, Pure Mysore × C. Nichi was probably the first hybrid in Karnataka and exploitation of hybrids in West Bengal and Kashmir came much later during 1956 and 1959 respectively (Thangavelu, 1997). Silkworm genetic stock maintenance started during 1940 in an organised way at Sericultural Research Station, Berhampore in West Bengal and subsequently temperate silkworm germplasm stocks were established at Univoltine Silkworm Seed Station, Pampore in Kashmir and multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm stocks were established at Central Sericultural Research Institute, Mysore in Karnataka and Coonoor in Tamil Nadu. During the recent years, biodiversity conservation programmes have drawn the attention of many countries including developing nations, because of the genetic erosion due to indiscriminate use of bio resources and damage to the environment, destruction of forest, human interference in eco-system, upsetting the equilibrium of the biosphere. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) organised by United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Jeneiro Earth Summit in 1992 made an awakening call to draw the global attention for conservation of biodiversity. Since then the biodiversity conservation and gene bank maintenance have gained greater momentum since the germplasm resources are considered as "Common Heritage of Mankind" and "Sovereign Right of Nations". The issues related to access the genetic resources and its sustainable use, benefit sharing, farmers rights are being deliberated at various national and international fora. Realising the importance of biodiversity conservation for sustainable development of agriculture, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) established the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) in 1974 at Rome with a global network of genetic resources centres, mainly for conservation of natural genetic resources including the wild species to promote crop improvement programmes and increase the food production. The role of wild relatives and wild species in agricultural crop improvement are well known (Rana, 1995). Similarly, there is an urgent need for seribiodiversity conservation, particularly the wild relatives of Bombyx and Bombycidae.

98 Improvement in silkworm race heavily depended on the geographical races of B. mori and the wild relatives of Bombyx were not explored, unlike in agriculture. Whereas in agricultural, horticultural and sericultural crop improvement programme the wild species of several crop plants have contributed very valuable genes for resistance to diseases and pests and tolerance to adverse agroclimatic conditions (Jackson and Ford-Lloyd, 1990) and similar exploitation of genes from wild relatives ofB.mori have not been reported. The genus Bombyx Hubner (1818) has two species, Bombyx mori L. and Bombyx mandarina Moore. Apart from the genusBombyx there are eleven other genera in the family Bombycidae Hubner; 1) Genus - Theophila Moore (1867), 2) Genus -Ocinara (Walker 1856), 3) Genus - Mustilia (Walker 1865), 4) Genus - Gunda (Walker 1862), 5) Genus Penicillifera (Walker) 6) Genus - Ernolatia (Moore) 7) Genus - Norasuma Moore 8) Genus - Trilocha Dieri, 9) Genus - Prismosticta (Swinhoe), 10) Genus - Andraca (Walker), and 11) Genus - Ectrocta (Hampson). Among these genera, Theophila and Ocinara are very close to the genus Bombyx. The wild sericigenous species of Bombyx, Theophila and Ocinara are naturally distributed in the Himalayan ranges of Indo-China range and also in Andaman Islands in India, besides, Jawa, Sumatra, Borneo and Malaya Peninsular (Barlow, 1982). The wild species of these genera have not been explored for transferring the useful genes to confer resistance to diseases and tolerance to adverse agro-climatic conditions into the domesticated species, B.mori. The useful genes from the wild relatives of B. mori may be cloned and these cloned genes may be transferred into the germ cells of the silkworm to develop transgeneic silkworm. Hence, there is an urgent need to collect and conserve the wild species ofBombyx, Theophila and Ocinera and study their genetics for possible use in the breeding programme of B.mori and widen the genetic base as well. Indian gene centre is harbouring great faunal diversity and nearly 11.9% of the world flora are present in India and hence recognised as one among the twelve mega biodiversity rich centres of the world. Floristically India is very rich, harbouring three mega centres of endemnism i.e. Western and Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. It is a treasure house of several diverse sericigenous flora and fauna. Wild species of Bombyx and other genera of Bombycidae do exist in the great Himalayan ranges and Andaman islands, under natural habitat and therefore the Indian gene centre possesses a rich seri- genetic resources. Eggs and cocoons of a wild silkworm belonging to Bombycidae were collected from wild mulberry tree Morus serrata near Kedarnath (30.47 °N, 79.02 °E) at an altitude of 800 meter above MSL (Tikader 2001). The eggs were incubated and rearing was conducted on the mulberry plants at Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre (CSGRC), Hosur and the produced cocoons and eggs are very similar to B. mori (Fig-2). It is a potential and interesting genetic material with several unique characters, utilising such wild relatives of Bombyx, it is quite possible to create additional seribiodiversity and widen the genetic base of B. mori. Biodiversity is the result of evolution that is a continuous phenomenon induced by natural selection pressure and the population of organisms evolve through adaptation to the biotic and abiotic stress. Ever since B.mori was domesticated, the species does not survive in the wild state in natural condition and also does not survive without human care and hence natural selection induced genetic diversity in B.mori is rather very limited to voltinism. Hence, it is very essential to conserve and utilise the wild relatives of

99 Bombyx mori to broaden its genetic diversity, apart from the geographical races, mutants, sex-limited races, evolved breeds and breeders genetic stocks. The wild relatives of Bombyx are very vulnerable and the vulnerability at different spatial and temporal scales are not known. The design of biodiversity network in sericulture involving the complementarity of wild relatives and domesticated B. mori is also not well established. Therefore, conservation of wild as well as domesticated seribiodiversity resources is very essential for sustainable development of sericulture (Fig-3) since loss of genetic resources of domesticated and wild relatives of Bombyx species along with their unique genes may disadvantage future generation.

Chapter 7 Organisations of Sericulture Industry in India a. Government of India

Government of India has shown its serious concerns for the development of world class silk production in India. Government has constituted various statutory bodies and organizations for the same. In recent years, several new silkworm breeds have been evolved. Authorised 36 region and season specific hybrids ( 21 Bv x Bv and 13 Mv x Bv and 2 Mv x Mv) for commercial use. Integrated technology packages for mulberry cultivation have been developed which include new mulberry variety, plant spacing, fertilizer and manure application including bio-fertilizer, shoot harvest, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and separate mulberry garden for young age (chawki) and late age silkworms. A comprehensive rearing technology package for bivoltine silkworms have been developed, which include egg incubation, chawki rearing, shoot-cum-shelf rearing, use of more effective disinfectants and improved mountages have resulted in higher productivity. To reduce drudgery, several machineries have been designed and developed for mechanization in mulberry cultivation including pruning, cultivator, leaf litter separator and leaf chopper. A shoot crushing machine for compost preparation. Similarly equipments like loose egg washing table, winnover, cocoon cutting, cocoon deflosser, egg transportation box, incubation chamber, hand duster, Uzi trap, improved Acid Treatment Bath, light weight rearing tray, Tewari Grainage tray and the like have been developed. In silk reeling, to obtain international grade silk, several machineries and accessories have been developed, which are fitted to multi-end reeling machine. The other innovations are denier detecting device, permeation chamber, water softening kit, multi

100 fuel economic oven, ushnakoti, besides various gadgets like cocoon cage, reeling button, slit button, slub- catcher, tail-end cutter, brushing unit, panel winder, soaking recipe, etc . In recent years, seri-biotech research has acquired prominence to harness the benefit of molecular biology research in sericulture. Genome analysis of mulberry silkworm using molecular markers has led to DNA profiling of silkworm genotypes through PCR based RAPD and DNA fingerprinting with micro-satellite probes. Distinct and unique DNA profile which is specific to diapausing and non-diapausing strains has been identified. Over the years, CSB R&D Institutions have developed many products / innovations / technologies for the benefit of sericulture community. As at the end of January, 2008 there are around 81 technologies filed for patenting / commercialization. Of which, 16 technologies have been patented and 30 innovations commercialized. Some of the institutions constituted by the government of India for the development of sericulture are as follows

1. Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute, Mysore, Karnataka

2. Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute, Berhampore, West Bengal

3. Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute, Pampore, Jammu & Kashmir

4. Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute, Lahdoigarh, Assam

5. Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory – Bangalore, Karnataka

6. Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre, Hosur, Tamil Nadu

7. Seri-biotech Research Laboratory, Bangalore, Karnataka

8. Central Tasar Research and Training Institute, Ranchi, Jharkand

9. Central Silk Technological Research Institute, Bangalore, Karnataka

10. National Silkworm Seed Organisation, Bangalore, Karanataka

Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR&TI), Mysore: The institute was established in 1961. Nested with the main institute are 4 Regional Sericultural Research Stations (RSRS), 18 Research Extension Centres (REC) and 12 Sub-RECs located within the mandated seri zone which includes the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. Over 150 scientists are working towards constant up-gradation of silkworm races, mulberry varieties, development and evaluation of region and season specific technologies, genetics and biotechnology including tissue culture, transfer of technology, extension management and training offers structural course like M.Sc, (Sericulture technology) ,

101 Diploma and Certificate courses on regular basis. For more details on CSR&TI, Mysore, its activities, services available, etc., contact :. Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR&TI), Berhampore The institute was established in 1943. Nested with the main institute are 4 Regional Sericultural Research Stations (RSRS), 13 Research Extension Centres (REC) and 2 Sub- RECs located in the mandated seri zones which includes the states of West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Bihar and Jharkhand. Over 100 scientists are working towards constant up-gradation of silkworm races and mulberry varieties, pest and diseases of silkworm, development and evaluation of region and season specific technologies, genetics & tissue culture, transfer of technology. Also offers structural training courses, Post Graduate Diploma in Sericulture and Certificate courses on regular basis.This Institute has initiated a new service for answering farmers questions related to sericulture through email. Farmers may post their questions to [email protected] and get their reply within short time. Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR&TI), Pampore The institute was established in 1990. Nested with the main institute are 2 Regional Sericultural Research Stations (RSRS), 11 Research Extension Centres (REC) and 5 Sub- RECs located in the mandated seri-zones which includes the states of J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Harayana, Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand . Over 40 scientists engaged in constant up-gradation of silkworm races and mulberry varieties suitable to temperate zone and hilly regions, development and evaluation of region and season specific technologies, genetics and breeding, transfer of technology, extension, etc. Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute (CMER&TI), Lahdoigarh The institute was established in 1999. Nested with the main institute are Regional Muga Research Station (RMRS), Regional Eri Research Station (RERS), and 8 Research Extension Centres (RECs) located in muga and eri seri-zone, which includes the states of Assam, West Bengal, UP, AP. Over 20 scientists are working on mandated areas like collection and conservation of muga and eri host plants and its silkworms, evolving suitable package of practices for muga and eri silkworm, rearing technology, seed technology and reeling and spinning in muga and eri sector. Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory (SSTL), Bangalore. The laboratory established in 1991 is conducting research exclusively on silkworm seed technology, developmental biology, reproductive physiology & biochemistry and seed pathology. Also, conducts training programme on Seed technology, Seed production & Grainage management. Over 20 scientists are engaged in the research activity. Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre (CSGRC), Hosur The center was established in 1991. It has a mandate to collect, protect and conserve mulberry and silkworm germplasm resources. This is also a National Repository Centre for mulberry germplasm and a National Active Germplasm Site (NAGS) for mulberry germplasm under NBPGR. Over 10 Scientists are engaged in collection and conservation activity. For exchange and dissection of information the centre has developed on-line multiple query based Mulberry Germplasm Information System (MGIS) with retrieval facility which is available on website – www.silkgermplasm.com Seri-biotech Research Laboratory (SBRL), Bangalore.

102 The laboratory established in 1993, is conducting research on frontier areas of modern molecular biology and its application towards improving silkworm races for better productivity. Central Tasar Research and Training Institute (CTR&TI), Ranchi The institute was established in 1964. Nested with the main institute are 8 Regional Tasar Research Stations (RTRS), 14 Research Extension Centres (REC) in tropical and temperate tasar growing region of India. The institute has over 47 scientists working on mandated areas like tasar and oak tasar silk production, conservation of eco races, augmentation of food plant, integrated package of rearing and post cocoon technology aspects. Also offer Post Graduate Diploma in Non-mulberry Sericulture on regular basis. Central Silk Technological Research Institute, (CSTRI), Bangalore The Central Silk Technological Research Institute was established in 1983 to give R&D support to Post Cocoon activities of the entire nation with the mandate of : - • Quality improvement • Productivity improvement • Services to the industry • Enterprise development • Market information dissemination CSTRI has been addressing the problems faced by the industry with constant interactions with the concerned groups. It is extending R&D support, technical services, training for use of improved machinery, skills and entrepreneur development. It undertakes promotional activities in post-cocoon sector. The institute has patented a number of technologies, machineries and equipments available for commercialization. Nested with the main institute are 16 Demonstration cum Technical Service Centres (DCTSCs). Over 60 scientists are working on areas of reeling, weaving, wet processing and training & extension. Regular structured course leading to P.G. Diploma and Certificate Courses are available. CSTRI is propagating the importance of quality of silk yarn by assessment and testing activities through its sub-units – Silk Conditioning & Testing Houses (SCTH) and Textile Testing Laboratory National Silkworm Seed Organisation (NSSO), Bangalore Established in 1975, it is a premier organization catering to the need of quality silkworm seed in the country. It helps in introduction and popularisation of new high productive breeds and helps the other research organization in fine tuning technologies. In recent years, NSSO is playing a role of quality leader and supporting the production of high grade silk by way of meeting substantial requirements of quality seed. It promotes production of silkworm seeds with quality tag. For the production and supply of Tasar silkworm seed, Basic Tasar Silkworm Seed Organization (BTSSO) at Bilaspur and for Muga Silkworm Seed Muga silkworm Seed Organization (MSSO) and for Eri Silk Seed, Eri Silkworm Seed Organization (ESSO) at Guwahati are functioning b. Central Silk Board

Central Silk Board established in 1949 as a Statutory body under Govt. of India, is a national organization for overall development of sericulture and silk industry. Its headquarters is located in Bangalore. Following is the complete address: Central Silk Board,

103 CSB Complex, B.T.M. Layout, Madivala, Hosur Road, Bangalore – 560 068. Karnataka State. INDIA. Ph: +91 80 26282699 Fax: +91 80 26681511 E-mail: [email protected] CITIZENS’/SERVICE CHARTER II. VISION See India emerge as the leader in the world market for silk III. MISSION • Make continuous efforts in Research & Development and Transfer of Technology • To create greater opportunities for gainful employment and improve levels of income from sericulture through spread of scientific sericulture practices • To improve productivity in all stages of silk production • Strengthen levels of efficiency through a commitment to quality

OUR MANDATE CSB is statutorily committed to: • Promote development of silk industry by all appropriate measures, and for this purpose, in particular – • Undertake, assist and encourage scientific, technological and economic research in the silk sector, • Devise means to improve cultivation of silkworm host plants, • Produce and distribute healthy silkworm seeds and ensure qualitative improvement through Central Silkworm Seed Regulation/Amendment to CSB Act. • Improve quality and production of raw silk and marketing of silk • Advise and report to Govt. of India on all matters relating to development of the silk industry, including import and export of raw silk • Regulation of silkworm seed production, multiplication and sale to ensure quality silkworm seed supply, • to regulate import and export of silkworm seed to prevent transfer of disease across the country

IV. SERVICES OFFERED 1. To States’ Sericulture Departments and NGOs • Basic planting material of high-yielding varieties of silkworm food plants • Region and season-specific package of practices for food plant cultivation and silkworm rearing • Collaboration in pest and disease surveillance and control • Technology packages for reeling and spinning • Post-cocoon research support • Assistance in supply of inputs to rearers and reelers

104 • Implementation of Centrally sponsored Catalytic Development Programme (CDP)in collaboration with all state sericulture departments to provide Central share of subsidy to the stakeholders of silk industry 2. Sericulturists • Soil testing and soil analysis (within two weeks of receiving the samples) • Supply of planting material for food plant cultivation (in suitable planting seasons within a month of receiving the indent) • Supply of commercial silkworm seed to sericulturists (spot purchase if seed is readily available if not, indents should be placed well in advance) • Training (depending upon Course schedule) 3 Silkworm Seed Producers • Training and provision of improved technologies of silkworm seed preparation, preservation and handling (as per a training calendar) • Ensuring quality improvement and to keep abreast with the latest technology, provision has been made to provide Training to Licensed Seed Preparers (LSPs) and Chawkie Rearing Centers (CRCs) in the Amended CSB Act & Central Silkworm Seed Regulation-2010. 4 Silk Reelers / Spinners • Testing of reeling water samples and water treatment for quality silk reeling (one week) • Training and provision of improved technologies of silk reeling/spinning (as per a training calendar) 5 Exporters • Eco-testing of silk and silk products for physical and chemical parameters (2 days depending upon number of samples and type of tests) • Undertaking voluntary pre-shipment inspection for quality and content of silk products meant for exports (2 days) • Seed Certification / phyto-sanitory certification for export of silkworm seed (one week) 6 Entrepreneurs:• Assistance in Project selection, and Project preparation (depending upon size of the Project) • Technical assistance and consultancy services (depending upon entrepreneur’s convenience and size of the Project) 7 Silk goods manufacturers: Promotion of Silk Mark, a quality assurance label affixed only on the pure silk products and generic promotion of Indian Silk popularized through the Silk Mark Organization of India (SMOI) 8 Consumers: SMOI has taken an initiative to create awareness amongst general public/consumers about silk and its purity aspects through familiarizing the ‘Silk Mark’ logo, which is introduced to ensure that the public/consumers always buy the pure silk goods, with Silk Mark logo affixed on them. Silk Mark is a quality assurance label authenticating the purity of silk. In order to popularize Silk Mark, SMOI is providing intensive publicity by way of mass communication, organizing buyers-sellers meet, workshops, road shows, exhibitions in all major cities and by participating in National/International Fairs, Expos etc. These Expos provide an excellent opportunity to common consumers to procure pure silk from the Authorized users from across the country, besides popularizing the ‘Silk Mark’ logo. V. Grievance Redress Mechanism/Public Information Cell Implementation of Right to Information Act, 2005

105 The Central Silk Board (CSB) has setup an “Information Centre” at its headquarters at Bangalore to facilitate computerized public interface aimed at dissemination of information to the public on the services and activities of Central Silk Board. The “Information Centre” provides information on major activities of Central Silk Board, its organizational setup, services offered by the Board, technological advancement in sericulture and silk industry, prices of silk commodities, sericulture production data, silk export, import statistics, schemes/projects implemented by the Board either directly or through the Department of Sericulture, NGOs, training imparted by various CSB units, literatures, periodical publications, books, sericulture films available for sale, facilities provided by the Board on quality testing, certification, seed supply etc., to farmers, reelers, weavers, NGOs, quality clubs and other interested public. The “Information Centre” is equipped with KIOSK ,computer, printed materials like pamphlets, brochures, leaf lets, CDs, VCDs, audio cassettes, display boards etc..

Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India has launched “Kisan Call Centres” throughout the Country by a network of call centres, which enable the farmers to get on the demand expert advice through a toll free number 1551. Central Silk Board has integrated “CSB Information Centre” to the “Kisan Call Centre” to provide sericulture related information to the general public as well as stake holders of silk industry. Govt. of India has identified Central Silk Board (CSB) as level II experts of this “Kisan Call Centre” network.

The role & scope of the Information Centre has been broadened consequent upon enactment of the Right to Information Act, 2005. The Central Silk Board has designated as many as 34 Central Public Information Officers (CPIOs) and 156 Assistant Public Information Officers (APIOs) in the Central Silk Board Head quarters and its subordinate units to provide information to the Public as per the provisions of the Right to Information Act, 2005. The Public Information Cell receives application from the applicants and send it to the concerned Central Public Information Officer for processing and furnish reply to the applicant as per the provisions laid down under the Right to Information Act, 2005. To understand all the provisions and for proper implementation of the RTI Act, 2005, CSB has trained 145 CPIOs/APIOs and other officials of Southern, Eastern, North Eastern & Northern zone in Bangalore, Kolkata & Delhi in association with the National Productivity Council, . THE CL IENT S/ CITI ZEN CAN APPROACH THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES FOR HELP/GRIEVANCE REDRESSAL • Deputy Secretary (Tech), Regional Office of the Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, 342-347, II Floor, A-Wing STD 011, August Kranthi Bhavan, Bhikaji Cama Place, New Delhi-110066, Ph:(O) 011-26107316/ 26108316 Mob:09999800608, Fax:011-26176177, Grams SILKBOARD, E-mail [email protected], [email protected] • Deputy Director (Insp.) Regional Office of the Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, No.16, Mittal Chambers, Nariman Point, Mumbai 400021, Maharashtra, Phone:(O)022-22020326, 22020330(R) 25306390, Mob:09867238478, Fax:022-22020329. Grams SILKBOARD, Email: [email protected] • Joint Secretary(Tech) Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, I Floor, No.15, Ghariahat Road (South), Dhakuria, Kolkatta-700031, West

106 Bengal, Phone:(O) 033-24730912, 24736856(R) 26797269, Mob:09434303839 Fax:033- 24735090, Grams SILKBOARD, Email: [email protected], [email protected] • Assistant Secretary(Tech), Regional office of the Central Silk Board H.No.12, Sector-1, Nanaknagar, Jammu 180004, Jammu & Kashmir. Phone:(O) 0191- 2433882, 2436597 Fax:0191-2433882 Grams: CENT RALBIVOLTINE E-mail: [email protected] • Deputy Secretary(Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Prasashan Nagar, Near New Water Tank, Film Nagar Post Office, Jubilee Hills, Road No.72, Hyderabad-500096, Andhra Pradesh. Phone:(O)040- 23554447,Fax:040-23541293,Mob: 09989191295, E-mail: [email protected] • Deputy Secretary(Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, No.28/22, K.K.Salai, Kaveri Rangan Nagar, Saligramam, Chennai-600093,Tamilnadu, Phone:(O) 044-23760107-8, Fax: 044-23760106 (SMOI), Mob:09884960315, E-mail:[email protected] • Assistant Secretary(Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, 18, Satyanagar, P.O.Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneshwar-751007, Orissa, Phone:(O) 0674-2570053, Fax: 0674- 2572705, Mob:09778980800, Grams:SILKBOARD,e-mail: [email protected] • Joint Secretary (Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Banphool Nagar Path, [Near Wireless] Baristha Road, P.O. Dispur, Guwahati – 781006, Kamrup, Assam, Phone: (O) 0361-2229774; Direct-0361-2229707, Mob:09435045201, Fax: 0361-2229708, Grams SILKB OAR D, e-mail [email protected], [email protected] • Dy.Secretary(T),Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Vikasdeep, 5th Floor, No.22 Station Road, Lucknow – 226001, Uttar Pradesh, Phone/Fax: 0522-2635123, Mob:09452243291, Grams: SILKBOARD, e-mail [email protected] • Asst. Secretary (Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India , C/O Office of the Director (Handloom & Sericulture), Dept. of Industries, Vikas Sachivalaya, Patna – 800015, Bihar, Phone:(O) 0612-263572, (R)263259, Grams: SILKBOARD. • Director, Central Sericultural Germplasam Resources Centre, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India , P.B.No.44, Thally Road , Hosur-635109, Dharmapuri Phone:(O) 04344-222013; (D)220520; (JD)221148, (R)552043 Grams:GERMPLASM e-mail:[email protected]@silkgermpalsm.com • Director, Seri-Biotech Research Laboratory of Central Silk Board , Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, CSB Campus, Sarjapur Road, Carmelram Post, Kodathi, Bangalore-5600 035 Karnataka, Phone:(O) 080-28439598, 2844065, 55379565, 55379575 Fax:080-28439597 e-mail:[email protected] • Scientist-E, Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory, NSSO, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Carmalram Post, Kodathi, Bangalore 560035, Karnataka, Phone:(O) 2080-8439297, 28440493, 28440492; (D/R) 25631004, Fax:080- 28439598, [email protected] • Director, National Silkworm Seed Organization (NSSO) of Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India , IV Floor, Hosur Road , B.T.M.

107 Layout Madivala, Bangalore-560 068, Karnataka, Phone:(O) 080-26282400, 26688831; (D)26683251;(R)6564655 Fax:080-26680387 GRAM: CENT R ALSI LKBOARD e- mail: [email protected] , [email protected] • Director, Central Silk Technological Research Institute (CSTRI), Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, B.T.M. Layout Madivala, Hosur Road, Bangalore-560068, Karnataka, Phone:(O) 080-26688831, 26282100 (R) 26677712 Fax:080-26680435 Mob:09449550964 Gram:CES ITEC H e-mail: [email protected]. • Director, Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSR&TI), Central Silk Board , Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Sirampura, Manandavadi Road, Mysore-570 008 Karnataka, Phone:(O)0821-2362757, 2362440, 2362585, 2362383, 2362937, 2362399, 2362368; (R)2480905, 2480349 Fax:0821-2362845 Gram:SILKBOARD email:director@csrti,ys.res.in, csrtimys.res.in • Director, Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSRTI) Central Silk Board , Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Bherampore-742101 Dist. Murshidabad, West Bengal, Phone: (O) 03481-253967, 251046; (R)252298 Fax:03481-251233 Mob:09434757372 Grams:SILKBOARD, e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] • Director, Central Tasar Research & Training Institute, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India , Piska Nagri P.O. Ranchi-835 303.Jharkhand. Phone: (O) 0651-2775815, 2910239; (R)2510158 FAX: 0651-2775629 Mob: 09470590509 e- mail: [email protected] • Director, Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSRTI) Central Silk Board , Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Galander ,National Highway-1A, Pampore– Kashmir–192121 P.B.No.88, G.P.O-Srinagar-190001 J&Kashmir. Phone:(O) 0193- 3293865(WLL), 0194-2476790, 293852, 222839; (R)2496690 Fax: 223215, 223579 (PPR) 194-2476763 (SGR) Mob:09419001985 Grams: SILKBOARD PAMPORE e- [email protected], [email protected] • Director, Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, P.B.131, P.O. Lahdoigarh Charali, Jorhat-785700, Assam, Phone:(O) 0376-2335528, 2335513 Fax:0376-2335124; Mob: 09435052535 Grams: MUGRESEARCH e-mail;[email protected] • Scientist-D, Basic Tasar Silkworm Seed Organization (BTSSO) Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Satyam Commerical Complex, I-Floor, Link Road, P.B. No.15, Bilaspur-495001, Chhattisgarh. Phone: (O) 07752-237265, 220126; (R)270320 Fax: 07752-233748 (Mob) 0942415384 Grams SILK BOA RDBILASPUR e-mail: [email protected] [email protected]. • Scientist-D, Muga Silkworm Seed Organization, (MSSO), Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Banphool Nagar Path, Basistha Road, Near Housefed, P.O. Assam Sachivalaya, Guwahati–781 006, Kamrup (M ETR O), Assam. Phone:0361-2229774, 2229707, 2229045, Fax:0361-2229708, (Mob) 09435305089, e- mail: [email protected], [email protected] • Silk Mark Organization of India (SMOI), Central Silk Board, CSB Complex, BTM Layout, Madiwala, Bangalore-560068, Karnataka. Phone:(O)080-26680841, 26282209, 26282114/117. Fax:080-26681511 e-mail: [email protected] VI. STAKEHOLDERS/ CLIENTS:

108  Departments concerned with sericulture development in all States of the Country  Non-Government Organizations (NGOs)  Farmers practicing sericulture  Silk Reelers  Silk Spinners  Private Silkworm Seed Producers  Exporters  Entrepreneurs interested in taking up- • Cocoon growing • Silk reeling/spinning • Silkworm seed production • Manufacturers of chemicals and bio-pesticides for controlling pests and diseases of silkworms and its food plants.

VII . RESPONSIBILITY CENTERS: Main Research Institutes and nested units: • Three Central Sericultural Research and Training Institutes (CSR&TIs) at Mysore (Karnataka), Berhampore ( West Bengal ), and Pampore (Jammu & Kashmir) • Central Tasar Research and Training Institute, Ranchi (Jharkhand) • Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre, Hosur (Tamil Nadu) • Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory, Bangalore (Karnataka) • Seri-biotech Research Laboratory, Bangalore (Karnataka) • Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute, Lahdoigarh ( Assam ) • 10 Regional Research Stations for Mulberry, 8 for Tasar, 1 for Muga and 2 for Eri at various locations in the Country. • 44 Research Extension Centres for Mulberry, 13 for Tasar, 3 for Muga and 2 for Eri, 1 Satellite Silkworm Breeding Station at Coonoor(TN) and 18 Sub-RECs for Mulberry and 1 Sub- REC for Muga. Basic and Commercial Silkworm Seed Support: The National Silkworm Seed Organisation (NSSO), Bangalore (Karnataka) has a network of 2 Zonal Silkworm Seed Organisation (ZSSOs) at Malda (WB) and Dehradun (Uttaranchal), 20 Silkworm Seed Production Centres, 23 Basic Seed Farms, 3 Seed Cocoon Procurement Centres & 32 Sericulture Service Centres located at various places in the country. • The Basic Seed Farms (BSFs) supply parent seed to the Departments of Sericulture in various States on their request. The commercial silkworm seed produced by NSSO supplements the production by States. • The Basic Tasar Silkworm Seed Organization (BTSSO), Bilaspur support basic Seed multiplication, and production of these races through 21 BSMTCs located at various locations in the country and also one Central Tasar Silkworm Seed Station (CTSSS) at Kargi Kota, Chattisgarh and 1 Field Unit at Pallahara (Orissa) • The Muga Silkworm Seed Organization (MSSO), Guwahati support basic Seed multiplication, and production of these races through 8 P4/P3 units and one Muga SSPC at Kaliabari, Boko.

109 • The Eri Silkworm Seed Organisation (ESSO) at Guwahati demonstrates organized production methods through 5 Eri Silkworm Seed Production Centers (SSPCs) located at Azara( Assam ), Dehradun(Uttarakhand), Hosur(TN), Shadnagar & Peddapuram (AP). Post-Cocoon Support and Eco-testing: The Central Silk Technological Research Institute (CSTRI), at Bangalore provides research and extension support in the post-cocoon areas with the support of - • 1 Zonal Office at Bilaspur provides post cocoon support to the entrepreneurs • 1 Regional Silk Technological Research Station (RSTRS) at Guwahati • 6 Silk Conditioning and Testing Houses at Bangalore, Dharmavaram, Kanchipuram, Malda, Jammu and Srinagar are equipped for testing raw silk for quality based on standard parameters. • 1 Textile Testing Laboratory at Varanasi for testing eco-friendliness of dyes used. • 2 Raw Silk Testing Centers at Siddlaghatta and Kollegal (both in KAR) • 11 Demonstration cum Technical Service Centres (DCTSCs) one each in West Bengal, Bihar, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Karnataka and, 2 Cocoon Testing Centers at Ramanagaram (KAR) and Coimbatore(TN) are functioning to provide technical and training support to the local reeling and spinning industry. Co-ordination and Market Support: In order to co-ordinate the sericulture development programmes in different states, the Central Silk Board has established 10 Regional Officers at New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkatta, Jammu, Hyderabad, Chennai, Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati, Lucknow and Patna. These units maintain a close liaison with the State Sericulture Departments, field units and CSB field functionaries to co-ordinate transfer of technology. Regional Offices are also convenors of State Level Sericulture Co-ordination Committee meetings constituted by the Central Silk Board. In order to ensure economic and fair price to the primary Vanya cocoon growers, the Central Silk Board has established a Tasar Raw Material Bank (TRMB ) at Chaibasa (Jharkhand) along with 4 Sub-Depots at Raigarh (Chhattisgarh), Bhagalpur ( Bihar ), Warrangal (AP) and Bhandara ( Maharashtra). Similarly for Muga cocoons, a Muga Raw Material Bank (MRMB) was established at Sivasagar in Assam , with 3 Sub-Depots at Dhakuakhana, Sualkuchi ( Assam ) and at Coochbehar in West Bengal . For the sustained development of Ericulture and to safeguard the interest of poor farmers in the new areas, CSB has established an Eri Raw Material Bank (ERMB) at RO, Hyderabad with 2 cocoon procurement Centers at Hyderabad and Rampachodavaram in Andhra Pradesh.

VIII. INDICATIVE EXPECTATIONS FROM SERVICE RECIPIENTS

 Information on subsidy on Centrally sponsored Schemes,  Availability of Silkworm Seed, planting material  Details of improved Mulberry varieties, Silkworm seed, improved technology packages,  Details of the disinfectant manufacturers, machinery manufacturers, availability of spare parts etc.  Prices of cocoons, Raw silk and silk commodities

110 IX. REVIEW OF THE CHARTER In order to implement, monitor and review the Citizen’s Charter, CSB has a Review Committee headed by the Member Secretary, Central Silk Board. The Committee will review the Citizen’s Charter on quarterly basis along with Right to Information Act. Last review meeting was held at CSB, Bangalore on 23rd November, 2010 and it is proposed to convene the next Review Meeting during the month of March, 2011. EXPORT PROMOTION SCHEME The Central Silk Board is a statutory body established on 28th April 1949 by an act of Parliament. It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Textiles, Government of India. One of its main functions is to advise the Central Government on all matters relating to the development of silk industry including import and export of raw silk. The Pre-shipment Inspection Authority for Natural Silk goods meant for export under the EXIM Policy is the Central Silk Board, having its Head Quarters at CSB Complex, B.T.M. layout, Madiwala, Bangalore-560068. Under the EXIM Policy compulsory Pre –shipment Inspection of Natural Silk goods was dispensed by Ministry of Textiles with effect from 01.04.2000. However, Central Silk Board extended its services to Silk trading Community by offering voluntary Quality inspection of Natural Silk goods meant for exports through its Certification Centers spread across the country whenever it is desired by the exporters. List of Certification Centers (annexed) It is imperative on the part of Indian Manufactures and exporters to initiate suitable measures towards strengthening its quality assurance, for the purpose of continuing the survival in the competition with the global traders. Hence Central Silk Board felt it should assist the “Indian Silk Trade and Industry” in the field of quality appraisal in an effective manner. Therefore the conception of “New Voluntary Quality Inspection Scheme” for all types of Natural Silk Products was evolved. VOLUNTARY QUALITY INSPECTION SCHEME FOR NATURAL SILK GOODS Scope: Voluntary Quality Inspection of Natural Silk Goods would be available to all Exporters/ Manufacturers of Indian Silk Goods, and Importers of Silk goods to India. Services extended by Certification Centers of Central Silk Board: Voluntary inspection of Natural Silk / Silk mixed products, inspection of Silk Carpets are undertaken by the officials of Central Silk Board. In addition, the Board offers Silk Testing facilities for raw Silk, silk mixed and finished products such as fabrics, sarees, made-ups, garments, carpets etc. on payment of prescribed fees. Issue of various Tariff Certificates: Under the bilateral Agreements Generalized System Preferences (G.S.P.) and various other tariff Certificates are also issued by the Boards designated officials against payment of requisite fee prescribed by the Board 1. Generalized system preferences. 2. Hand woven certificates to EEC countries 3. Handicraft product certificates to EEC countries 4. Handicraft certificate to Australia: 5. Industrial craft certificate to Australia: 6. Swiss. Tariff certificate: 7. Certificate of origin:

111 8. Special certificate of origin to U.A.E., Sri Lanka and Yugoslavia Issue of Tariff Certificates on exporter’s declaration: A provision is made where-in an exporter can avail tariff benefit for the consignments of goods meant for exports either by tendering the goods for inspection or by on self declaration by submitting the prescribed format along with 6” x 6” sample swatches of representative samples. Incase of woven designs the samples should cover 2 repeats. Service charges for Inspection: The service charges for quality inspection of natural silk goods on voluntary basis as per rates mentioned below: a) Consignment valued up to Rs.One lakh Rs.200.00 (Rupees two hundred only) b) Consignment valued more than Rs.One lakhand up to Rs.5.00 lakh Rs.350.00 (Rupees three hundred fifty) c) Consignment valued above Rs.5.00 Rs.700.00 (Rupees seven hundred) Prices for various blank forms of tariff Certificates: Prices for various blank forms viz EEC (Handloom), EEC (Handicraft), Certificate of Origin, Swiss. Tariff Certificates, Yugoslavia Tariff Certificates, and other tariff certificates is Rs.50.00 (Rupees fifty only) Certification fees for all the above Tariff Certificates including GSP is Rs.150/- (rupees one hundred & fifty each). Guidelines for availing inspection: Application for Voluntary Quality Inspection in the prescribed format indicating there-in, the scope of inspection required to be submitted to the Officer In-Charge of Certification Centre of the Central Silk Board Application in duplicate accompanied by relevant invoices and packing list in duplicate. A copy of contract may be enclosed whenever the inspection required as per contract. Voluntary quality inspection of natural silk/ Silk mixed products are undertaken by CSB on payment of service charges along with sample swatch of 6 x 6 inches representing each variety of the consignment, is to be submitted in prescribed format by the exporter. In case of additional parameters under Part-II of prescribed format the sample size will depend upon the type of the test. Inspection and criteria: Inspection of the material will be with reference to specification by the applicant or as stipulated in the contract. The inspection would be governed as per CSB Voluntary Quality Inspection Rules. Visual inspection: Verification and purity of the constituent yarns in the materials, Denier or count of the constituent yarns, ends and picks, in case of fabrics, the weight/ sq mt. will be arrived based on the weight of the inspected pieces. In case of Made-ups, Garments etc the weight/ sq mt will be calculated from the sample of base fabrics. a) Dimensional particulars b) Serious flaws c) Major flaws. d) Dyeing and printing defects. e) Other defects.

112 f) The Inspecting Officials will flag the serious and major flaws found in the pieces during inspection unless otherwise requested by the applicant. g) Each inspected piece will be stamped with A.D.(I) s” monogram stamp. h) The samples will also be tested for the following parameters and a test report will be issued on specific request i) Colour fastness to light washing, i) Rubbing and perspiration. ii) Tensile strength of fabric. iii) Eco-parameters. j) There will be no rejections unless and otherwise specified by the applicant by furnishing range or tolerance limit for all the parameters. k) Consignment inspected and passed will be sealed by the Inspecting Officials as per the procedure prescribed under Inspection Rules. A factual inspection report incorporating actual findings will be issued. Packing and sealing: Pieces inspected and passed shall be marked with monogram stamp of the Assistant Director ( Inspn ) and packed in the bales or cartoons or as specified by the applicant or as specified in the contract In the presence of Assistant Director ( Inspn ). All other bales or cartoons of the consignments shall be sealed by the Assistant Director ( Inspn ). Issue of inspection certificate: After completion of inspection, stamping, Packing and sealing of the packages, the Assistant Director ( Inspn ) shall issue certificates in the prescribed formats indicating factual finding during inspection. Custom Clearance Endorsement: After the completion of inspection and sealing of the certified parcels, the inspecting official shall issue a custom clearance endorsement on the invoice duly affixing with rubber stamp & a passed stamp with date. The customs endorsed certified invoice is categorized under 1) 100% Natural silk by weight, 2) Containing 50 % or more of Natural silk by weight, 3) Containing less than 50 % Natural silk by weight. In case of exports of silk yarn, Silk wastes the customs endorsement shall show the type of Silk yarn/ or Silk waste and their weight in Kgs. Silk carpets Inspection of 100% of silk carpets under silk mark Certification Scheme is governed by the Trade Circular No.CSB – 6 (1) / 89 –EP & ES dated 25- 05- 89 and 13- 06-89. c. State Departments of Sericulture

In the development of sericulture industry, the role of State Governments has customarily been the expansion of sericulture activity and provision of farmer level extension as well as other support services, including credit facilitation. India being blessed with prevalence of favourable climatic conditions, mulberry is cultivated in almost all states. But, traditionally sericulture is practiced in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Jammu & Kashmir, which accounts for

113 major share in production of mulberry raw silk in the country. Muga is twined with the culture of Assam and has the monopoly. In the recent years, muga rearing is extended to other states like Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal. Now, as a result of growing realization, sericulture is gaining ground in non-traditional areas too. For the development of sericulture, State Governments have been implementing various developmental schemes like supply of chawki silk worms to the farmers at subsidized rate; development of mulberry gardens and distribution of high yielding mulberry saplings to the farmers; supply of quality disinfectant material; capacity building of the farmers; assistance for the construction of rearing sheds; supply of tool and equipments; incentives for setting up of reeling units and marketing support,etc. Accordingly, separate 'Sericulture Departments' have been set up by the State Governments, some of which include the following. Handlooms, Handicrafts, Textiles & Khadi Department, Government of Tamil Nadu The Handlooms , Handicrafts , Textiles & Khadi Department was formed in 1985. This Department is evolving policies and schemes aimed at developing the harmonious growth of Handlooms, Power looms and Textile Sector. It is also concerned with the development of Sericulture , Khadi , Village Industries , Handicrafts and Palm Products Industry in the State. Various schemes are evolved for the welfare of weavers / artisans involved in the above industries. Directorate Sericulture and Weaving, Government of Meghalaya Sericulture and Weaving in Meghalaya are the two most important cottage based, eco- friendly industries in the rural areas. These twin industries portray the cultural ethos and rich heritage of the people of the State. The thrust area under sericulture sector is to boost up cocoon and silk production by development of systematic and economic plantation at sericultural farmers level so as to enhance the productivity per unit area through implementation of need-based schemes such as Integrated Eri, Mulberry and Muga Development Program Training facilities are provided to the farmers, reelers and spinners on improved methods. In-service training of technical personnel and training for the educated unemployed youth for self employment are also provided. Department of Sericulture, Government of Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh produces all the four popular varieties of Silk worm cocoons namely Mulberry, Tasar, Eri and Muga. A separate sericulture department has been set up with the following objectives: Production of International Graded Bivoltine Silk and to meet the gap between supply and demand of silk Production of seed through an organised 3 tier system of seed multiplication. Transfer of technology to the farmers through Technical Service Centres. Propagation of High Yielding Varieties . Special attention on the improvement of the productivity and quality. Economical water management system. Promoting private Chawkie Rearing units for supply of Chawkie worms Promoting construction of a separate rearing sheds Providing marketing facilities to farmers through cocoon markets and broadcasting of cocoon rates of different cocoon markets through different media. Development of region specific & season specific races.

114 Development of non-farm sector and Integration of non farm activities i.e. Reeling and Twisting with weaving. To achieve a quantum jump in production of Tasar and Eri cocoons. Some of the state departments are Sericulture Department, Government of Karanataka Department of Sericulture, Government of Tamil Nadu Karnataka State Sericulture Research & Development Institute Handloom Textiles & Sericulture Department - Government of Assam TAMIL NADU SERICULTURE TRAINING INSTITUTE Government of ANDHRA PRADESH, Dept. Of Sericulture Department of Sericulture and Weaving, Government of Meghalaya

Chapter 8 Mulberry Silkworm and Its Food Plants-Mulberry Sericulture Silkworm, common name for the silk-producing larvae of any of several species of moths. Silkworms possess a pair of specially modified salivary glands called silk glands, or sericteries, which are used in the production of cocoons. The silk glands secrete a clear, viscous fluid that is forced through openings, called spinnerets, on the mouthparts of the larva; the fluid hardens as it comes into contact with air. The diameter of the spinneret determines the thickness of the silk thread produced.

The best-known silkworm is the larvae of the common, domesticated silkworm moth. This moth, native to China, was introduced into Europe and western Asia in the 6th century AD and into North America in the 18th century. The moth has been cultivated for many centuries and is no longer known in the wild state. Breeders have produced many varieties of the moth, the most important of which produce three broods of young annually.

115 A typical adult silkworm moth is yellow or yellowish-white, with a thick, hairy body, and has a wingspread of about 3.8 cm (about 1.5 in). The adult has rudimentary mouthparts and does not eat during the short period of its mature existence; the female dies almost immediately after depositing the eggs, and the male lives only a short time thereafter. The female deposits 300 to 400 bluish eggs at a time; the eggs are fastened to a flat surface by a gummy substance secreted by the female. The larvae, which hatch in about ten days, are about 0.6 cm (about 0.25 in) long. The larvae feed on leaves of white mulberry, Osage orange, or lettuce. Silkworm caterpillars that are fed mulberry leaves produce the finest quality silk. Mature larvae are about 7.5 cm (about 3 in) long and yellowish-gray or dark gray in color.

About six weeks after hatching, the common silkworm stops eating and spins its cocoon. The length of the individual fiber composing the cocoon varies from 300 to 900 m (1000 to 3000 ft). The silkworm pupates for about two weeks; if allowed to complete its pupation period, it emerges as an adult moth. Tearing during emergence damages the silken cocoon beyond commercial use. Therefore, in the commercial production of silk, only enough adult moths are allowed to emerge to ensure continuation of the species. Most of the silkworms are killed by heat, either by immersion in boiling water or by drying in ovens.

Other moths known as silkworm moths include the giant silkworm moths. The larvae of these large moths also spin silken cocoons, but they are less widely used for commercial silk production.

There are five major types of silk of commercial importance, obtained from different species of silkworms which in turn feed on a number of food plants. These are:

 Mulberry  Oak Tasar & Tropical Tasar  Muga  Eri

Except mulberry, other non-mulberry varieties of silks are generally termed as vanya silks. India has the unique distinction of producing all these commercial varieties of silk. Mulberry silk The bulk of the commercial silk produced in the world comes from this variety and often silk generally refers to mulberry silk. Mulberry silk comes from the silkworm, Bombyx mori L. which solely feeds on the leaves of mulberry plant. These silkworms are completely domesticated and reared indoors. In India, the major mulberry silk producing states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jammu & Kashmir which together accounts for 92 % of country's total mulberry raw silk production.

Tasar silk

116 Tropical Tasar: Tasar (Tussah) is copperish colour, coarse silk mainly used for furnishings and interiors. It is less lustrous than mulberry silk, but has its own feel and appeal. Tasar silk is generated by the silkworm,Antheraea mylitta which mainly thrive on the food plants Asan and Arjun. The rearings are conducted in nature on the trees in the open. In India, tasar silk is mainly produced in the states of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Orissa, besides Maharashtra, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Tasar culture is the main stay for many a tribal community in India.

Oak Tasar: It is a finer variety of tasar generated by the silkworm,Antheraea proyeli J. in India which feed on natural food plants of oak, found in abundance in the sub-Himalayan belt of India covering the states of Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and Jammu & Kashmir. China is the major producer of oak tasar in the world and this comes from another silkworm which is known as .

Eri silk Also known as Endi or Errandi, Eri is a multivoltine silk spun from open-ended cocoons, unlike other varieties of silk. Eri silk is the product of the domesticated silkworm, Philosamia ricini that feeds mainly on castor leaves. Ericulture is a household activity practiced mainly for protein rich pupae, a delicacy for the tribal. Resultantly, the eri cocoons are open-mouthed and are spun. The silk is used indigenously for preparation of chaddars (wraps) for own use by these tribals. In India, this culture is practiced mainly in the north-eastern states and Assam. It is also found in Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa.

Muga silk This golden yellow colour silk is prerogative of India and the pride of Assam state. It is obtained from semi-domesticated multivoltine silkworm,Antheraea assamensis. These silkworms feed on the aromatic leaves of Som and Soalu plants and are reared on trees similar to that of tasar. Muga culture is specific to the state of Assam and an integral part of the tradition and culture of that state. The muga silk, an high value product is used in products like sarees, mekhalas, chaddars, etc. d. Silkworm races

Commercially exploited sericigenous insects of the world and details (Common Name, Scientific Name, Origin, Primary Food Plants) of their races are as follows-  Common Name Mulberry Silkworm, Scientific Name Bombyx mori, Origin China, Primary Food Plant(s) Morus indica, M. alba, M.multicaulis, M.bombycis  Common Name Tropical Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea mylitta, Origin India , Primary Food Plant(s) , Terminalia tomentose, T. arjuna  Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea proylei, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Quercus incana,Q. serrata, Q. himalayana, Q. leuco tricophora, Q. semicarpifolia, Q. grifithi  Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea frithi, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dealdata

117  Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea compta, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dealdata  Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea pernyi, Origin China, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dendata  Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea yamamai, Origin Japan, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. acutissima  Common Name Muga Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea assama, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Litsea polyantha, L. citrate, Machilus bombycine  Common Name Eri Silkworm, Scientific Name Philosamia ricini, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Ricinus communis, Manihot utilisma, Evodia fragrance

The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of the domesticated silkmoth, Bombyx mori (Latin: "silkworm of the mulberry tree"). It is an economically important insect, being a primary producer ofsilk. A silkworm's preferred food is white mulberry leaves, but it may also eat the leaves of any other mulberry tree (i.e., Morus rubra or Morus nigra) as well as the Osage Orange. It is entirely dependent on humans for its reproduction and does not occur naturally in the wild. Sericulture, the practice of breeding silkworms for the production of raw silk, has been underway for at least 5,000 years in China, from where it spread to Korea and Japan, and later to India and the West. The silkworm was domesticated from the wild silkmoth Bombyx mandarina which has a range from northern India to northern China, Korea, Japan and far the eastern regions of Russia. The domesticated silkworm derives from Chinese rather than Japanese or Korean stock. It is unlikely that silkworms were domestically bred before the Neolithic age: it was not until then that the tools required to facilitate the manufacturing of larger quantities of silk thread had been developed. The domesticated B. mori and the wild B. mandarina can still breed and sometimes produce hybrids. The moth – the adult phase of the life cycle – cannot fly. Silkmoths have a wingspan of 3–5 cm (1.5–2 inches) and a white hairy body. Females are about two to three times bulkier than males (for they are carrying many eggs), but are similarly colored. Adult Bombycidaes have reduced mouth parts and do not feed, though a human caretaker can also feed them. Eggs take about fourteen days to hatch into larvae, which eat continuously. They have a preference for white mulberry, having an attraction to the mulberry oderant cis-jasmone. They are not monophagous since they can eat other species ofMorus as well as some other Moraceae. Their droppings are black. Hatchlings and second-instar larvae are called kego and chawki in India. They are covered with tiny black hairs. When the color of their heads turns darker, it indicates that they are about to molt. After molting, theinstar phase of the silkworm emerges white, naked, and with little horns on the backs. After they have molted four times (i.e., in the fifth instar phase), their bodies become slightly yellow and the skin become tighter. The larvae will then enter the pupa phase of their life cycle and enclose themselves in a cocoon made up of raw silk produced by the salivary glands. The cocoon provides a vital layer of protection during the vulnerable, almost motionless pupal state. Many other Lepidoptera produce cocoons, but only a few —the Bombycidae, in particular the Bombyx genus, and the , in particular the Antheraea genus—have been exploited for fabric production.

118 If the animal is allowed to survive after spinning its cocoon and through the pupa phase of its life cycle, it will release proteolytic enzymes to make a hole in the cocoon so that it can emerge as a moth. These enzymes are destructive to the silk and can cause the silk fibers to break down from over a mile in length to segments of random length, which ruins the silk threads. To prevent this, silkworm cocoons are boiled. The heat kills the silkworms and the water makes the cocoons easier to unravel. Often, the silkworm itself is eaten. The cocoon is made of a thread of raw silk from 300 to about 900 meters (1,000 to 3,000 feet) long. The fibers are very fine and lustrous, about 10 micrometers (1/2,500th of an inch) in diameter. About 2,000 to 3,000 cocoons are required to make a pound of silk. At least 70 million pounds of raw silk are produced each year, requiring nearly 10 billion pounds of mulberry leaves. According to E. L. Palmer, one pound of silk represents about 1,000 miles of filament. The annual world production represents 70 billion miles of silk filament. This silk is usually processed to remove natural waxes or gums such as the sericin, a water-soluble protective layer that solidifies immediately when exposed to air. It is sometimes subsequently dyed. The domesticated variety, compared to the wild form, has increased cocoon size, growth rate and efficiency of its digestion. It has also gained tolerance to human presence and handling and living in crowded conditions. It also cannot fly and lacks fear of potential predators. These changes have made it entirely dependent upon humans for survival. The silkworm is one of the world's most genetically modified animals. Silkworms were first domesticated during the Han Dynasty in China about 2000 years ago. Since then, the silk production capacity of the species has increased nearly tenfold. Silkworm is one of the few organisms wherein the principles of genetics and breeding were applied to harvest maximum output. It is next only to maize in exploiting the principles of 'heterosis' and 'cross breeding'. Silkworm breeding is aimed at the overall improvement of silkworm from a commercial point of view. The major objectives of silkworm breeding are improving fecundity, healthiness of larvae, quantity of cocoon and silk production, disease resistance, etc. Fecundity refers to the egg laying capacity of a breed. It is a very important factor, since commercial sericulture is strongly dependent on silkworm egg availability. Healthiness of larvae leads to a healthy cocoon crop. Healthiness is dependent on factors such as better pupation rate, less number of dead larvae in the mountage, shorter larval duration (the shorter the larval duration, the lesser the chances of infection) and bluish tinged fifth instar larvae (it is observed that bluish colored fifth instar larvae are healthier than the reddish brown ones). Quantity of cocoon and silk produced is directly related to the pupation rate and larval weight. Healthier larvae have greater pupation rates and cocoon weights. Quality of cocoon and silk depends on a number of factors including genetics. Specific purposes apart from commercial purpose are given attention by advanced countries to breed development for specific purposes like sericin production, sex limited breeds, thin/thick filament production etc. Disease resistance breeding is important, as the major reason for crop losses is pathogen infection. Efforts are being made to select breeds which are tolerant or resistant to various pathogens. Silk is produced by painstakingly unraveling the cocoons of certain varieties of caterpillars. These caterpillars are commonly known as silkworms, and there are several different varieties that create different types of silk.

119 Bombyx mori The Bombyx mori species of silkworm relies exclusively on mulberry leaves as food, and the silk that it produces is known as mulberry silk.The bulk of the world's commercial silk comes from the Bombyx mori. This species is raised entirely indoors. Antherea mylitta Antherea mylitta, along with Anthera perniyi and Anthera royeli, are used in the production of tasar silk. Tassar silk is also known as tussah silk. Raw silk from the Antherea mylitta has a coppery color, and the silk that is produced is less lustrous than mulberry silk. The silk produced by this species of silkworm tends to be used for furnishings. These silkworms can be cultivated domestically or collected from the wild. Antherea assama The Antherea assama produces a golden yellow silk thread. This species is found only in the Brahmaputra Valley in India, and they produce muga silk. They are considered to be only semidomesticated due to the fact that they must be partially cultivated outdoors. Philosamia ricini The Philosamia ricini silkworm produces eri silk and feed off of castor leaves. This type of silkworm produces very uneven fibers. Because of this, they cannot be reeled and must instead be spun. The silk produced by this silkworm is noted for its natural shine and its heat-retaining properties. It is often called wild silk because it is primarily produced by the tribal communities e. Classification of Mulberry silkworm on the basis of its origin and voltinism

Classification of Mulberry Silkworm on the basis of its origin- Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Order: Lepidoptera Family: Bombycidae Genus: Bombyx Species: mori

Binomial name: Bombyx mori (Linnaeus, 1758) Synonyms: Phalaena mori (Linnaeus, 1758)

Classification of varieties of silk worms in general-

Order Lapitoptera -- Butterflies Under Order Heteroneura -- Higher Butterflies Family Bombycidae -- Genuine Silkworm Genus Theophila Theophila huttoni (India, Malaysia, Indonesia) Genus Bombyx Bombyx cythia -- Rhizinus Silkworm Bombyx mori Mulberry Silkworm: most important silk producer Family Saturniidae Eye Silkworm

120 Genus Antheraea: following species supply Tussah-Silk(Tussak-, Tasar-, Muga-Silk) Antheraea yamamai - Japanese Tussah Silkworm Antheraea pernyi - Chinese Tussah Silkworm (A. mylitta) -- Indian Tussah Silkworm

Genus Philosamia Philosamia cynthia -- Tree of Heaven Silkworm (nourishes itself of Tree of Heaven sheets, Ailanthus glandulosa) (supplies Eri-Silk) (Eastern Asia)

Genus Platysamia Platysamia spp. (Spun Wild Silk)

Genus Telea Telea spp. (Spun Wild Silk)

Genus Attacus Attacus spp. (Realing Wild Silk) (America)

Genus Saturnia Saturnia pyri Big Saturnia (Turkey)

Classification of Mulberry Silkworm on the basis of its voltinism- Voltinism is a term used in biology to indicate the number of broods or generations of an organism in a year. The term is particularly in use in sericulture, where silkworm varieties vary in their voltinism. Univoltine - (adjective) referring to organisms having one brood or generation per year Bivoltine - (adjective) referring to organisms having two broods or generations per year Multivoltine - (adjective) referring to organisms having more than two broods or generations per year Semivoltine - (adjective) referring to organisms whose generation time is more than one year

The number of breeding cycles in a year is under genetic control in many species and they are evolved in response to the environment. Many phytophagous species which are dependent on seasonal plant resources are univoltine. These species also have the ability to diapause.

121 Chapter 9 Non-mulberry Silkworms and Their Food Plants

Non-mulberry varieties of silks are generally termed as ‘vanya silk’ or ‘wild silk’. Wild silk varieties are- Tropical Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri, and Muga. Vanya sericulture remained obscure for a long time as an exclusive craft of tribal and hill folks inhabiting the Central and North Eastern India. It is in the recent past that this tribal tradition assumed importance and attracted attention at National level. The rich production potentialities within the country, steady demand for vanya silk products outside, eco-friendly nature of the production and processing activities, women participation, promoted commercial exploitation of this craft, which culminated in the transformation of this age old tradition to an industry of immense potentiality. Vanya silks have been commercially exploited way back in 17th Century. The Western World gained an appetite for these alien shaded

122 silks in mid 1800 when a rampant silkworm disease destroyed the European sericulture industry. Asia could not supply enough mulberry silk to cater to the needs of Europe and North America, thus creating a market for vanya silks.

Tasar: Though there is no recorded document available regarding the origin of tasar in India, one can find the mention of tasar silk in ancient epic Ramayana "Ram’s nuptial gift to Sita includes tasar silk". Temperate tasar is of recent origin and was introduced during mid 1960's.

Muga: The silk of Assam (Muga) was made known to the World during 1662 through a famous European traveller Jean Joseph Tavenier. Sericulture was exempted from payment of land revenue as the Kings of Assam patronised the development of sericulture. Around 1950, there was a great earth quake in Upper Assam and the large number of muga plantations was destroyed, which hampered the growth of muga industry.

Eri: The word eri means castor plant, is derived from the word "eranda" of Sanskrit origin. The advent of Ericulture is lost into the antiquity but, the fact remains that Assam was the original home of eri silk from time immemorial, with the earliest reference documented in 1779. The Britishers called it as "Palma Christi" silk. The eri silk was woven into heavy clothes known as "Bar Kapoor". Captain Jenkins (1771) remarked that eri silk was of incredible durability.

Distribution of Vanya Silk Industry in India: Tasar: Tropical Tasar growing area forms a distinct belt of humid and dense forest sprawling over the Central and Southern plateau, covering the traditional states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and touching the fringes of West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. Temperate tasar (oak tasar) extends from the sub-Himalayan region of Jammu and Kashmir in the West to Manipur in the East covering Himachal Pradesh, Uttarkhand, Assam, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Muga: Assam accounts for more than 95% of the muga silk production. The culture is also spread in different districts neighbouring Assam in Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal.

123 Eri: Eri culture was mostly confined to the Brahmaputra valley of Assam in the tribal inhabited districts, followed by Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh. Ericulture is introduced on a pilot scale in States like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa etc.

Status of Vanya Silks in India: 1. Production trends: Of the total raw silk production during 2009-10 (19,690MT) Vanya silk contributes to around 17% (3368 MT). Of the total vanya silk production, contribution of Eri, Tasar and Muga silks are 73%, 24% and 3% respectively. Vanya silk production which was around 254 MT during 1950 gradually increased to 3368 MT during 2009-10 registering about 13 fold increase over 6 decades.

2. Marketing of Vanya silk cocoons and yarn and products: Though the marketing of Vanya cocoons in general and tasar cocoons in particular is monopolised by the cocoon traders. In the last two decades establishment of Raw Material Banks (RMB) in Vanya sector by CSB, Cocoon markets by Dept. of Sericulture and State government marketing agencies viz., Sericulture Federation (SERIFED), Khadi Village Industries Commission (KVIC), Tribal Federation (TRIFED) etc., have helped in marketing of cocoons. Establishment of these agencies has resulted in improvement in the bargaining power of primary cocoon producers. The Vanya silk products mainly sarees and fabrics for dress material and furnishings are being marketed mainly by manufacturers and traders by participating in various exhibitions all over India.

3. Export of Vanya silk products: The Vanya silk fabrics are being exported mainly from Kolkota, Bhagalpur New Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore by the established exporters.The share of export earnings by Vanya silk products is approximately 10% out of total export of natural silk goods.

a. Different species of non-mulberry silkworm

There are five major types of silk of commercial importance, obtained from different species of silkworms which in turn feed on a number of food plants. These are: Mulberry, Oak Tasar & Tropical Tasar, Muga, Eri. Non-mulberry silk worms and their Food Plants- Common Name Tropical Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea mylitta, Origin India , Primary Food Plant(s) Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentose, T. arjuna 124 Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea proylei, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Quercus incana,Q. serrata, Q. himalayana, Q. leuco tricophora, Q. semicarpifolia, Q. grifithi Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea frithi, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dealdata Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea compta, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dealdata Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea pernyi, Origin China, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dendata Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea yamamai, Origin Japan, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. acutissima Common Name Muga Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea assama, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Litsea polyantha, L. citrate, Machilus bombycine Common Name Eri Silkworm, Scientific Name Philosamia ricini, Origin India, Primary Food Plant(s) Ricinus communis, Manihot utilisma, Evodia fragrance Except mulberry, other non-mulberry varieties of silks are generally termed as vanya silks. India has the unique distinction of producing all these commercial varieties of silk. Natural Silk is insect fibre. It comes from the silkworm cocoon that the silkworm spins around itself to form its cocoon. A single filament from a cocoon can be as long as 1600 meters. It is considered an animal fibre because it has a protein structure. Just like other animal fibres silk does not conduct heat, and acts as an excellent insulator to keep our bodies warm in the cold weather and cool in the hot weather. Silk has luster, drape and strength. There are three grades of silk; each is a product of the three different stages of silk processing. The unwound filament makes the finest quality silk, and is referred to as reeled silk. It is satiny smooth and pure white. Remaining silk from the reeling process becomes the raw material for carded or combed, spun silk yarn. The short fibres left behind after the carding or combing process are used to make noil yarn, a richly textured nubbly silk. b. Brief account of : i. Tasar food plants

Food plants of tropical Tasar Silkworm are Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentose, T. arjuna. Food plants of Oak Tasar Silkworm are Quercus incana,Q. serrata, Q. himalayana, Q. leuco tricophora, Q. semicarpifolia, Q. grifithi, Q. dealdata, Q. dendata, Q. acutissima. ii. Muga food plants

Food plants of tropical Muga Silkworm are Litsea polyantha, L. citrate, Machilus bombycine. iii. Eri food plants

Food plants of tropical Eri Silkworm are Ricinus communis, Manihot utilisma, Evodia fragrance.

c. Types of cocoon and silk produced by them

125 A cocoon is a casing spun of silk by many moth caterpillars, and numerous otherholometabolous insect larvae as a protective covering for the pupa. Cocoons may be tough or soft, opaque or translucent, solid or meshlike, of various colors, or composed of multiple layers, depending on the type of insect larva producing it. Many moth caterpillars shed the larval hairs (setae) and incorporate them into the cocoon; if these areurticating hairs then the cocoon is also irritating to the touch. Some larvae attach small twigs, fecal pellets or pieces of vegetation to the outside of their cocoon in an attempt to disguise it from predators. Others spin their cocoon in a concealed location – on the underside of a leaf, in acrevice, down near the base of a tree trunk, suspended from a twig or concealed in the leaf litter. The silk in the cocoon of the silk moth can be unravelled to get silk fibre which makes this moth the most economically important of all Lepidopterans. The moth is the only completely domesticated Lepidopteran and does not exist in the wild. Insects that pupate in a cocoon must escape from it, and they do this either by the pupa cutting its way out, or by secreting fluids that soften the cocoon. Some cocoons are constructed with built-in lines of weakness along which they will tear easily from inside, or with exit holes that only allow a one-way passage out; such features facilitate the escape of the adult insect after it emerges from the pupal skin. Commercially four types of cocoons are produced by four different types of silk worms. These are Mulberry, Tasar, Muga and Eri. India produces all four varieties of natural silks viz., Mulberry silk, Tasar silk, Muga silk and Eri silk. The Tasar, Eri and Muga silk are non mulberry silks which are wild silks and also known as Vanya Silks. Vanya silks arouse the creative passion in designers for innovation, ingenuity and exclusively – naturally and spontaneously. Vanya silks portray the rich crafts, culture and folklore of the North Eastern and tribal zones of Central, eastern India and sub Himalayan region. They are distinguish in looks and feel as they are procured from the wild silkworms that feed on leaves of castor, kesseru, payam, som, sualu, oak, arjun, asan, sal etc… in the open jungles, imbibing the unevenness of nature, and reflecting it in the silks they produce.

In unparallel textures, with natural sheen, easy affinity for natural dyes, light in weight and high in moisture absorbency, and with baffling thermal properties…warm in winter and cool in summer, products of rich, salubrious climate and nourishing vegetation, each of the Vanya silks has its own unique beauty and ethnic culture. They are distinguished in four different forms: muga, tropical tasar, oak tasar and eri. They are the magnificent gifts of nature to genius of global designers, to explore and create various designs for garments, life style products and home furnishings for sophisticated homes, haute couture as far as artistic imagination can stretch.

Irresistible Eri Silk: Also known as endi or errandi, this silk is produced by the eri silkworm (Philosamia ricini).These worms feed mainly on Castor and Kesseru. As eri

126 cocoons are open ended, the yarn is spun. Interestingly, in many parts of the North-East, eri cocoons are produced for their edible pupae and silk is the by-product. Elegantly designed eri shawls and chaddars are quite popular because of their thermal properties. They can be blended with cotton, wool, jute or even mulberry silk to create exotic fabrics for use in jackets, or suiting material, or for producing a variety of furnishings, making it an interior decorator’s delight.

Tantalizing Tasar: Tasar silk is produced by tasar silkworms (Antheraea mylitta and Antheraea proylei) that feed mainly on the leaves of Asan, Arjun and Oak. India is the second largest producer of tasar silk and the exclusive producer of Indian tasar (also known as tropical tasar),which is largely tended by tribals in the Gondwana belt. Oak tasar (also known as temperate tasar) is mainly used for furnishing, dress materials and sarees. Bomkai, Paithani, Ikkat (tie & dye) and Katki are some popular fabrics produced using tasar silks. Bafta is a popular blend of tasar and cotton. Shawls and mufflers are also produced using a blend of oak tasar and other natural fibers like wool, cotton, etc. Tasar silk is ideal for making jackets for men and women or traditional costumes like the ‘-kurta’. This silk can be styled into beautiful dresses, stoles and scarves. Tasar fabric can also be printed, hand-painted, or, even embroidered into traditional sarees and beautiful dress-materials. In fact, in India, it is said that a bride’s trousseau is never complete without a saree made of Tasar Silk!

Magnificent Muga Silk: The pride of India, muga silk is known for its natural shimmering golden colour. Its production is confined to Assam, border areas of neighboring Northeastern states and Cooch Bihar in West Bengal. It is produced by the muga silkworms (Antheraea assamensis), which feed on Som and Sualu. The most expensive of silks, muga is intrinsically woven into the cultural traditions of the people of Assam. The vibrant Sualkuchi sarees and mekhla-chaddars are the traditional items made from muga silk. In recent times, fashion designers have found exciting prospects in using muga silk for developing new products and designs. Use of muga yarn as a substitute for ‘zari’ in sarees is finding favour with reputed weavers.

TYPES OF SILK FABRIC: The finest silk fibers, and most of what we use today, are produced by "cultivated" silkworms grown in a controlled environment. The worms are fed a diet of mulberry leaves and increase their body size 10,000 times in their short life span. Once the cocoon is spun and before the worm hatches through the silk into a moth,

127 the cocoon is soaked in hot water then unraveled, producing filaments that can be up to a mile long in size. The raw silk is then processed to remove the sericin - the natural "gum" that protects the fibers and causes them to stick to each other as the cocoon was spun. Silk is a protein fiber, similar to wool or to human hair. It is only natural for silks to have some irregularities – sometimes called "slubs". This is the nature of the 100% silk fabric. Silk that has been processed can be woven or knit into a variety of fabrics. Silk will shrink, so if you are using it to construct clothing, be sure to preshrink it. Silk often has a wonderful feel, (referred to as a "hand"), and an almost iridescent sheen that makes us think of luxury. The weight of silk is shown as "mm" – pronounced "mommy" – and varies within the different types of silk. The following list of various types of silk may help you understand some of the qualities of each: Chiffon Often the lightest weight and most diaphanous of the silks, Chiffon is also the most see- through. It creates the "billows" of fabric that add dimension to garments, but generally requires some kind of lining or backing unless it's used for scarves. China Silk China silk is a lightweight, sheer, plain-weave fabric. It's sometimes referred to as , or habotai, or . It is one of the less expensive and more commonly available silk fabrics. Habotai can often be found as light as 5 mm and as heavy as 12 mm. Most of our scarves are made of 8 mm Habotai. When purchasing for clothing construction, or purchasing ready-made clothing, this fabric is not recommended for fitted garment styles because the seams will tear from the stress. Crepe de Chine Crepe de chine is a lightweight fabric made by twisting some fibers clockwise and others counterclockwise. The twisted fibers are then woven in a plain-weave fabric, but it's the twisted fibers, not the weave, that gives crepe its distinctive "pebbly" look and feel rather than a shiny luster. Both sides of the fabric look and feel the same. Our drawstring pouches and some of our larger scarves are made of Crepe de Chine, often in the 12mm to 15mm range. When purchasing ready-made clothing or considering this fabric for sewing, avoid using it in tailored styles because the fabric is too soft to hold a structured shape. Crepe de chine doesn't ravel as easily as other silk fabrics, but it will tear if not handled gently. Generally, when we think of traditional silk, this is the fabric we have in mind. The back of the fabric is a flattened crepe while the front is a shimmery satin weave. Charmeuse has even more drape than crepe de chine and works well for scarves, blouses and lingerie. Occasionally we will offer scarves in Charmeuse. Jacquard Jacquard silks offer various woven patterns, using matte and reflective threads to create a light and dark effect in the fabric. This effect is similar to brocade, although the Jacquard is originally created in one color. These are generally heavier weight and more densely woven. Patterns are often florals and paisleys.

128 This added dimension (pattern) makes this fabric perfect for abstract for free-form dyeing. Our Envelope Pouches are made from Jacquard, as are some of our Cell Phone and Glass Cases. Douppioni Douppioni is a plain-weave fabric with slubbed ribs. It has a stiff, -like hand and is usually dyed in bright colors. Douppioni is often made into elegant evening gowns or semi-fitted vests and garments. But make sure the style isn't too fitted, because the fabric doesn't stand up well to stress and ravels easily. It's often recommended that douppioni be drycleaned to resist abrasions. However, as with most silk, you can generally wash douppioni with positive results. Just be sure to the raw edges first to prevent raveling. Washing will make the fabric lose some of its stiffness, which may be your preference, and the color will soften as the excess dye is washed away. Noil Silk noil is made from the short fibers left after combing and carding so it doesn't shine like many other silk fabrics. Noil looks similar to cotton, but has the soft feel of silk against the skin. It also drapes better than cotton and resists wrinkling, so it's the perfect choice when traveling. It can be machine washed on gentle and dried on low, but this will cause a faded, "weathered" look. If you prefer bright colors, dry-clean or hand wash. Raw silk Raw silk is any silk yarn or fabric that hasn't had the sericin - the natural "gum" that protects the fiber - removed. The fabric is stiff and dull and the sericin tends to attract dirt and odors. Tussah Tussah silk, often called shantung, is made from the cocoons of wild tussah silk worms who eat oak and juniper leaves – their "natural" food. Because the worm isn't grown in a controlled environment, the moth hatches from the cocoon thus interrupting the filament length and making the fibers short and coarse instead of long and lustrous. Tussah silk is difficult to dye and to most often available in its natural color, a creamy tan. Because of its irregular slubs and the fact that it ravels easily, tussah should be dry- cleaned. It is a good choice for traveling as it doesn't wrinkle easily. Shantung Once made from hand-reeled tussah silk, today's shantung is usually made with cultivated silk warp yarns and heavier douppioni filling yarns. Depending on the filling yarn, shantung may be lustrous or dull. It has a firm, semi-crisp hand and tends to ravel, so avoid close-fitting styles.

Chapter 10 Out Line of Different Reeling Machineries and Reeling Process

129 According to Mark Elvin, 14th century Chinese technical manuals describe an automatic water-powered spinning wheel. Comparable devices were not developed in Europe until the 18th century. However, it fell into disuse when fiber production shifted from hemp to cotton. It was forgotten by the 17th century. The decline of the automatic spinning wheel in China is an important part of Elvin's high level equilibrium trap theory to explain why there was no indigenous industrial revolution in China despite its high levels of wealth and scientific knowledge. The spinning wheel replaced the earlier method of hand spinning with a spindle. The first stage in mechanizing the process was mounting the spindle horizontally so it could be rotated by a cord encircling a large, hand-driven wheel. The great wheel is an example of this type, where the fiber is held in the left hand and the wheel slowly turned with the right. Holding the fiber at a slight angle to the spindle produced the necessary twist.[3] The spun yarn was then wound onto the spindle by moving it so as to form a right angle with the spindle. This type of wheel, while known in Europe by the 14th century, was not in general use until later. It ultimately was used there to spin a variety of yarns until the beginning of the 19th century and the mechanization of spinning. In general, the spinning technology was known for a long time before being adopted by the majority of people, thus making it hard to fix dates of the improvements. In 1533, a citizen of is said to have added a treadle, by which the spinner could rotate her spindle with one foot and have both hands free to spin. Leonardo da Vinci drew a picture of the flyer, which twists the yarn before winding it onto the spindle. During the 16th century a treadle wheel with flyer was in common use, and gained such names as the Saxony wheel and the flax wheel. It sped up production, as one needn't stop spinning to wind up the yarn.

f. History of Reeling Industry (Charka, Cottage basin, Filature basin, Multi end basin, Semiautomatic and Automatic reeling machinery)

The earliest clear illustrations of the spinning wheel come from Baghdad (drawn in 1237), China, and Europe, and there is evidence that spinning wheels had already come into use in both China and the Islamic world during the eleventh century. According to Irfan Habib, the spinning wheel was introduced into India from Iran in the thirteenth century. In the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution had a big effect on the spinning industry by beginning to mechanize the spinning wheel. Lewis Paul and John Wyatt first worked on the problem in 1738, patenting the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin system, for drawing wool to a more even thickness. Using two sets of rollers that traveled at different speeds, yarn could be twisted and spun quickly and efficiently. However, they did not have much financial success. In 1771, Richard Arkwright used waterwheels to power looms for the production of cotton cloth, his invention becoming known as the water frame. More modern spinning machines use a mechanical means to rotate the spindle, as well as an automatic method to draw out fibers, and devices to work many spindles together at speeds previously unattainable. Newer technologies that offer even faster yarn production include friction spinning, an open-end system, and air jets.

130 Types of spinning wheels: Numerous types of spinning wheels exist, including the great wheel also known as walking wheel or wool wheel for rapid long draw spinning of woolen-spun yarns; the flax wheel, which is a double-drive wheel used with a distaff for spinning ; saxony and upright wheels, all-purpose treadle driven wheels used to spin worsted-spun yarns; and the charkha, native to Asia. Until the acceptance of rotor spinning wheel, all yarns were produced by aligning fibers through drawing techniques and then twisting the fiber together. With rotor spinning, the fibers in the roving are separated, thus open end, and then wrapped and twisted as the yarn is drawn out of the rotor cup. Hand-powered wheels Hand powered spinning wheels are powered by the spinner turning a crank for flywheel with their hand, as opposed to pressing pedals or using a mechanical engine. Charkha The tabletop or floor charkha is one of the oldest known forms of the spinning wheel. The charkha works similarly to the great wheel, with a drive wheel being turned by hand, while the yarn is spun off the tip of the spindle.The floor charkha and the great wheel closely resemble each other. With both, the spinning must stop in order to wind the yarn onto the spindle. The charkha (etymologically related to Chakra) was both a tool and a symbol of the Indian independence movement. The charkha, a small, portable, hand-cranked wheel, is ideal for spinning cotton and other fine, short-staple fibers, though it can be used to spin other fibers as well. The size varies, from that of a hardbound novel to the size of a briefcase, to a floor charkha. Mahatma Gandhi brought the charkha into larger use with his teachings. He hoped the charkha would assist the peoples of India achieve self- sufficiency and independence, and so used the charkha as a symbol of the Indian independence movement and included it on earlier versions of the Flag of India. Great wheel The great wheel was one of the earlier types of spinning wheel. The fiber is held in the left hand and the wheel slowly turned with the right. This wheel is thus good for using the long-draw spinning technique, which requires only one active hand most of the time, thus freeing a hand to turn the wheel. The great wheel is usually used to spin wool, and can only be used with fiber preparations that are suited to long-draw spinning. The great wheel is usually over 5 feet or 1.5 meters in height. The large drive wheel turns the much smaller spindle assembly, with the spindle revolving many times for each turn of the drive wheel. The yarn is spun at an angle off the tip of the spindle, and is then stored on the spindle. To begin spinning on a great wheel, first a leader (a length of waste yarn) is tied onto the base of the spindle and spiraled up to the tip. Then the spinner overlaps a handful of fiber with the leader, holding both gently together with the left hand, and begins to slowly turn the drive wheel clockwise with the right hand, while simultaneously walking backward and drawing the fiber in the left hand away from the spindle at an angle. The left hand must control the tension on the wool to produce an even result. Once a sufficient amount of yarn has been made, the spinner turns the wheel backward a short distance to unwind the spiral on the spindle, then turns it clockwise again, and winds the newly made yarn onto the spindle, finishing the wind-on by spiraling back out to the tip again to make another draw. Treadle wheel

131 This type of wheel is powered by the spinner's foot rather than their hand or a motor. The spinner sits and pumps a foot treadle that turns the drive wheel via a crankshaft and a connecting rod. This leaves both hands free for drafting the fibers, which is necessary in the short draw spinning technique, which is often used on this type of wheel. The old- fashioned pointed distaff spindle is not a common feature of the treadle wheel. Instead, most modern wheels employ a flyer-and-bobbin system which twists the yarn and winds it onto a spool simultaneously. These wheels can be single or double-treadle; which is a matter of preference and does not affect the operation of the wheel. Double drive The double drive wheel is named after its drive band, which goes around the spinning wheel twice. The drive band turns the flyer, which is the horse- shaped piece of wood surrounding the bobbin, as well as the bobbin. Due to a difference in the size of the whorls (the round pieces or pulleys around which the drive band runs) the bobbin whorl, which has a smaller radius than the flyer whorl, turns slightly faster. Thus both the flyer and bobbin rotate to twist the yarn, and the difference in speed continually winds the yarn onto the bobbin. Generally the speed difference or "ratio" is adjusted by the size of the whorls and the tension of the drive band. The drive band on the double drive wheel is generally made from a non-stretch yarn or twine; candlewick is also used. Single drive A single drive wheel has one drive band, that goes around the fly-wheel and the bobbin or the flyer. Most of the drive for single drive wheels are made from synthetic cord, which is elastic and does not easily on the wheel. While the spinner is making new yarn, the bobbin and the flyer turn in unison, but when the spinner wants to wind the yarn onto the bobbin, the bobbin or the flyer slows down and thus the yarn winds on. The one part slows down because of the brake band, which loops over that element. The tighter the brake band is, the more pull on the yarn, because the more friction the bobbin has to overcome in order to turn in sync with the flyer. Castle style When the spindle and flyer are located above the wheel, rather than off to one side, the wheel is said to be a castle wheel. This type of wheel is often more compact, thus easier to store. Some castle wheels are even made to fold up small enough that they fit in carry- on luggage at the airport. g. Different types of cocoon stifling

Cocoon stifling: Stifling is the first process taken up as soon as the cocoons are purchased/harvested, with the object of killing the pupae inside without breaking the silk filament in the cocoon shell. If stifling is delayed, the pupa inside metamorphoses and emerges by breaking open the cocoon and renders it unreelable. The three methods of stifling are sun drying, steam stifling and hot air conditioning. Sun drying In this method the cocoons are exposed to the scorching action of direct sunlight till the pupa inside is killed and dried. This requires a prolong exposure of freshly harvested cocoons to bright sunlight. Sun dried cocoons are very light and produce a rattling sound on shaking.

132 Advantages : the chief merit of stifling by sun drying is that it is easy and cheap, and the dried cocoons can be stored for any length of time. Reeling can be done immediately also. Disadvantages : the main disadvantage is that sunlight of sufficient intensity and duration may not be available continuously in all seasons and in all areas. Further, prolonged exposure to sunlight adversely affect the quality of silk and increases the proportion of silk waste during reeling. The process is cumbersome, requiring more labour and space. The shell hardens during sun drying, affecting the reelability. It is still followed in many places in India where facilities for other methods of stifling are not available. It is still followed traditionally in Jammu and Kashmir and West Bengal. Steam stifling In this method, hot and wet steam is used. Depending on the number of cocoons, basket steaming, barrel steaming or chamber steaming is used. a. Basket steaming: this method is used for small amounts of cocoons. About 10kg of cocoons are loosely filled in a bamboo basket loosely woven at the bottom. The mouth of the basket is closed with a tightly stretched thick cloth tied to the sides of the basket. The basket is placed over boiling water in a vessel. The steam penetrates through the basket and stifles the cocoons. Heating is stopped when dense smoke starts coming out of the sides of the basket with the characteristic smell of the stifled cocoons. Stifling takes approximately half an hour. The cocoons are removed and tested to ensure that stifling has been completed. Properly stifled cocoons feel hot, damp, soft, and slimy to touch, and yield even under slight pressure between the fingers. The pupae obtained by cutting open the stifled cocoons do not wriggle when kept on the open palm. This is practised in charkha and cottage basin establishments. The stifled cocoons have to be dried in air. b. Barrel steaming: This method, though adopted for small and moderate amounts of cocoon, is superior to basket stifling, as it takes less time and ensures more uniform steaming, being done are called “melted” cocoons. Fungus growth easily occurs on wet cocoons kept in poorly ventilated rooms. Improperly seasoned cocoons increase silk wastage. During seasoning, steam stifled cocoons have to be spread in thin layers and repeatedly turned over to ensure uniform drying and to prevent moulds from developing. This requires extra space and more labour.

Hot air stifling In order to overcome the main disadvantages in steam stifling, modern filatures adopt the method of stifling and drying together by hot air conditioning. In this method, fresh cocoons are dried by means of hot air. Hot air stifling is suitable for good quality cocoons such as bivoltines. The stifled cocoons can be stored for longer periods. The main parts of the conditioning unit are: 1. A chamber for the cocoons to be conditioned, 2. A heating element for heating the air and 3. An air blower for blowing

133 or circulating the heated air into the conditioning chamber. There are two principal types of hot air stifling- the Italian and Japanese. h. Different types of cocoon cooking

The silk baves are gummed together by the sericin in the cocoons. In order to unwind the bave, the sericin has to be dissolved. This is done by putting the cocoons in hot water and this process is called boiling or cooking. The sericin content ranges from 25% to 30% of the shell and 7 to 8 % of it is dissolved during cooking. Boiling softens and swells the sericin before dissolving it. Care should be taken to see that the sericin is not completely dissolved, as it is the sericin that cements together the baves from more than one cocoon so that silk thread of the desired denier is reeled. The water used should not be too hard. The pH should be 6.8 and 7.4. CSTRI has developed softening agents to bring down the hardness and pH to the desired level. The higher the alkalinity of the water used and the longer the boiling time, the more the amount of sericin dissolved and this may affect the cohesion and lusture of the silk reeled. The method of boiling differs according to whether the floating system (top reeling) or the sunken system is adopted for reeling. The sericin in the outer layers is more soluble than that in the inner layers. Boiling for top reeling In the top reeling system, during cocoon boiling, only the outer shell is wetted and the cocoons float in the water in the reeling basin. The cooked cocoons are reeled in the reeling basins having a water temperature of 40-45˚C which is too hot for the reeler’s hand and decreases his efficiency. Large quantities of water are required to supply water and steam to the cooking and reeling basins. Installation of water and steam pipes as well as production of steam is costly. Due to the condensation of water vapour, humidity in the reeling room increases leading to mill dampness. As the reeler has to do the brushing as well as reeling, his efficacy decreases. As separate persons are required for cooking and reeling, labour cost also increases. Boiling is done either by the open pan system or three pan system. a. Open pan system: the boiling is done in an open earthenware or copper vessel, in which water is boiled directly over the fire. Cocoons are put into boiling water and kept immersed in it by a wooden ladle till they are cooked, i.e. become dull transluscent and soapy to touch. The filament comes off easily only from the cooked cocoons. The open pan is sometimes provided with an automatic brush which serves to keep the cocoon inside the water as well as to brush the floss of the cocoons. This system is adopted mainly in charkha reeling where only limited amounts of cocoons are reeled at a time and the reeler himself can supervise and ensure that cooking is done to the correct degree. It is easy cheap and requires less labour. The major disadvantages are- all the layers of the cocoon are not cooked and when the inner layers are cooked, outer layers are overcooked; wastage of cooked due to overcooking and undercooking is common. The pan can hold only a small amount of cocoons and hence cooking is a time consuming process. The water becomes dirty quickly and has to be replaced periodically, which is uneconomical as well as time consuming.

134 b. Three pan system: this cooking system, commonly followed in cottage basin units, is designed to overcome the open pan system. It can handle moderately large amounts of cocoon and the boiling process can be continuous. It is suitable for cooking compact shelled cocoons like bivoltines. The main parts of this cooking unit are: 1. A platform or a table, 2. Three basins or vessels of copper of moderately large size fixed permanently in a row on the platform, 3. Long handled brass wire cage for holding the cocoons, 4. Long handled perforated ladles, 5. An open shelf for holding the accessories, 6. Cocoon receiving trays, 7. Cocoon transporting trolleys, 8. Steam and water connections to the cooking basins. Two methods are followed in this system. In the first method the cocoons are initially subjected to cooking at a high temperature (98˚C) in the first pan, to lower temperature (65˚C) in the second pan and finally to a high temperature (97˚C) in the third pan. The wire mess cage is filled with 60-70 kg of cocoons and immersed into the first chamber for 60 seconds. Due to the action of the hot water, the outer cocoon layers are softened and air in the cocoon cavity gets heated, expands and is expelled. Next the wire mesh cage is transferred to the next chamber and held for 30-40 sec. the temperature of the water in this chamber being lower, the air in the cocoon cavity gets condensed and water from the basin is sucked into the cocoon, completely soaking the sericin and loosening the cocoon layers. Next the cocoons are transferred to the third chamber and kept immersed in its water with the help of the wooden ladle for one or two minutes till the cocoons are cooked. Then they are transferred to a bucket of water at 45˚C for 10 minutes before loading them to cocoon transporting trolleys to be carried to the reeling basins. In the second system, the cocoons are first cooked at a low temperature (65˚C for 60 sec) in the first pan, a higher temperature (98˚C for 90 seconds) in the second pan and once again to a low temperature (65˚C for 60 seconds) in the third pan. As in the first system, the cooked cocoons are collected in a bucket of water at 45˚C and kept for 10 minutes before being taken up for brushing in the reeling basin. The improvements achieved in this system are: large amounts of cocoons are cooked in a short time; the reeling quality is improved as water permeates through the layer of cocoon into its cavity and softens the sericin in all layers; as the cocoons are subjected to standardised treatment, cooking is uniform for all the batches; as brushing and cooking are not combined, water does not get fouled too quickly and as cooking basins have water and steam connections, changing of water is easy. boiling for sunken system of reeling cooking for the sunken system of reeling has the following advantages over that for the floating system. All the cocoons and all the layers of each cocoon are uniformly softened. 135 This reduces silk wastages to the minimum. Number of workers required for cooking is very much reduced and this brings down labour costs. Reelability is so much improved that the cocoons are suitable for reeling in multi end reeling units in which each reeler can reel about 40-50 ends at a time. As reeling is done in lukewarm water, not only the steam consumption but also mill dampness is reduced. Percentage of gum spots, ribbing and plastering defects are reduced and cohesion property is increased in the reeled raw silk. In this system of boiling, air in the cocoon cavity is largely replaced by water and the heavy cocoon remains sunken within the water during reeling operation. This is actually a modification of the three pan system in that by subjecting the cocoons alternately to hot and cold water air in the cavity is made to expand and be expelled first and then contract and condense facilitating the suction of water into the cavity. i. Principles of reeling

Wild Silkmoth cocoons are difficult or impossible to reel under conditions that work well for cocoons of the Mulberry silkmoth, Bombyx mori. Here we report evidence that this is caused by mineral reinforcement of Wild Silkmoth cocoons and that washing these minerals out allows for the reeling of commercial lengths of good quality fibers with implications for the development of the “Wild Silk” industry. We show that in the Lasiocampid silkmoth postica, the mineral is whewellite (calcium oxalate monohydrate). Evidence is presented that its selective removal by ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) leaves the gum substantially intact, preventing collapse and entanglement of the network of fibroin brins, enabling wet reeling. Therefore, this method clearly differs from the standard “degumming” and should be referred to as “demineralizing”. Mechanical testing shows that such preparation results in reeled silks with markedly improved breaking load and extension to break by avoiding the damage produced by the rather harsh degumming, carding, or dry reeling methods currently in use, what may be important for the development of the silk industries not only in Asia but also in Africa and South America. Sericulture (the culture of the silkworm) and the weaving of silk have been practiced in China from a remote period. Legend dates this back to 2640 B.C., to Empress Si Ling- chi, who not only encouraged the culture of the silkworm but also developed the process of reeling from the cocoon. This was a closely guarded secret for some 3,000 years. Silk seems to have been woven very early on the island of Kós, which Aristotle mentions, in a vague description of the silkworm, as the place where silk was “first spun,” In the 1st and 2d cent. A.D. silk fabrics imported to Greece and Rome were sold for fabulous prices. Up to the 6th cent. raw silk was brought from China, but death was the penalty for exporting silkworm eggs. About A.D. 550 two former missionaries to China, incited by Emperor Justinian, succeeded (says Procopius) in smuggling to Constantinople, in a hollow staff, both the eggs of the silkworm and the seeds of the mulberry tree. Byzantium became famous for splendid silken textiles and , used throughout medieval Europe for royal and ecclesiastical costumes and furnishings. In the 8th cent. the Moors began to carry the arts of silk culture and weaving across the northern coast of Africa and to Spain and Sicily, and in the 12th cent. Spain and Sicily were weaving silks of exquisite texture and design.

136 Other areas of Europe subsequently became great weaving centers. Lucca, in N Italy, had established looms by the 13th cent., and in the 14th cent. the city became famous for its materials and designs. Florence and Venice followed and wove sumptuous fabrics and enriched with gold thread. Genoa's velvets became well known. France established looms, and under Louis XIV's minister Jean Baptiste Colbert it set the fashion with its beautiful silks. Lyons in S France became an important weaving center. Early attempts were made in England under Henry VI to establish the silk industry, but it was not until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, when many French refugee weavers fled to England, that the industry received a real impetus. The French settled in Canterbury, Norwich, and other places; but it was in Spitalfields, London, that the industry became important. Many attempts were made to establish sericulture in the American colonies: inducements such as land grants and bounties were offered, and many mulberry trees were planted. In 1759 Georgia sold more than 10,000 lb (4,535 kg) of cocoons in London. Pennsylvania had a silk industry, fostered by Benjamin Franklin, until the Revolution. The high cost of labor seems to have been the main deterrent to the success of sericulture in America. j. Reeling process

In silk manufacture, the first operation is reeling. The cocoons, having been sorted for color and texture, are steamed or placed in warm water to soften the natural gum. They are then unwound; each cocoon may give from 2,000 to 3,000 ft (610–915 m) of filament, from 4 to 18 strands of which are reeled or twisted together to make an even thread strong enough to handle. This is called raw silk. Formerly a hand process, this work is now done in Europe and in some parts of the Orient in factories on simple machines called filatures. The next step, called throwing, is preparing the raw silk for the loom by twisting and doubling it to the required strength and thickness. This process also is now mostly done in large mills with specialized machinery. Silk, after throwing, has three forms—singles, which are untwisted, used for the warp of very delicate fabrics; tram, two or more singles, twisted and doubled, used for the weft of various fabrics; and organzine, made of singles twisted one way, then doubled and twisted in the opposite direction, used for the warp of heavy fabrics. For sewing and embroidery thread, more doubles and smoother twists are made. In modern factories spinning frames complete the preparation for the loom. The silk is boiled off in soapsuds to remove gum and prepare it for dyeing. For white and pale tints it must be bleached. Scouring or boiling causes loss of weight, sometimes made up by loading with metallic salts, as tin, which has an affinity for silk and can be absorbed to excess, causing weakening of the fiber. Dyeing may be done in the yarn or in the piece. Finishing processes are varying and important, as in making moires. Weaving is done as with other textiles, but on more delicate and specialized looms. Silk, fine, horny, translucent, yellowish fiber produced by the silkworm in making its cocoon and covered with sericin, a protein. Many varieties of silk-spinning worms and insects are known, but the silkworm of commerce is the larva of the Bombyx mori, or mulberry silkworm, and other closely related moths. Wild silk. is the product of the tussah worm of India and China, which feeds on oaks. It is now semicultivated, as groves of dwarf trees are provided for its feeding. It spins a coarser, flatter, yellower filament

137 than the Bombyx mori, and the color does not boil out with the gum. Tussah silk is a rough, durable, washable fabric known as shantung or pongee.

Chapter 11 Marketing of Cocoon and Silk

138 The art of silk production is called sericulture that comprises cultivation of mulberry, silkworm rearing and post cocoon activities leading to production of silk yarn. Sericulture provides gainful employment, economic development and improvement in the quality of life to the people in rural area and therefore it plays an important role in anti poverty programme and prevents migration of rural people to urban area in search of employment. Hence several developing nations like China, India, Brazil, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Egypt, Iran, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Turkey, Papua New Guinea, Mexico, Uzbekistan and some of the African and Latin American countries have taken up sericulture to provide employment to the people in rural area. Apart from silk, there are several other bye-products from sericulture. The mulberry fruits are rich in minerals and vitamins and from the roots, barks and mulberry leaves several ayurvedic and herbal medicines are prepared. Some of the woody mulberry trees provide timber which are resistant to termites and the timber is used for making sports items, toys etc. The mulberry branches after silkworm feeding are generally dried and used as fuel particularly in the villages. The foliage of mulberry is used as a fodder for cattle. The mulberry trees are also planted in the embarkment area for protection of the soil to prevent soil erosion, and mulberry trees are planted as avenue trees. The silkworm pupae are rich in oil content and pupal oil is used in cosmetic industry and the remaining pupal cake is a rich source of protein suitable for poultry and fisheries. In some tribal population, the people eat eri pupa as a source of protein and nourishment. The silkworm litter is used for bio-gas production and used as a fuel for cooking in the rural area. Thus sericulture not only provides silk for fashionable clothings, it also provides several very useful bye products to the human society. Therefore, sericulture development provides opportunities to improve the living standards of people in the rural area in developing countries. a. Marketing set-up in different States

In the development of sericulture industry, the role of State Governments has customarily been the expansion of sericulture activity and provision of farmer level extension as well as other support services, including credit facilitation. India being blessed with prevalence of favourable climatic conditions, mulberry is cultivated in almost all states. But, traditionally sericulture is practiced in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Jammu & Kashmir, which accounts for major share in production of mulberry raw silk in the country. Muga is twined with the culture of Assam and has the monopoly. In the recent years, muga rearing is extended to other states like Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal. Now, as a result of growing realization, sericulture is gaining ground in non-traditional areas too. For the development of sericulture, State Governments have been implementing various developmental schemes like supply of chawki silk worms to the farmers at subsidized rate; development of mulberry gardens and distribution of high yielding mulberry saplings to the farmers; supply of quality disinfectant material; capacity building of the farmers; assistance for the construction of rearing sheds; supply of tool and equipments; incentives for setting up of reeling units and marketing support,etc.

139 Accordingly, separate 'Sericulture Departments' have been set up by the State Governments, some of which include the following. Handlooms, Handicrafts, Textiles & Khadi Department, Government of Tamil Nadu The Handlooms , Handicrafts , Textiles & Khadi Department was formed in 1985. This Department is evolving policies and schemes aimed at developing the harmonious growth of Handlooms, Power looms and Textile Sector. It is also concerned with the development of Sericulture , Khadi , Village Industries , Handicrafts and Palm Products Industry in the State. Various schemes are evolved for the welfare of weavers / artisans involved in the above industries. Directorate Sericulture and Weaving, Government of Meghalaya: Sericulture and Weaving in Meghalaya are the two most important cottage based, eco-friendly industries in the rural areas. These twin industries portray the cultural ethos and rich heritage of the people of the State. The thrust area under sericulture sector is to boost up cocoon and silk production by development of systematic and economic plantation at sericultural farmers level so as to enhance the productivity per unit area through implementation of need- based schemes such as Integrated Eri, Mulberry and Muga Development Program Training facilities are provided to the farmers, reelers and spinners on improved methods. In-service training of technical personnel and training for the educated unemployed youth for self employment are also provided. Department of Sericulture, Government of Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh produces all the four popular varieties of Silk worm cocoons namely Mulberry, Tasar, Eri and Muga. A separate sericulture department has been set up with the following objectives: Production of International Graded Bivoltine Silk and to meet the gap between supply and demand of silk Production of seed through an organised 3 tier system of seed multiplication. Transfer of technology to the farmers through Technical Service Centres. Propagation of High Yielding Varieties . Special attention on the improvement of the productivity and quality. Economical water management system. Promoting private Chawkie Rearing units for supply of Chawkie worms Promoting construction of a separate rearing sheds Providing marketing facilities to farmers through cocoon markets and broadcasting of cocoon rates of different cocoon markets through different media. Development of region specific & season specific races. Development of non-farm sector and Integration of non farm activities i.e. Reeling and Twisting with weaving. To achieve a quantum jump in production of Tasar and Eri cocoons. Some of the state departments are Sericulture Department, Government of Karanataka Department of Sericulture, Government of Tamil Nadu Karnataka State Sericulture Research & Development Institute Handloom Textiles & Sericulture Department - Government of Assam TAMIL NADU SERICULTURE TRAINING INSTITUTE Government of ANDHRA PRADESH, Dept. Of Sericulture Department of Sericulture and Weaving, Government of Meghalaya b. Market operation

140 Future demand of Silk: The present global silk production is fluctuating around 70,000 to 90,000 M.T. and the demand for silk is annually increasing by 5%. With the increase in population and also with the increased demand for fashionable clothing items due to fast changing fashion designs in developed countries, the demand for silk is bound to increase even more. For increasing the silk production we require highly productive mulberry varieties and silkworm races and also silkworm races tolerant to adverse climatic conditions and diseases which can come mainly from the sericultural germplasm resources and also from the wild relatives of Bombyx available in the natural habitats. Vanya silk marketing promotion cell (VSMPC): Marketing is a systematic approach of understanding prospective customer and their requirement, getting the things ready, exchanging or delivering the goods/ services to the satisfaction of the customer in a profitable manner. It also includes development and maintenance of relationship with the customer which continues even after the sale is over. The products are being developed or produced keeping in view the requirement of market. Various methods are adopted by the traders to market a commodity based on its availability and demand. However, some of the commodities require special treatment so far as their marketing is concerned due to their limited base and also their clientele. The Vanya silk products fall under this category. Muga, Tassar and Eri silkworms are not fully domesticated and we call the silks they produce as wild silks or Vanya Silk. They are basically rural produce and their handling require special care as the problems involved in the marketing of rural produce are entirely different that of urban specific and industrial products. The marketable Vanya Silk products comprise silkworm seed, cocoons, raw silk, spun silk fabric and end products like sarees, garments, made ups etc. Out of these, fabric and other end products are the only consumer articles in strict sense. The process of marketing is intricate and demands regular market research and intelligence to develop different sets of marketing strategies that suits the different products when producers and consumers come from different background as in case of Vanya silk products. Chattisgarh and adjoining states like Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal states produce Tasar cocoons. Muga and Eri cocoons are largely produced in Assam and adjoining states of north eastern region. U.P., Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and J.K. also contribute the production of Vanya silks which is not very significant. Unlike existing marketing systems for mulberry there is no established marketing system for Vanya silk products. In the existing system, cocoon growers sell their produce to Mahajans and in turn Mahajan gets the cocoons converted into raw silk/silk yarn and then fabric through weavers. Few states have federations or societies for more market intervention of the cocoons for level playing to control the exploitation of the cocoon growers through the Mahajans but its objectives are partially met. Various Non- governmental organizations (NGOs) are also operating in the Vanya silk producing states to provide alternate earning resource to the weaker section of the society. Till now the slogan for development of the silk production activity was ‘soil to silk’ (yarn). Now, Central Silk Board has gone beyond silk reeling i.e. weaving, development of Silk products, providing linkages for sale of silk products more particularly to the Vanya Silk products by setting up a “Vanya Silk Market Promotion Cell” (VSMPC: - 080 26282621,26282146 & [email protected]) under Catalytic Development Programme (CDP) with its headquarter in Bangalore during the year 2006-07. The activities of VSMPC are continued during the XI Plan.

141 Objectives • To provide required input support to Vanya Silk (Non – Mulberry) sector in the areas of market promotion in domestic / overseas markets. • Design and Development of marketable products through research and development and in association with fashion designers. • Evaluation of existing infrastructure in silk weaving clusters and need based up gradation of looms, training of weavers in advanced production techniques. • Organizing exhibitions in major metros and non-metro cities and sponsoring manufacturers to participate in domestic and overseas marketing events. Strategy 1. Gathering information on the producers of Vanya Silk - Organizational details, production, production capacities, product range, raw material details, present marketing arrangements etc. 2. Gathering information on domestic and export markets for Vanya silk products – the cell will engage outside experts for this purpose if necessary. 3. Collect samples of raw materials and finished products from producers in traditional production areas, Museums, Collectors, Master weavers, marketing organizations, cooperatives, NGOs, R & D Institutes etc. 4. Evaluation of samples, categorization, preparation of swatches, brochures and material for e-presentation to prospective domestic and overseas buyers. 5. Help the Industry in packaging, labeling and presentation of products – the cell will engage experts in the field. 6. Creation of e-marketing website for Vanya silks - the cell will engage experts for the purpose. 7. Facilitating participation of producers in major marketing events like fairs, expos, exhibitions etc. in the country and abroad. 8. Engage designers, merchandisers and other specialists on contract for specific periods. 9. Establishing and maintenance of Vanya Silk Shoppees in major cities. ACTIVITIES OF VSMPC 1. Vanya Silk Product Development and Marketing 2. Generic and Brand Promotion Vanya Silks 3. Vanya Silk Expos 4. Vanya Silk Theme Pavilion – Generic Promotion 5. Vanya Silk Shoppees 6. Product Launch 7. Test Marketing of Vanya Silk Products 8. Vanya Silk Directory

Vanya Silk Product Development and Marketing: Central Silk Board in an effort to promote Vanya silks has established “Product Design, Development and Diversification”- (P3D) and “Vanya Silk Marketing and Promotion Cell “ - (VSMPC) exclusively for product development and market assistance for Vanya silks. VSMPC under collaborative project with National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) Bangalore, Army Institute of Fashion and Design, Bangalore and NIFT-TEA Knitwear Fashion Institute, Tiruppur has developed varieties of designer Vanya silk apparels, home furnishings, life style

142 products and eri knitwear. Different combinations, structure and textures of eri silk dress materials, eri silk , eri fleece fabric, furnishings, tasar dress materials, tasar stretch fabrics and muga satin fabrics have been developed under “ P3D” activities. VSMPC is providing all market support to Vanya silk manufacturers through cocoon banks, raw material banks and by organising exhibitions, buyer seller meets, establishing linkages with exporters, providing information on international trade, establishing Vanya Silk Shoppees in major metros, brand promoting for Vanya silks and conducting market survey in respect of market demand and changing fashion trends to facilitate the Vanya silk manufacturers to adopt to latest trend in the market. Vanya silk shoppees have been recently established in Bangalore and New Delhi to provide a market platform to Vanya silk producers from rural areas. Generic and Brand Promotion Vanya Silks The logo for Vanya silks was designed and registered with the Trade Mark Authority, Govt. of India for generic and brand promotion of Vanya silks. India’s ‘Vanya’ Silks: The Logo depicts a very unique concept of Indian-ness personified by the calligraphic Devanagari letter ‘V’ crafted with bold brushstrokes inside a cocoon. These symbolize multiple strands of silk. The term ‘Vanya’ is of sanskrit origin, meaning untamed, wild, or forest-based. Muga, Tasar, and Eri silkworms are not fully tamed and the world lovingly calls the silks they produce as ‘wild silks’. The Trade Mark Authority, Govt. of India has registered the Vanya Silk Logo under the following category. 1. Class-16 - in respect of Paper and paper articles, Card board and cardboard articles, printed matter, News papers and periodicals, Books, Book binding material, Photographs, Pamphlets, Bill books, Visiting cards, Menu cards, Brochure, Advertisement, Newspaper magazines, Stationery, Envelops, Business cards, Conference manuals and Brochures and Calendars. 2. Class-24 - Silk sarees, Tissues, Piece goods, Bed and table covers, Textile articles. 3. Class-25 – in respect of readymade garments and Hosiery. 4. Class–35 - in respect of Advertising, Business management, Business administration, Office functions. 5. Class–40 - in respect of Treatment of materials. Vanya Silk Expos: Central Silk Board under VSMPC is organizing Vanya silk Expos for market promotion of vanya silk goods in association with SMOI. These expos are helping the primary producers of the vanya silk products by providing direct access to consumers to sell their products and get the feed back from the consumers on the trend and the fashion. This will help them in improving the designs, changing the product mix etc. The primary producers are coming in direct contact with exporters, traders, designers, retailers, boutiques through these expos and helping them in expanding their market by bulk orders. Vanya Silk Theme Pavilion – Generic Promotion: VSMPC is organizing exclusive Vanya Silk Theme Pavilion in the Silk Mark Expos organized by Silk Mark Organization of India (SMOI) and various other exhibitions organized by CSB, ISEPC, State Governments and Trade organizations. The production processes of Vanya silks from soil to silk products along with the live silk worms, cocoons, yarns and end products developed under P3D activities, collaborative projects and by other research organizations of CSB are being displayed in the theme pavilion. The information on care and maintenance of silk is provided to the consumers. The theme pavilion is providing

143 knowledge about Vanya silks and their production process to the consumers and generating lot of interest in the students and youngsters. Vanya Silk Shoppees: For popularizing ‘Vanya Silks’, the Central Silk Board, has established Vanya Silk Shoppees in major cities like New Delhi and Bangalore under Vanya Silk Market Promotion Cell (VSMPC). The main objectives of this effort is to show case all Indian varieties of Vanya Silks and provide a platform for small manufacturers, handloom weavers, tribal artisans NGOs, retail traders of Vanya Silk to exhibit and sell their products. The shoppees are being allotted to the selected groups on rotation basis to cover more and more agencies from the traditional Vanya Silk producing clusters of North East and Central India. The above shoppees will provide better marketing network. The Shoppees will also be utilized for generic and brand promotion of vanya silks and popularizing the “Silk Mark” a quality label for pure silk products being promoted by the Central Silk Board. The Vanya Silk Shoppee will provide a platform for the primary producers to market the Vanya Silk products directly to the consumers. So far 3 Vanya Silk Shoppees have been established two at Delhi and one at Bangalore. Vanya Silk Products are not easily available in Metro cities like Bangalore and Delhi as all the Vanya clusters are situated in states like Assam, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Maharastra, Uttaranchal, West Bengal, and Orissa etc. Thus the Vanya Silk Shoppee will provide a direct linkage for marketing the Vanya Silk products produced by the tribal and weaker section of the society in cities like Bangalore and Delhi. Product Launch: The new and diversified Vanya silk products developed by VSMPC under collaborative projects with other Institutes and in association with P3D - Cell are introduced to the market for commercialization through Product launch programme. This will help the manufacturers, exporters and retailers to venture in to the new product range and expand their market. The Eri silk knitwear products are launched in Tiruppur and and the Kancheepuram Muga sarees launched in Chennai. Test Marketing of Vanya Silk Products: As a part of Vanya silk product development effort, Central Silk Board has developed various diversified Vanya Silk products viz, Eri knitwear, Eri Denims, Eri dress material, Eri blankets, Eri sarees, Women’s wear, kids wear, Mulberry / Muga sarees, shawls, scarves/stoles etc. taking into consideration the requirements and taste of younger generation in domestic markets as also the export needs. These diversified products were put on display in various exhibitions. The products received good response from the consumers, designers, dignitaries, manufacturers, exporters and importers. CSB is receiving the enquiries from manufacturers, traders, retailers and exporters seeking information on these products. In continuation to the above effort and response received from the consumers, traders, manufacturers and the feed back received from various sources during exhibitions and interactions, Central Silk Board has developed few of the Eri silk knitwear and Eri / Tasar woven garments for Test Marketing. Accordingly action was taken to develop Eri silk knitwear products is collaboration with NIFT-TEA Tirupur and woven garments in collaboration with CSTRI and reputed designer. Eri silk Knitwear : Eri silk knitwear products in 5 shades including Men’s wear – (T-, Hooded Sweater, Innerwear), Women’s wear ( Tops in different styles, Innerwear) and

144 Kidswear ( Boys Top & Bottom set, Body suit, Strappy Vest, Gathered top ) are developed in association with NIFT TEA Knitwear Fashion Institute, Tirupur. Woven Products: The woven products including Men’s wear (shirts. kurtas, over-shirts), Women’s wear (blouse, tops, dress, , trouser, stole) are developed from Eri silk , Eri / Mulberry silk satin Tasar / Eri, Tasar fabrics. The products are launched in Silk Mark Expo in Chennai and Bangalore. These products are being sold to by SMOI through Silk Mark Expos under the brand “EXOTICA”. These products are available for sale at CSB Complex, BTM Layout, Bangalore. Vanya Silk Directory: The Central Silk Board as a part of Vanya silk market promotion efforts has published the “Vanya Silk Directory”, which provides information on the profile of Vanya silk industry in India. The Directory contains:– • Basic information on Vanya Silks, about Vanya silk industry in India, about Vanya Silk Market Promotion Cell (VSMPC) – its objectives and activities. • 455 addresses of Vanya Silk primary manufacturers, master weavers, traders, retailers and exporters covering all the Vanya silk producing states. • Addresses of CSB and State Govt. offices of Vanya Silk producing states. • Addresses of Vanya Silk Shoppees, Raw material Banks, Eri Spun Silk Mills, SMOI Chapters, Collaborative project partners of VSMPC • Information on Vanya Silk Cocoons, Measurement of Vanya Silk Cocoons, Varieties of Vanya Silk yarns & fabrics. • Tips on silk Care. The Directory would be of immense use to all the producers, manufacturers, Traders, Exporters, Retailers, Designers and Boutiques of Vanya silks in domestic and export markets. The directory will provide information for better marketing network. This directory will also help the new entrepreneurs to take up Vanya silk production and trading as a new business enterprise. The Vanya Silk Directory is reasonably priced at Rs.100 /- ( 20 USD for overseas buyers) per copy and is available for sale at Central Silk Board offices in New Delhi, Varanasi, Lucknow, Patna, Ranchi, Guwahati, Ladoigarh,Kolkota, Bhubaneshwar, Cuttack, Bilaspur, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Bhandara (Maharastra), Chennai and Bangalore. The copies of the Directory may be obtained from Central Silk Board, BTM Layout, Madivala, Bangalore – 560 068. ( - 080 26282621,26282146 & - [email protected]) by post on payment of Rs. 50/- extra in addition to the cost of the Directory towards packing and postage. The demand draft may be drawn in favor of Member Secretary, Central Silk Board payable at Bangalore. VANYA SILK YARNS 1. Reeled Tasar / Tasar Raw Silk: It is reeled from Tasar cocoons using different appliance. Reeled Tasar is finer in nature. 2. Tasar Gicha: Yarn drawn by hand out of Tasar cocoons without any twist. 3. Tasar Katia: Yarn spun out of Tasar waste after opening and cleaning. 4. Tasar Jhuri: Yarn spun out of uncleaned Tasar waste without subjecting it to opening and cleaning process. 5. Balkal yarn: Yarn spun out of tasar cocoon peduncles, after boiling in alkaline solution and opened up. 6. Tasar Spun Silk: Yarn spun in the mill out of tasar silk waste. 7. Muga Raw Silk: Yarn reeled from Muga cocoons.

145 8. Muga Gicha: Yarn drawn by hand out of muga cocoons without any twist. 9. Hand Spun Endi/ Eri Silk: Yarn spun by hand appliances from Eri cocoons. 10. Mill Spun Eri Yarn: Yarn spun in the mill from Eri cocoons.

VANYA SILK FABRICS 1. Tasar Fabric: Tasar fabric is normally referred to when reeled Tasar is used in both warp and weft. This Tasar fabric is a popular material for printed / embroidery sarees, gent’s Kurthas and other dress materials. 2. T.G.N. (Tasar-Gicha-Noil) Fabric: A combination called Tasar/ Gicha/ Noil is a popular export item. Using reeled Tasar in warp and Gicha and Noil in weft, fabric is woven on handloom in different weight ranges. 3. T.G.(Tasar – Gicha): Tasar- Gicha is another popular item in Tasar Silk range and the fabric produced mostly in Bhagalpur and Champa. Reeled Tasar is warp and Gicha in weft is used in this quality. 4. T.G.C.(Tasar-Gicha-Cotton): Reeled Tasar X Gicha+ Cotton is a popular silk blend produced by Bhagalpur weavers for export market. Using cotton in place of Noil the fabric woven is similar to TGN on a lesser cost. 5. C.G.N./ M.G.N .(Cotton – Gicha- Noil): Cotton X Gicha + Noil is similar to TGN using in place of Tasar Silk in warp, there by reducing the cost structure. The fabric is quite strong and is mostly used for suiting and furnishings. 6. C.G./ M.G.(Mercirised Cotton-Gicha): Cotton x Gicha is another variety of silk blend made in Bhagalpur. Fabric is durable and suitable for dress material and furnishings. 7. C.G.C (Cotton-Gicha-Cotton): Cotton x Gicha + Cotton is also produced for export orders. In order to bring down the price considerably, cotton has been used in warp as well as weft with Tasar Gicha. 8. Katia x Katia: Katia yarn used in both warp and weft, fabric is produced mainly for export market. Fabric is quit strong and durable. 9. Jhuri x Jhuri: Jhuri yarn in both warp and weft, a heavy fabric is produced. Jhuri fabric in different shades is used for upholstery and also for floor covering. 10. Muga Fabric: Muga fabric is normally referred to when reeled Muga is used in both warp and weft. This Muga fabric is a popular material for sarees, gent’s Kurthas, Ties and other dress materials. 11. Muga Sarees: Muga sarees are the made with reeled muga in both warp and weft along with viscose yarn as extra weft for ornamentation. These sarees are the traditional varieties of North-East mainly produced in Sualkuchi weaving cluster of Assam. 12. Muga Mekhla – Chaddar: Muga mekhla chaddars are made with reeled muga in both warp and weft along with viscose yarn as extra weft for ornamentation. These are the traditional dress of North east mainly produced in Sualkuchi weaving cluster of Assam. 13. Eri chaddar /shawls: Made of Eri hand spun yarn. The Eri chaddars are thick, warm and good for winter. The fashion wears, life style products, garments, home furnishings, knitwear products are also made from Vanya silks. c. cocoon and silk

146 A cocoon is a casing spun of silk by many moth caterpillars, and numerous other holometabolous insect larvae as a protective covering for the pupa. Cocoons may be tough or soft, opaque or translucent, solid or meshlike, of various colors, or composed of multiple layers, depending on the type of insect larva producing it. Many moth caterpillars shed the larval hairs (setae) and incorporate them into the cocoon; if these areurticating hairs then the cocoon is also irritating to the touch. Some larvae attach small twigs, fecal pellets or pieces of vegetation to the outside of their cocoon in an attempt to disguise it from predators. Others spin their cocoon in a concealed location – on the underside of a leaf, in acrevice, down near the base of a tree trunk, suspended from a twig or concealed in the leaf litter. The silk in the cocoon of the silk moth can be unravelled to get silk fibre which makes this moth the most economically important of all Lepidopterans. The moth is the only completely domesticated Lepidopteran and does not exist in the wild. Insects that pupate in a cocoon must escape from it, and they do this either by the pupa cutting its way out, or by secreting fluids that soften the cocoon. Some cocoons are constructed with built-in lines of weakness along which they will tear easily from inside, or with exit holes that only allow a one-way passage out; such features facilitate the escape of the adult insect after it emerges from the pupal skin. i. cocoon grading

Cocoon Quality: A Series of natural circumstances will produce variations in cocoon quality. Some of the most noteworthy include: • Differences in cocoon quality in the same batch • Differences in cocoons produced in the same location by different farmers who have reared the same species • Seasonal influences. In Japan for example, cocoons produced in the spring and late autumn are higher in quality than those in early autumn and summer • Environmental conditions affect cocoon reelability such as temperature and humidity • Processing technique in reeling will impact reeling efficiency as well as raw silk quality • Bivoltine cocoons are superior quality compared to multivoltine silkworm species traditional farmed in tropical zones. Recent silkworm cultivation now develops cross-breeds of multivoltine with bivoltine silkworms as a strategy to improve overall cocoon quality. Factors Influencing Cocoon Quality: This section presents the measures to be taken during silkworm rearing and mounting to obtain a better quality of cocoons with higher silk content, longer filament, better reelability and lower percentage of defective cocoons. Temperature and Humidity During Mounting: Maintain temperatures at or near 25ºC and relative humidity around 65 percent for silkworms to spin good quality cocoons with a high reelability. Mounting Device: Although different mount practices are employed among producer countries, rotary mounting frames provide good ventilation. The result is improved reelability of cocoons. Harvesting and Handling of Fresh Cocoons: Cocoons should be harvested only following complete pupation. In practice, the appropriate harvesting day would be the fifth day in

147 tropical countries, and the seventh or eighth day in temperate countries, from the mounting date. If premature harvesting takes place, the silkworm will still be in its larval stage, weigh more, have fragile skin, and could likely be crushed, which would cause stains to the cocoon during handling and transportation. Transport of Fresh Cocoons: After proper harvesting and removal of diseased or damaged cocoons, the fresh cocoons are taken to the market. For short distances, the farmer carries the cocoons in bamboo baskets or jut bags on his head or by bicycle. If the distance is longer, cocoons are transported in a van or a bus. Caution should be exercised when loading fresh cocoons on to the van to ensure that containers are loosely packed in tiers to avoid damage. Vibration and shock during long trips can spoil fresh cocoons. Cocoon quality is affected by steam produced while being transferred in a bag or basket. If there are defective cocoons fresh cocoon quality will be harmed. While it is advisable to avoid carrying cocoons over long distances, there are steps, which preserve silk reelability. First use of P.V.C. containers with 15 kgs capacity is recommended. Shock absorbers, such as sponge can prevent damage over long distances. To minimize the risk of heat deterioration, shipping should take place only during the night or early morning. Ideally, the fresh cocoons should arrive at the stifling unit within two to three days after harvest. ii. Silk grading

Commercially four types of cocoons are produced by four different types of silk worms. These are Mulberry, Tasar, Muga and Eri. India produces all four varieties of natural silks viz., Mulberry silk, Tasar silk, Muga silk and Eri silk. The Tasar, Eri and Muga silk are non mulberry silks which are wild silks and also known as Vanya Silks. Vanya silks arouse the creative passion in designers for innovation, ingenuity and exclusively – naturally and spontaneously. Vanya silks portray the rich crafts, culture and folklore of the North Eastern and tribal zones of Central, eastern India and sub Himalayan region. They are distinguish in looks and feel as they are procured from the wild silkworms that feed on leaves of castor, kesseru, payam, som, sualu, oak, arjun, asan, sal etc… in the open jungles, imbibing the unevenness of nature, and reflecting it in the silks they produce. In unparallel textures, with natural sheen, easy affinity for natural dyes, light in weight and high in moisture absorbency, and with baffling thermal properties…warm in winter and cool in summer, products of rich, salubrious climate and nourishing vegetation, each of the Vanya silks has its own unique beauty and ethnic culture. They are distinguished in four different forms: muga, tropical tasar, oak tasar and eri. They are the magnificent gifts of nature to genius of global designers, to explore and create various designs for garments, life style products and home furnishings for sophisticated homes, haute couture as far as artistic imagination can stretch. Irresistible Eri Silk: Also known as endi or errandi, this silk is produced by the eri silkworm (Philosamia ricini).These worms feed mainly on Castor and Kesseru. As eri cocoons are open ended, the yarn is spun. Interestingly, in many parts of the North-East, eri cocoons are produced for their edible pupae and silk is the by-product. Elegantly designed eri shawls and chaddars are quite popular because of their thermal properties. They can be blended with cotton, wool, jute or even mulberry silk to create exotic fabrics

148 for use in jackets, or suiting material, or for producing a variety of furnishings, making it an interior decorator’s delight. Tantalizing Tasar: Tasar silk is produced by tasar silkworms (Antheraea mylitta and Antheraea proylei) that feed mainly on the leaves of Asan, Arjun and Oak. India is the second largest producer of tasar silk and the exclusive producer of Indian tasar (also known as tropical tasar),which is largely tended by tribals in the Gondwana belt. Oak tasar (also known as temperate tasar) is mainly used for furnishing, dress materials and sarees. Bomkai, Paithani, Ikkat (tie & dye) and Katki are some popular fabrics produced using tasar silks. Bafta is a popular blend of tasar and cotton. Shawls and mufflers are also produced using a blend of oak tasar and other natural fibers like wool, cotton, etc. Tasar silk is ideal for making jackets for men and women or traditional costumes like the ‘salwar-kurta’. This silk can be styled into beautiful dresses, stoles and scarves. Tasar fabric can also be printed, hand-painted, or, even embroidered into traditional sarees and beautiful dress-materials. In fact, in India, it is said that a bride’s trousseau is never complete without a saree made of Tasar Silk! Magnificent Muga Silk: The pride of India, muga silk is known for its natural shimmering golden colour. Its production is confined to Assam, border areas of neighboring Northeastern states and Cooch Bihar in West Bengal. It is produced by the muga silkworms (Antheraea assamensis), which feed on Som and Sualu. The most expensive of silks, muga is intrinsically woven into the cultural traditions of the people of Assam. The vibrant Sualkuchi sarees and mekhla-chaddars are the traditional items made from muga silk. In recent times, fashion designers have found exciting prospects in using muga silk for developing new products and designs. Use of muga yarn as a substitute for ‘zari’ in sarees is finding favour with reputed weavers. d. Silk Conditioning and Testing

QUALITY IS THE ISSUE: Silk must be a quality item, it is a natural fiber and appeals to a lot of people for its smoothness, shine, softness and insulating properties. Silk, however, is being widely attacked by chemical fibers that sometimes are called in misleading ways to remind, yet in a wrong way to the customer of silk. Most of the time products are not silk-made, the customer is either deceived or does not really care and the silk market is endangered. On the whole if we look at the market, the movement in depth is that silk is still used by fashion and trend designers in leading fashion countries; but the offer in shops that follows is not always to the same level owing to slashed price-policy and silk like garments and accessories. In Paris, Milan, London, New York, Tokyo, Shanghai and Delhi, present silk in the collections and the themes of comfort, legendary aspects, glamorous looks, which make thriving forever. HIGH VALUE IS THE SECRET OF SUCCESS: Creativity is besides quality an important factor. Above all, in order to be seen, silk must be in the right trends for colours. This gives value to the base fabric that otherwise will be used as a fabric among others. Designers do not like polyester or acetate or polyamide better. They like the added 149 value, the image content value that is based on communication for the products. If silk is struggling to find a market or if you continue to see appalling apparel with poor fashion oriented designs or if you give it the ‘granny’ award for creativity with losing colours and trims, and last but not least if you dump the prices in a fierce blind competition; then, no doubt silk will be killed. On the other hand, show it on computer presentation, train your public to admire the qualities of silk, explain, educate, teach, play, make silk a real show business with real qualities behind that you can trust, talk of the strength of silk as to back the speech with relevant information and then the audience will feel the magic of a luxury mix. With the amount of research that is put into the development of new technologies for hybrids production, trans-genetics and breeding in labs, and sericulture farms around the world, silk has got a very bright and shining future just as smooth as silk.

Chapter 12 Employment Generation under Rain fed and Irrigated Mulberry

Sericulture and Silk Industry is an age-old tradition in many parts of rural India . While this industry is ideally suited for augmenting the economic returns to the seri-farmers, it

150 is also regarded as one of the best cash crops in view of its short gestation period and the regular returns the farmer gets.

In keeping with the National Programme for Rural Industrialization, the CSB has been implementing various Cluster Development Projects for Sericulture in Kerala, Bihar , Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram , Assam , West Bengal etc. This is an integrated approach to develop sericulture, deriving benefits from a set of ideally suited Catalytic Development Schemes and dove-tailing them with the various Welfare Schemes of the State through convergence with other Rural Development Programmes at the village / mandal / block / district level. Implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) in selected districts of various States in the country: Success of any sustainable Poverty alleviation Programme is based on increasing productive employment opportunities along with growth. The focus of Govt. of India relates to providing employment guarantee of 100 days (of wage employment) to every rural household, whose adult member(s) are willing to do unskilled manual work. Accordingly, the Parliament has passed the historic Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) that guarantees 100 days of wage employment in a year, to every rural household. In this connection, Govt. of India had initially identified 200 districts in different States of the country for the said purpose.

Sericulture industry is ideally suited for augmenting the economic returns to the seri-farmers, it is also regarded as one of the best cash crops in view of its short gestation period and the regular returns the farmer gets. Sericulture and Silk Industry is an age-old tradition in many parts of rural India . While this industry is ideally suited for augmenting the economic returns to the seri-farmers, it is also regarded as one of the best cash crops in view of its short gestation period and the regular returns the farmer gets. In keeping with the National Programme for Rural Industrialization, the CSB has been implementing various Cluster Development Projects for Sericulture in Kerala, Bihar , Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram , Assam , West Bengal etc. This is an integrated approach to develop sericulture, deriving benefits from a set of ideally suited Catalytic Development Schemes and dove-tailing them with the various Welfare Schemes of the State through convergence with other Rural Development Programmes at the village / mandal / block / district level. In view of the above, the Central Silk Board which is represented by Govt. of India, Members of Parliament and other stakeholders at its Meeting, held on 25-05- 2006, has suggested to include various sericultural activities with the NREGA programme of the Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India (with the coordination of States) in the identified districts. In respect of all 27 states, 200 districts have been taken up initially under NREGA.

a. Direct iii. Up to Raw silk

Silk, known as "Paat" in Eastern India, Pattu in southern parts of India and Resham in Hindi/Urdu, has a long history in India. Recent archaeological discoveries in and Chanhu-daro suggest that sericulture, employing wild silk threads from native silkworm

151 species, existed in South Asia during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, roughly contemporaneous with the earliest known silk use in China. According to an article in Nature by Philip Ball, while there is fast evidence for silk production in China back to around 2570 BC, newly discovered silk objects from the Indus valley in eastern Pakistan are believed to date from between 2450 BC and 2000 BC, "making them similarly ancient". Shelagh Vainker, a silk expert at the Ashmolean Museum in , sees evidence for silk production in China "significantly earlier" than 2500–2000 BC, however suggests "people of the Indus civilization either harvested silkworm cocoons or traded with people who did, and that they knew a considerable amount about silk." Silk is widely produced today. India is the second largest producer of silk after China. A majority of the silk in India is produced in Karnataka State, particularly in Mysore and the North Bangalore regions of Muddenahalli, Kanivenarayanapura, and Doddaballapur. India is also the largest consumer of silk in the world. The tradition of wearing silk sarees in marriages by the brides is followed in southern parts of India. Silk is worn by people as a symbol of royalty while attending functions and during festivals. Historically silk was used by the upper classes, while cotton was used by the poorer classes. Today silk is mainly produced in Bhoodhan Pochampally (also known as Silk City), Kanchipuram, Dharmavaram, Mysore, etc. in South India and Banaras in the North for manufacturing garments and sarees. "Murshidabad silk", famous from historical times, is mainly produced in Malda and Murshidabad district of West Bengal and woven with hand looms in Birbhum and Murshidabad district. Another place famous for production of silk is Bhagalpur. The silk from Pochampally[disambiguation needed] is particularly well- known for its classic designs and enduring quality. The silk is traditionally hand-woven and hand-dyed and usually also has silver threads woven into the cloth. Most of this silk is used to make sarees. The sarees usually are very expensive and vibrant in color. Garments made from silk form an integral part of Indian weddings and other celebrations. In the northeastern state of Assam, three different types of silk are produced, collectively called : Muga, Eri and . Muga, the golden silk, and Eri are produced by silkworms that are native only to Assam. The heritage of silk rearing and weaving is very old and continues today especially with the production of Muga and Pat riha and , the three-piece silk sarees woven with traditional motifs. Sarees, which are known for their soft texture, last many years if carefully maintained. iv. Up to Fabric production

Broadly speaking there are varieties of silk fabric. Silk fabric manufacturing involves mechanical processes that require a large work force. Silk brocades texturally, are divided mainly into two groups: Kinkhwab, Pot-thans. Kinkhwab (Brocade) Kinkhwab was originally an elegant, heavy silk fabric with a floral or figured pattern known most for its butis and jals woven with silk as the warp and tilla as the weft, produced in China and Japan. Tilla in the earlier times was known as kasab. It was a combination of silver and tamba (copper) which was coated with a veneer of gold and silver. Kinkhwabs have also been known as ‘Kimkhabs’, ‘Kamkhwabs’, ‘Kincobs’, ‘Zar-baft’ (Gold Woven), zartari, zarkashi, mushaiar. Kam means little or scarcely. Khwab means a dream and it’s said that even with such a name ‘Its beauty, splendor and elegance can be hardly dreamt of’. Kinkhwabs are heavy fabrics or several layers of warp threads with an elaborate all-over pattern of extra weft,

152 which may be of silk, gold and / or silver threads or combinations. There may be three to seven layers of warp threads. (Tipara means three layers and Chaupara means four layers to Satpara meaning seven layers). Kin means golden in Chinese. Its specialty is in profusely using the gold and silver thread in a manner that sometimes leaves the silk background hardly visible. When the figure work is in silver threads with a background of gold threads it is called ‘Tashi Kinkhwab’. This is a variety of ‘Kinkhwab’ which has a ground worked with an extra warp of gold [badla (flat wire) zari] and the pattern created with an extra weft of silver badla zari or vice versa. A satin weave is very often used, resulting in a smooth ground for the fabric. The heavy fabric appears to be in layers, as the warp ends are crammed drawing three, four and up to seven ends per dent for the Tipara, Chaupara up to Satpara respectively. Zari is generally of two types Badla and Kala batto. Badla Zari was made of flattened gold or silver wire with the ancient method of making zari from pure metal without any core thread. This accounted for its peculiar stiffness. Sometimes cracks would develop in the metal during the process of weaving which resulted in the loss of its natural luster and smoothness. Therefore weaving with Badla Zari was difficult and required great skill. Often a touch of Badla was given to floral motives to enhance the beauty. This type of zari has mostly gone out of favor amongst the contemporary weavers and they mostly depend on polyester or pure silk as a substitute. Silk brocade of Banaras, Ahmedabad and Surat were well known in the seventeenth century. While Banaras continues to be a center of production of Silk Brocades, Ahmedabad and Surat have practically nothing to show today. On the other hand, Silk Brocade weaving has gained ground in the South of India. Pot-thans These are called Katan (a thread prepared by twisting a different number of silk filaments) brocades. Pot-thans are lighter in textures (lower thread count) than Kinkhwabs but closely woven in silk and all or certain portions of the pattern are in gold or silver zaris. These fabrics are mostly used for making expensive garments and . Very often the satin ground weave is particularly used for garments fabrics. These fabrics are characterized by their jals which are normally made out of silk and tilla. The cloth was distinguished by its butis woven in circular shapes that gave an impression of ashrafis (gold coins). The ashrafis were usually woven in gold zari. This is a mixed fabric with a woven stripe or zigzag pattern. The warp and weft used were of two different materials (silk and cotton, cotton and linen, silk and wool or wool and cotton) in different colors. It was used mostly for lower garments such as , the lining of the heavy brocade garments or as furnishing. Gul Badan (the literal meaning of which is ‘flower like body’) was a known variety of mushru (cotton and silk) popular in the late 19th century. Sangi, Ganta, Ilaycha were types of mushru too. These were popular since ancient times and were known to be woven at all leading silk centers. One reason for their popularity was Islam. Since Islam does not allow men to wear pure silk, mashru (literally meaning permitted) became very popular amongst Muslims. Himru or Amru

153 A type of Indian brocade is the Himru, a specialty of Hyderabad and Aurangabad, which is woven from silk and zari on silk to produce variegated designs, woven on the principle of extra weft. Himru can be very pretty with a pseudo-rich effect in general. It continued to be in popular demand on the account of its low price as compared to the pure silk brocades. Another point in its favor is that it can be woven very fine so as to give it a soft feel, thus making it more suitable as a fabric for personal wear than the true brocade. The cloth is distinguished by its intricate char-khana (four squares) jal. These are woven like kinkhwabs, but without the use of kala battu (zari) instead badla zari is used. Kinkhwabs Kinkhwabs fabrics of India have earned a great reputation for their craftsmanship and grandeur. By and large, still continue to do so, even in the face of fierce competition from other types of woven and printed fabrics. Kinkhwabs today are typically ornate, jacquard-woven fabrics. The pattern is usually emphasized by contrasting surfaces and colours and appears on the face of the fabric, which is distinguished easily from the back. Uses include apparel, , upholstery and other decorative purposes. Gyasar Gyasar is a silk fabric of a Kinkhwab structure with ground, in which the gold thread is profusely used with Tibetan designs. The fabric is especially popular with Tibetans and used extensively in their dresses as well as in decorative hangings, prayer mats, etc. Gyanta Gyanta is a silk fabric of Kinkhwab structure of a satin body with or without the use of gold thread. These sometimes have a tantric design (which is also known as Tchingo) of human heads with three eyes woven in gold and silver threads on a black satin ground. Jamawar “Jama” means robe and “war” is yard. The base of the jamawar is mostly resham, with perhaps an addition of a little polyester. The brocaded parts are woven in similar threads of silk and polyester. Most of the designs seen today are floral, with the kairy (i.e. the ) as the predominant motif. Today, the best jamavar is woven in Pakistan. This fabric is widely used in that country for bridal and special occasion outfits. The texture and weave of patterns is such that the fabric often gets caught when rubbed against rough surfaces (metallic embroidery, etc.) it must therefore be handled delicately when worn. Origin Traders introduced this Chinese silk cloth to India, mainly from Samarkand and Bukhara and it gained immense popularity among the royalty and the aristocracy. King and nobles bought the woven fabric by the yard, wearing it as a gown or using it as a wrap or . Jamawar weaving centres in India developed in the holy cities and the trade centres. The most well known jamawar weaving centres were in Assam, Gujrat, Malwa and South India. Due to its rich and fine raw materials, the rich and powerful merchants used jamawar and noblemen of the time, who could not only afford it but could even commission the weavers to make the fabric for them, as in the case of the Mughals. Emperor Akbar was one of its greatest patrons. He brought many weavers from East Turkestan to Kashmir.

154 One of the main reasons for the diversity in the designs of the jamawar cloth was the migratory nature of its weavers. Ideas from almost all parts of the world influenced these designs. The Indian motifs were greatly influenced by nature like the sun, moon, stars, rivers, trees, flowers, birds etc. The figural and geometrical motifs such as trees, lotus flower, bulls, horses, lions, elephants, peacocks, swans, eagles, the sun, stars, diagonal or zigzag lines, squares, round shapes, etc. can be traced through the entire history of jamawar and are still being used but in a rather different form in terms of intricacy and compositions, thus creating new patterns. Indian weaver predominantly used a wide variety of classical motifs such as the swan (hamsa), the Lotus (kamala), The Tree Of Life (kulpa, vriksha), the Vase of Plenty (purna, kumbha), the Elephant (hathi), the Lion (simha), flowing floral creepers (lata patra), Peacocks (mayur) and many more. Mythical creatures such as winged lions, centaurs, griffins, decorative of ferocious animals, animals formally in profile or with turned heads, animals with human figures in combat or represented in roundels were also commonly used motifs. These motifs have remained in existence for more than two thousand years. However, new patterns have consistently been introduced; sometimes some of these are even an amalgamation of the existing patterns. Such attempts at evolving new designs were particularly noticeable from the 10th century onwards, when patterns were altered to meet the specific demands of the Muslim rulers. The bull or the swan, arranged between vertical and diagonal stripes can still be found in the silk jamawar saris of India. Patterns with small flowers and two-coloured squares (chess board design) are seen, used both as a garment and as furnishing material – bed spreads with same kind of pattern are still woven in some parts of Gujarat. Jamawar dating back to the Mughal era however contained big, bold and realistic patterns, which were rather simple with ample space between the motifs. The designs stood out prominently against the background of the cloth. Complex patterns were developed only when additional decorative elements were included in the basic pattern. During later periods, the gap between the motives was also filled with smaller motives or geometrical forms. The iris and narcissus flowers became the most celebrated motifs of this era and were combined with tulips, poppies, primulas, roses and lilies. A lot of figurative motives were also used in the Mughal era such as deers, horses, butterflies, peacocks and insects. The Mughal kings played a vital role in the enhancement of jamawar by putting their inspirations into the cloth’s designing and visiting the weavers on a regular basis to supervise its making. Shining, decorative pallus were jals were the main designs of this time. The borders were usually woven with silk and zari. After the Mughal period, the figurative motifs were discouraged by the Muslims and more floral and paisleys were introduced. However, inspiration was taken from these figurative motives and put into designs as in the case of using only the peacock feathers instead of the complete figure. Another big change was brought about in 1985, where the source of inspiration was the Chinese Shanghai cloth. The patterns of the Chinese Shanghai were amended in accordance to the weave construction of the jamawar cloth and introduced in the cloth. This proved to be a very successful change and is still appreciated by many.

155 In recent years, the Indian government has attempted a modest revival of this art by setting up a shawl-weaving centre at Kanihama in Kashmir. Efforts to revive this art have also been made by bringing in innovations like the creation of jamawar saris by craftsmen in Varanasi. Each sari is a shimmering tapestry of intricate design, in colours that range from the traditionally deep, rich shades to delicate pastels. A minimum of four months of patient effort goes into the creation of each jamawar sari. Many of the jamawar saris now have matching silk shawls attached to them, creating elegant ensembles fit for royalty. Weaving of Jamawar in Pakistan: It is woven on the jacquard loom. Joseph-Marie Jacquard, improving on the original punched-card design of Jacques De Vaucanson’s loom of 1745 developed the Jacquard system in France in 1804-05. The pattas, which are the punched cards, controlled the actions of the loom, allowing automatic production of intricate woven patterns. The bigger the motif, the greater the number of cards required to make them. Pakistan makes its own yarn from the imported cocoons that come from China. The yarn is cultivated in areas like Orangi town and Shershah which is then sold to the weavers. The pure silk yarn, before it can be used, has to undergo treatment such as bleaching or washing (in soap) and then dyeing. In its raw state, the silk is hard due to the sericlan; therefore it has to be removed. A single filament of the silk yarn is not strong enough to be woven on its own; therefore, it needs to be twisted in order to give it strength and hold. A specific person who is called a naqsha-bandh first draws the patterns or designs on paper which are then transferred on a graph paper on a comparatively much bigger scale. Every square in the graph signifies a specific number of threads on the loom. The unfinished, rough ideas and sketches are provided to these naqsha-bandhs by the wholesalers and are thus plotted on the graph. The use of various threads in the pattern such as zari, resham, polyester, etc. are separated on the graph with the help of colours indicated on a key chart. The wholesalers later decide the main colours and this information are forwarded to the weavers. The naqsha-bandhs do not have say in the designing of the motifs and patterns. They do what they are told to do. In this way, the pattern or motif is drawn on the graph paper to provide the weaver with the exact picture of each thread making up the design in the process of weaving. The designs and patterns are then transferred from the graph paper on a wooden frame and are referred to as the naqsha. The naqsha that is made with cotton threads is a smaller sample of the actual design, which is to be woven on the loom. The warp is then taken for the weaving process, which is carried out, on various looms such as the pit loom, jacquard loom and power loom. There is a vast difference between the outputs of the three types of looms. The power looms cannot match the intricacy that can be achieved using the pit or jacquard loom. This is the reason for the far superior workmanship that can be found in the earlier designs dating back to the Mughal era. Nowadays brocade is being produced on the power looms for its wide-scale production for the market. Several kannis or little wooden shuttles of different colors are used for a single weft line of the fabric. Up to 50 colours could be worked into one shawl made of the jamawar cloth. The most popular colours being zard, sufed, mushki, ferozi, ingari, uda gulnar and kirmiz. This thread can also be twisted with gold threads in order to make zari. The zari fibre is doubled with the yarn to prepare it for the process of weaving. Another reason for twisting the zari fibre is to reduce its excessive shine. The zari fibre is wrapped on reels

156 and is doubled with the yarn with the help of a machine, on cones. These fibres are then wrapped on reels with the help of a doubling machine. The threads are then steamed and wrapped on the final spools. The required threads (silk, zari, etc.) are then taken to the charkha, which is a machine used to make the warp for the weaving process.

b. Indirect v. Marketing

The Directors of Sericulture of all the states have been requested to draw up a suitable plan of action in coordination with the concerned Department of the State, to include various sericulture activities under the NREGA, so as to ensure guarantee of generation of rural employment as envisaged under the programme, and also enhance production and productivity of different varieties of silk in the country. Central Silk Board organise Structured Courses ranging from 3-24 months duration and capsule programmes from 2- 45 days through its Research & Training Institutes and nested Regional Sericultural Research Stations etc., located at different parts of the country. Capsule courses are usually organised covering specific activity / technology of Mulberry & Non-Mulberry sericulture sectors covering both pre and post cocoon activities. Ad hoc courses are also organised as per the requirement of the sponsoring organization on cost basis. Entrepreneurship and other related training programmes: In the country like India, with huge unemployment and under employment problems, sericulture has been considered as an excellent medium for generating employment and poverty alleviation. One of the important areas for the development of silk industry as well as generating employment is the promotion of prospective entrepreneurs to take up sericulture-based activities. Keeping these objectives in view, the Corporate and Enterprise Development (C & ED) Cell, an ISO 9001:2000 quality certified training wing of CSB, conducts Entrepreneurship Development and other skill & competence enhancement training programmes with focused seri - related themes in both traditional and non-traditional states. Some of the popular training programmes are- Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP)- Package training for venturing into Seri-Business. The training inputs include – technical inputs with practical exposure, Motivational & psychological inputs, simple financial management, Business Plan preparation & project evaluation techniques, market survey techniques & market intelligence Eligibility: Any Existing & potential entrepreneurs. Resource Development Programme/Trainers Training Programme (RDP/TTP)- Aims to develop a group of resource persons with all the desired competencies and sericulture skills for imparting second level training (farmers/beneficiaries) and successfully implementing seri-developmental project. Eligibility: Project implementing officials from States, NGOs & CSB Technology Up-gradation Programme (TUP)- Demonstration of modern technology pertaining to different activities of silk production chain Eligibility: All farmers/stakeholders associated with sericulture & silk industry, Bankers Training/ Sensitization Programme (BTP)- Bankers sensitization and updating their Seri-knowledge/information by providing inputs on latest cocoon and raw silk production technologies and introduction to various bankable Seri-Business options Eligibility: Bankers & bank Managers

157 Technology-based Training Progs/Beneficiary Training Programme (BTPs) - Specialized exposure and skill development/enhancement focused training programmes for farmers/rearers, artisans, entrepreneurs & supervisors both through peripatetic and conventional modes Management Development (MDP) – Meant basically for enhancing technical/general/motivational levels of the participants and also for introducing new developments in the field of Science & technology and other functional areas. Eligibility: In-house & State Govt. Officials & others Competence Enhancement Training Programmes (CETP) - Refresher course for updating technical knowledge and office management tools for increasing work efficiency Eligibility: CSB’s in-house participants, During the XI Plan a new component - Beneficiaries Empowerment Programme has been added to the HRD scheme with an objective of empowering farmers / artisans & other stakeholders. It envisages – empowering farmers, training them for honing their skill sets & knowledge levels, building their confidence & belief by exposure & field visit etc. C&ED also conducts specific need-based & tailor made training programme on request from external agencies for the overall benefit & development of silk sector. vi. Materials and Machinery Manufacturing

Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best- known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of thelarvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance of silk is due to the triangular prism-like structure of the silk fiber, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors.

Silks are produced by several other insects, but only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been some research into other silks, which differ at the molecular level.[1] Silks are mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, but also by some adult insects such as webspinners. Silk production is especially common in the (bees,wasps, and ants), and is sometimes used in nest construction. Other types of produce silk, most notably various arachnids such asspiders (see spider silk).

Insects or worms produce or secrete silk for their own purposes. In the natural world silk is produced for more important purposes like for safe keeping of the nascent or developing generations. But man has found this protecting material of worms as a way to fulfil his material needs. In this process i.e. in the process of extracting silk from the worm’s world and making it suitable for fulfilling the human needs, man has developed advanced methods. These advanced methods include the use of state of the art machineries. Because again work force is required for manufacturing of these machineries and its various parts, sericulture again provides a huge prospect of employment although indirectly.

158 Chapter 13 Seed Organization A very recent compilation of silkworm genetic stocks indicate that there are around 3000 genotypes of Bombyx mori at the global level, which includes mutants, parthenoclones, polyploids and geographical races (Nagaraju et. al 2001). In fact much of the genetic diversity of Bombyx mori is derived from the inbred lines of land races and elite stocks evolved by the silkworm breeders and also from hybridisation of different geographical 159 races; mainly the Japanese, Chinese, European and tropical races, which are distinct for several economic characters. The geographical races also possess several heritable characters for a variety of morphological, biochemical and quantitative characters. Among the four geographical races, the bivoltine and univoltine races of temperate origin and multivoltine races of tropical origin differ widely and exhibit contrasting characters. The bivoltine and univoltine races produce high quantity of good quality silk, whereas the multivoltine races are hardy, tolerant to pathogen load and thereby resistant to diseases compared to the bivoltines but produce low amount of poor quality silk. Thus, these geographical races are very valuable genetic stocks for further improvement of silkworm races and evolution of superior breeds of B. mori. Apart from a rich biodiversity of geographical races, there are also a large number of mutants. The silkworm genetic stocks include more than 500 mutants for a variety of characters viz., serosal colours; larval and adult integument colours; skin markings and body shapes; cocoon colours and shapes; physiological traits such as diapause, number of larval moults and timing of larval maturity; food habits and biochemical features such as digestive amylase, blood and egg esterases, larval integument esterase, alkaline and acid phosphatases; haemolymph proteins; silk production and fibroin secretion; homeoproteins and body plan determination etc. and the various mutants, gene locus and phenotype were documented recently (Nagaraju et. al, 2001). Apart from the geographical races and mutants there is a large genetic stock of B.mori evolved by the breeders mostly utilising the geographical races and mutants of larval, pupal and cocoon colour variants of sex limited races, particularly in Peoples Republic of China, Japan, India and erstwhile United Soviet Socialist Russia (USSR) and some of these breeds are commercially exploited in these countries for silkworm rearing to produce raw silk and the remaining breeds are maintained in the silkworm germplasm of these countries as breeders genetic stocks and they are utilised as the genetic material in the silkworm breeding programmes for evolution of more superior and elite races. Thus, the geographical races, mutants and the elite breeders stock constitute the major portion of the present day silkworm germplasm at the global level apart from the parthenoclones, triploid, polyploids and wild relatives of Bombyx andBombycidae (Fig- 1). 1.5 Historical review of silkworm germplasm in India The domesticated silkworm species, Bombyx mori L. evolved almost 4600 years ago from the wild species, Bombyx mandarina Moore, which is a native of China and Palaearctic region (Hampson, 1892; Hirobe, 1968). The eggs of silkworm,B. mori were first introduced from China into Japan and Korea in the first century and subsequently into Middle Eastern and European countries and later into the neighbouring countries around China in the sixth century. The historical background of silkworm entry into India is still a mystery; and the historical evidence indicates that a flourishing silk trade was practising between India and Rome/Greece during Kaniska period (56 B C). This is the authentic historical record of silk production and trade in India, which indicates the early history of Indian sericulture. The rich tradition of silk and silk use are evident from ancient sacred literature like the Rigveda, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharatha, which are more than 2000 years old, but the information about indigenous silkworm races and their stock maintenance are not well documented. Silkworm rearing was prevalent in Kashmir and North Eastern states during sixteenth century, the Moghul

160 period where the univoltine and multivoltine silkworms were respectively reared and the Tippu Sultan introduced silkworm rearing in south India in 1875. During eighteenth century, the British rule in India, quite a few univoltine and bivoltine races were imported from Italy, France, Russia and China, and the races were bred and maintained by the farmers (Krishna Rao, 1997); and there was no systematic maintenance of the silkworm germplasm and hence only few races survived under Indian climatic condition. At present only few old indigenous races are surviving viz. Barapolu, Chotapolu, Nistari, Sarupat, and Moria, whereas the indigenous univoltine Kashmiri races are almost extinct. Systematic silkworm stock maintenance and breeding started in the early nineteenth century. Prior to 1922, only pure races were reared and hybrid silkworms were introduced later, Pure Mysore × C. Nichi was probably the first hybrid in Karnataka and exploitation of hybrids in West Bengal and Kashmir came much later during 1956 and 1959 respectively (Thangavelu, 1997). Silkworm genetic stock maintenance started during 1940 in an organised way at Sericultural Research Station, Berhampore in West Bengal and subsequently temperate silkworm germplasm stocks were established at Univoltine Silkworm Seed Station, Pampore in Kashmir and multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm stocks were established at Central Sericultural Research Institute, Mysore in Karnataka and Coonoor in Tamil Nadu. During the recent years, biodiversity conservation programmes have drawn the attention of many countries including developing nations, because of the genetic erosion due to indiscriminate use of bio resources and damage to the environment, destruction of forest, human interference in eco-system, upsetting the equilibrium of the biosphere. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) organised by United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Jeneiro Earth Summit in 1992 made an awakening call to draw the global attention for conservation of biodiversity. Since then the biodiversity conservation and gene bank maintenance have gained greater momentum since the germplasm resources are considered as "Common Heritage of Mankind" and "Sovereign Right of Nations". The issues related to access the genetic resources and its sustainable use, benefit sharing, farmers rights are being deliberated at various national and international fora. Realising the importance of biodiversity conservation for sustainable development of agriculture, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) established the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) in 1974 at Rome with a global network of genetic resources centres, mainly for conservation of natural genetic resources including the wild species to promote crop improvement programmes and increase the food production. The role of wild relatives and wild species in agricultural crop improvement are well known (Rana, 1995). Similarly, there is an urgent need for seribiodiversity conservation, particularly the wild relatives of Bombyx and Bombycidae. Improvement in silkworm race heavily depended on the geographical races of B. mori and the wild relatives of Bombyx were not explored, unlike in agriculture. Whereas in agricultural, horticultural and sericultural crop improvement programme the wild species of several crop plants have contributed very valuable genes for resistance to diseases and pests and tolerance to adverse agroclimatic conditions (Jackson and Ford-Lloyd, 1990) and similar exploitation of genes from wild relatives ofB.mori have not been reported.

161 The genus Bombyx Hubner (1818) has two species, Bombyx mori L. and Bombyx mandarina Moore. Apart from the genusBombyx there are eleven other genera in the family Bombycidae Hubner; 1) Genus - Theophila Moore (1867), 2) Genus -Ocinara (Walker 1856), 3) Genus - Mustilia (Walker 1865), 4) Genus - Gunda (Walker 1862), 5) Genus Penicillifera (Walker) 6) Genus - Ernolatia (Moore) 7) Genus - Norasuma Moore 8) Genus - Trilocha Dieri, 9) Genus - Prismosticta (Swinhoe), 10) Genus - Andraca (Walker), and 11) Genus - Ectrocta (Hampson). Among these genera, Theophila and Ocinara are very close to the genus Bombyx. The wild sericigenous species of Bombyx, Theophila and Ocinara are naturally distributed in the Himalayan ranges of Indo-China range and also in Andaman Islands in India, besides, Jawa, Sumatra, Borneo and Malaya Peninsular (Barlow, 1982). The wild species of these genera have not been explored for transferring the useful genes to confer resistance to diseases and tolerance to adverse agro-climatic conditions into the domesticated species, B.mori. The useful genes from the wild relatives of B. mori may be cloned and these cloned genes may be transferred into the germ cells of the silkworm to develop transgeneic silkworm. Hence, there is an urgent need to collect and conserve the wild species ofBombyx, Theophila and Ocinera and study their genetics for possible use in the breeding programme of B.mori and widen the genetic base as well.

a. Need for seed organization

This is self implied, implicit and universally applicable for every crop that good quality seed improves productivity and quality standards of the crop. Same way this crop i.e. sericulture is no exception to this rule. There is also an indispensable need to procure good quality seed for better productivity in terms of both quality and quantity. Success of sericulture depends on quality silkworm eggs. Therefore, management of seed production, interalia transportation and incubation play important role on overall return. To produce quality seed, it is very important to adopt scientific methods of egg production right from seed crop rearing to egg incubation. Indian gene centre is harbouring great faunal diversity and nearly 11.9% of the world flora are present in India and hence recognised as one among the twelve mega biodiversity rich centres of the world. Floristically India is very rich, harbouring three mega centres of endemnism i.e. Western and Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. It is a treasure house of several diverse sericigenous flora and fauna. Wild species of Bombyx and other genera of Bombycidae do exist in the great Himalayan ranges and Andaman islands, under natural habitat and therefore the Indian gene centre possesses a rich seri- genetic resources. Eggs and cocoons of a wild silkworm belonging to Bombycidae were collected from wild mulberry tree Morus serrata near Kedarnath (30.47 °N, 79.02 °E) at an altitude of 800 meter above MSL (Tikader 2001). The eggs were incubated and rearing was conducted on the mulberry plants at Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre (CSGRC), Hosur and the produced cocoons and eggs are very similar to B. mori (Fig-2). It is a potential and interesting genetic material with several unique characters, utilising such wild relatives of Bombyx, it is quite possible to create additional seribiodiversity and widen the genetic base of B. mori.

162 Biodiversity is the result of evolution that is a continuous phenomenon induced by natural selection pressure and the population of organisms evolve through adaptation to the biotic and abiotic stress. Ever since B.mori was domesticated, the species does not survive in the wild state in natural condition and also does not survive without human care and hence natural selection induced genetic diversity in B.mori is rather very limited to voltinism. Hence, it is very essential to conserve and utilise the wild relatives of Bombyx mori to broaden its genetic diversity, apart from the geographical races, mutants, sex-limited races, evolved breeds and breeders genetic stocks. The wild relatives of Bombyx are very vulnerable and the vulnerability at different spatial and temporal scales are not known. The design of biodiversity network in sericulture involving the complementarity of wild relatives and domesticated B. mori is also not well established. Therefore, conservation of wild as well as domesticated seribiodiversity resources is very essential for sustainable development of sericulture (Fig-3) since loss of genetic resources of domesticated and wild relatives of Bombyx species along with their unique genes may disadvantage future generation.

b. Seed cocoon production at different levels- Silkworm egg production. i) Pure ii) Hybrid

Success of sericulture depends on quality silkworm eggs. Therefore, management of seed production, interalia transportation and incubation play important role on overall return. To produce quality seed, it is very important to adopt scientific methods of egg production right from seed crop rearing to egg incubation.

Disinfection of grainage and implements The grainage rooms along with its appliances should be thoroughly disinfected prior to commencement of operation and kept ready to receive seed cocoons. A day before disinfection, the rooms and appliances are to be washed with 5% bleaching powder solution and the appliances are to be sun dried for 3-4 hours. A day after, the rooms and appliances should be properly disinfected with a mixture of 2 % formalin, 0.5 to 1 % lime and 0.05% detergent solutions. Room to be disinfected at the rate of 1 litter per square meter floor area. Transportation of Seed Cocoons The seed cocoons are to be always loosely packed either in perforated plastic crates or bamboo baskets and transported to respective destinations during cooler hours of day. Pupal examination Before selection of seed cocoons, it is very important to know the disease freeness of a lot, melt, filmsy and good cocoons are also to be separated. The gut portion is taken out and subjected to microscopic examination. In case there is incidence of pebrine, the lot has to be rejected. Before the arrival of new lots, it is very important and essential to disinfect the contaminated rooms. Preservation and protection of seed cocoons Immediately after the receipt of seed cocoons, they are to be spread on trays in a single layer to facilitate good aeration. Sorting of seed cocoons like melt, uziinfested, filmsy and those which are not conforming to the characteristics of parent races are to be taken out and rejected. The healthy seed cocoons alone should be preserved in trays for further

163 processing. There should be cross ventilation in the preservation room, 25 +- 1o C temperature, 75 +- 5 % relative humidity, 12 hour light and 12 hour dark conditions to be maintained in the cocoon preservation rooms. Complete darkness to be maintained on the previous day of emergence , to avoid irregular emergence of moths.

Early eclosion / artificial eclosion / forced eclosion of moths This helps in determining the disease freeness of a batch and helps in minimizing the loss to grainage. Early moth eclosion box A simple box made up of wood and plywood sheet with a glass door having dimension 90 x 75 x 60 cm is used. The bottom is fitted with asbestos sheet. A heating element is connected to the electric main through a thermostat (0 – 60 o C ). On the top of the box at the centre, a 15-cm diameter ventilator covered with wire mesh is provided. It is fitted with sliding top to regulate ventilation. At the bottom of the box and on the lower portion of sidewalls, small holes are drilled to facilitate aeration. For reading the temperature, a thermometer is fixed from inside of glass door. Within the box, a portion has been made to place 4-5 plastic trays in two tiers for keeping seed cocoon inside. For early emergence of moths, 50-60 seed cocoons are taken from individual lots and placed into an artificial eclosion box. The temperature in the box is adjusted to 32-33 o C with the help of thermostat. This accelerates the development of pupae and moth emerges early. The early-emerged female moths of respective lots are taken and subjected for microscopic examination to know the disease freeness of lots. Synchronization of emergence of moths, pairing, depairing and oviposition Before the expected day of emergence of moths, the cocoon preservation rooms should be kept dark. In case of variation in development of male or female pupae, the development of male pupae can be arrested by preserving them at 5-7 oC and 75 +- 5 % relative humidity for 3-4 days. Only healthy and active moths are taken for pairing. After 1-2 hours of emergence, the male and female moths of respective combinations are allowed for 3.5 to 4 hours of pairing. At the time of depairing, the male and female moths are to be moved side ways so that the moths are separated easily without causing injury to reproductive organs. The matted female moth are taken in a separate container and induced for urination. Moths are placed on egg sheet and covered with cellules and kept in dark condition for oviposition. Under proper preservation (5-7 o C) male moths can be used for second pairing by giving 1-2 hours rest. Throughout the process of pairing, depairing and oviposition, optimum temperature of 25 +- 1o C and relative humidity of 75 +- 5 % should be maintained. Surface sterilization of silkworm eggs After ascertaining the disease freeness of layings, egg sheets are dipped in 2 % formalin for 10-15 minutes. This helps in removal of pathogens adhering to the eggshell and further prevents secondary contamination. Washing of eggs in formalin solution helps in firm adherence of eggs to the sheet. Incubation of silkworm eggs Incubation facilities uniform development of embryo. In addition, it greatly influences the voltinism of the eggs in succeeding generation, larval growth and success of cocoon crop. Therefore, the eggs are subjected to ideal conditions of incubation. Optimum temperature of 25 +- 1o C and relative humidity of 75 +- 5 %, 16 hours of light and 8 hours of darkness are ideal. During the pinhead stage or before two days of 164 hatching, the eggs are black boxed to aim at uniform development of embryo and hatching of larvae at a time on a single day.

Loose egg preparation Loose eggs are getting popular for obvious advantages such as (a) standard / uniform egg number (irrespective of the race, season, zone) (b) increased egg recovery and (c) easy and better management. Advantage of loose eggs • Superior quality • Uniform and known quantity irrespective of race / season / zone / grainage etc., • Enables scientific evaluation • Increased egg recovery • Increased hatchability • Economical seed production • Efficient surface sterilization • Easy acid treatment of bivoltine eggs. • Unfertilized eggs can be eliminated (in bivoltine only)

Seed production Basic and Commercial Silkworm Seed Support: • The National Silkworm Seed Organisation (NSSO), Bangalore (Karnataka) has a network of 2 Zonal Silkworm Seed Organisation (ZSSOs) at Malda (WB) and Dehradun (Uttaranchal), 20 Silkworm Seed Production Centres, 20 Basic Seed Farms, 3 Seed Cocoon Procurement Centres & 32 Sericulture Service Centres located at various places in the country. • The Basic Seed Farms (BSFs) supply parent seed to the Departments of Sericulture in various States on their request. The commercial silkworm seed produced by NSSO supplements the production by States. • The Basic Tasar Silkworm Seed Organization (BTSSO), Bilaspur support basic Seed multiplication, and production of these races through 21 BSMTCs located at various locations in the country and also one Central Tasar Silkworm Seed Station (CTSSS) at Kargi Kota, Chattisgarh and 1 Field Unit at Pallahara (Orissa) • The Muga Silkworm Seed Organization (MSSO), Guwahati support basic Seed multiplication, and production of these races through 8 P4/P3 units and one Muga SSPC at Kaliabari, Boko. • The Eri Silkworm Seed Organisation (ESSO) at Guwahati demonstrates organized production methods through 5 Eri Silkworm Seed Production Centers (SSPCs) located at Azara(Assam), Dehradun(Uttarakhand), Hosur(TN), Shadnagar & Peddapuram (AP).

CSB offers National & International Consultancy Services in the Specialized Areas of : • Formulation, Appraisal and Implementation Documentation for Development Projects, hand holding till sericultural activity is self sustainable. • Management and Administration of Sericulture. • Assessment of Training Needs and Organization of On-location Structured Training Programmes for Human Resource Development in Sericulture. • Silkworm Seed Organization, and Post-Cocoon Technology and Management.

165 Chapter 14 Twisting and Weaving Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best- known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of thelarvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance of silk is due to the triangular prism-like structure of the silk fiber, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors. Silks are produced by several other insects, but only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been some research into other silks, which

166 differ at the molecular level. Silks are mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, but also by some adult insects such as webspinners. Silk production is especially common in the Hymenoptera (bees,wasps, and ants), and is sometimes used in nest construction. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such asspiders. Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, thewarp, i.e. "that which is thrown across", with the transverse threads, the weft, i.e. "that which is woven". The major components of the loom are the warp beam,heddles, harnesses, shuttle, reed and takeup roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and taking-up operations. Shedding. Shedding is the raising of the warp yarns to form ashed through which the filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. The shed is the vertical space between the raised and unraised warp yarns. On the modern loom, simple and intricate shedding operations are performed automatically by the heddle or heald frame, also known as a harness. This is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called heddles or healds, are attached. The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the heddles, which hang vertically from the harnesses. The weave pattern determines which harness controls which warp yarns, and the number of harnesses used depends on the complexity of the weave. Two common methods of controlling the heddles are dobbies and a Jacquard Head. Picking. As the harnesses raise the heddles or healds, which raise the warp yarns, the shed is created. The filling yarn in inserted through the shed by a small carrier device called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through the shed. In a traditional shuttle loom, the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in turn is mounted in the shuttle. The filling yarn emerges through a hole in the shuttle as it moves across the loom. A single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other is known as a pick. As the shuttle moves back and forth across the shed, it weaves an edge, or selvage, on each side of the fabric to prevent the fabric from raveling. Battening. As the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, it also passes through openings in another frame called a reed(which resembles a comb). With each picking operation, the reed presses or battens each filling yarn against the portion of the fabric that has already been formed. The point where the fabric is formed is called the fell. Conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about 150 to 160 picks per minute. With each weaving operation, the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam. This process is called taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a filling stop motion which will brake the loom, if the weft thread breaks. An automatic loom requires 0.125 hp to 0.5 hp to operate. a. Twisting machinery and processing

Silk twisting devices: Twisting devices and their importance for quality twisting. Before the raw silk is woven into fabric, it go through a series of operations which conditions for the loom. The series of preliminary preparatory processes involved for which the following machineries are required.

167 a) WINDING: The main functions of winding are to put the yarn in a long continuous length to suit later processes and also to eliminate imperfections such as slubs, seak places, dirt and so on. b) DOUBLING: The object of doubling is to double the individual threads. Doubling avoids unevenness and the strength of doubled yarn is correspondingly better than the single thread. c) TWISTING: Silk Twisting machine is of up twister principle. There is a vertical spindle on which doubling bobbin is mounted and yarn from this is wound on to a perforated bobbin mounted horizontally and driven by surface contact. Twist is imparted on account of difference between the speed of the spindle and winding drum. d) RE-WINDING: Re-winding machine is practically like winding machine. Its production capacity is more, since normally double yarn is wound on this. If two ply yarn is re-wound, production rate would be more than two times as compared to winding machine. e) WARPING: In silk weaving, normally sectional warping is followed because of the fine denier of silk thread and consequently higher number of ends required. Warping machine mainly consists of two parts (I) Warping creel (ii) warping drum. f) PIRN WINDING: Pirn winding is necessary to prepare weft yarn. Pirn widing machine is used generally for powerloom weaving. This machine may be automatic or nonautomatic. Manufacturing of Twisted Yarn: Twisting of silk yarn may be done in single thread or double thread depending upon the type of yarn required for weaving. Certain yarns like crepes and georgettes require high rate of twisting. Normally, high twist causes shrinkage in the yarn and that is the reason why high twisted thread after weaving shrinks. Minute snarls occur creating wave effect on the fabric especially for crepes and georgettes. The direction of twist also has impact on cover of the fabric. The production is affected by twist rate. Higher the twist rate, lower is the production. Normally, production per spindle per is 25 to 30 grams (two ply) for 20/22 denier. b. Handloom Weaving ( Different types )

A loom is a device used to weave cloth. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads. The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same. The handloom was devised about 2,000 years ago and was brought to England by the Romans. The process consisted of interlacing one set of threads of yarn (the warp) with another (the weft). The warp threads are stretched lengthwise in the weaving loom. The weft, the cross-threads, are woven into the warp to make the cloth. In his book, Manufacture (1823), Richard Guest pointed out: "The warp was placed between two beams about five feet apart; half way between the beams the warp passed through a frame work of looped threads, called healds, each alternative thread of the warp going through one heald, and the other threads through the other heald. The healds were worked by two treadles, which upon one being put down by the foot, raised one half of the healds and every second thread of the warp; the shuttle which contained the weft was then thrown by the right hand between the threads which were at rest, and the second or alternative threads raised by the treadle and the healds; the shuttle

168 was caught on the other side by the left hand, and the weft thus transversely shot between the threads of the warp." Weaving remained unchanged for hundreds of years until John Kay devised the flying shuttle, which enabled a weaver to knock the shuttle across the loom and back again using one hand only. The speed of weaving was doubled; and a single weaver could make cloths of any width, whereas previously two men had sat together at a loom to make broad cloth. By 1800 it was estimated that there were 250,000 handlooms in Britain. Back strap loom A simple loom which has its roots in ancient civilizations comprising two sticks or bars between which the warps are stretched. One bar is attached to a fixed object and the other to the weaver usually by means of a strap around the back. On traditional looms, the two main sheds are operated by means of a shed roll over which one set of warps pass, and continuous string heddles which encase each of the warps in the other set. The weaver leans back and uses her body weight to tension the loom. To open the shed controlled by the string heddles, the weaver relaxes tension on the warps and raises the heddles. The other shed is usually opened by simply drawing the shed roll toward the weaver. Both simple and complex textiles can be woven on this loom. Width is limited to how far the weaver can reach from side to side to pass the shuttle. Warp faced textiles, often decorated with intricate pick-up patterns woven in complementary and supplementary warp techniques are woven by indigenous peoples today around the world. They produce such things as belts, bags, hatbands and carrying cloths. Supplementary weft patterning and brocading is practiced in many regions. Balanced weaves are also possible on the backstrap loom. Today, commercially produced backstrap loom kits often include a rigid heddle. Warp weighted loom The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic period. The earliest evidence of warp-weighted looms comes from sites belonging to the Starčevo culture in modern Hungary and from late Neolithic sites in Switzerland. This loom was used inAncient Greece, and spread north and west throughout Europe thereafter. Its defining characteristic is hanging weights (loom weights) which keep bundles of the warp threads taut. Frequently, extra warp thread is wound around the weights. When a weaver has reached the bottom of the available warp, the completed section can be rolled around the top beam, and additional lengths of warp threads can be unwound from the weights to continue. This frees the weaver from vertical size constraints. Drawloom A drawloom is a hand-loom for weaving figured cloth. In a drawloom, a "figure harness" is used to control each warp thread separately. A drawloom requires two operators, the weaver and an assistant called a "drawboy" to manage the figure harness. Handloom A handloom is a simple machine used for weaving in which no power is used. In a wooden vertical-shaft looms the heddles were fixed in place in the shaft. The warp threads pass alternately through a heddle and through a space between the heddles (theshed), so that raising the shaft raises half the threads (those passing through the heddles), and lowering the shaft lowers the same threads—the threads passing through the spaces between the heddles remain in place.

169 Flying Shuttle Hand weavers could only weave a cloth as wide as their armspan. If cloth needed to be wider, two people would do the task (often this would be an adult with a child). John Kay(1704–1???) patented the Flying Shuttle in 1733. The weaver held a picking stick that was attached by cords to a device at both ends of the shed. With a flick of the wrist, one cord was pulled and the shuttle was propelled through the shed to the other end with considerable force, speed and efficiency. A flick in the opposite direction and the shuttle was propelled back. A single weaver had control of this motion but the flying shuttle could weave much wider fabric than an arms length at much greater speeds than had been achieved with the hand thrown shuttle. The flying shuttle was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution, the whole picking motion no longer relied on manual skill, and it was a matter of time before it could be powered. c. Power loom weaving ( Different types )

Haute-lisse and basse-lisse looms Looms used for weaving traditional tapestry are classified as haute-lisse looms, where the warp is suspended vertically between two rolls, and the basse-lisse looms, where the warp extends horizontally between the rolls. Power looms Edmund Cartwright built and patented a power loom in 1785, and it was this that was adopted by the nascent cotton industry in England. A silk loom was made by Jacques Vaucanson in 1745, which used the same ideas but it wasn't developed further. The invention of the flying shuttle by John Kay had been critical to the development of a commercially successful power loom. Cartwright's loom was impractical but the ideas were developed by numerous inventors in the Manchester area in England, where by 1818 there were 32 factories containing 5732 looms. Horrocks loom was viable but it was the Roberts Loom in 1830 that marked the turning point. Before this time hand looms had outnumbered power looms. Incremental changes to the three motions continued to be made. The problems of sizing, stop-motions, consistent take-up and a temple to maintain the width remained. In 1841, Kenworthy and Bullough produced the Lancashire Loom which was self-acting or semi-automatic. This enables a 15-year-old spinner to run six looms at the same time. Incrementally, the Dickinson Loom, and then the Keighley born inventor Northrop working for the Draper Corporation in Hopedale produced the fully automatic Northrop Loom which recharged the shuttle when the pirn was empty. The Draper E and X model became the leading products from 1909 until they were challenged by the different characteristics of synthetic fibres such as rayon. Air-Jet Looms and Water-Jet Looms From 1942 the faster and more efficient shuttleless Sulzer looms and the rapier looms were introduced. Modern industrial looms can weave at 2000 weft insertions per minute. Today, advances in technology have produced a variety of looms designed to maximize production for specific types of material. The most common of these are air-jet looms and water-jet looms. d. Printing- Dyeing, Calendaring and Finishing

170 Printing is a process for reproducing text and image, typically with ink on paper using a printing press. It is often carried out as a large-scale industrial process, and is an essential part of publishing and transaction printing. The development of printing was preceded by the use of cylinder seals in Mesopotamia developed in 3500 BC, and other related stamp seals. The earliest form of printing was woodblock printing, with existing examples from China dating to before 220 AD and Egypt to the 4th century. Later developments in printing include the movable type, first developed by Bi Sheng in China, and the printing press, a more efficient printing process developed by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. Modern printing technology Across the world, over 45 trillion pages (2005 figure) are printed annually.[12] In 2006 there were approximately 30,700 printing companies in the United States, accounting for $112 billion, according to the 2006 U.S. Industry & Market Outlook by Barnes Reports. Print jobs that move through the Internet made up 12.5% of the total U.S. printing market last year, according to research firm InfoTrend/ Ventures. Offset press Offset printing is a widely used printing technique where the inked image is transferred (or "offset") from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. When used in combination with the lithographic process, which is based on the repulsion of oil and water, the offset technique employs a flat (planographic) image carrier on which the image to be printed obtains ink from ink rollers, while the non-printing area attracts a film of water, keeping the non-printing areas ink-free. Currently, most books and newspapers are printed using the technique of offset lithography. Other common techniques include: flexography used for packaging, labels, and newspapers. Hot wax dye transfer: inkjet used typically to print a small number of books or packaging, and also to print a variety of materials from high quality papers simulate offset printing, to floor tiles; Inkjet is also used to apply mailing addresses to direct mail pieces. Laser printing is mainly used in offices and for transactional printing (bills, bank documents). Laser printing is commonly used by direct mail companies to create variable data letters or coupons, for example. Pad printing popular for its unique ability to print on complex 3-dimensional surfaces. Relief print, (mainly used for catalogues). Rotogravure is mainly used for magazines and packaging. Screen-printing is done from T-shirts to floor tiles. Gravure Gravure printing is an intaglio printing technique, where the image to be printed is made up of small depressions in the surface of the printing plate. The cells are filled with ink and the excess is scraped off the surface with a doctor blade, then a rubber-covered roller presses paper onto the surface of the plate and into contact with the ink in the cells. The printing plates are usually made from copper and may be produced by digital engraving or laser etching. Gravure printing is used for long, high-quality print runs such as magazines, mail-order catalogues, packaging, and printing onto fabric and wallpaper. It is also used for printing postage stamps and decorative plastic laminates, such as kitchen worktops. Digital printing Digital printing accounts for approximately 9% of the 45 trillion pages printed annually (2005 figure) around the world. Printing at home or in an office or engineering

171 environment is subdivided into: small format (up to ledger size paper sheets), as used in business offices and libraries wide format (up to 3' or 914mm wide rolls of paper), as used in drafting and design establishments. Some of the more common printing technologies are: Blueprint—and related chemical technologies. Daisy wheel-where pre-formed characters are applied individually. Dot-matrix—which produces arbitrary patterns of dots with an array of printing studs. Line printing—where pre-formed characters are applied to the paper by lines. Heat transfer—like early fax machines or modern receipt printers that apply heat to special paper, which turns black to form the printed image. Inkjet—including bubble-jet—where ink is sprayed onto the paper to create the desired image. Electro photography—where toner is attracted to a charged image and then developed. Laser—a type of xerography where the charged image is written pixel by pixel by a laser. Solid ink printer—where cubes of ink are melted to make ink or liquid toner. Vendors typically stress the total cost to operate the equipment, involving complex calculations that include all cost factors involved in the operation as well as the capital equipment costs, amortization, etc. For the most part, toner systems beat inkjet in the long run, whereas inkjets are less expensive in the initial purchase price. Professional digital printing (using toner) primarily uses an electrical charge to transfer toner or liquid ink to the substrate it is printed on. Digital print quality has steadily improved from early color and black & white copiers to sophisticated colour digital presses like the Xerox iGen3, the Kodak Nexpress, the HP Indigo Digital Press series and the InfoPrint 5000. The iGen3 and Nexpress use toner particles and the Indigo uses liquid ink. The InfoPrint 5000 is a full-color, continuous forms inkjet drop-on-demand printing system. All handle variable data and rival offset in quality. Digital offset presses are also called direct imaging presses, although these presses can receive computer files and automatically turn them into print-ready plates, they cannot insert variable data. Small press and fanzines generally use digital printing. Prior to the introduction of cheap photocopying the use of machines such as the spirit duplicator, hectograph, and mimeograph was common. Dyeing is the process of adding color to textile products like fibers, yarns, and fabrics. Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular chemical material. After dyeing, dye molecules have uncut Chemical bond with fiber molecules. The temperature and time controlling are two key factors in dyeing. There are mainly two classes of dye, natural and man-made. For most of the thousands of years in which dyeing has been used by humans to decorate clothing, or fabrics for other uses, the primary source of dye has been nature, with the dyes being extracted from animals or plants. In the last 150 years, humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors, and to render the dyes more stable to resist washing and general use. Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers through yarn and cloth to completed garments. Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, Nylon and protein fibers such as wool and silk are dyed with acid dyes, polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a range of dye types, including vat dyes, and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.

172 is a finishing process used on cloth where fabric is folded in half and passed under rollers at high temperatures and pressures. Calendering is used on fabrics such as to produce its watered effect and also on and some types of . In preparation for calendering, the fabric is folded lengthwise with the front side, or face, inside, and stitched together along the edges. The fabric can be folded together at full width, however this is not done as often as it is more difficult. The fabric is then run through rollers that polish the surface and make the fabric smoother and more lustrous. High temperatures and pressure are used as well. Fabrics that go through the calendering process feel thin, glossy and papery. The calendering finish is easily destroyed, and does not last well. Washing in water destroys it, as does wear with time. Variations Several different finishes can be achieved through the calendering process by varying different parts. The main different types of finishes are , watered, embossing and Scheiner. Beetled Beetling is a finish given to cotton and linen cloth, and makes it look like satin. In the beetling process the fabric goes over wooden rollers and is beaten with wooden hammers. Watered The watered finish, also known as moire, is produced by using ribbed rollers. These rollers compress the cloth and the ribs produce the characteristic watermark effect by moving aside threads as well as compressing them. This leaves some of the threads round while others get compressed and become flat. Embossed In the embossing process the rollers have engraved patterns on them, and the patterns become stamped onto the fabric. The end result is a raised pattern. This works best with soft fabrics. Scheiner Similar to the watered process, in the Scheiner process the rollers are ribbed, only in the Scheiner process the ribs are very fine, with as many as six hundred ribs per inch under extremely high pressure. The threads are pressed flat with little lines in them, which causes the fabric to reflect the light better than a flat surface would. Cloth finished with the Scheiner method has a very high luster, which is made more lasting by heating the rollers.

Chapter 15 Utilization of By-products and Seri Wastes Silk waste includes all kinds of raw silk which may be unwindable, and therefore unsuited to the throwing process. Before the introduction of machinery applicable to the spinning of silk waste, the refuse from cocoon reeling, and also from silk winding, which is now used in producing spun silk fabrics, was nearly all destroyed as being useless, with the exception of that which could be hand-combed and spun by means of the distaff and spinning wheel, a method which is still practised by some of the peasantry in India and other countries in Asia. The supply of waste silk is drawn from the following sources: 173 • The silkworm, when commencing to spin, emits a dull, lustreless and uneven thread with which it suspends itself to the twigs and leaves of the tree upon which it has been feeding, or to the straws provided for it by attendants in the worm-rearing establishments: this first thread is unreelable, and, moreover, is often mixed with straw, leaves and twigs. • The outside layers of the true cocoon are too coarse and uneven for reeling; and as the worm completes its task of spinning, the thread becomes finer and weaker, so both the extreme outside and inside layers are put aside as waste. • Pierced cocoons, that is, those from which the moth of the silkworm has emerged- and damaged cocoons. • During the process of reeling from the cocoon the silk often breaks; and both in finding a true and reelable thread, and in joining the ends, there is unavoidable waste. • Raw silk skeins are often re-reeled; and in this process part has to be discarded: this being known to the trade as gum-waste. The same term — gum-waste — is applied to " waste " made in the various processes of ; but manufacturers using threads known technically as organzines and trams call the surplus "manufacturer's waste." A silk "throwster" receives the silk in skein form, the thread of which consists of a number of silk fibres wound together to make a certain diameter or size, the separate fibre having actually been spun by the worm. The silk-waste spinner receives the silk in quite a different form: merely the raw material, packed in bales of various sizes and weights, the contents being a much-tangled mass of all lengths of fibre mixed with much foreign matter, such as ends of straws, twigs, leaves, worms and chrysalis. It is the spinner's business to straighten out these fibres, with the aid of machinery, and then to so join them that they become a thread, which is known as spun silk. There are two distinct kinds of spun silk: one called schappe and the other spun silk or discharged spun silk. All silk produced by the worm is composed of two substances: fibroin, the true thread, and sericin, which is a hard, gummy coating of the fibroin. Before the silk can be manipulated by machinery to any advantage, the gum coating must be removed, really dissolved and washed away - and according to the method used in achieving this operation the result is either a schappe or a discharged yarn. The former, schapping, is the French, Italian and Swiss method, from which the silk when finished is neither so bright nor so good in colour as the discharged silk; but it is very clean and level, and for some purposes essential, as, for instance, in manufacture. THE term "silk waste" covers all classes of the raw silk which are unwindable and altogether unsuited for the throwing process. The term “waste," understood in the general sense as conveying the idea of something worthless or of no use, is quite a misnomer. But, before the introduction of silk waste spinning, the refuse from the reeling and winding mills was indeed waste, there being at that time no use for it whatever, except for what could be combed and spun by distaff and spinning wheel, as still practised by peasantry in India and other Eastern countries. Considering that of all the silk spun by the silkworm more than half is useless for the throwster, it will readily be understood that there must have been a large accumulation of this material, and therefore a great future before an industry which could use up this so-called rubbish. Although there are a great many different grades and different classes of waste silk, there are really few distinct

174 ways in which they are all produced, most, if not all, varieties being the waste from one or more of the following seven processes : METHODS OF WASTE PRODUCTION. 1. The silkworm commences to spin its cocoon by first fastening itself to the twig of a tree or between two leaves. Where the worm is reared by the peasants in their cottages, the peasants use straws, to which the worms attach themselves. All this silk is unwindable, coarse, and uneven, and consequently of no use to the throwster. Naturally this first waste is very much mixed with straw and leaves, and is of a dull, lustreless nature. 2. The cocoons are made up of layers of silk, and the outside ones, or the first spun by the worm, are too coarse and uneven for reeling, so the outer coating is stripped off and cast aside as waste. 3. As the silkworm nears the completion of its cocoon, the thread becomes finer and finer, insomuch that several of the last layers are made up of silk too fine to be strong enough to unwind, so that after the better or middle layers are reeled from the cocoon, the remaining part is discarded as useless for further reeling. 4. Among the cocoons there are some which are altogether unsuitable for reeling, included among which are the pierced cocoons. Although of no use for reeling, they are very acceptable to the silk waste spinner. 5. During the process of reeling from the cocoon into hanks or skeins, the silk sometimes breaks, and in consequence there is waste made by the attendant in finding the true and sound thread. 6. Waste is produced in reeling tsatlees into re-reels. 7. All the wastes produced in the throwster's mill, as described fully under the heading "Throwing". Practically speaking, the various wastes are divided into two general classes: gum wastes and ordinary wastes. Gum wastes, whether Home, European, or Eastern, are really all throwsters' wastes, and are specially adapted for the making of yarns for , sewings, and weft purposes. QUALITIES OF WASTES The best-known wastes are as follows: Steam waste. The best known and most widely used silk waste in England is Canton filature waste, better known as steam waste. It is not a gum waste. There are two varieties, and several grades of each. The one which has generally found most favour with spinners is the "opened" waste, but, owing to its lending itself so easily to adulteration, spinners are now paying more attention to the "unopened" quality. Opened steam waste is the unopened waste pulled out by the natives, wTho work among it with their fingers and teeth, opening out the hard knubs which have been formed when the wet waste has been thrown down by the reeler, and allowed to dry and mat together, on account of the natural gum having hardened, which had previously been softened by the hot water in the basin attached to the reeling machine. Owing to the labour difficulty in China it is becoming more and more important that spinners accustom themselves to the use of unopened steam waste. There are really three grades of steam waste, which some years ago were known as "Selected," No. 1, and No. 2. But year by year the Chinaman seems to have got the better of the European silk inspector, and has let down the quality. In the "selected" he would leave a certain amount of No. 1, and in No. 1 he would put the No. 2, until at length the admixture of 1's and 2's was so much that No. 2 as a separate grade disappeared, all being mixed up with the No. 1, and passed as all No. 1. Naturally, the so-called "selected" got a greater percentage of No. 1, so that in time the European shippers decided to work up a

175 better grade and call it "Extra selected." This latter came forward very nicely for a time; but gradually the Chinaman's cunning got the better of the inspector, with the result that he again lowered the quality of the so-called "extra selected," and therefore the "selected." This process was again repeated, and there came a grade known as "Extra extra selected" steam waste; but this was likewise doomed to the fate of the former changes, and to-day there is known what is called the "Extra extra extra selected" steam waste, which in point of fact is to-day not so good as the old well known "selected," and the "extra extra selected" is a mixture of the old 1's and 2's. The deterioration goes on year after year, each succeeding year being worse than the preceding one, and each season showing a gradual falling away from the standard established at the commencement of the season. It is a lamentable state of affairs, but so far the Chinaman seems to have always managed to get the better of all the European inspectors ; and so long as the present system of buying and passing of the waste is in vogue at Canton, so long will the Chinaman be able to hoodwink the inspectors. Prisons are cocoons with varying quantities of silk upon them which has been slightly pulled loose. Some qualities are full of wormy matter, but all are well liked by continental spinners for schapping. Waddiny, or blaze, which is also used almost exclusively on the Continent, is the first silk spun by the worm that is, the silk which is wrapped around the twigs or straws and leaves, and is in consequence full of such vegetable matters when sold to the spinner. It is very heavily charged with gum, and consequently loses much when boiled off, and even then it is very inferior stuff. Wadding is a term also applied to silk which has been used as a packing inside the Chinaman's coat as a lining, and it may be of long fibre or otherwise. Frisons and cocoons are types which may come from all silk-producing countries. Tussah waste, exported from Shanghai, is of a dark brown colour, and is usually known as Newchwang Tussah waste and filature Tussah waste. They are marketed in two grades, viz. No. 1 and No. 2, which are packed in separate bales. Parcels of Newchwang are generally offered as 60 per cent, of No. 1 and 40 per cent, of No. 2, and the filature as 50 per cent, of each, written respectively 60/40 and 50/50. There is also what is known as tussah throwster's waste, which, as the name implies, is the waste made during the process of throwing tussah raws. Besides the two qualities named above, there are other qualities of tussah waste shipped from China, but these two represent by far the bulk. Nankin Buttons is a gum waste from the interior of China, of exceptionally good white colour and lustre. The bulk of it is long in staple, but it is always mixed with so-called buttons, which are really small portions of silk slightly matted together, and, a worse fault still, sometimes cut into half-an-inch to one-and-a-half-inch lengths. This waste is exported from Shanghai. China wastes are from various sources, chiefly from English, French, and Italian throwsters. They are all long in staple. China soaped waste is from English and Scotch throwing mills. It feels soft, and its lustre has been hidden in the washing. French China is always bright, and not being weighted with soap often fetches a little more per pound than English silk. Italian and Swiss wastes are of the same nature. Shanghai waste is all gum waste, not quite as white as European silk, and harsher in feel. It is classed as fine white, fine yellow, coarse white, and coarse yellow. In the fine white are three well known grades: Chintzah, which is the whitest and longest in staple; Hangchow, which is really a second picking or sorting over of the Chintzah grade, rather inferior in colour, not so long in staple, and more subject to twist waste and foreign matter; and the ordinary fine white, which is variable in colour, but good sound waste.

176 The yellow varieties are produced in much smaller quantities, of similar qualities, but usually more mixed together, which really makes an inferior sort of article. Every sort is sold on its own merits; some spinners use only coarse varieties and others only fine. Shanghai szechuen (or seychuen or sechuen) is a yellow waste, and the prefix Shanghai is to distinguish it from Canton waste of similar nature, sold as Canton szechuen. All Shanghai wastes were formerly offered as 1's, 2's, and 3's. Some shippers now continue this, but the No. 3 being very small in quantity and low in quality, parcels are often offered now as 1's and 2's. As the No. 3 is, however, still produced in the East, spinners are suspicious that in many cases it is judiciously mixed with the No. 2 portion by the expert Chinese packers. However that may be, proportions are generally 75% 257. . 707. 30% . 607. 307. 107. .,, ,No.T SO"' NoTl' NoT2 ' or NSTT No? N5T3' grades are always packed separately. Indian waste: Of all the wastes used by spinners, the Indian wastes (all gum wastes) are the most mixed and unreliable. The colour varies from grey to yellow, but there is by far the larger proportion of yellow. The fibre of some is as fine and clean as the best China and Japan silks, whilst others are coarser than the punjum waste. It is always subject to an admixture of bits of cotton, twist, black hairs, string, paper, etc. Canton gum waste is very similar in appearance to the re-reel waste, but is not so reliable, and is very often more mixed with black hairs, cotton, hemp, etc. No. 2 gum is now a very scarce article in this country, spinners finding it too much mixed with rubbish, and hence too costly in picking, etc. Re-reel waste is a Canton gum waste produced in the mills where the Canton raws are re-reeled, just in the same manner as Shanghai gum in the more northern districts; but the former is of a softer nature, and has more lustre in fact, Cantons are the most lustrous of all silks, but are of a creamy shade. The silk of Canton gum and steam waste is spun by the same genus of worm. Canton szechuen waste is a yellow gum waste with a good, bright colour, but apt to be greasy. The production is very limited, and it comes forward in little lots of 5, 10, or 15 bales. Steam punjums are allied to both,punjum waste and to steam waste. They are said to possess the virtues of both i.e. they yield well and have the colour of steam, and they combine the lustre of punjum. Punjum has peculiar characteristics of its own, and is supposed by many people to be the most lustrous of all silks. It is a stringy waste in appearance, and loses very heavily in boiling off something like 50 per cent. It is reeled from cocoons, a number of ends together, and put into book form very similar to the tsatlees, as described under the heading "Tsatlee Keel" in "Raw Silk"; but owing to the admixture of rice water, in reeling process, or some such substance, the threads mat together, and are consequently unwindable. In this form the waste is known as punjum books, which are divided into grades 1's, 2's, 3's, and 4's 3's and 4's being the general run for English spinners, generally half-and-half. Punjum waste is produced in exactly the same manner, except that no attempt is made to run it into a moss; but, as an end breaks or runs off during reeling, the waste is thrown aside in a rough, tangled state. China curlies are a well-known waste shipped from Shanghai, and the quality and appearance are more allied to steam waste than to any other variety shipped from Canton. It is a greyish-white waste, somewhat harsh to the feel. The name "curly" is given to this waste on account of its being so full of little patches of material matted together, which have a certain resemblance to a curl of hair. The waste is much in favour both in this country and on the Continent, and, as the crop is somewhat

177 limited, many times the whole of the output is contracted for at the opening of the season. It is a commodity many speculators like to gamble with, the result being that many times, when the whole crop has been cornered, the price is many pence per pound over and above its value as compared with other classes of waste. Like most Shanghai wastes, curlies are to be had in three grades, but the No. 3 is so very inferior that few English spinners can afford to buy it, on acc6unt of the extra expense necessary in picking out the sticks, string, and refuse, to say nothing of the trouble caused in after processes by some of these objects having escaped the pickers in the first instance. Generally speaking, English spinners buy only the No. 1's, finding even the No. 2's too much trouble in working ; but there are shippers who import the proportions 60 per cent. No. 1, 30 per cent. No. 2, and 10 per cent. No. 3, written 60/30/10. Curlies are generally shipped under a chop mark, the favourite being the "Yellow Pony" (or Peony), whilst such chops as the "Double Fighting Cock" and the "Gold Lion" are fairly well known. It must not be taken that all curlies are shipped under a chop mark, nor even that the best curlies have a particular name or trade mark. Some arrivals with no chop mark whatever are quite equal to any of the "Yellow Pony" chop ; but, as a general rule, spinners buying "to arrive" wish to have the chop stipulated at the time of purchase, as a kind of semi-guarantee of quality, as the various wastes from the different filatures have a certain reputation, Shanghai long wastes are the most expensive wastes shipped from that port. They are to be had from various inland districts, and are known under the different names of such places, though there is a great similarity in appearance and not much difference in their qualities and yields. They have very much the appearance of knubs, but are tapey and very long. They yield exceedingly well, and are of a good light colour. The annual production is comparatively small, and very few spinners can use them to advantage, on account of their high price. For particular special yarns where strength and evenness of thread are absolutely essential, Shanghai long waste is used to advantage. Japan wastes. The best-known waste shipped from Yokohama is the Kikai Kibizzo, or Japan curlies. In appearance there is not much difference between this waste and China curlies, except that the former is generally of a better colour, and contains curls of larger size, longer staple, and consequently yields better. Japan wastes are more in request for continental spinners than for England, being well suited for the schapping in vogue there. Just like the China curlies, Kikai Kibizzo is shipped in three grades, but the principal buying for this country is for No. 1's alone, although at times parcels 60/30/10 are freely offered. Iwashiro Noshi is another waste which is fairly well known here by the spinners who use the very best class of wastes. What the Shanghai long waste is to Shanghai, so is Iwashiro Noshi to Japan. They are very similar, except that the latter is a better colour, and just as Kikai Kibizzo will fetch a better price than China curlies, so is Iwashiro Noshi more valuable than Shanghai long waste. The production is very limited. Noshito Joshiu or Tamas is practically the lowest class of Japan waste which is shipped for consumption in England for the ordinary spinner, but there are many lower varieties from Japan which are well suited for continental schappe spinners. Tamas are a stringy waste, not very good colour, and are subject to a certain amount of refuse. They are generally shipped in proportion 60/30/10. Before passing on to European wastes, some details of the buying, inspecting, shipping, and landing of wastes from the East will not be without interest.

178 Buying. As in most textile trades, so in the silk spinning industry, spinners must anticipate their requirements to a certain extent, and buy "to arrive," or "futures". This latter term is, however, seldom made use of in the silk trade. Comparatively speaking, very little waste is sent over here on account of the shippers, most of them preferring to buy against orders from brokers and merchants. The buying "to arrive" is done by the spinners through merchant brokers, who transmit the offers to Shanghai, Canton, or Yokohama, according to the kind of waste required; and the matter of quality is either fixed on certain standards which the merchant shows, or the spinner stipulates that it be equal to a certain shipment already had. In the absence of standards, the merchant undertakes to deliver the "season's average" or, in other words, he contracts that his waste will be as good as the season affords, all due care being taken at the embarkation port that inferior waste is not shipped. Inspecting. The systems in vogue for inspecting at Canton, Shanghai, and Yokohama are very different, and much could be done in this respect to ensure better qualities and more uniformity in shipment, particularly so from Canton. In this latter place the shipper buys, say, a parcel of 50 bales of waste from a native dealer, who comes forward and tenders 50 bales already made up. The European inspector then picks out of the lot, wherever he may think fit, 3, 4, or 5 bales, and has them opened, and after examining them passes or rejects the parcel. If the lot is rejected, the Chinaman brings a further 50, which are subject to the same process, and so on until he has satisfied the inspector. It will be at once seen by one in the trade that this is a very lax method, for John Chinaman has these bales to sell, and sell them he will. If they are rejected by one inspector, he will tender them to another, in the hope that he may be lucky or unlucky enough to cause good bales out of the run to be opened, and so pass the lot. Very often the bales are made up in such a way that the outer coating of the layers of which the bales are made up are composed of really good silk, whilst the inside is cunningly made up of inferior waste. This is a common fault of Canton wastes of all descriptions. The only remedy seems to be that the waste be delivered in bulk to the shippers' go-downs, to be inspected by them in bulk, and packed by them just as is done in Shanghai and Yokohama, from which ports the waste is far more uniform and more reliable. The majority of the shippers at Canton say that it is impossible to do this in the case of Canton wastes, because they have not room in the European quarters to make godowns in which to inspect the wastes. Packing and shipping. At Canton the wastes are all packed in small bales of one picul each (a picul is 133lb.), without presspacking, but they are well bound with cane, and the wrapping is matting. Shanghai wastes, which are packed under European supervision and in the shippers' own go-downs, are made up in three-picul bales, and are press-packed. The Japan bales are very cumbersome, being packed similar to the Canton bales, except that instead of onepicul bales they come over in three-picul bales. Some Japan bales are, however, press-packed like the Shanghai bales. The shipping is, of course, undertaken by the European shippers out in the East, and, generally speaking, the documents covering the shipments are passed through the Eastern banks with a bill at four, five, or six months' sight, to be accepted here by the merchant and returned to the bank, which holds the waste until the bill is retired, when the merchant gets the necessary release order. Landiny. On arrival in London, the waste is at once taken in hand by the Dock Company or wharfingers, and, immediately it is lauded, the gross weights of each bale are carefully taken, and a certain number of each parcel tared, and the average tare of those taken is

179 reckoned on the wrhole parcel. No. \ or J Ib. are reckoned : supposing the average tare is 8J, 8J, or 8| Ib., the tare allowed is 9 Ib. per bale, and any bale weighing, say, 129J Ib. gross, even though the average tare were 8J Ib., would only be chargeable 120 Ib. net. When the bales have been landed, lotted, and examined for damage, dock samples are drawn from every fifth or tenth bale according to request, and sent down to the buyer, and on receipt of these he must decide whether the quality is up to the standard on which he bought. Once having passed these impartial dock samples, he is held to have passed the waste, and has no claim for inferiority should he be disappointed with the waste when the bulk is delivered at his mill, unless he can prove some very flagrant case of false packing, and even then he must trust to the merchant from whom he bought. European wastes. Little need be said about the various qualities of these wastes, as all have very similar characteristics, and are practically, with the exception of the French and Italian knubs, the products of the silk-throwing mills, as described under the heading "Throwing". Knubs, however, are the long wastes produced in the filatures where the raw silk is wound from the cocoon, and have the same appearance and characteristics as the Shanghai long waste and Iwashiro Noshi, except that they are finer and of a more "classical" nature. These knubs are particularly in request by the continental spinners. Of the many varieties of European wastes, the following are the best known: French China, Swiss China, Italian China, French mixed, Piedmont, and Spanish waste. French China, as its name implies, is the waste produced in the French throwing mills working China raw silk. Swiss China is the same produced in Switzerland; Italian China the same produced in Italy. French mixed is grey and yellow waste from the throwing mills, and is composed of Bengal, Canton, and Japan, as well as Italian and French wastes. It is somewhat subject to cotton, but is quite a favourite gum waste. Piedmont waste, as the name implies, is the fine Italian yellow waste made in the throwing mills producing organzines and trams from Piedmont raw silk. It is one of the most expensive yellow wastes, yielding very well, and producing a strong, lustrous yarn of a very elastic nature. Given these brief notes on a few of the many varieties of silk waste, from which it will have been noted that the colour, the diameter of thread, and the packing are so varied as delivered to the spinner, and being also a much tangled mass of all lengths of fibre some bales hard press-packed and other qualities loosely packed it will be understood that preparatory to boiling or schapping i.e. degumming a certain amount of opening, sorting, and mixing will be absolutely necessary.

Chapter 16 Role of Women in Sericulture -Women participation in Mulberry garden and Rearing management – silk reeling – Weaving and Finishing. In India, sericulture related activities ensure the livelihood security of over six million families spread over in some 59,000 villages across the country. The silk sector is also a valuable foreign exchange earner for the country. The export earnings stood at Rs. 3,338 crores during 2006-07. In addition, there is an opportunity to double the export earnings with the free trade atmosphere in Europe and USA. It is estimated that India needs 25,000

180 MT of raw silk per year to meet its domestic requirement. The growing demand of silk in the domestic market can make the industry a valuable enterprise which in turn can provide employment for the rural masses ensuring assured economic returns at the individual family level. Women contribute to a little less than 50 % of the country’s population and most of them are largely rural based, deriving their livelihood through agriculture and other land based activities, either as family members or wage earners. As a cottage industry, sericulture provides ample wok for women in the rural areas particularly in silkworm rearing and reeling, while men, largely work in the field and in weaving. The involvement of women in different activities of sericulture is about 53 % and their contribution in the on-farm activities understandably is lower than that in post-cocoon activities. Sericulture is an ideal avocation for women. Employment opportunities for women are also high in sericulture industry. Various operations in the production of silk beneficially engage women. Sericulture because of its unique nature of work, proves to be an ideal activity for women who can work in addition to their regular tasks of taking care of the family. Its operation does not require hard labour. Almost all the sericulture activities, except such tasks digging, ploughing and carrying heavy loads, which are strenuous can be carried out by women independently. Silk worms being delicate have to be handled with proper care. Thus the entire process of rearing needs expertise, high skill and patience. Women possess these qualities to an eminent degree and therefore are more suitable than men. It is worked out that about 2,575 women work days comprising about 60 per cent are generated per annum out of a total of about 4,225 work days all the activities in sericulture per hectare of irrigated mulberry. Thus sericulture provides scope for the direct involvement of women in the process of production and decision making for improving their economic conditions and for giving them greater recognition and status in the family and the society. Under the National Sericulture Project, the action plan on women envisages group formation, special training programmes for women, allotment of land in the names of the women, special credit schemes for women etc. all these programmes are under implementation for raising the active participation of women in sericulture. During the year 1998-99 an amount of Rs.500 lakhs has been sanctioned towards the scheme “one time assistance to women group” for 5 women groups and training programme to 833 women. Women contribute 60% work force in sericulture. Like nurturing family, their involvement in sericulture is also highly significant and needs a special mention. National sericulture Project recognized their achievements and the year 1994 was declared as ‘Year of Women in Sericulture’. Central Silk Board, State Sericulture Departments and various non-governmental agencies made a concerned effort to improve access to resources, to enhance managerial and entrepreneurial autonomy and to acquire better technology and skills during the last eight years. Time bound action plans were checked out and task forces at Central and State level monitored the achievements year to year which were oriented towards: -Emphasizing productive role of women in sericulture through creation of better training facilities, extension mechanisms, women friendly infrastructural facilities and improving women’s acces to credit.

181 -Stimulating formation of women with financial support for taking up sericulture related income generating activities. Sericulture is one of the rural based agro industries with global reach. While providing sustainable income and employment opportunities to the rural poor who are the main practitioners, silk production activity fetches an annual export earnings of more than US$600 million. Some unique features of the silk sector are its rural nature, agro based, ecologically and economically sustainable activity for the poor, small and marginal farmers, agriculture labour and women in particular. Many studies indicated that 60% of the activities in the pre-cocoon and post-cocoon sectors are carried out by women. Sericulture is a labour intensive industry in all its phases. It can generate employment upto 11 persons for every kg of raw silk produced. Out of which more than 6 persons are women. More than 60.00 lakh persons are employed as full time workers in the production chain out of which 35-40 lakh persons are women. Ever increasing demand to meet the domestic handloom industry requirements and equally increasing potential for exports provide tremendous opportunities for the women to avail sustainable income generating activities. Though India produces all four varieties of silk, mulberry sericulture dominates with 89% in total production and 95% in exports. 98% of mulberry silk production takes place in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, West Bengal and Jammu & Kashmir. Central Silk Board and the State departments had adequate experience of implementing the women oriented programmes. The need for a new approach for empowering the women though their active participation in the various disciplines of the industry is the need of the hour. In response to the external funding of the United nations agencies, more and more departments attempt to focus the attention towards women and planning to place them in the center stage of development. However the gap between the planning implementation and its impacts continue to exist. Women’s participation is taken as “add-on” to existing programmes and schemes and also little attempt was made to provide some more subsidies in favour of women under various schemes. Many studies revealed that though the schemes are sanctioned in favour of women, in actual practice, men were in charge of the assets created and benefits accrued. It is time that we must have a campaign approach for the participation of women in sericulture industry. In the early 90’s and in the new millennium, NGOs and Govt. departments led various campaigns on women’s literacy, health and other social issues. Such campaigns have led to the formation of a large no. of self help groups / neighbourhood groups / thrift and credit groups and these groups are available almost in all the rural villages. Recurring droughts / industrialization / Globalization / liberalization and bountiful opportunities in the urban towns and cities perhaps attracting men to migrate in search of better opportunities in the growing service sector. Women are compelled to stay back in the villages to care of the elderly people and children. Work burden due to migration of husbands and male member of the families and increased drudgery due to depletion of natural resources like ground water and biomass have an adverse effect on women’s health. Sericulture activities provide a perfect choice for the women because of the very nature of the activities that can take place close to the habitations. However the contribution of women in the sector is invisible due to various constraints and they can be summarized as follows.

182 Lack of women oriented approaches in research, planning, implementation and evaluation of schemes Lack of congenial marketing services in the farm and non-farm sectors Inadequacy of women extension workers Methodologies, time duration, location of training programmes put constraints on women’s participation. Lack of consistency in the projects implementation Lack of access to infrastructure like land, water, electricity, machinery, credit for working capital, Attitude of people working in the financial institutions pose limitations In order to overcome the limitations for women’s participation, CSB constituted a study to empower women in sericulture. Initially an amount of Rs.10.00 crores for set a part for exclusive women’s projects. The subcommittee studied the role of women in various activities of the sector and identified several implementation gaps. The committee has also recommended a 3- pronged strategy for improving the situation. I. General guidelines 1. Include creation of women development cells in CSB and DOS offices. 2. Increased subsidies in the XI plan schemes 3. Research focus of women friendly technologies 4. GIS and MIS formats to assess the impact and concurrently evaluate the schemes. 5. Convergence approach with Forest / Rural development / Women and child welfare / Industries / Tribal welfare /Marketing / Finance / Insurance sectors / Energy departments to bring in coordinated approach and action plans to maximize the benefits in favour of women. II. Exclusive women oriented programmes / Schemes Establishment of kisan nurseries in Government assigned lands by SHGS Establish women TSCs and Sericulture technology parks and CRC’s. Solar power supply to women managed reeling units. Health insurance to workers – Promotion of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides and non- chlorine disinfectants. Training cum study visits to women and facilities for husbands to participates Design market infrastructure to favour women’s participation. Create “Women development fund“ and provide interest subsidies on credit. 2008-09 to be declared as the year of Women in sericulture III. Integrated approaches for taking up exclusive projects for women Plan for long term projects that are consistent Externally aided projects integrating water Shed development / Agriculture department (ATMA) / Joint forest management / Waste land development / Tribal development / Bio- technology / Science & technology / Vanya silks projects etc., Public private participation in the post-cocoon sector and contract farming with NGOs and corporates participation. Promote direct linkages between rearer / reeler / twister / weaver by modifying the stringent regulations and Liberalization of labour laws. Silk is considered as a luxury item along with gems and jewellery. It would therefore enjoy this support and patronage from the upper strata and growing middle class of the

183 India society. Silk sari is an important bridal wear and hand woven silk are extremely popular in the west and there is no threat of quota like other fabrics. The light weight silk is gaining popularity amongst urban working women in India and in the fashion conscious western society. India holds monopoly in the production of yarn dyed silk fabrics. Campaign approach for promotion of Indian silk amongst Indians and International communities with slogan that “Sericulture and Silk for the women by the women” is the need of the hour. Micro credit campaign for the women self groups is equally gaining popularity and India has an advantage of having a large platform of well organized women self help groups / networks / associations who are always ready to receive new ideas and work with commitment to help themselves and thereby helping the society for the larger development of the nation. The CSB and DOS should utilize the women SHGs as a launch pad for promoting women’s participation in the sericulture sector.

Chapter 17 Findings and Conclusion At the very first look it appears quite embarrassing for a nature lover to adopt the silk because it is obtained through killing of so many silk worms. To remedy the same, nowadays has come a new concept of obtaining the silk from the silk worm after it completes its hatching. So no killing of worms involved making it easily acceptable to the nature lovers. This silk obtained by this new method is often termed as . Ahimsa silk is made without cruelty and has had a positive effect on both the environment and the livelihood of many families in rural India. Over the past 3 years 10,000 sustainable livelihoods have been created, over twenty thousand acres of natural 184 forests have been rejuvenated and maintained and over three thousand acres of plantation have been raised due to the production of Ahimsa Silk. We have to kill 15 silk worms for obtaining 1 g of silk. To get 1 kg of silk we need to kill 15,000 silk worms. About 50,000 silk worms must be killed to make a silk sari. Ahimsa silk is extracted after the silkworm has completed metamorphosis and emerged from the cocoon. Only then does the manufacture of peace silk begin. ADVANGATES OF AHIMSA SILK •Ahimsa silk has the popular properties of regular silk. •Even though it is slightly less lustrous, it is even softer to the touch. • Ahimsa silk does not wrinkle and is more comfortable to wear than the conventional one as it has more air permeability. •However, as people become more environmentally aware and compassionate to animals, ahimsa will be demanded more frequently. Ahimsa Silk: Silk Saree without killing a single silkworm: We have seen many protests worldwide against the use of leather products. However, surprisingly, there hasn’t been much resistance against the use of silk garments, especially considering the fact that thousands of silkworms are killed in order to make a small piece of fabric. Kusuma Rajaiah, of Hyderabad, has come up with an initiative to produce silk without the killing of silk worms. Making a Difference - Ahimsa Silk In this article at Outlook India, Mythily Ramachandran writes about Kusuma, who started this ahimsa way of producing silk when he was approached by Janaki Venkataraman, wife of former President R. Venkatraman. Mrs. Venkatraman asked Kusuma if he had any saree which had not resulted in the killing of any silkworms. This led Kusuma to investigate whether silk could be produced without deliberate killing of the worms. How did he achieve this?: Silk comes from the cocoons of the silk worm (bombyx mori). In the silk industry, cocoons are killed by steaming or dropping them into boiling water when they are ten days old, before they metamorphose into a moth. The silk is believed to be the finest at this stage. This is preferred because when the cocoons open naturally at one end, to release the moth, the continuity of the fibre is lost. But maybe not, thought Kusuma. He purchases cocoons from mulberry farms in Chittoor district. The yellow coloured cocoons are reared in large cane baskets at his residence in Hyderabad. The moths emerge after 8-10 days, piercing the cocoon at one end. “The adult moths have a short life span of four days. During this time they mate and die naturally,” Kusuma explains. The pierced cocoons are spun into yarn. This is then woven into fabrics. Weavers of Nalgonda and Ananthpur district of Andhra Pradesh produce while fabrics, including saris, are woven by the weavers of Karimnagar district. “All my products are done on handlooms and benefits several weaver families,” says Kusuma. Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi, he calls this silk ahimsa. While ahimsa silk may lack the shine of regular silk, it is comfortable to wear. It’s also wrinkle-free and has a better fall. Silkworms made to spin coloured silk by feeding them mixtures containing dyes, researchers have helped silkworms spin fluorescent, coloured silk.

185 SILK WORMS THAT PRODUCE vibrantly coloured and luminescent silks have been created by scientists in Singapore. The resulting fibre offers a cheap way to circumvent the dying process and may even have medical applications. "The new, more environmentally friendly method allows us to integrate colours into the very fabric of silk and does away with the need for manual dyeing," says Dr Natalia Tansil, lead researcher behind the technology at the Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE) in Singapore. By feeding silkworms a mulberry mixture containing fluorescent dye, Natalia's team was able to harvest brightly coloured silk that is structurally unaffected, but which also has luminescent, or glowing, properties. The dye molecules are ingrained within the silk filaments to create permanent colour. Green alternative The process "provides a green alternative method of dyeing silk for the silk industry by reducing the vast amounts of water and dyes used in the labour-intensive conventional dyeing process," says Eugene Low Ooi Meng, IMRE spokesperson. Dye is added into the silkworm diet for the last four days of the larva stage creating a coloured animal and coloured silk (Credit: IMRE). The technology is simple and cheap enough to be translated to an industrial scale, he says. "The only difference between the proposed process and the current [cultivating] practice is the addition of the dye into the silkworm diet for the last four days of the larva stage. The resulting coloured cocoon can then be harvested and processed using normal processes." They researchers are currently working with potential industry partners to scale up the process and bring a product to market within a few years. "For commercialisation, we aim to create a full range of colour and improve reproducibility and consistency of colour intensity," Eugene told Australian Geographic. The findings, detailed in the journal Material Views, show for the first time that the uptake of both colour and luminescence is possible in live silk worms via food. Simple and innovative "This is a simple and innovative method to generate coloured silk," comments Dr Tara Sutherland, an expert on biomaterials with the CSIRO in Canberra. "The result also has implications that extend beyond introduction of colour into the silk – it raises the possibility of introduction of other compounds into the material through the diet [of silkworms]," she says. Natalia's research team envisage creating silk with antibacterial, anticoagulent and anti- inflammatory properties that could be used in wound dressing or even as biomedical frameworks for repairing damaged tissues. Silk wound dressings could also be created that have compounds with monitoring or sensing capabilities. "We were inspired by the beauty and utility of silk. It is soft and lustrous but incredibly strong at the same time. Silk has also been used for sutures for thousands of years," says Eugene. "The utility of silk is greatly enhanced by adding other substances such as dyes onto the core silk filament. So we set out to find a simple yet effective way to incorporate functional materials into silk, not only dyes but also drugs and antibiotics." Present status of silkworm germplasm at global level Though accurate data are not available on the silkworm germplasm in different countries of the world, an approximate information indicate that there are 4310 silkworm

186 germplasm accessions available in different countries (Table 1). There is every likelihood that some of these silkworm accessions are duplicated; for instance the silkworm germplasm from China, Japan, France, Russia and India might be represented in the germplasm collection of other countries since these are the principal source of sericultural germplasm and also several countries might have exchanged some silkworm germplasm for silkworm breeding and hence a proper documentation on the availability of silkworm germplasm in different countries is very much required. A very recent compilation of silkworm genetic stocks indicate that there are around 3000 genotypes of Bombyx mori at the global level, which includes mutants, parthenoclones, polyploids and geographical races (Nagaraju et. al 2001). In fact much of the genetic diversity of Bombyx mori is derived from the inbred lines of land races and elite stocks evolved by the silkworm breeders and also from hybridisation of different geographical races; mainly the Japanese, Chinese, European and tropical races, which are distinct for several economic characters. The geographical races also possess several heritable characters for a variety of morphological, biochemical and quantitative characters. Among the four geographical races, the bivoltine and univoltine races of temperate origin and multivoltine races of tropical origin differ widely and exhibit contrasting characters. The bivoltine and univoltine races produce high quantity of good quality silk, whereas the multivoltine races are hardy, tolerant to pathogen load and thereby resistant to diseases compared to the bivoltines but produce low amount of poor quality silk. Thus, these geographical races are very valuable genetic stocks for further improvement of silkworm races and evolution of superior breeds of B. mori. Apart from a rich biodiversity of geographical races, there are also a large number of mutants. The silkworm genetic stocks include more than 500 mutants for a variety of characters viz., serosal colours; larval and adult integument colours; skin markings and body shapes; cocoon colours and shapes; physiological traits such as diapause, number of larval moults and timing of larval maturity; food habits and biochemical features such as digestive amylase, blood and egg esterases, larval integument esterase, alkaline and acid phosphatases; haemolymph proteins; silk production and fibroin secretion; homeoproteins and body plan determination etc. and the various mutants, gene locus and phenotype were documented recently (Nagaraju et. al, 2001). Apart from the geographical races and mutants there is a large genetic stock of B.mori evolved by the breeders mostly utilising the geographical races and mutants of larval, pupal and cocoon colour variants of sex limited races, particularly in Peoples Republic of China, Japan, India and erstwhile United Soviet Socialist Russia (USSR) and some of these breeds are commercially exploited in these countries for silkworm rearing to produce raw silk and the remaining breeds are maintained in the silkworm germplasm of these countries as breeders genetic stocks and they are utilised as the genetic material in the silkworm breeding programmes for evolution of more superior and elite races. Thus, the geographical races, mutants and the elite breeders stock constitute the major portion of the present day silkworm germplasm at the global level apart from the parthenoclones, triploid, polyploids and wild relatives of Bombyx andBombycidae (Fig- 1). Historical review of silkworm germplasm in India The domesticated silkworm species, Bombyx mori L. evolved almost 4600 years ago from the wild species, Bombyx mandarina Moore, which is a native of China and

187 Palaearctic region (Hampson, 1892; Hirobe, 1968). The eggs of silkworm,B. mori were first introduced from China into Japan and Korea in the first century and subsequently into Middle Eastern and European countries and later into the neighbouring countries around China in the sixth century. The historical background of silkworm entry into India is still a mystery; and the historical evidence indicates that a flourishing silk trade was practising between India and Rome/Greece during Kaniska period (56 B C). This is the authentic historical record of silk production and trade in India, which indicates the early history of Indian sericulture. The rich tradition of silk and silk use are evident from ancient sacred literature like the Rigveda, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharatha, which are more than 2000 years old, but the information about indigenous silkworm races and their stock maintenance are not well documented. Silkworm rearing was prevalent in Kashmir and North Eastern states during sixteenth century, the Moghul period where the univoltine and multivoltine silkworms were respectively reared and the Tippu Sultan introduced silkworm rearing in south India in 1875. During eighteenth century, the British rule in India, quite a few univoltine and bivoltine races were imported from Italy, France, Russia and China, and the races were bred and maintained by the farmers (Krishna Rao, 1997); and there was no systematic maintenance of the silkworm germplasm and hence only few races survived under Indian climatic condition. At present only few old indigenous races are surviving viz. Barapolu, Chotapolu, Nistari, Sarupat, and Moria, whereas the indigenous univoltine Kashmiri races are almost extinct. Systematic silkworm stock maintenance and breeding started in the early nineteenth century. Prior to 1922, only pure races were reared and hybrid silkworms were introduced later, Pure Mysore × C. Nichi was probably the first hybrid in Karnataka and exploitation of hybrids in West Bengal and Kashmir came much later during 1956 and 1959 respectively (Thangavelu, 1997). Silkworm genetic stock maintenance started during 1940 in an organised way at Sericultural Research Station, Berhampore in West Bengal and subsequently temperate silkworm germplasm stocks were established at Univoltine Silkworm Seed Station, Pampore in Kashmir and multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm stocks were established at Central Sericultural Research Institute, Mysore in Karnataka and Coonoor in Tamil Nadu. Importance of conservation of silkworm genetic resources During the recent years, biodiversity conservation programmes have drawn the attention of many countries including developing nations, because of the genetic erosion due to indiscriminate use of bio resources and damage to the environment, destruction of forest, human interference in eco-system, upsetting the equilibrium of the biosphere. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) organised by United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Jeneiro Earth Summit in 1992 made an awakening call to draw the global attention for conservation of biodiversity. Since then the biodiversity conservation and gene bank maintenance have gained greater momentum since the germplasm resources are considered as "Common Heritage of Mankind" and "Sovereign Right of Nations". The issues related to access the genetic resources and its sustainable use, benefit sharing, farmers rights are being deliberated at various national and international fora. Realising the importance of biodiversity conservation for sustainable development of agriculture, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) established the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) in 1974 at

188 Rome with a global network of genetic resources centres, mainly for conservation of natural genetic resources including the wild species to promote crop improvement programmes and increase the food production. The role of wild relatives and wild species in agricultural crop improvement are well known (Rana, 1995). Similarly, there is an urgent need for seribiodiversity conservation, particularly the wild relatives of Bombyx and Bombycidae. Improvement in silkworm race heavily depended on the geographical races of B. mori and the wild relatives of Bombyx were not explored, unlike in agriculture. Whereas in agricultural, horticultural and sericultural crop improvement programme the wild species of several crop plants have contributed very valuable genes for resistance to diseases and pests and tolerance to adverse agroclimatic conditions (Jackson and Ford-Lloyd, 1990) and similar exploitation of genes from wild relatives ofB.mori have not been reported. The genus Bombyx Hubner (1818) has two species, Bombyx mori L. and Bombyx mandarina Moore. Apart from the genusBombyx there are eleven other genera in the family Bombycidae Hubner; 1) Genus - Theophila Moore (1867), 2) Genus -Ocinara (Walker 1856), 3) Genus - Mustilia (Walker 1865), 4) Genus - Gunda (Walker 1862), 5) Genus Penicillifera (Walker) 6) Genus - Ernolatia (Moore) 7) Genus - Norasuma Moore 8) Genus - Trilocha Dieri, 9) Genus - Prismosticta (Swinhoe), 10) Genus - Andraca (Walker), and 11) Genus - Ectrocta (Hampson). Among these genera, Theophila and Ocinara are very close to the genus Bombyx. The wild sericigenous species of Bombyx, Theophila and Ocinara are naturally distributed in the Himalayan ranges of Indo-China range and also in Andaman Islands in India, besides, Jawa, Sumatra, Borneo and Malaya Peninsular (Barlow, 1982). The wild species of these genera have not been explored for transferring the useful genes to confer resistance to diseases and tolerance to adverse agro-climatic conditions into the domesticated species, B.mori. The useful genes from the wild relatives of B. mori may be cloned and these cloned genes may be transferred into the germ cells of the silkworm to develop transgeneic silkworm. Hence, there is an urgent need to collect and conserve the wild species ofBombyx, Theophila and Ocinera and study their genetics for possible use in the breeding programme of B.mori and widen the genetic base as well. Indian gene centre is harbouring great faunal diversity and nearly 11.9% of the world flora are present in India and hence recognised as one among the twelve mega biodiversity rich centres of the world. Floristically India is very rich, harbouring three mega centres of endemnism i.e. Western and Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. It is a treasure house of several diverse sericigenous flora and fauna. Wild species of Bombyx and other genera of Bombycidae do exist in the great Himalayan ranges and Andaman islands, under natural habitat and therefore the Indian gene centre possesses a rich seri- genetic resources. Eggs and cocoons of a wild silkworm belonging to Bombycidae were collected from wild mulberry tree Morus serrata near Kedarnath (30.47 °N, 79.02 °E) at an altitude of 800 meter above MSL (Tikader 2001). The eggs were incubated and rearing was conducted on the mulberry plants at Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre (CSGRC), Hosur and the produced cocoons and eggs are very similar to B. mori (Fig-2). It is a potential and interesting genetic material with several unique characters, utilising such wild relatives of Bombyx, it is quite possible to create additional seribiodiversity and widen the genetic base of B. mori.

189 Biodiversity is the result of evolution that is a continuous phenomenon induced by natural selection pressure and the population of organisms evolve through adaptation to the biotic and abiotic stress. Ever since B.mori was domesticated, the species does not survive in the wild state in natural condition and also does not survive without human care and hence natural selection induced genetic diversity in B.mori is rather very limited to voltinism. Hence, it is very essential to conserve and utilise the wild relatives of Bombyx mori to broaden its genetic diversity, apart from the geographical races, mutants, sex-limited races, evolved breeds and breeders genetic stocks. The wild relatives of Bombyx are very vulnerable and the vulnerability at different spatial and temporal scales are not known. The design of biodiversity network in sericulture involving the complementarity of wild relatives and domesticated B. mori is also not well established. Therefore, conservation of wild as well as domesticated seribiodiversity resources is very essential for sustainable development of sericulture (Fig-3) since loss of genetic resources of domesticated and wild relatives of Bombyx species along with their unique genes may disadvantage future generation. Future Prospects The Indian sericulture industry, is currently facing several problems which have restricted full utilization of its potential. Some of the major problems are given below. Produce good quality bivoltine silk: Indian silk yarn is of poor quality, which not only affects our competitiveness in the world market, but has also resulted in a preference for imported yarn in the domestic market. Though the Indian breeds have the potential to produce the good quality of bivoltine silk, the problem arises due to lack of: sufficient thrust on the adoption of improved technologies; strict disease control measures; quality leaf due to insufficient inputs to mulberry garden; appropriate mountages; grading system for cocoons; quality-based pricing system as well as use of young age silkworms. Seize Fall in production: It can be done by initiating area-specific research to improve fertility of the soils. This will ultimately enhance soil productivity, increase mulberry and non-mulberry host plant leaf and silkworm cocoon production as well as arrest decline in area under silk food plants. Enhance the production of bivoltine silk: Bivoltine yarn is sturdier and is used by the power loom industry. But only 5% of the silk produced in India is bivoltine because its production requires much more attention and resources. It also yields just two crops in a year, as against the yield of four to six crops by multi-voltine silk. Even the farmers do not have any incentive to switch to bivoltine silk yarn production because the difference between the selling price of bivoltine and multivoltine silk is not much. The other factors responsible for it are: insufficient adoption and proliferation of technology packages developed through R&D efforts; no effort to increase the area under mulberry; fragmented and ad hoc approach; non-involvement of private partners in a big way in seed production; farming and reeling; non-penetration of the schemes; improper forward and backward linkages; and

190 dumping of cheap Chinese raw silk and fabric . It is necessary to encourage farmers to move from production of multivoltine silk to bivoltine silk through proper incentives. At the same time it must be ensured that adequate amount of multivoltine is available for the handloom sector to continue production. Balance the aspirations of farmers and weavers: The sericulturists want imports of raw silk to be restricted and the anti-dumping duty on yarn to remain in place. Exporters and weavers, on the other hand, want the anti- dumping duty to be withdrawn so that they get an assured supply of yarn and are able to export more silk products at competitive rates. Also, there has been a decline in the cultivated area and the raw silk production during 2002–04 due to drought and dumping of Chinese silk at cheap prices. Increase Non-mulberry silk production: Its production in the country continues to be unsteady and fluctuates from year to year. With its uniqueness, non-mulberry silk production in India has a great potential for value added exports. Need for quality based pricing: Reeling sector is an input-dependent activity and its operations are influenced heavily by three factors, namely, cocoon quality, cocoon price, and cocoon supply. But due to absence of quality-based price fixation, there has been very little quality control. Given the fact that, the scope for enhancing the production of silk in the country by expanding the cultivable area is limited. Hence, vertical expansion through productivity increase by using advanced technology and skilled man-power is the only option. In fact, emergence of new sericulture technology has not only reduced the production risks (drudgery) but has also increased the potential cocoon yield/unit area, relative to the traditional technology. Multipurpose use of sericulture Apart from silk, there are several other bye-products from sericulture. The mulberry fruits are rich in minerals and vitamins and from the roots, barks and mulberry leaves several ayurvedic and herbal medicines are prepared. Some of the woody mulberry trees provide timber which are resistant to termites and the timber is used for making sports items, toys etc. The mulberry branches after silkworm feeding are generally dried and used as fuel particularly in the villages. The foliage of mulberry is used as a fodder for cattle. The mulberry trees are also planted in the embarkment area for protection of the soil to prevent soil erosion, and mulberry trees are planted as avenue trees. The silkworm pupae are rich in oil content and pupal oil is used in cosmetic industry and the remaining pupal cake is a rich source of protein suitable for poultry and fisheries. In some tribal population, the people eat eri pupa as a source of protein and nourishment. The silkworm litter is used for bio-gas production and used as a fuel for cooking in the rural area. Thus sericulture not only provides silk for fashionable clothings, it also provides several very useful bye products to the human society. Therefore, sericulture development provides opportunities to improve the living standards of people in the rural area in developing countries.

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