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Environmental Impacts of Mountaineering A Conceptual Framework Michal Apollo Department of Tourism and Regional Studies Pedagogical University of Kraków Kraków, Poland

ISSN 2191-5547 ISSN 2191-5555 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science ISBN 978-3-030-72666-9 ISBN 978-3-030-72667-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72667-6

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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To Professor Viacheslaw Andreychouk Foreword

I first met the author in Kathmandu in 2018 at a tourism conference during which I presented a keynote address on mountaineering tourism. The author presented a paper on the environmental impact of mountaineering. The author is indeed a very passionate scholar in mountaineering. In 2019, we climbed Mt Aconcagua (Argen- tina) and Mt Kinabalu (Malaysia) together. This book examines the impacts of mountaineering activities on the natural environment. These are caused by the mountaineers and residents, travel to the mountain region, and the mountaineering equipment. These impacts can occur directly through mountaineering activities and indirectly through auxiliary activities. Land relief, soil, vegetation, fauna, and landscape are all significantly affected by mountaineering activities in the hiking, trekking, and climbing zones. Depending on the type of activity and the zone it takes place in, mountaineering may increase the degradation of tourist routes and rock faces. The use of pack animals significantly intensifies the impact of mountaineering on land relief in the hiking and trekking zones. Fortunately, there is significantly less degradation on cliff faces compared with mountain slopes. The impact of climbing activities on rock surfaces is barely significant compared with the changes caused by natural processes. Changes in soil cover and vegetation are mutually related, and these changes occur in the hiking and trekking zones and the climbing zone. The management of these changes should minimize degradation resulting from trampling, changes in the structure of vegetation cover, or grazing. It should also limit the introduction of new species, prevent felling and the displacement of native species, and minimize scrubbing on rock wall surfaces. The relationship between human activity and the animal world in mountain regions cannot be examined according to the different forms of tourism activities in the area. However, impacts of concern are the disturbance of animal habitats and attracting other animals. Habitat modification resulting from the restriction of for- aging areas or the direct departure of animals may lead to population decline, displacement, or even extinction. Improper disposal or storage of food or rubbish

vii viii Foreword and careless feeding of animals may lead to dangerous interaction between humans and animals. Environmental pollution caused by human actions could adversely affect human health, living nature, climate, water, and soil. In inhabited mountain regions, the source of anthropogenic environmental pollution is mainly caused by the residents. In tourist areas of the mountains, residents pollute when providing tourist services. In mountainous areas without local people, pollution is solely caused by tourists. In high mountain environments, elements of air, water, soil, and the landscape may be degraded. Environmental pollution includes littering, faecal contamination, noise, light, tourist infrastructure, and climbing equipment. In the concluding chapter of the book, the author provides a comprehensive and systematic description of the major environmental impacts of mountaineering, and develops a comprehensive conceptual framework to examine the impacts. The framework developed could be a useful start for future studies on the environmental impacts of mountaineering. The model emphasizes the connections and interdepen- dencies between individual elements of the natural environment, and each one of them should be considered carefully to bring the best desired effect in the manage- ment of environmental impacts in mountain regions.

University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Ghazali Musa MD, PhD Malaysia Contents

1 Environmental Impacts of Mountaineering: General Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 The Mountain Environment: Universal Character and Representativeness ...... 2 1.3 Types of Impacts ...... 3 1.4 Additional Considerations ...... 4 1.5 Structure of the Book (Model) ...... 5 References ...... 5 2 Violations to the Geological Surface and Changes in Land Relief by Mountaineering Activity ...... 9 2.1 Creation and Degradation of Tourist Routes ...... 9 2.2 Degradation of Cliff Face ...... 14 2.3 A Brief Summary ...... 18 References ...... 19 3 Changes in Soil Cover and Vegetation by Mountaineering Activity ...... 23 3.1 Changes in Soil Cover and Vegetation in the Hiking and Trekking Zones ...... 23 3.2 Changes in Soil Cover and Vegetation in the Climbing Zone ...... 29 3.3 A Brief Summary ...... 33 References ...... 33 4 Faunistic Changes Causes by Mountaineering Activity ...... 39 4.1 The General Approach to Wildlife and Tourism Relation ...... 39 4.2 Faunistic Changes in the Hiking and Trekking Zones ...... 40 4.3 Faunistic Changes in the Climbing Zone ...... 42 4.4 A Brief Summary ...... 42 References ...... 43

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5 Environmental Pollution Causes by Mountaineering Activity ...... 45 5.1 Littering of the Alpine Environment ...... 45 5.2 Human Waste Pollution ...... 48 5.3 Noise and Artificial Light Pollution ...... 53 5.4 Landscape Pollution Caused by Tourism Infrastructure ...... 55 5.5 A Brief Summary ...... 57 References ...... 57 6 A Conceptual Framework for Investigating the Environmental Impacts of Mountaineering ...... 61 6.1 A Conceptual Framework ...... 61 6.2 Conclusion ...... 63 References ...... 63 About the Author

Michal Apollo is an assistant professor at the Institute of Geography, Department of Tourism and Regional Studies, Pedagogical University of Kraków (Poland), and a Fellow of Yale University’s Global Justice Program, New Haven (USA). He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. in earth science in the field of geography from the Pedagogical University of Cracow, and a PGCert in global development from the University of Warsaw, Poland. Michal is an enthusiastic researcher (research field: man-environment systems), traveller (he has visited more than 60 countries on 6 continents), diver (open water diver), mountaineer (several new climbing routes, including the first ascent on two Himalaya peaks: in 2006, Masala Peak, and in 2012, Forgotten Peak), ultra-runner (100-miler finisher), photographer (a few photo exhi- bitions), and science populariser (a few hundred pop-science lectures). Michal’s unique background allows him to integrate knowledge from various perspectives into his research and consultancy work. His areas of expertise are tourism manage- ment, consumer behaviours, and environmental and socioeconomic issues. In his main research field, he focuses on human presence and well-being in high-mountain regions. Currently, he is working on a concept for the sustainable use of environ- mental and human resources, as this is the key to the development, prosperity, and well-being of all stakeholders. Michal is a founder and board member of the Polish Chapter of Academics Stand Against Poverty. For more on Michal Apollo, visit his website www.michalapollo.com

xi List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Zones of mountaineering activity and the main factors affecting the natural alpine environment ...... 4 Fig. 2.1 Paths in the Himalayas: (a) parallel paths trodden by grazing animals in the Miyar Valley; (b) old animal path transformed into a transport route in the Miyar Valley; (c) the Annapurna Circuit path used by both pack animals and tourists; (d) well-developed asphalted part of the trail leading to Yamunotri Temple ...... 11 Fig. 2.2 Zoogenic erosion of a slope: (a) Miyar Valley, the Himalayas; (b) Horcones Valley, the Andes ...... 12 Fig. 2.3 Direct touristic slope erosion (shearing a ground): (a) Horcones Valley, the Andes; (b) Mount Fuji ...... 13 Fig. 2.4 Interrelations between factors contributing to trail degradation. (Redrawn from Nepal 2003) ...... 15 Fig. 2.5 Direct touristic degradation of cliff face (polished rock surface) – Kilimanjaro, Machame route, above Barafu Hut ...... 15 Fig. 2.6 Anthropogenic microforms on the rock face: (a) Smoothness – normal route, Fisher Tower, the Great Rift Valley (I outside the route; II route area); (b) scratches – Forgotten Peak summit, the Lahoul Himalaya; (c) anchor holes – Never ending story route – Forgotten Peak, the Lahoul Himalaya; (d) anthropogenic niche – Kramnica wall, Białka River Gorge. (Background photos by M. Zoladek) ...... 17 Fig. 2.7 Items permanently placed in the rocks: (a) spits and ring; (b) anchors for fixing the via ferrata; Marmolada, the Dolomites. (Small fig. b: photo M. Zoladek) ...... 18 Fig. 3.1 A simple model of direct and indirect factors of mountaineering affecting soil cover and vegetation ...... 24

xiii xiv List of Figures

Fig. 3.2 Changes in soil cover and vegetation at the area of the Shira camp, Kilimanjaro: (a) the satellite view of the camp with approach trails (Google Earth); (b) tourists and porters, with Mount Meru at the background ...... 25 Fig. 3.3 Examples of non-native plants that have invaded mountain environments. By reaching high density, they modify the functioning of the ecosystem: (a) Monterey pine (Pinus radiataI) invading high-elevation native shrubland, Hawaii; (b) Common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale FH Wigg) in the Andes, Horcones Valley ...... 26 Fig. 3.4 Effects of the modification of vegetation occurring on the cliff face caused by climbing activity: (a) the removal and destruction of turf while grass-climbing, north face of Giewont (photo M. Zoladek); (b) damage to turf, west face of Rasac, Cordillera Huayhuash, Andes; (c) a path line scrubbed of lichen within the climbing route, Kramnica, Przełom Białki Giewont (photo M. Zoladek); (d) notch in the tree trunk caused by the moving rope, Snozka Quarry, Mount Wdżar, Pieniny ...... 31 Fig. 4.1 Changes in animal behaviour: (a) a kea (Nestor notabilis) parrot at a mountain camp over the Tasman Glacier with Mount Cook in the background, Southern Alps; (b) a grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) in the vicinity of the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies, Mount Robson; (c) Four-striped grass mouse (Rhabdomys pumilio) near camp Shira (3766 m), Kilimanjaro; (d) special rubbish bins to prevent opening by animals, especially bears, Mount Rainier, Cascade Mountains ...... 41 Fig. 5.1 Intentionally dug holes for waste disposable made by trekking agencies in the Miyar Valley: (a) base camp; (b) above Kanjar village ...... 46 Fig. 5.2 Remains of dead animals: (a) remains of a mule that had been used to transport equipment in the Horcones Valley, Andes; (b) corpse of a cow directly polluting the surface water in the Rasac Valley, Cordillera Huayhuash, Andes ...... 47 Fig. 5.3 The quantitative values of (a) human faeces (in tons) and (b) urine (in cubic metres) left by mountaineers according to the number of visitors and time spent in the mountain. (Redrawn from Apollo 2017) ...... 51 Fig. 5.4 Objects of the mountaineering infrastructure: (a) permanent: in the upper part of the photo upper station of the cable car Aiguille du Midi (3842 m), below the shelter Cosmiques (3613 m), the Mont Blanc, the Alps; (b) seasonal tents used as accommodation, nutrition and accompanying base at Palza de Mulas (4350 m), Aconcagua, Andes ...... 56 Fig. 6.1 Model of environmental effects of mountaineering on different environmental components ...... 62 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Different forms of impact on the trail and their ecological and social effects ...... 14 Table 2.2 Anthropogenic processes and microforms created by those processes ...... 16 Table 3.1 Anthropogenic effects of the modification of vegetation occurring on the cliff face due to climbing activities and the factors that cause them ...... 32 Table 5.1 Estimated amount of human faeces (dry mass) and urine remaining on Denali after 1092 climbers in 2015, and after 41,976 climbers from 1913 to 2015 (Apollo 2017) ...... 51

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