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Springerbriefs in Environmental Science SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science present concise summaries of cutting-edge research and practical applications across a wide spectrum of environmental fields, with fast turnaround time to publication. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic. Monographs of new material are considered for the SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science series. Typical topics might include: a timely report of state-of-the-art analytical tech- niques, a bridge between new research results, as published in journal articles and a contextual literature review, a snapshot of a hot or emerging topic, an in-depth case study or technical example, a presentation of core concepts that students must understand in order to make independent contributions, best practices or protocols to be followed, a series of short case studies/debates highlighting a specific angle. SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science allow authors to present their ideas and readers to absorb them with minimal time investment. Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8868 Michal Apollo Environmental Impacts of Mountaineering A Conceptual Framework Michal Apollo Department of Tourism and Regional Studies Pedagogical University of Kraków Kraków, Poland ISSN 2191-5547 ISSN 2191-5555 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science ISBN 978-3-030-72666-9 ISBN 978-3-030-72667-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72667-6 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To Professor Viacheslaw Andreychouk Foreword I first met the author in Kathmandu in 2018 at a tourism conference during which I presented a keynote address on mountaineering tourism. The author presented a paper on the environmental impact of mountaineering. The author is indeed a very passionate scholar in mountaineering. In 2019, we climbed Mt Aconcagua (Argen- tina) and Mt Kinabalu (Malaysia) together. This book examines the impacts of mountaineering activities on the natural environment. These are caused by the mountaineers and residents, travel to the mountain region, and the mountaineering equipment. These impacts can occur directly through mountaineering activities and indirectly through auxiliary activities. Land relief, soil, vegetation, fauna, and landscape are all significantly affected by mountaineering activities in the hiking, trekking, and climbing zones. Depending on the type of activity and the zone it takes place in, mountaineering may increase the degradation of tourist routes and rock faces. The use of pack animals significantly intensifies the impact of mountaineering on land relief in the hiking and trekking zones. Fortunately, there is significantly less degradation on cliff faces compared with mountain slopes. The impact of climbing activities on rock surfaces is barely significant compared with the changes caused by natural processes. Changes in soil cover and vegetation are mutually related, and these changes occur in the hiking and trekking zones and the climbing zone. The management of these changes should minimize degradation resulting from trampling, changes in the structure of vegetation cover, or grazing. It should also limit the introduction of new species, prevent felling and the displacement of native species, and minimize scrubbing on rock wall surfaces. The relationship between human activity and the animal world in mountain regions cannot be examined according to the different forms of tourism activities in the area. However, impacts of concern are the disturbance of animal habitats and attracting other animals. Habitat modification resulting from the restriction of for- aging areas or the direct departure of animals may lead to population decline, displacement, or even extinction. Improper disposal or storage of food or rubbish vii viii Foreword and careless feeding of animals may lead to dangerous interaction between humans and animals. Environmental pollution caused by human actions could adversely affect human health, living nature, climate, water, and soil. In inhabited mountain regions, the source of anthropogenic environmental pollution is mainly caused by the residents. In tourist areas of the mountains, residents pollute when providing tourist services. In mountainous areas without local people, pollution is solely caused by tourists. In high mountain environments, elements of air, water, soil, and the landscape may be degraded. Environmental pollution includes littering, faecal contamination, noise, light, tourist infrastructure, and climbing equipment. In the concluding chapter of the book, the author provides a comprehensive and systematic description of the major environmental impacts of mountaineering, and develops a comprehensive conceptual framework to examine the impacts. The framework developed could be a useful start for future studies on the environmental impacts of mountaineering. The model emphasizes the connections and interdepen- dencies between individual elements of the natural environment, and each one of them should be considered carefully to bring the best desired effect in the manage- ment of environmental impacts in mountain regions. University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Ghazali Musa MD, PhD Malaysia Contents 1 Environmental Impacts of Mountaineering: General Introduction ..................................... 1 1.1 Introduction . ...................................... 1 1.2 The Mountain Environment: Universal Character and Representativeness . ............................... 2 1.3 Types of Impacts . ................................... 3 1.4 Additional Considerations . ............................. 4 1.5 Structure of the Book (Model) . 5 References .............................................. 5 2 Violations to the Geological Surface and Changes in Land Relief by Mountaineering Activity ..................... 9 2.1 Creation and Degradation of Tourist Routes .................. 9 2.2 Degradation of Cliff Face ............................... 14 2.3 A Brief Summary . ......................... 18 References .............................................. 19 3 Changes in Soil Cover and Vegetation by Mountaineering Activity ................................................ 23 3.1 Changes in Soil Cover and Vegetation in the Hiking and Trekking Zones . ................................. 23 3.2 Changes in Soil Cover and Vegetation in the Climbing Zone . 29 3.3 A Brief Summary . ......................... 33 References .............................................. 33 4 Faunistic Changes Causes by Mountaineering Activity ............ 39 4.1 The General Approach to Wildlife and Tourism Relation . 39 4.2 Faunistic Changes in the Hiking and Trekking Zones . 40 4.3 Faunistic Changes in the Climbing Zone .................... 42 4.4 A Brief Summary . ......................... 42 References .............................................. 43 ix x Contents 5 Environmental Pollution Causes by Mountaineering Activity ....... 45 5.1 Littering of the Alpine Environment ........................ 45 5.2 Human Waste Pollution . 48 5.3 Noise and Artificial Light Pollution ........................ 53 5.4 Landscape Pollution Caused by Tourism Infrastructure .......... 55 5.5 A Brief Summary . ......................... 57 References .............................................. 57 6 A Conceptual Framework for Investigating the Environmental Impacts of Mountaineering ................................. 61 6.1 A Conceptual Framework . 61 6.2 Conclusion .......................................... 63 References .............................................. 63 About the Author Michal Apollo is an assistant professor at the Institute of Geography, Department of Tourism and Regional Studies, Pedagogical University of Kraków (Poland), and a Fellow of Yale University’s Global Justice Program, New Haven (USA). He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. in earth science in the field of geography from the Pedagogical University of Cracow, and a PGCert in global development from the University
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