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ver the past 10 years, social networking has gradually assimilated into daily life. OYet, few question how the , or digitization of our interactions came to be. By understanding this global network and its history, we can gain insight about how our society regards networking technology today and how its use may evolve in the near future. 1"2&3#4'

!e origins of the Internet can be traced to a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider, Professor of Electrical Engineering at MIT, in August of 1962 In these memos, Licklider discussed the concept of a globally interconnected set of that he termed the “Intergalactic Network” (4). His idea relied on a few crucial developments. One of the most important was the improvement of computational tasking. Prior to 1957, computers only worked on one task at a time. !is limitation, called batch processing, was bypassed when Image courtesy of . Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png (accessed 3 October 2012) the idea of time-sharing emerged. Time- Figure 1: 2345678+093:574;<+:5+=745>+4=+>?3+=:7@>+-%&A+ sharing allows for a single to be !"#$%"&'()"&$*"+, transmitted data, regardless of type, into operated by multiple users at once. !is blocks of information called packets (6). discovery established the groundwork is a method that Each packet includes an address that is for information communication. !e establishes a connection between two used to route itself to the correct location origins of this method can be traced to computers via a continuous wire circuit. within a . !e main the Defense Advanced Research Project !e system protocol provides for constant problem with is that Agency (DARPA) which was founded in transfer of data that is protected from packets are sent individually. As a result, 1958. One of DARPA’s $rst projects was competing users (7). However, this they are sometimes delivered out of order. to plan a large-scale computer network to technique is ine"cient because it requires !e major bene$t of this technique, as increase the rate of information exchange. peak at all times, meaning that opposed to circuit switching, is that it !is project would eventually become the high levels of computational power would makes maximal use of available bandwidth ARPANET, whose development began in be required to allow the information to for all communication and is thus highly 1966 with the founding of the Information #ow at a continuously maximized rate. !is e"cient. Multiple users can simultaneously Processing Techniques O"ce (IPTO) head issue was discovered in 1965 when Roberts send information over the same network, by Licklider. While there, Licklider assisted connected two computers, the TX-2 at MIT keeping the rate of exchange high at all in the development of the time-sharing and the Q-32 at Santa Monica, via a circuit times. method. He also convinced many others, switching system. including , Bob Taylor, and 56-5789 Lawrence Roberts, of the importance of an -.$/0&'()"&$*"+, interconnected system. !e major obstacle By 1969, -to-host communication at the time in achieving this vision was Packet switching was proposed by was established via ARPANET with the deciding how to share information between Leonard Kleinrock in 1961, at the time connection of computers at Stanford and computers. Two strategies were proposed: a graduate student at MIT. !is method UCLA (2). Rather than communicating circuit switching and packet switching. serves as an alternative data transfer directly, mainframe computers used method to circuit switching. It groups all smaller computers called Interface Message

!" !"#$%&'$()'*!+#,#"!'"$+)-&'#*".)&/)012+*1+ Processors (IMPs) to handle all the network activities. !us, the mainframe computers were only in charge of the initialization of programs and retrieval of data "les. For the "rst connection, the Network Work Group (NWG) developed the Network Control Protocol (NCP), which described the procedure for sending and interpreting messages between computers. Later, the more e#cient Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) replaced the NCP. !e advantage of the TCP was that it featured the additional requirement of a veri"cation of "le transfer, which decreased errors associated with packet loss and failure to reach the intended destination.

!"#$%"$#& Image courtesy of Ke4roh. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_host_count_1988-2012_log_scale.png (accessed 3 October 2012) Figure 3:&4)56$&/'&78+%)8%+&$/*+*&')/9&:;!;!<:!&+/&!;!=>!=3 As Cold War tensions grew, fear of a nuclear attack led to concerns about during this time that the term “Internet” to remember, they are instead given user- the breakdown of communication came into use, as communication occured friendly names like www.amazon.com, networks. !e original design of domestic between multiple networks rather than www.facebook.com, or www.wikipedia. communication networks relied on a from just one machine to another. org, called Uniform Resource Locators central that was potentially vulnerable !e setup of this web was such that, (URLs). !e computers that ordinary users to attack. As such, the development during communications, the computers connect with are called clients because they of decentralized network architecture between the and the receiver would are connected indirectly to the Internet became a primary objective of the U.S. not to interfere with the message, but simply through an Internet Service Provider government. While waves had been serve as transfer nodes. !e procedure, on (ISP). A client accesses webpages by used to send messages in the past, scientists a basic level, would allow a message to pass communicating through its ISP to a , realized that these waves would not survive through all machines by making use of a which, a%er receiving a request, sends the disruptions in the air space caused by a layered channel. Nevertheless, as di$erent "le information back to the computer; nuclear explosion. At "rst, networks arose, so too did discrepancies webpages are simply "les on a server’s hard waves of longer wavelength, known as long in protocol. As such, the International drive. waves, were seen as the solution to this Organization for Standardization (ISO) In reality, everything connected to problem. !ey are not as easily distorted by designed the Open System the Internet has an IP address: computers, environmental inconsistencies. However, (OSI) model, which attempted to servers, and all the equipment in between, their short range rendered them ine$ective. standardize networks and divide channels such as routers. Routers are devices that Rather, the solution was a distributed into separate layers. As more computers direct packets around the Internet, helping network utilizing several computers called became connected, the TCP assimilated the them to reach their "nal destination. Each nodes. When information was sent over the preferences of the OSI model to produce packet is wrapped in several layers, the "rst network, it passed through a series of nodes the superior TCP-IP model, a standard of which consists of the IP address of the before arriving at its "nal destination. !us, that guaranteed compatibility between computer. As a passes a packet from this system provided multiple paths of networks. In 1990, the last of the ARPANET client to server, it adds its own IP address communication that could withstand the hardware was removed, and the Internet to the packet. When the server sends destruction of some of the nodes. It was was up and running. information back, the layers of IP addresses are unwrapped until the information '()&!#&*++&,(%-. returns to your computer. While the Internet has existed As a simpli"ed model, the Internet for a couple decades, many of its most can be said to behave like a electrical wire in&uential applications have only recently with various conducting attachments. been discovered. Online commerce, social Connected to this main wire are more media, and education have shown that the than a million special computers (servers) Internet has uses for businesses, individuals, that communicate directly with each other and government. (collectively called a network). Every server has a unique */01(" (IP) address. Like a postal address, an IP address provides a means for packets of Founded in 1994, Amazon began as an Image courtesy of Coolcaesar. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Web_ Server.jpg (accessed 3 October 2012) data to arrive at the correct destination. online bookstore based out of the garage Figure 2: #$%&'()*+&,%-&*%).%)&/'&+$%&0/)12&0(2%& 0%-3 Because actual IP addresses are di#cult of founder Je$ Bezos (1). With the venture

!"##$%&'% !" simple and elegant. Knowledge of these ideas grants us the ability to understand not only how the Internet came to be, but also the possibilities it holds for our future. As computing power improves, there is no doubt that the Internet will continue to play a fundamental role in business, daily life, and society.

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References

1. “Amazon.com, Inc. History.” Funding Universe Available at http://www.fundinguniverse.com/ company-histories/amazon-com-inc-history (14 October 2012). 2. M. Hauben, “History of ARPANET.” History of ARPANET. Available at http://www.dei.isep.ipp. pt/~acc/docs/arpa.html (14 October 2012). 3. “History of Wikipedia.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/History_of_Wikipedia (14 October 2012). 4. Pelkey, James. “Networking: Vision and Packet Switching 1959 - 1968 Intergalactic Vision to Arpanet.” Entrepreneurial Capitalism Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Original-facebook.jpg (accessed 3 October 2012) and Innovation: A History of Computer Figure 3: #$%&'()*)+,-&.,/%0''1&2%03)4%5&.,/%0''1&2,3&-,6+/$%7&-%33&4$,+&,&7%/,7%&,*'8&)+&9::;5&& Communications 1968-1988. Available at http://www. historyofcomputercommunications.info/Book/2/2.1- capital of investors Nick Hanauer and Tom their pictures, Facebook’s popularity and IntergalacticNetwork_1962-1964.html (14 October Alburg, Amazon entered the matinstream potential for expansion to other colleges 2012). Internet. Amazon survived the burst of the were made quickly apparent. Later that year, 5. S. Phillips, “A Brief History of Facebook,” !e Guardian (24 July 2007). Available at http://www. dot-com-bubble of the 1990s, but it was the website was opened to the rest of the guardian.co.uk/technology/2007/jul/25/media. not until Bezos added the option to write Ivy League and gradually to all universities newmedia (14 October 2012). book reviews on the website that Amazon across North America. Over the next eight 6. Roberts, Lawrence G. “!e Evolution of Packet became the Internet titan it is today. By years, Facebook would become a sensation, Switching.” Available at http://www.packet.cc/"les/ ev-packet-sw.html (14 October 2012). 1997, Amazon had generated more than revolutionizing online social activity with 7. Q. J. Zhang, F. Farahmand, “Circuit Switching” $15 million in revenue and was open for more than 800 million active users (5). (2007). Available at http://web.ccsu.edu/technology/ public consumption. !e website then farahmand/ccsu/courses/cet543/resources/ch69_ commenced the movement toward its ()')*$+)" circuit_switcing.pdf> (14 October 2012). current business model when it expanded Wikipedia was originally created in its merchandize to include the sale of CDs 2001 to complement NuPedia, an earlier and movies. By 1998, electronics, video project by Jimmy Wales to produce an games, toys, and many other products online, free-content encyclopedia that was had been added to the online store. !is edited only by experts (3). Wale’s goal was trend has continued to date, with millions that Wikipedia could supplement academic of items ranging from clothes and beauty articles without the rigorous quality products to house supplies and electronics requirements known to delay academic now available for purchase on Amazon. publications. While this idea was initially In 1999, Time Magazine named Bezos met with some resistance, its popularity was “Person of the Year,” recognizing the quickly recognized. By 2003, the number company’s extraordinary success. Today, of English Wikipedia articles surpassed Amazon stands as the largest online store in 100,000. Today, as the world’s sixth most the world and is credited with popularizing popular website, Wikipedia features over online shopping as we know it (1). 23 million articles in 284 languages and is !"#$%&&' estimated to receive more than 10 billion page views every month (3). Facebook established a new medium for online social interactions. !e company ,&-#./0)&- was founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg While the technical details surrounding and a few of his friends as undergraduates the implementation of the Internet are at Harvard (5). Originating as a means complex, the overarching concepts are for cataloguing Harvard students through

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