Paleoceanography of the Atlantic-Mediterranean Exchange

PALEOCEANOGRAPHY OF THE ATLANTIC- MEDITERRANEAN EXCHANGE: OVERVIEW AND FIRST QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATIC FORCING M. Rogerson,1 E. J. Rohling,2 G. R. Bigg,3 and J. Ramirez1 Received 2 October 2011; revised 10 March 2012; accepted 18 March 2012; published 9 May 2012. [1] The Mediterranean Sea provides a major route for heat that (1) changes in the vertical position of the plume of and freshwater loss from the North Atlantic and thus is an Mediterranean water in the Atlantic are controlled by the verti- important cause of the high density of Atlantic waters. In cal density structure of the Atlantic; (2) a prominent Early Holo- addition to the traditional view that loss of fresh water via cene “contourite gap” within the Gulf of Cadiz is a response to the Mediterranean enhances the general salinity of the North reduced buoyancy loss in the eastern Mediterranean during Atlantic, and the interior of the eastern North Atlantic in the time of “sapropel 1” deposition; (3) changes in buoyancy particular, it should be noted that Mediterranean water out- loss from the Mediterranean during MIS3 caused changes in flowing at Gibraltar is in fact cooler than compensating the bottom velocity field in the Gulf of Cadiz, but we note inflowing water. The consequence is that the Mediterranean that the likely cause is reduced freshwater loss and not is also a region of heat loss from the Atlantic and contributes enhanced heat loss; and (4) strong exchange at Gibraltar dur- to its large-scale cooling. Uniquely, this system can be under- ing Atlantic freshening phases implies that the Gibraltar stood physically via the constraints placed on it by a single exchange provides a strong negative feedback to reduced hydraulic structure: the Gibraltar exchange. Here we review Atlantic meridional overturning. Given the very counterintu- the existing knowledge about the physical structure of the itive way in which the Strait of Gibraltar system behaves, Gibraltar exchange today and the evidential basis for argu- we recommend that without quantitative supporting work, ments that it has been different in the past. Using a series of qualitative interpretations of how the system has responded quantitative experiments, we then test prevailing concepts to past external forcing are unlikely to be robust. regarding the potential causes of these past changes. We find Citation: Rogerson, M., E. J. Rohling, G. R. Bigg, and J. Ramirez (2012), Paleoceanography of the Atlantic- Mediterranean exchange: Overview and first quantitative assessment of climatic forcing, Rev. Geophys., 50, RG2003, doi:10.1029/2011RG000376. 1. INTRODUCTION 2000]. Beyond the immediate impact of the plume of warm and saline water formed by the Mediterranean Outflow, which [2] Exchange of water between the Mediterranean Sea and is a prominent feature between 20N and 50N as far west as Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar exerts a major control on circulation in the Mediterranean [Bryden and 30 W[Iorga and Lozier, 1999], water mass transformation in Stommel, 1984], and also significantly influences the hydrog- the Gulf of Cadiz drives the formation of the Azores frontal raphy of the eastern North Atlantic [Johnson and Stevens, system [Jia, 2000; Özgökmen et al., 2001]. This effectively traps a warm and saline pool of water, the “Madeira Mode” water, south of 35N[Pollard and Pu, 1985] (Figure 1). Moreover, as surface water flowing into the Mediterranean is 1 Geography Department, University of Hull, Hull, UK. both warmer (16.6C–22.6C, varying seasonally) and less 2School of Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK. saline (36.5 Sp) than the subsurface outflowing water 3 Department of Geography, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK. (12.9 C and 38.5 Sp)[MEDAR Group, 2002], the action of the Gibraltar exchange enhances North Atlantic density, Corresponding author: M. Rogerson, Geography Department, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Hull HU6 7RX, UK. which helps to precondition the North Atlantic for deep ([email protected]) convection [Bigg et al., 2003]. Copyright 2012 by the American Geophysical Union. Reviews of Geophysics, 50, RG2003 / 2012 1of32 8755-1209/12/2011RG000376 Paper number 2011RG000376 RG2003 RG2003 ROGERSON ET AL.: ATLANTIC-MEDITERRANEAN EXCHANGE RG2003 Figure 1. Schematic surface circulation (gray lines with arrows) and pathway (black lines with arrows) of the Mediterranean Outflow Water in the North Atlantic. Dashed lines show major fronts. Contours show salinity at the mid-depth isopycnal typical of the modern Mediterranean Outflow derived from the mean climatology of Iorga and Lozier [1999]. GoC is Gulf of Cadiz. [3] Considering its role in net freshwater export alone, the North Atlantic would be reduced by up to 1 C[Wu et al., Mediterranean is a significant player in North Atlantic den- 2007]. Although it may not be the dominant control on sity enhancement. Of the 0.18 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3 sÀ1)of deep convection in the Atlantic, the modern Gibraltar net freshwater loss experienced by the North Atlantic system exchange therefore is undoubtedly capable of altering it. As a [Broecker, 1991], around 0.05 Sv is lost via net evaporation consequence, it is essential that the behavior of the Gibraltar from the Mediterranean [Bethoux, 1979]. It remains contro- exchange is constrained in order to understand the Atlantic versial whether the Mediterranean Outflow Water directly Meridional Overturning Circulation under states that were penetrates the Nordic Seas [Reid, 1979], with several authors different to that of today. Fortunately, the oceanic areas providing evidence against this notion [Hill and Mitchelson- adjacent to the strait, both to the east (Alboran Sea) and to Jacob, 1993; New et al., 2001]. However, recent reanalysis of the west (Gulf of Cadiz; Figure 2a), have thick deposits of regional climatology data indicates that Mediterranean water sediment from which records of the past exchange can be does indeed pass directly into the Nordic Seas, albeit only extracted. under high-index conditions of the North Atlantic Oscillation [5] On millennial timescales, the Gibraltar exchange can [Lozier and Stewart, 2008]. The remaining Mediterranean be considered a mechanism of enhancing Atlantic density water that fails to penetrate northward of the Greenland- which is controlled by temperature and humidity of air over Scotland ridge is thought to be mixed to the surface during the Mediterranean basin, runoff from North Africa and deep winter convection to the west of Ireland, within the path southern Europe and the properties of the part of the eastern of the North Atlantic Drift [New et al., 2001]. Consequently, North Atlantic abutting the Iberian and Moroccan margins. it now seems beyond question that the North Atlantic density Climatically driven changes in highly diverse parts of the enhancement driven by the Gibraltar exchange is transferred Earth system are therefore integrated by the Mediterranean, to key sites of NADW formation or modification, either transferred to the North Atlantic as a change in its density directly (high NAO) or indirectly (low NAO). budget and ultimately transmitted to the Atlantic Meridional [4] Although circulation modeling generally suggests a Overturning Circulation as the primary means to balance small impact from altering conditions at Gibraltar [Rahmstorf, these changes in the density budget. Southern high latitude 1998], some impact is a robust feature of these models [Bigg correlates with reduced sea level (cf. higher coherence of sea et al., 2003]. Recent investigation of this impact, using a level records with Antarctic temperature than Greenland tem- coupled model and a Mediterranean Outflow parameterization perature [Rohling et al., 2009]) and consequently with reduced that follows the marginal sea boundary condition approach Gibraltar exchange flux (higher density, deeper settling in the [Price and Yang, 1998], showed that without connection at open Atlantic). This will tend to weaken the degree to which Gibraltar, meridional overturning in the Atlantic would be Mediterranean-derived water can affect the properties of slowed by about 15%, while sea surface temperature in the surface water in the North Atlantic. Given the remarkable 2of32 RG2003 ROGERSON ET AL.: ATLANTIC-MEDITERRANEAN EXCHANGE RG2003 Figure 2. (a) Surface sediment in the Gulf of Cadiz showing the flowpath of the Mediterranean Outflow (modified from Hernández-Molina et al. [2003] and Rogerson et al. [2005]). (b) Topography of the Strait of Gibraltar, from Lacombe and Richez [1982]. coherence between Mediterranean and Greenland tempera- North Atlantic circulation. We first review the physical tures [Cacho et al., 1999], northern high-latitude cooling knowledge of hydraulic structures associated with the will enhance temperature loss from Mediterranean water Gibraltar exchange today, and then the paleoceanographic (enhancing buoyancy loss) but also reduce evaporation knowledge of the exchange in the past (qualitatively and (reducing buoyancy loss) and so plays an ambiguous role in quantitatively). Finally, we provide an overview of out- regulating the role of the Gibraltar exchange in controlling standing problems that paleoceanographers and dynamicists North Atlantic water masses. Low-latitude changes in atmo- face in determining the range of possible behaviors of the spheric circulation and the latent heat pump alter the latitude Gibraltar exchange. and magnitude of the African summer monsoon

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