DOCSLIB.ORG

Cyanobacterial Toxins: Anatoxin-A

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Cyanobacterial Toxins: Anatoxin-A WHO/SDE/WSH/xxxx English only Cyanobacterial toxins: Anatoxin-a Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality and Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments Version for Public Review Nov 2019 © World Health Organization 20XX Preface Information on cyanobacterial toxins, including anatoxins, is comprehensively reviewed in a recent volume to be published by the World Health Organization, “Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water” (TCiW; Chorus & Welker, in press). This covers chemical properties of the toxins and information on the cyanobacteria producing them as well as guidance on assessing the risks of their occurrence, monitoring and management. In contrast, this background document focuses on reviewing the toxicological information available for guideline derivation and the considerations for deriving the guideline values for microcystins in water. Sections 1-3 and 8 are largely summaries of respective chapters in TCiW and references to original studies can be found therein. To be written by WHO Secretariat Acknowledgements To be written by WHO Secretariat Abbreviations used in text AF drinking-water allocation factor ALP alkaline phosphatase ALT alanine aminotransferase ASP aspartate aminotransferase ATX anatoxin-a bw body weight C daily drinking-water consumption CYN cylindrospermopsin dw dry weight DWI daily water intake ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay FSH follicle stimulating hormone GD gestational day GGT gamma-glutamyl transferase GSH glutathione GST-P glutathione S-transferase placental form-positive GTX gonyautoxin GV guideline value HBV hepatitis B virus HPLC high performance liquid chromatography HTX homoanatoxin i.p. intraperitoneal i.v. intravenous LC-MS liquid chromatography – mass spectrometry LDH lactate dehydrogenase LH luteinizing hormone LOAEL lowest-observed-adverse-affect level MC microcystin(s) NOAEL no-observed-adverse-affect level P fraction of the TDI allocated to drinking-water PoD point of departure PP1 protein phosphatase-1 PP2A protein phosphatase-2A PSP Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning PST paralytic shellfish toxin STX saxitoxin STXOL saxitoxinol STXs saxitoxins, comprising all analogues TDI tolerable daily intake UF uncertainty factor Table of Contents 1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 7 2.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION ..................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Identity .......................................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties ................................................................................. 7 2.3 Organoleptic Properties ................................................................................................ 7 2.4 Major Uses and Sources................................................................................................ 8 2 ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE ............................................................. 8 2.1 Air .................................................................................................................................. 8 2.2 Food .............................................................................................................................. 8 2.3 Water ............................................................................................................................ 9 2.4 Estimated total exposure and relative contribution of drinking-water ........................ 9 3 KINETICS AND METABOLISM IN LABORATORY ANIMALS AND HUMANS ............................. 9 Absorption ................................................................................................................................ 9 Distribution ............................................................................................................................. 10 Metabolism ............................................................................................................................. 10 Elimination .............................................................................................................................. 10 4 EFFECTS ON HUMANS ......................................................................................................... 10 5 EFFECTS ON EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS AND IN VITRO SYSTEMS ........................................ 10 Acute exposure ....................................................................................................................... 10 Short-term exposure ............................................................................................................... 11 Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity ............................................................................................ 12 In vitro systems ....................................................................................................................... 12 Mode of action ........................................................................................................................ 12 6 OVERALL DATABASE AND QUALITY OF EVIDENCE .............................................................. 12 6.1 Summary of Health Effects ......................................................................................... 12 6.2 Quality of Evidence ..................................................................................................... 12 7 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................................. 13 7.1 Source control ............................................................................................................. 13 7.2 Monitoring .................................................................................................................. 14 7.3 Analytical methods and achievability ......................................................................... 14 7.4 Treatment methods and performance ....................................................................... 15 8 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................... 15 8.1 Derivation of the guideline-value ............................................................................... 15 8.2 Considerations in applying the health-based reference values ................................. 16 REFERENCES (still need some tidying up) .............................................................................. 17 1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY [to be completed] 2.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 2.1 Identity Anatoxin-a (ATX; CAS Reference Number 64285-06-9), or 2-acetyl-9-azabicyclo[4:2:1]non- 2-ene, is a tropane-related bicyclic, secondary amine alkaloid. Figure 2.1 shows the presence of an additional methyl group (CH) on carbon atom 11 (C11) which differentiates homoanatoxin- a (HTX; CAS Reference Number 142926-86-1; Fig. 2.1) from its analog ATX. Both molecules share almost identical toxicological properties. Other derivatives of ATX have been identified in cyanobacterial cultures or in field samples, including 2,3-epoxy-anatoxin-a, 4-hydroxy- and 4-oxo-derivatives, dihydroanatoxin-a and dihydrohomoanatoxin-a, that possibly represent degradation products (TCiW; (Testai, in press). H H a N b N O O Figure 2.1: Structures of anatoxin-a (a) and homoanatoxin-a (b) 2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties ATX has a molecular formula of C10H15NO and an average molecular weight of 165.232 Da (monoisotopic MW 165.115 Da). ATX is highly soluble in water with a computed Kow of 0.8 and has a high boiling point of 291°C. It has a density of 1.04 and a low vapor pressure of 0.002. Other physico-chemical properties such as the soil adsorption coefficient (Koc), how it volatizes from water, and its distribution in the atmosphere (Henry’s Law constant) are unknown. Limited information on the chemical breakdown, biodegradation and distribution in the environment is available (TCiW; (Testai, in press). Table 2.1: Physical and chemical properties of anatoxins. N/A: not applicable. Property anatoxin-a homoanatoxin CASRN1 64285-06-9 142926-86-1 Chemical Formula C10H15NO C11H17NO Average MW2 (g/mole) 165.237 179.264 Monoisotopic MW (g/mole) 165.115 179.131 Color/Physical State Boiling Point 291°C N/A 3 Kow 0.8 1.3 Solubility in Water High High Solubility in Other Solvents 1 Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number 2 Molecular Weight 3logP computation with XLogP3 (Cheng et al., 2007) 2.3 Organoleptic Properties While none of the known cyanobacterial toxins have been shown to affect the taste or odour of water, some cyanobacterial species produce other compounds such as geosmin and methyl- isoborneol that do cause taste and odour of water, thus indicating the presence of cyanobacteria in raw water. However, as this applies only to some species, the absence of these typical tastes 7 and odours are not a reliable indicator for the absence of cyanotoxins. Taste or odour thresholds in water are 0.004 ppb for geosmin and 0.006 ppb for methyl-isoborneol (TCiW, Kaloudis, in press). 2.4 Major Uses and Sources ATX occurs naturally (although high concentrations are typical for waterbodies influenced by human activity, i.e. effluents from wastewater or run-off from agricultural land) and there are no known commercial applications. ATX is produced by a variety of cyanobacteria species belonging to Nostocales (Anabaena flos-aquae, A. lemmermannii,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Guidelines for Design and Sampling for Cyanobacterial Toxin and Taste-And-Odor Studies in Lakes and Reservoirs
    Guidelines for Design and Sampling for Cyanobacterial Toxin and Taste-and-Odor Studies in Lakes and Reservoirs Scientific Investigations Report 2008–5038 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey Photo 1 Photo 3 Photo 2 Front cover. Photograph 1: Beach sign warning of the presence of a cyanobacterial bloom, June 29, 2006 (photograph taken by Jennifer L. Graham, U.S. Geological Survey). Photograph 2: Sampling a near-shore accumulation of Microcystis, August 8, 2006 (photograph taken by Jennifer L. Graham, U.S. Geological Survey). Photograph 3: Mixed bloom of Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, and Microcystis, August 10, 2006 (photograph taken by Jennifer L. Graham, U.S. Geological Survey). Background photograph: Near-shore accumulation of Microcystis, August 8, 2006 (photograph taken by Jennifer L. Graham, U.S. Geological Survey). Guidelines for Design and Sampling for Cyanobacterial Toxin and Taste-and-Odor Studies in Lakes and Reservoirs By Jennifer L. Graham, Keith A. Loftin, Andrew C. Ziegler, and Michael T. Meyer Scientific Investigations Report 2008–5038 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior DIRK KEMPTHORNE, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey Mark D. Myers, Director U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2008 For product and ordering information: World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment: World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Toxicology Mechanisms Underlying the Neurotoxicity Induced by Glyphosate-Based Herbicide in Immature Rat Hippocampus
    Toxicology 320 (2014) 34–45 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Toxicology j ournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/toxicol Mechanisms underlying the neurotoxicity induced by glyphosate-based herbicide in immature rat hippocampus: Involvement of glutamate excitotoxicity Daiane Cattani, Vera Lúcia de Liz Oliveira Cavalli, Carla Elise Heinz Rieg, Juliana Tonietto Domingues, Tharine Dal-Cim, Carla Inês Tasca, ∗ Fátima Regina Mena Barreto Silva, Ariane Zamoner Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil a r a t i b s c l t r e a i n f o c t Article history: Previous studies demonstrate that glyphosate exposure is associated with oxidative damage and neu- Received 23 August 2013 rotoxicity. Therefore, the mechanism of glyphosate-induced neurotoxic effects needs to be determined. Received in revised form 12 February 2014 ® The aim of this study was to investigate whether Roundup (a glyphosate-based herbicide) leads to Accepted 6 March 2014 neurotoxicity in hippocampus of immature rats following acute (30 min) and chronic (pregnancy and Available online 15 March 2014 lactation) pesticide exposure. Maternal exposure to pesticide was undertaken by treating dams orally ® with 1% Roundup (0.38% glyphosate) during pregnancy and lactation (till 15-day-old). Hippocampal Keywords: ® slices from 15 day old rats were acutely exposed to Roundup (0.00005–0.1%) during 30 min and experi- Glyphosate 45 2+ Calcium ments were carried out to determine whether glyphosate affects Ca influx and cell viability. Moreover, 14 we investigated the pesticide effects on oxidative stress parameters, C-␣-methyl-amino-isobutyric acid Glutamatergic excitotoxicity 14 Oxidative stress ( C-MeAIB) accumulation, as well as glutamate uptake, release and metabolism.
    [Show full text]
  • Crews Lab Discovers Inflammatory Mechanisms Underlying Alcohol
    research alcohol actions on brain, liver, pancreas, fetus, the The Director’s Column endocrine system and the immune system, has contributed Thanks for your gifts to our Center! to Crews’ insights. Alternatively, I suspect that he A. Leslie Morrow, Ph.D. assembled this diverse group of researchers to study alcohol Dean’’’ s Club Ms. Carolyn S. Corn Mr. and Mrs. Ben Madore Associate Director, actions across so many systems of the body for the very Ms. Harriet W. Crisp Bowles Center for (annual gifts of $5000 and above) Ms. Regina J. Mahon purpose of discovering how the complex systemic and Mr. and Mrs. Ray Damerell Alcohol Studies Dr. William Maixner molecular roles of alcohol go awry in the disease of Center Line James A. Bowles Mr. Lewis A. Dancy Mrs. Melissa M. Mann Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies alcoholism. Mr. John N. Howard, Jr. Mr. F. E. Danielus Mr. and Mrs. H. J. McCarthy School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Mr. and Mrs. Robert F. Schaecher Mr. Stephen M. Dean and Ms. Patricia L. Ms. Michelle McCarthy This integration of research across systems, organs, brain Ms. Ann Lewallen Spencer Amend Mr. and Mrs. Robert H. McConville, Jr. Dr. Fulton Crews’ brilliance can be attributed in part to regions, human development and the progression to Our mission is to conduct, coordinate, and promote basic and clinical research on the causes, prevention, and treatment of alcoholism and alcoholic disease. Tennessee Medical Foundation Ms. Elizabeth L. Deaver Mr. and Mrs. Loyce L. McCormick his understanding that human beings are not just a alcoholism is the hallmark of research in the Bowles Center Ms.
    [Show full text]
  • Cyanobacterial Peptide Toxins
    CYANOBACTERIAL PEPTIDE TOXINS CYANOBACTERIAL PEPTIDE TOXINS 1. Exposure data 1.1 Introduction Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, are widely distributed in fresh, brackish and marine environments, in soil and on moist surfaces. They are an ancient group of prokaryotic organisms that are found all over the world in environments as diverse as Antarctic soils and volcanic hot springs, often where no other vegetation can exist (Knoll, 2008). Cyanobacteria are considered to be the organisms responsible for the early accumulation of oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere (Knoll, 2008). The name ‘blue- green’ algae derives from the fact that these organisms contain a specific pigment, phycocyanin, which gives many species a slightly blue-green appearance. Cyanobacterial metabolites can be lethally toxic to wildlife, domestic livestock and even humans. Cyanotoxins fall into three broad groups of chemical structure: cyclic peptides, alkaloids and lipopolysaccharides. Table 1.1 gives an overview of the specific toxic substances within these broad groups that are produced by different genera of cyanobacteria together, with their primary target organs in mammals. However, not all cyanobacterial blooms are toxic and neither are all strains within one species. Toxic and non-toxic strains show no predictable difference in appearance and, therefore, physicochemical, biochemical and biological methods are essential for the detection of cyanobacterial toxins. The most frequently reported cyanobacterial toxins are cyclic heptapeptide toxins known as microcystins which can be isolated from several species of the freshwater genera Microcystis , Planktothrix ( Oscillatoria ), Anabaena and Nostoc . More than 70 structural variants of microcystins are known. A structurally very similar class of cyanobacterial toxins is nodularins ( < 10 structural variants), which are cyclic pentapeptide hepatotoxins that are found in the brackish-water cyanobacterium Nodularia .
    [Show full text]
  • Evaluation of Ozonation on Levels of the Off-Flavor Compounds Geosmin and 2-Methylisoborneol in Water and Rainbow Trout Oncorhyn
    Aquacultural Engineering 43 (2010) 46–50 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Aquacultural Engineering journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aqua-online Evaluation of ozonation on levels of the off-flavor compounds geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol in water and rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss from recirculating aquaculture systems Kevin K. Schrader a,∗, John W. Davidson b, Agnes M. Rimando a, Steven T. Summerfelt b a United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, National Center for Natural Products Research, Post Office Box 8048, University, MS 38677-8048, USA View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE b The Conservation Fund Freshwater Institute, 1098 Turner Road, Shepherdstown, WV 25443, USA provided by Elsevier - Publisher Connector article info abstract Article history: Common “off-flavors” in fish cultured in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) are “earthy” and “musty” Received 29 January 2010 due to the presence of the off-flavor metabolites geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), respectively. Accepted 17 May 2010 Previously, ozone addition has been applied to RAS at relatively low doses to break refractory organic molecules (i.e., reducing color), microflocculate fine particulate matter (i.e., increasing solids removal), Keywords: and oxidize nitrite to nitrate, but the effect of ozone addition at these dosing rates on levels of off-flavor Aquaculture compounds was unknown. Ozonation has been used in municipal drinking water facilities to reduce the Geosmin levels of these compounds, to improve water taste, and to subsequently reduce consumer complaints. In 2-Methylisoborneol Off-flavor this study, the effects of ozone addition to the inlet water of the RAS culture tanks on levels of geosmin Ozone and MIB in the culture water and fish flesh were evaluated.
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing Neurotoxicity of Drugs of Abuse
    National Institute on Drug Abuse RESEARCH MONOGRAPH SERIES Assessing Neurotoxicity of Drugs of Abuse 136 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services • Public Health Service • National Institutes of Health Assessing Neurotoxicity of Drugs of Abuse Editor: Lynda Erinoff, Ph.D. NIDA Research Monograph 136 1993 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES Public Health Service National Institutes of Health National Institute on Drug Abuse 5600 Fishers Lane Rockville, MD 20857 ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph is based on the papers and discussions from a technical review on “Assessing Neurotoxicity of Drugs of Abuse” held on May 20-21, 1991, in Bethesda, MD. The technical review was sponsored by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). COPYRIGHT STATUS NIDA has obtained permission from the copyright holders to reproduce certain previously published material as noted in the text. Further reproduction of this copyrighted material is permitted only as part of a reprinting of the entire publication or chapter. For any other use, the copyright holder’s permission is required. All other material in this volume except quoted passages from copyrighted sources is in the public domain and may be used or reproduced without permission from the Institute or the authors. Citation of the source is appreciated. Opinions expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions or official policy of the National Institute on Drug Abuse or any other part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The U.S. Government does not endorse or favor any specific commercial product or company.
    [Show full text]
  • Toxicity Equivalence Factors for Marine Biotoxins Associated with Bivalve Molluscs TECHNICAL PAPER
    JOINT FAO/WHO Toxicity Equivalency Factors for Marine Biotoxins Associated with Bivalve Molluscs TECHNICAL PAPER Cover photograph: © FAOemergencies JOINT FAO/WHO Toxicity equivalence factors for marine biotoxins associated with bivalve molluscs TECHNICAL PAPER FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION ROME, 2016 Recommended citation: FAO/WHO. 2016. Technical paper on Toxicity Equivalency Factors for Marine Biotoxins Associated with Bivalve Molluscs. Rome. 108 pp. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) or of the World Health Organization (WHO) concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these are or have been endorsed or recommended by FAO or WHO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. All reasonable precautions have been taken by FAO and WHO to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall FAO and WHO be liable for damages arising from its use.
    [Show full text]
  • Geosmin and 2-MIB Removal by Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Processes in the Republic of Korea
    water Article Geosmin and 2-MIB Removal by Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Processes in the Republic of Korea Keug Tae Kim 1 and Yong-Gyun Park 2,* 1 Department of Environmental & Energy Engineering, Suwon University, 17 Wauan-gil, Bongdam-eup, Hwaseong-si 18323, Korea; [email protected] 2 Pioneer Team Research Institute, GS Engineering &Construction, 33, Jong-ro, Jongro-gu, Seoul 03159, Korea * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Due to climate change, population growth, industrialization, urbanization, and water contamination, it is becoming more difficult to secure and supply clean and safe drinking water. One of the challenges many water utilities often face is the taste and odor (T&O) problem in drinking water treatment plants, mostly associated with geosmin and 2-MIB. These representative T&O compounds are mainly produced by the metabolism of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), especially in summer. In this study, the correlation between algae blooms and T&O compounds was identified in the intake and raw water of a large-scale water treatment plant in the Republic of Korea. The removal efficiency of geosmin and 2-MIB by each treatment process was intensively evaluated. According to the obtained results, ozonation and granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption were more effective for removing the troublesome compounds compared to other water treatment processes, such as coagulation/flocculation, filtration, and chlorination. Because of their seasonal concentration variation and different removal rates, optimal operation methods need to be developed and implemented for drinking water treatment plants to solve the T&O problems. Citation: Kim, K.T.; Park, Y.-G.
    [Show full text]
  • Cyanobacterial Toxins: Saxitoxins
    WHO/SDE/WSH/xxxxx English only Cyanobacterial toxins: Saxitoxins Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality and Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments Version for Public Review Nov 2019 © World Health Organization 20XX Preface Information on cyanobacterial toxins, including saxitoxins, is comprehensively reviewed in a recent volume to be published by the World Health Organization, “Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water” (TCiW; Chorus & Welker, in press). This covers chemical properties of the toxins and information on the cyanobacteria producing them as well as guidance on assessing the risks of their occurrence, monitoring and management. In contrast, this background document focuses on reviewing the toxicological information available for guideline value derivation and the considerations for deriving the guideline values for saxitoxin in water. Sections 1-3 and 8 are largely summaries of respective chapters in TCiW and references to original studies can be found therein. To be written by WHO Secretariat Acknowledgements To be written by WHO Secretariat 5 Abbreviations used in text ARfD Acute Reference Dose bw body weight C Volume of drinking water assumed to be consumed daily by an adult GTX Gonyautoxin i.p. intraperitoneal i.v. intravenous LOAEL Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level neoSTX Neosaxitoxin NOAEL No Observed Adverse Effect Level P Proportion of exposure assumed to be due to drinking water PSP Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning PST paralytic shellfish toxin STX saxitoxin STXOL saxitoxinol
    [Show full text]
  • Guanidinium Toxins and Their Interactions with Voltage-Gated Sodium Ion Channels
    marine drugs Review Guanidinium Toxins and Their Interactions with Voltage-Gated Sodium Ion Channels Lorena M. Durán-Riveroll 1,* and Allan D. Cembella 2 ID 1 CONACYT—Instituto de Ciencias del Mary Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico 04510, Mexico 2 Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar-und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +52-55-5623-0222 (ext. 44639) Received: 29 June 2017; Accepted: 27 September 2017; Published: 13 October 2017 Abstract: Guanidinium toxins, such as saxitoxin (STX), tetrodotoxin (TTX) and their analogs, are naturally occurring alkaloids with divergent evolutionary origins and biogeographical distribution, but which share the common chemical feature of guanidinium moieties. These guanidinium groups confer high biological activity with high affinity and ion flux blockage capacity for voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV). Members of the STX group, known collectively as paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are produced among three genera of marine dinoflagellates and about a dozen genera of primarily freshwater or brackish water cyanobacteria. In contrast, toxins of the TTX group occur mainly in macrozoa, particularly among puffer fish, several species of marine invertebrates and a few terrestrial amphibians. In the case of TTX and analogs, most evidence suggests that symbiotic bacteria are the origin of the toxins, although endogenous biosynthesis independent from bacteria has not been excluded. The evolutionary origin of the biosynthetic genes for STX and analogs in dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria remains elusive. These highly potent molecules have been the subject of intensive research since the latter half of the past century; first to study the mode of action of their toxigenicity, and later as tools to characterize the role and structure of NaV channels, and finally as therapeutics.
    [Show full text]
  • Aquatic Microbial Ecology 69:135
    Vol. 69: 135–143, 2013 AQUATIC MICROBIAL ECOLOGY Published online May 28 doi: 10.3354/ame01628 Aquat Microb Ecol A cultivation-independent approach for the genetic and cyanotoxin characterization of colonial cyanobacteria Yannick Lara1, Alexandre Lambion1, Diana Menzel2, Geoffrey A. Codd2, Annick Wilmotte1,* 1Center for Protein Engineering, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium 2Division of Molecular Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK ABSTRACT: To bypass the constraint of cyanobacterial strain isolation and cultivation, a combina- tion of whole genome amplification (WGA) and enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) for micro- cystin toxins (MCs) was tested on individual colonies of Microcystis and Woronichinia, taken directly from aquatic environments. Genomic DNA of boiled cells was amplified by multiple strand displacement amplification (MDA), followed by several specific PCR reactions to character- ize the genotype of each colony. Sequences of 3 different housekeeping genes (ftsZ, gltX, and recA), of 3 MC biosynthesis genes (mcyA, mcyB, and mcyE), and the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) were analyzed for 11 colonies of Microcystis. MCs were detected and quantified by ELISA in 7 of the 11 Microcystis colonies tested, in agreement with the detection of mcy genes. Sequence types (ST) based on the concatenated sequences of housekeeping genes from cyanobacterial colonies from Belgian water bodies appeared to be endemic when compared to those of strains described in the literature. One colony appeared to belong to a yet undiscovered lineage. A simi- lar protocol was used for 6 colonies of the genus Woronichinia, a taxon that is very difficult to cul- tivate in the laboratory.
    [Show full text]
  • Harmful Algal Blooms (Habs) Program Guide
    HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS (HABS) PROGRAM GUIDE www.dec.ny.gov Contents List of Tables ....................................................................................................................ii List of Figures ...................................................................................................................ii Abbreviations and Acronyms ........................................................................................... iii 1. Executive Summary ................................................................................................. 1 2. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 2 2.1. Purpose of this Document ............................................................................... 2 2.2. Scope, Jurisdiction and Audience ................................................................... 2 2.3. Background ..................................................................................................... 2 2.4. Agency Responsibilities .................................................................................. 4 3. DEC Bloom Status Designation in New York ........................................................... 8 3.1. Bloom Status Criteria ...................................................................................... 8 3.2. Threshold Development ................................................................................ 12 3.3. Cyanotoxins and Other Harmful Compounds ..............................................
    [Show full text]