Click here for Full Issue of Fidelio Volume 7, Number 2, Summer 1998 ACADEMIES A Dream of Alexander the Great, at the Crossroads of East and West The Alexandria Library Will Be Reborn

he news released by the reported to have been the TEgyptian government, founder of the first public that the international project library in . It was to rebuild the old library of known that the great drama- Alexandria was nearing com- tist Euripides (480-406 B.C.) pletion, must be classed not had a large collection of merely as an item of specialist books, although details about interest, but as an event of them are lacking. Plato (427- world historical importance. 348 B.C.) collected manu- For, the Alexandria library scripts during his many trav- was not merely one among els to Magna Graecia, and his many ancient institutions, to student Clearchus (d. 353 B.C.) be commemorated for the was reported to have founded sake of antiquity: it was a a library. In Pergamum, model of the educational where a school of the Stoics institutions required to create was founded, the library, geniuses, today as then. founded by Eumenes II, was Throughout history, known as the Pergameniana, mankind has created institu- and boasted 200,000 rolls of tions of culture which prove papyrus or parchment. (From

to be the crucibles for scien- www.arttoday.com the second century B.C., tific advance, among them, Scholars consult scrolls in one of the halls of the ancient library of Pergamum was the center of the Academy at Athens, the Alexandria, in this Nineteenth-century illustration. the production of parchment, great Madrasas of the Islamic which was the writing materi- Renaissance, the cathedral schools of and other works. So, too, the immensely al made from the skins of animals, used medieval Europe, Groote’s Brethren of rich culture of Andalusia in Muslim to produce books.) Antioch was another the Common Life, the Humboldt educa- Spain, was largely a product of the inde- site of a great library in the ancient tion system, the Ecole Polytechnique of fatigable efforts of leaders like Abd al world, which, under Antiochus IV, Gaspard Monge, to name only a few. Rahman III (A.D. 912-961) and Al became an intellectual center. And, from earliest times, the greatest Hakim II (A.D. 961-976), to collect the But the greatest library of all was that advances in social progress have been fruits of learning in central locations, for at Alexandria. associated with civilizations whose rulers scholars and ordinary citizens to benefit placed emphasis on the importance of from. Similarly, the advances of Renais- The Vision of Alexander the Great libraries: It was through the establish- sance Italy would be unthinkable with- It was Alexander, rightly named the ment of libraries that Greek culture radi- out the collection of manuscripts by such Great, who, after having conquered ated learning to broader circles. humanists as Francesco Petrarca and the , undertook to found a city bear- In Islam, the great caliphs of the protagonists of the Council of Florence. ing his name—as he would do Abbasid dynasty (A.D. 750-1258) dedi- This practice goes back to the ancient throughout Asia—which was to be a cated enormous sums of money and world, to Greece, and the library at commercial crossroads between East time to collecting books. The idea was, Alexandria was its most illustrious exam- and West, as well as a cultural and sci- that in order for a society to advance, it ple. But it was not the only one, nor the entific center of the world. Alexander must have at its disposal the best prod- first. Book collecting was widespread made the momentous decision on Jan- ucts of the human mind, from anywhere among intellectuals and political figures uary 20, in the year 331 B.C., when he in the world, any religious tradition, and in ancient Greece. Even the Athenian saw the site at Rakotis, in the Nile from any period of history. Thus, the tyrant Pisistratus (605-527 B.C.) was a delta, where the island of Pharos jut- legendary Baghdad caliph Harun al lover of music and culture, and was ted out into the Mediterranean. He Rashid and his follower al Mamun, sent reputed to be the first to commission a ordered his architect Dinocrates to emissaries throughout the world, to find group to assemble and edit the works of chart out a plan for the city. In 323 manuscripts of philosophical, scientific, the great epic poet Homer. He is also B.C., after Alexander’s untimely death,

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© 1998 Schiller Institute, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission strictly prohibited. the satrapy of Egypt fell into the kings of Alexandria was, as we said, Syrians, and them of Hellas. . . . There hands of Ptolemy, and it was under Ptolemy, surnamed Philadelphus. He are, moreover, with them of Jerusalem the Ptolemies—Ptolemy I Soter (323- was a lover of all that is beautiful and of and Judaea certain divine books of the 283 B.C.) and his son Ptolemy II (285- literature, and built a library in that prophets, which tell of God and the cre- 246 B.C.)—that Alexandria city was same city of Alexandria in the Bruchi- ation of the world and contain all other developed. um so-called . . . which he placed under teaching that is for the general good. The city, which was to become the the charge of one Demetrius of Wherefore, O king, if it is thy Majesty’s largest in the Greek world, was divided Phalarene. Him he bade collect the pleasure to send for these, also do thou into three districts, or quarters, populat- books in existence in every quarter of write to the doctors in Jerusalem, and ed, respectively, by Egyptians, Greeks, the world, and he wrote letters impor- they will send them to thee.’ ”1 and Jews. Graced with ample wide tuning every king and governor on This, Ptolemy did. According to an avenues and magnificent marble and earth to send ungrudgingly the books account given in an annotation in the stone buildings, the city was considered [that were within his realm or govern- Fifteenth-century parchment text of a indestructible. There were four great ment]; I mean the works of poets and work by the Roman playwright , buildings which stood out above the rest. prose writers, orators and sophists, known as the Plautine scolium from The first was the Soma, which was built physicians, professors of medicine, histo- Caecius, the following occurred: to house the body of Alexander, rians, and so on. “Alexander of Aetolia, Lycophron of embalmed and encased in gold. Next “One day, when the business was Chalcis, and Zenodotus of Ephesus, at was the Serapeum, with the Temple of proceeding apace and the books were the request of King Ptolemy Philadel- Serapis for worship. Then, there was the being assembled from all quarters, the phus by surname, who wonderfully museum, located in the Greek quarter king asked his librarian how many vol- favored the talents and the fame of known as the Brucheion. This was actu- umes had [already] been collected in the learned men, gathered together the ally a center of study, with lecture rooms, library. He made answer to the king and poetical books of Greek authorship and galleries, and housing for hundreds of said: ‘There are already 54,800, more or arranged them in order: Alexander the students, who could reside there and less. But I hear that there is still a great tragedies, Lycophron the comedies, and study. The students undertook to copy mass of writings in the world, among Zenodotus the poems of Homer and of manuscripts, to edit them, to study them, the Ethiopians and Indians, the Persians other illustrious poets. For that king, and to conduct research of their own. and Elamites and Babylonians, the well acquainted with the philosophers The institution which provided them the Assyrians and Chaldaeans, among the and other famous authors, having had material, was the famed library, the Romans also and the Phoenicians, the the volumes sought out at the expense of Alexandriana. The library the royal munificence all was organized in ten large over the world as far as halls, each of which corre- possible by Demetrius of sponded to a branch of Phaleron (and other learning. In each hall, counsellors), made two there were thousands of libraries, one outside the manuscripts, carefully cat- palace, the other within alogued and classified. it. In the outer library, Among the many there were 42,800 vol- accounts in the ancient umes; in the inner, world of the building of palace library, 400,000 the fabulous library and mixed volumes and museum, there are nu- 90,000 single volumes merous divergences as to and digests, according to who actually constructed Callimachus, a man of it, whether Ptolemy Soter, the court and royal under the recommenda- librarian, who also wrote tion of Demetrius of the titles for the several Phaleron, in 295 B.C., or volumes. Eratosthenes, Ptolemy II, “Philadel- not very much later the phus,” his son and succes- custodian of the same sor. According to the ver- library, also makes this sion provided by Epipha- same statement. These nius (A.D. 320-403 ): learned volumes, which “Now, the successor of [Demetrius] was able to

the first Ptolemy [Soter] Ajourd’hui L’Egypte obtain, were of all people and the second of the Cut-away architectural model shows interior plan of the new library. and languages; and the

101 king caused them to be translated into research activity they carried out. It was his own language, with the utmost dili- in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, that gence, by excellent interpreters.”2 the great Eratosthenes was invited to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who succeed- Alexandria, from Athens. He arrived in ed his father in 284 B.C., ruled over a 228 or 226 B.C., and took on the respon- vast empire, in a period of flourishing sibility of librarian. Eratosthenes, who trade. He inaugurated vast infrastruc- was renowned as a grammarian, poet, ture projects, promoted the construction philosopher, historian, and mathemati- of new cities, and encouraged immigra- cian—indeed, revered as a “second tion. During his rule, the empire count- Plato,”—conducted research, experi-

ed about seven million inhabitants, liv- Corbis ments, wrote, and taught, until his ing in 33,000 cities and death in 196 B.C.4 villages. Ptolemy’s The Ptolemies’ teachers, who imbued dogged determination him with a love of to make Alexandria the classical learning, had center of learning, led been the poet Philetas, them to send emissaries the grammarian Zen- worldwide in search of odotos of Ephesus, manuscripts. Ptolemy later the first head of Philadelphus pur- the library, and the chased the volumes in philosopher Straton, the library of Aristotle, who taught him Greek as well as various ver- and the sciences. Ptole- sions of the Homeric my Philadelphus fol- epics. In fact, he bought lowed the example of so many works, that he UPI/Corbis-Bettmann

Alexander in his The Granger Collection, NY had to enlarge the encouragement of nat- Dynasty founder Ptolemy I Soter, a library, to accommo- ural sciences. It is related, that he sent general of Alexander’s army (top). His son, date them, and in 250 B.C., new rooms emissaries abroad, in search of unusual Ptolemy II Philadelphus (left). Cleopatra, were made available in the Serapis tem- animals, which he wanted brought back last of Egypt’s ruling Ptolemies (right). ple. It is related, that in their zealous to Alexandria for study. His envoys search for knowledge, they would bor- travelled to India and throughout the row famous manuscripts—for example, Arab world, and brought back not only Samothrace (c. 217-145 B.C.). And, Ptolemy Physikon managed to get origi- animals, but in-depth reports on the because of the library, Alexandria nals of the plays of Aeschylus, Sopho- lands and customs they observed. became a center radiating the heritage of cles, and Euripides—and have them This great library became the center Classical (i.e., Platonist) philosophy and copied, only to send back to the owner of learning of the world for over nine science throughout the Greek-speaking not the original, but the copy! The first hundred years, and, in particular, a Mediterranean, in the years preceding 200,000 rolls were collected by repository of the great accomplishments and following the birth of Christ—as Demetrius of Phaleron, according to the of Classical Greece. It attracted the reflected in both the works of the Jewish First-century B.C. Jewish historian Jose- greatest minds of Hellenistic culture like philosopher Philo of Alexandria, and phus. And the number increased, as the a magnet, minds like Straton, the comic the New Testament Gospel of John and Plautine scolium documents, to 532,800. poet Philemon (c. 361-262 B.C.), the Epistles of Paul. Later, the number was reported to be geometer Euclid (fl. c. 300 B.C.), the From the time of the reign of Ptole- 700,000. Among these were large num- physician Herophilus, Theodoros, the my II, the king himself was an integral bers of translations, including the trans- philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene, the part of the intellectual process centered lations into Greek of the Hebrew holy poet Callimachus (c. 305-240 B.C.), his in the library. It is reported that texts, the Old Testament. It is also relat- pupil Eratosthenes (275-194 B.C.), and Philadelphus, eager to expand his learn- ed, that Euergetes II, in his zeal to main- many more. Among the librarians said ing, went to listen to the lectures given tain the primacy of the Alexandria to have been appointed to supervise the by the scholars, and, like his father and library, forbade the export of papyrus, great institution, were Zenodotus, the Alexander, organized literary competi- hoping thereby to limit the trade in tragic poet Alexander of Aetolia, Calli- tions.3 Under his son and successor, writings. It was as a result of this embar- machus, and Eratosthenes. Others Ptolemy Euergetes (246-221 B.C.), this go, that his competitors in Pergamum included Apollonius of Alexandria, the tradition was carried forward, as the invented parchment.5 lexicographer Aristophanes of Byzan- ruler attracted more men of learning to The books, or rolls of texts, were tium (257-180 B.C.), and Aristarchus of the city, and actively participated in the carefully catalogued in the immense

102 library. Callimachus, as librarian, the ensuing war between Caesar and the educated in Greek, Latin, Egyptian, undertook the task of organizing bio- Alexandrian fleet, fires ravaged the city. Ethiopian, and other Eastern languages, graphical and bibliographical tables of According to the account of Dion Kas- knew the value of the library which had the works of poetry and prose. It is sios: “Now, there were battles by day been destroyed, and, after the assassina- reported that Callimachus produced a and by night, and many buildings went tion of Caesar, prevailed upon Mark work on the Museum, now lost; a up in smoke: the naval and other arse- Antony to transfer 200,000 volumes “Table and Register of Dramatic Poets, nals, the grain storehouse, and the which were housed in the library at chronologically from the earliest times”; library, the richest and grandest of that Pergamum, to Alexandria. and, “Tables of all those who were emi- day, so it is reported, was burned to the Peace was reestablished after the nent in any kind of literature, and of ground.” civil wars under the reign of Octavian their writings,” the first comprehensive To which the historian Geord Klip- (Emperor Augustus), and the library history of literature, in 120 volumes.6 pel adds: “On this occasion, 400,000 book was rehabilitated. The fame attached to The mere existence of such works by scrolls, along with the gracious halls the name of Alexandria remained such, Callimachus attests to the character of where they were housed, fell victim to that virtually all the Roman emperors the Alexandria library, as a highly orga- the flames within a few short hours, and tried, in one way or another, to present nized center, where virtually everything world literature suffered an irreplaceable themselves as protectors of learning. known to exist in literature, history, phi- loss, which is all the more painful for us, Even the notorious tyrant Tiberius losophy, and sciences, was available, because with this destruction in Alexan- (ruled A.D. 14-37) tried to profile him- along with supplementary critical and dria of so many invaluable works of self as a lover of the sciences, and wrote bibliographical aids. antiquity, the most important sources for poems in various languages. The our history were lost forever.”8 emperor Claudius (ruled A.D. 41-54) How the Library Was Destroyed Cleopatra, who was reportedly well supported the library, and even That such an institution could come into enlarged it. A scholar of Greek, being, flourish, and grow, was due to Claudius also arranged for lectures to the efforts of political and intellectual be held in the museum on Etruscan and leaders who fully understood the crucial Carthaginian history.9 Even the psy- significance of the spread of knowledge, chotic Nero put himself forth as a as the precondition for social and eco- friend of the arts, not only defending nomic progress and stability. By the them, but aspiring to be a poet himself. same token, it was thanks to the person- The same can be said of Vespasian and al depravity and political wretchedness Titus, Trajan and Hadrian. of later political leaders, in the Roman The turn for the worse occurred Empire and later, that the great library under Caracalla (ruled A.D. 211-217). and museum were destroyed. This bloody tyrant, who traversed his There are many historical versions of provinces, plundering and killing as he what happened to the library, at times went, was made the subject of ridicule contradictory. But what can be ascer- by the Alexandrians, in a series of poems 10 tained, for certain, is that the first seri- The Granger Collection, NY and stories. To teach them a lesson, ous blows to it came from the Caracalla proceeded into the worst of the Roman emperors. city, and gave the order to The scene had been set, his troops to enter houses from the reign of Ptolemy and slaughter everyone Philopater to Ptolemy Euer- Corbis-Bettmann indiscriminately. One ac- getes II (221-116 B.C.), for dis- count has it, that he entered aster, as the Ptolemies, though Alexandria under the pre- ostensibly still committed to text of wanting to pay patronizing science and the homage to Alexander. He arts, themselves fell into deca- made great show of respect dence. As a result of misrule, for the city’s founder, by vis- tyranny and corruption, social iting the Soma, and then unrest spread, and open fac- went to the Temple of Ser- tionalization between Alexan- apis, allegedly to worship. dria and Rome emerged fol- Corbis-Bettmann Caracalla ordered all the lowing the death of Ptolemy Euergetes Emperors of Rome ruled Egypt and youth of the city to line up in phalanx II in 116 B.C.. This climaxed in 48 B.C., Alexandria after the Ptolemies. Augustus, formation, according to age and size, when Julius Caesar arrived in Alexan- first Roman Emperor (top). Caracalla because, he said, he wished to admire dria, to battle Pompey and Cleopatra. In (left). Diocletian (right). them. Instead, he gave the order to his

103 troops, to slaughter the unarmed youth, The idea to rebuild the library goes far. In addition, governments and insti- and plunder the city. Blood ran through back to 1974, and is attributed to Egypt- tutions from around the world have gen- the streets in rivers. The library sur- ian historian Mustafa al-Abbadi. The erously contributed magnificent items vived, but barely. It was reported, later, ambitious project was designed not only for the center. Among them, is a com- to be standing, but with no occupants. to commemorate the historic library, but plete microfilm record of the priceless Further devastation occurred at the to replicate it for the modern world. On Arabic manuscripts in the Escorial hand of Zenobia in A.D. 270, and in 295, June 26, 1988, Egyptian president Hosni Library in Spain, donated by the Spanish Diocletian laid siege to the city, slaugh- Mubarak laid the foundations for the Royal Family in June 1997. France has tering the people and burning the build- building, accompanied by the director- donated several important books, includ- ings. Diocletian gave the order to seek general of UNESCO, which issued a ing a copy of the Bible printed by Guten- out what books remained and destroy call to individuals, organizations, and berg. According to a protocol signed them by fire. countries to support the project. An between Egypt and France, a grant of 4.4 Under Theodosius the Great International Committee for Supporting million French francs is to be allocated for (A.D. 375-395), the wave of destruction the Funding Campaign, was established an advanced, multi-lingual data system, which swept over Alexandria moved at the request of Egypt. In 1990, $230 which will effectively constitute an index under the pretext of eliminating pagan- million was pledged, mainly by Iraq, linked to the world’s scientific networks. ism. With the Edict of Theodosius, it Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Already, 130,000 traditional and electron- was decreed that all the temples and Emirates. The Egyptian government ic data channels have been obtained, and pagan idols had to be destroyed. This has underwritten the budget. personnel for the library are undergoing included not only the Temple of Ser- The first phase, building the sub- training locally and overseas. Australia apis, but, apparently, also the library structure, at a cost of $60 million, was has offered a $10,000 grant-in-kind, and its works, which were eliminated in completed in December 1996, by the which includes books published in Aus- A.D. 389. Three hundred thousand vol- Egyptian state company, together with tralia. The public library of the city of umes were stolen or destroyed, and the Italian partners. The second phase start- Starazaogra in Bulgaria will donate a rare members of the museum were forced ed immediately thereafter, for the con- copy of the Holy Quran to the library. either to embrace Christianity or to struction of the main building, which is The copy, which was received by Egypt’s flee.11 Thus, three hundred years later, to be ten storeys high. This part, which ambassador to Bulgaria, dates back to the when the Arabs arrived under ‘Amr ibn will cost $120 million, is being construct- year 1278 of the Hijra. al-’As, and the authority of ‘Umr ibn al- ed by Arab contractors and a British Thus, if the project reaches comple- Khittab, conquering Egypt and Alexan- company. The library should have tion at the end of this year, the world dria in about A.D. 642-46, there were 69,000 square meters (750,000 square will be considerably richer. The revived very few rolls left in library’s once glori- feet) of floor space, and should be able to library of Alexandria should become, ous collection. house eight million volumes, in addition like its namesake, a center of learning to hundreds of thousands of manu- and research, with emphasis on the civi- Rebuilding the Library Today scripts, tapes, compact discs, and videos. lizations of ancient Egypt, Greece, and It is most fitting that it is an Arab gov- In the words of Yousri El Hakim, who the Eastern mediterranean. Scholars ernment that has decided to reconstruct is the engineer heading up the construc- from throughout the world should flock this wonderful institution, especially tion monitoring unit, work is proceed- there, as their ancient counterparts did, given the widespread acceptance of the ing at a rapid pace, so as to complete it to study, deliberate, research, teach, and slanderous myth—wholly contrary to this year. “We have 400 workers from generate new discoveries. the documented historical record—that all over the world,” he said, “working 24 —Muriel Mirak Weissbach the Alexandria library was destroyed by hours a day in two shifts. . . . We the Arabs during the period of Islamic should be finished by the end of 1998.” Additional illustrations appear on the in- expansion. As the historical record El Hakim added that although side back cover of this issue. shows, the library was a most resilient UNESCO had been instrumental in the NOTES institution, which held up over cen- initiating phase of the project, “now it is 1. Edward Alexander Parsons, The Alexandri- turies, in the center of a fight to the 100 percent Egyptian, under the min- an Library: Glory of the Hellenic World, Its death between those forces—present in istry of higher education.” Rise, Antiquities, and Destructions, (Amster- various cultural traditions—which pro- The project leaders are trying to dam-London-New York: Elsevier Press, moted the spreading of knowledge as replicate the efforts of the Ptolemies, in 1952), pp. 101-102. 2. Ibid., pp. 108-109. 3. Dr. the means to uplift and develop human gathering important works from all Geord Heinrich Klippel, Über das Alexan- society, and those forces dedicated to the over the world. As the project manager drinische Museum, drei Bücher (Göttingen: 1838), p. 124. 4. Ibid., pp. 140-141. 5. Ibid., p. idea of the tyranny of the few, who Dr. Mohsen Zahran reports, the new 161. 6. Parsons, op. cit, pp. 208-209. 7. Quoted might impound such knowledge as a Bibliotheca Alexandrina received a gov- in Klippel, op. cit, p. 186. 8. Ibid., p. 187. 9. secret weapon, to maintain control over ernment budget for purchases, and Ibid., p. 211. 10. Ibid., pp. 226-227. 11. Ibid., the ignorant masses. 350,000 books have been acquired thus pp. 251-252.

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