International Journal of Caring Sciences September-December 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 3| Page 1931

Review Article

Occupational and Pioneer Leaders from Past to Present

Sevcan Topcu, PhD Assistant, Ege University Faculty of Nursing, Department, Izmir, Turkey Melek Ardahan, PhD Professor, Izmir Katip Çelebi University Faculty of Health Sciences, Administration Nursing Department, Izmir, Turkey Correspondience: Sevcan Topcu, Adress: Ege University, Nursing Faculty. 35030, Izmir-Turkey E- mail:[email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Occupational health which covers , nursing, toxicology, industrial , , social and behavioral sciences, and ergonomics, is a multidisciplinary field of application. When evaluated in the historical process, occupational health nursing has progressed in parallel with the developments in occupational health. Occupational health nursing, which was called as industrial nursing in the early periods, was born from public health nursing and for this reason, it is a nursing specialization which is more based on protection. The aim of this review is to evaluate the beginning and development process of occupational health nursing together with the leaders who lead this process. Key Words: occupational health nursing, , leaders

History of occupational health developed a systematical approach on workers’ health problems and proposed asking their had to work to fulfill their basic needs occupation (Mark &Kohn, 2014). since the first day of their existence (Güler, Akın, 2015). At early times, while supply of food and Percival Pott (1775) established that Scrotum shelter, hunting and fishery had comprised the develops in Chimney sweepers due to soot fundamental working areas, other working areas and coal-tar. This finding has led both enacting such as cultivation, stockbreeding and mining related to chimney sweepers and causing started to emerge in time through utilization of employers to get interested in employers’ health various equipments (Güler, Akın, 2015). In more. Historically, in 18 th and 19 th centuries today’s context, the concept of work was first where remarkable developments have started with mining (Güler, Akın, 2015). experienced in technology and industrial Emergence of occupations-related has revolution, dangers related to health and safety, been investigated for centuries and first, being have started to increase gradually. Invention of exposed to mining-related , was detected to mechanical textile machineries, casting furnaces be resulted in a number of diseases (Mellish, and steam engines, has caused an increase in the 1980; Institute of Medicine, 2000). need for man-power and production whereas has led establishment of a new and more dangerous Agricola, one of the scientists of that period, has working environment. People have started to be called the pulmonary diseases that are frequently exposed to a number of stimuli such as smoke, seen in those working in mines as “The Miner toxic vapor, and heat. Through Diseases” and recommended them to cover their participation of women and children into mouths and noses and to ventilate the galleries in workforce, problems related to health and safety order to get protected from diseases (Bilir, Yıldız, increased. Longer working hours and unsanitary 2004). Ramazzini (1633-1714), today he is conditions caused and infectious diseases known as the founder of occupational health, has

www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org International Journal of Caring Sciences September-December 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 3| Page 1932

outbreak. Consequently, advances in technology In the history of “The Occupational Health and industrialization have led to many new Nursing” highly important but less famous occupational health problems and safety another nurse is Betty Moulder. The beginning of instead of a more healthy and safe environment occupational health nursing in USA is considered (Mark & Kohn, 2014). Because the deaths the employment of Betty Moulder by coal-miners occurred due to infectious diseases and accidents group in 1888 to care employees and their have drawn public’s attention in , a legal families. Very little is known about Moulder’s regulation (Healthand Moral of Apprentices Act) duty, background and nursing skills, except the related to working life was made in 1802. These she received in Philadelphia Blockley developments that occurred in England at the Hospital. Even, in many resources there is more beginning continued in and America in information about Ada Mayo Stewart as the first subsequent years (Bilir, Yıldız, 2004). At the industrial nurse (Ross, 1995; Stanhope & same time “The Occupational Health Nursing” Lancaster, 2015). has improved and developed in parallel with the Chaplain William H. (Rear Admiral) and Roline advances in the occupational health area Mayo Stewart’s daughter Ada Mayo Stewart is (Mellish, 1980, Thornbory, 2009; Cahall, 1981). one of the four sisters graduated from Nursing From industrial nursing to occupational School. She hired by Vermont Marble Co. in health nursing 1895 to provide care for employees and their relatives. Subsequently, when she was 24 years When it was evaluated historically, “The old she was appointed by president of the Occupational Health Nursing” which progressed company to Vermot village where company very slowly and was called as “Industrial employees resided as a “Local Nurse” (Markolf, Nursing” in early periods, is a field of 1995). Her duty was to concentrate on health and specialization that originated from the public protection not the care of casualties, so she health nursing. Therefore, it was rather focused performed home visits and took care of pregnant on protection (Parker-Conrad, 2002). It was first women and with hypoid fever and raised in England as the initiation of “Industrial also provided training for school children. She Nursing”. In of Norwich, England Philippa failed to keep record for the activities carried out Flowerday was hired by J&J Colman Co. in in first year, but the records available for two 1878. Flowerday who received one-year nursing years (1896-1898) obviously demonstrate how education in Norfolk and Norwich Hospitals, she has been successful. During her working started to work with a wage of 26 shillings- period when the medical events in were weekly to visit sick employees at home and to evaluated the obstetrical and medical events help “workplace Dispensaries” when she was 32 peaked whereas surgical events decreased (Ross, years old (Markolf, 1995). She has become 1995; Stanhope & Lancaster, 2015). In the first doctor assistant by working in dispensary of the year of Stewart in Vermont Marble Co. her sister factory. Every afternoon, she filled her basket Marriet was assigned to visit sick employees and with the foods taken from the kitchen, visited the their families residing in Vermont Village located sick employees at their houses and provided at Western and Central Rutland (Haag,1992). training employees’ families. Flowerday has Free nursing services were provided to the achieved to put enough emphasis on the families of company employees and other connection between factory and home, even not families unable to pay by local nurses. Stewart being put today. When she working at the factory usually has worn the uniform of Waltham School she also evaluated the appropriateness of the where she graduated and a plain coat and a hat employee outfits and the hazards they created. while providing nursing services. She generally She found Crinolines that were the trend of that used bicycle to visit families but sometimes she period, inappropriate for the factory and drove the horse and wagon provided by the determined that walking around or working company. Her salary was paid sometimes between electrical weaving looms would be very monthly, sometimes just to cover the expenses. dangerous, almost impossible. At the mills She earned 900$ in first year and 1000$ in outside the factory she noticed the importance of second year. During dispensary periods she cared using personal protective outfit (American for casualties but during home visits when she Journal of Public Health, 1945). noticed an unreported or accident she cared for the patient and reported the situation to

www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org International Journal of Caring Sciences September-December 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 3| Page 1933

the company and doctor.She had a two-year explained. Also followings were included; first and dispensary experience before she had nursing which is considered one of the entered into Waltham Training School fundamental duties of the industrial nurses, (Massachusetts) where she had graduated in characteristics of the first aid room, materials 1894. Therefore, in her second year in Vermont should be available in first aid room and Marble Co., when company has founded a industrial nurse’s duties as visiting nurse and hospital, she become the first Head Nurse. In the information related to daily activities (Wright, field of occupational health nursing, the first 1919). person known as primary case manager is again “American Industrial Nurses Association” was Ada Mayo Stewart (Ross, 1995; Stanhope & founded in 1942, to develop application and Lancaster, 2015). training of industrial nursing, to increase Through the acceptance of the health services cooperation between disciplines and to be the provided in workplace lead to productive occupational representative of industrial health workforce, worker health services has started to nurses (Brown, 1988). Association replaced the grow up rapidly from the beginning of 1900s and term “industrial nurse” with “occupational health occupational health nurses were hired in nurse” to reflect their larger application field in (Stanhope, Lancaster, 2012). Nurses were started 1977 and also it changed its title into “American to be hired by factories in order to prevent the Association of Occupational Health Nurses spread of infectious diseases such as (AAOHN)”. Until 1960s occupational health and to solve the problems related to health nursing has not been separated from nursing as a resulted from workforce shortage during World specialty but when the diseases and accidents that I (AAOHN, 2009). During this period nurses employees experienced due to being exposed to started to work in large stores, hotels and dangers in workplace and working conditions, insurance companies. This situation caused turned into a social problem, need for a specialty alterations in duties and responsibilities of called occupational health nursing recognized. industrial nurses. During early periods when Upon this requirement, AAOHN established a industrial nursing has emerged, while nurses committee to investigate and to determine the were expected to protect the health of certification route for occupational health , employees and their families and to nursing. In the directions of this committee provide health training, but in this period they are “American Board of Occupational Health expected to provide healthcare to injured Nursing” which was a certification employees in factory, to assist doctors within was established in 1971. Thus, first time in clinics and to visit sick or injured employees at history the occupational health nursing their houses. Duties of an industrial nurse have be certification program has been initiated by described as follows; to follow small injuries, to “American Board of Occupational Health Nurses recommend corrective measures before (ABOHN) ” in 1972 (Stanhope & Lancaster, employment, in case of necessity to handle small 2015). During these periods occupational health accidents at home, to organize health trainings, to nursing continued to develop depending on inspect menus at the dining hall and to plan knowledge and skills of public health nursing activities (such as picnics, stitchery , choruses (Felton, 1985). etc.) for employees (Mattingly, 1978). So, along The need for occupational health nursing started with growing and developing industry, to increase along with the enacted to protect occupational health nursing started to develop as employees’ health and safety. Along with well (AAOHN, 2009). Occupational Safety and Industrial nursing has grown up very rapidly in (OSHA) that focuses on protection of employees the first part of 20 th century. Training courses from job-related hazards and establishment of were organized for the first time in this period by The National Institute for Occupational Safety professional (Stanhope, Lancaster, and Health (NIOSH) in 1970, the need for 2012). The books “Occupational health nursing” occupational health nurses in meeting and “Industrial nursing” written by Florence recommended standards, even further increased. Swift Wright were published in 1919 (Wright, The first occupational health nurse was hired by 1919). In the second book, industrial nursing’s OSHA in 1988 to give technical support, provide development, characteristics and the field consultancy and specialty of occupational responsibilities to employees and are health nursing and then an Occupational Health

www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org International Journal of Caring Sciences September-December 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 3| Page 1934

Nursing Office was established within OSHA in experience and try to have voice on all political 1993. AAOHN adopted the environmental health and legal initiatives concerning employees, concept in 1998, as an important component of workplaces and without getting occupational health nurses’ application areas and away from their present roles. as such, the statement of “occupational and Occupational health nursing courses must be environmental health nurse” started being used in integrated into the curriculum of undergraduate all publications (Stanhope, Lancaster, 2012). For programs. Occupational health nurses must base the first time, standards that formed the present their occupational health and safety programs and basis of “occupational and environmental health initiatives on evidence-based applications and nursing” were developed and published by make occupational health nursing visible by AAOHN in 1999 (Stanhope, Lancaster, 2012). evaluating the effects of their initiatives on health Conclusion and safety. Today, occupational health practices in References developed countries have gone into great change American Association of Occupational Health Nurses by affecting from scientific, technologic and (2018). What Is Occupational & Environmental social developments and consequently, nurses’ Health Nursing. http://aaohn.org/page/what-is- roles and place in the protection and occupational-and-nvironmental-health-nursing improvement of employee health were accepted American Board for Occupational Health Nurses (Esin, 2016). Occupational health nurses take (ABOHN) (2016) Occupational Health Nursing place within “individually coordinated care Profession. center” by collaborating with employees, https://www.abohn.org/sites/default/files/ABOHN employers, members of the occupational health CarGde_ 032714WEB.pdf and safety team and other professionals in order Bilir N., Yıldız, A. N. (2004). İş Sa ğlı ğı ve Güvenli ği. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayınları. to identify health and safety requirements. Their Brown, M. L. (1988). An Historical Perspective: One fundamental responsibilities can be defined as Hundred Years of Industrial or Occupational follows; developing a safe and healthy workforce Health Nursing in the . Workplace and job environment; identifying the hazards and Health & Safety, 36(10), 433. health problems within job environment; Cahall, J. B. (1981) The History of Occupational establishing new health and safety programs; Health Nursing. Occupational Health Nursing, forming initiatives that will reduce risks and October. hazards, ensuring the appropriateness of health Esin, M. N. (2016). Dünyada ve Türkiye'de İş Sa ğlı ğı and safety programs to laws and regulations and Hem şireli ği. Turkiye Klinikleri Journal of Public assessing the health status of employing (Rogers, Health Nursing-Special Topics, 2(2), 1-7. Felton, J. S. (1985) The Genesis of American 1998). But according to AAOHN their Occupational Health Nursing: Part I. Occupational responsibilities are; case , Health Nursing, 33(12). consultancy and crisis response operation, Güler Ç., Akın L (2015). Halk Sa ğlı ğı Temel Bilgiler, improving health and reducing , compliance Haccettepe Üniversitesi Yayınları , Ankara with laws and regulations and detecting Haag, A. B. (1992). A remembrance of the past, an for employees and workplaces (AAOHN, 2018). investment for the future. Work place Health &Safety, 40(2), 56. The specialty of occupational health nursing that Institute of Medicine. (2000). Safe work in the 21st started employment of Phillippa Flowerday 140 century: Education and training needs for the next years ego and emerged from public health decade's occupational safety and health personnel. nursing is a special field of application that Mark A.F., and Kohn. J. P. (2014) Fundamentals of focuses on protection, improvement and Occupational Safety and Health, Bernan Press. restoration of health within a safe and healthy Markolf, H.J. (1995) The Beginning of Industrial occupational health environment; and prevention Nursing in Vermont. Ruthland Historical Society of negative effects of occupational and Quarterly. XXV,4 environmental risks on health. Although Mattingly, S. T. (1978). Looking back 50 years . . . the nurse in industry. Occupational Health Nursing, occupational health nursing is known and applied 26(1), 17-18. for a long time, it has completed its standards as a Mellish, J. M. (1980) The Birth, Growth and profession within last 30-40 years. In order to Development and Future Dimensions of have more voice in , occupational Occupational Health Nursing. Curationis, health nurses should use their knowledge and September

www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org International Journal of Caring Sciences September-December 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 3| Page 1935

Parker-Conrad J. E. (2002) A Century of Practice Thompson, M. C.,&Wachs, J. E. (2012). Occupational Occupational Health Nursing. AAOHN Journal. 50 health nursing in the United States. Workplace (12). health&safety, 60(3), 127-133. Rogers, B. (1998). Occupational health nursing Thornbory, G. (2009) Public Health Nursing. A Text expertise. AAOHN journal, 46(10), 477-483. book for Health Visitors, School Nurses and Ross J (1995) The Origin of Industrial Nursing. Occupational Health Nurses. Wiley-Blackwell. Rutland Historical Society Quarterly. 25(4) Sines, D., Saunders, M., & Forbes-Burford, J. (Eds.). Wright, F. S. (1919) Industrial Nursing for Industrial, (2013). Community nursing. John Public Health, and Pupil Nurses, and for Wiley&Sons. Employers of Labor. The Macmillan Company. Stanhope, M., & Lancaster, J. (2012). Public Health Nursing Centered Health Care in The Community.(8th e). Mis-souri: Elsevier.

www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org