D. Thakur and N. Mithulananthan / International Energy Journal 11 (2010) 203-212 203

Wind Energy in to Enhance Energy Security: Potential, Status and Barriers *1 + Devbratta Thakur and Nadarajah Mithulananthan www.serd.ait.ac.th/reric

Abstract – The paper reveals the potential, status and barriers of wind energy in Thailand. With the growing concerns on energy security, green house gas (GHG) emission and consequent climate change, renewable energy sources have become attractive option for around the world. The current power generation pattern in Thailand is not secured and sustainable as a result of country’s heavy dependency on imported fossil fuels. Unlike conventional fossil fuels, wind energy is by large an indigenous power source with no fuel cost, no geo- political risk and no supply dependency that come with imported fuels. And also the decreasing cost of wind energy makes Thailand to think up its energy strategy and to include wind energy as one of the promising alternatives. The paper concludes that Thailand has not utilized wind energy resources anywhere near to its potential and there are plenty potentials and possibilities for electricity generation from wind energy.

Keywords – Climate change, energy security, environmental benefits, renewable energy, wind energy.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL IN THAILAND Thailand has seen a steady growth of electricity consumption, averaging at 7.12%, within the last five Although several studies and measurements have been years. Though Thailand has been able to supply undertaken for a number of years by meteorological whatever amount demanded so far, the current power stations, few measurements have been made with the generation pattern is not secured and sustainable due to purpose of assessing the wind power potential [1]. The heavy dependency on imported fossil fuels. Electricity first study on the assessment of wind energy was done in generated from renewable energy sources merely the Chao Phraya Delta and the Mekong Region with the contributes 1% in total generation mix. The government objective of surveying potential of wind energy to targeted to raise the share of renewable energy from 1% operate irrigation pumps [2]. Another study for the in year 2004 to 8% by the year 2011. This means that availability of wind energy for water pumping was also around 1900 MW of new generation from renewable, by carried out in [2]. These studies encompass the surface 2011, will have to be met by renewable and with wind which limits the potential to small-scale wind estimated contribution of 100 MW from wind power. turbines. Few more studies were carried out in early Thailand is located in the . It 1980s by researchers at Asian Institute of Technology extends from 6ºN to 21ºN latitude and from 97ºE to (AIT) and at the Meteorological Department of Thai 106ºE longitude. It enjoys a tropical climate and Ministry of Communications. The studies involved an dominated by two major seasonal winds, namely analysis of surface and upper-air wind records spanning northeast and southwest monsoons. The northeast several decades. The overall conclusion was that mean monsoon flows from China in winter and lasts from wind speeds in most parts of Thailand were rather November to mid- March. The southeast monsoon flows modest, ranging (at 10 m height above ground level) from the Indian Ocean in summer and lasts from mid- from around 2 m/s in the northern part of the country to May to September. The onset of monsoons may vary to up to 4 m/s at some locations on the coast. some extent. The climatic differences are mainly due to According to a report on wind resource the influence of seasonal monsoon winds and regional assessment of Thailand done by the Department of topography. Northeast monsoon normally brings cold and Promotion (DEDP) in 2001, and dry continental air mass, so the temperature during there are wind potent locations with an annual average this season is generally the lowest in a typical year. On wind speed of 6.4 m/s or higher at 50 m height. These the other hand, the southwest monsoon brings warm and locations are influenced by the monsoons and are very humid oceanic air mass. located along the eastern coastline of the southern part of Gulf of Thailand and in mountains of west and southern [3]. A fair wind potent locations with an annual average wind speed of 4.4 m/s *Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Western or higher are mainly located on west side of the Gulf of Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada Thailand. According to research carried out in [4], Gulf of +Power and Energy Group, 47-402, School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Thailand is likely to be very attractive for small wind Qld 4072, Australia. turbines in village power applications, with mean wind speeds at 30 m of 6.5-7 m/s. In low-lying areas, the 1 Corresponding author; small-scale wind class is good with typical mean speeds E-mail: [email protected]. 204 D. Thakur and N. Mithulananthan / International Energy Journal 11(2010) 203-212 at 30 m of 5 m/s. While in west-central Thailand, good [4]. winds are found on the mountain tops and ridges of the Thai Ministry of energy has estimated the Tanem Range, where elevations reach a maximum of technical and commercial potential of renewable energy, about 2000 m. The ridges of 1400-1600 m elevation to which are given in Table 1. It has been shown that wind the southwest of Tak province have a favourable energy utilized targeted energy from wind is far behind orientation with respect to the prevailing westerly wind the technical potential. The government has targeted to direction, resulting in good winds as well. Access to install at least 6% of total potential of wind energy by these sites is probably very difficult however as the 2011. mountain slopes are steep and there are few roads and According to estimates prepared for the World transmission lines. On the other hand there is a mountain Bank Asia Alternative Energy Program [4], it is pass at 700-900 m elevation to the west of Tak province interesting to note that 64% of the rural population of which is traversed by a road and where the mean speed Thailand live in areas with a moderate wind resource (4 may reach about 6.5 m/s. Winds are poor throughout the -5 m/s) and can be served by small wind turbines. broad valley to the east of Tak [4]. The present status of wind energy development in The mountains of Phang Hoe Range around Thailand is in very primitive stage with total grid Lomsak province in the east-central region of Thailand connected generation of about 150 kilowatts. The two are typically 900-1100 m in elevation, though a few main applications of windmills in Thailand are water peaks reach 1600 m. The winds on exposed features are pumping for household uses in remote areas and generally good (7.0-8.0 m/s), with ridges oriented electricity generation. Wind energy is used to a limited northwest-southeast having the best wind resource extent also for electricity generation in the islands of relative to elevation. A prime example of such a ridge is southern region where mean wind velocity is higher. the one lying half-way between Lomsak and The “good” potential wind sites are the high mountains Chaiyaphum. A fair to good wind resource for small of the north and areas in the south that are exposed to wind turbines exists in the broad plains around monsoons all year that includes the western coastline of Chaiyaphum and Selaphum [4]. Wind potential in the southern peninsular (Laem Promthep, Phuket) and Northern Thailand (around Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai) the eastern coastline from Laem Talumpuk, Pakpanang is generally poor. Although the range is mountainous District, Nakornsrithammarat to Laem Tachi, Pattani [7]. (especially to the west of Chiang Mai), the wind Figure 1 shows the wind map of Thailand and Table 2 potentials is at best described as “fair” to “good” on shows wind potential of some provinces in Thailand. even the tallest mountain, the 2600-meter Doi Inthanon

Fig. 1. Wind map of Thailand. Source: Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE). D. Thakur and N. Mithulananthan / International Energy Journal 11 (2010) 203-212 205

Table 1. Estimated renewable energy potential in Thailand. Potential (MW) Type Government target by 2011 (MW) Technical Commercial Biomass 7,000 >4,500 1,140 Solar PV >5,000 ? 250 Wind 1,600 ? 100 Micro and Mini Hydro 700 350 350 Total >14,000 >4,800 1840 Source: http://www.eppo.go.th/admin/moe-workshop1/index.html.

Wind Energy in Neighboring Countries accommodate increasing demand of the country. As of now, Thailand has to depend largely on imported energy Based on a World Bank study, there are good to at a considerable cost each year. In 2002, the energy excellent wind resource areas for large-scale wind consumption in Thailand accounted for a value of about generation that can be found in the mountains of central 800 billion Baht (or about US$ 20 billion), which was and southern Vietnam, central Laos, and central and about 14% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and western Thailand, as well as a few other locations. the value of imported energy was greater than 300 Opportunities for village wind power are billion Baht span [8]. considerably more widespread because small wind If the trend of Thailand’s energy consumption turbines are able to operate satisfactorily at lower wind remains the same as that in the past and given the speed. Areas of good to excellent wind resource for economic growth rate of 5% per year, it is forecasted village power are predicted in east-central Thailand, that in 15 years, or by 2017, the value of energy western and southern Cambodia, the northern and consumption will increase from 0.78 trillion Baht to 2.1 coastal southern Malay Peninsula, south central Laos, trillion Baht as shown in Figure 2 and that the and a large proportion of central and southern Vietnam dependency on imported energy will inevitably increase as well as coastal areas of northern Vietnam. The study accordingly. estimates that about a quarter of the rural population of The high dependency on imported energy will the four Southeast Asian countries live in areas showing make Thailand at risk of energy supply disruption and good to excellent wind speed where small-scale wind volatility of energy prices, apart from a substantial energy is possible [5]. foreign currency loss for the imports of energy. Furthermore, Thailand is a net energy importer 3. ENERGY SECURITY SITUATION IN with over 57 percent of energy needs being met through THAILAND imports, primarily oil. Indeed, 92 percent of Thailand’s Due to increasing economic growth in Thailand the oil requirements were met through imports in 2001. domestic energy reserves will not be able to adequately

Fig. 2. Forecasted value of national energy consumption in the future. Assumption: Energy Elasticity = 1.4:1 and Estimated GDP Growth Rate = 5% per year). Source: Energy Strategy: Energy for Thailand Competitiveness, [8].

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Table 2. Wind potential in some . Wind speed (m/s) Wind power (w/m^2) Area location at 50 m ground at 50 m ground Tai Rom Yen National Park Nakhomsrithammarat 8.00 -11.90 600-2,000 Khao Luang National Park Nakhomsrithammarat 8.00-11.90 600-2,000 Khao Pu-Khao Ya National Park Pattalung 8.00-11.90 600-2,000 Wang Chao National Park Tak 8.00-8.80 600-800 Doi Intanon National Park Chiang Mai 7.00-7.50 400-500 Gaeng Grung National Park Surat Thani 7.00-8.00 400-600 Pa Nombenja Mountain Khrabi 8.00-8.80 600-800 Ranod District Songkhla 7.00-7.50 400-500 Song Khla Lake Songkhla 7.50-8.00 500-700 Ta Chi Cape Pattani 7.00-7.50 400-500 Hua Sai District Nakhomsrithammarat 6.40-7.00 300-400 Source: Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT).

Table 3. Wind Studies of Neighbouring Countries of Thailand. Characteristics Cambodia Laos Thailand Vietnam Poor: < 6m/s Land area : Km2 175,468 184,511 477,157 197,342 % of total area: 96.4 80.2 92.6 60.6 MW potential: NA NA NA NA Fair: (6-7)m/s Land area : Km2 6,155 38,787 37,337 100,361 % of total area: 3.4 16.9 7.2 30.8 MW potentia: 24,620 155,148 149,348 401,444 Good: (7-8)m/s Land area : Km2 315 6,070 748 25,679 % of total area: 0.2 2.6 0.2 7.9 MW potential: 1,260 24,280 2,992 102,716 Very Good: (8-9)m/s Land area : Km2 30 671 13 2,187 % of total area: 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.7 MW potential: 120 2,684 52 8,748 Excellent: >9m/s Land area : Km2 0 35 0 113 % of total area: 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 MW potential: 0 0 0 452 Source: Ministry of Energy (MOEN), developed by World Bank.

Figure 3 show that Thailand has a theoretical potential to exploit “other means of primary energy” production strategies which have already provided considerable contribution to total energy demand in countries like Philippines. Therefore domestic renewable energy resource development should be accelerated in order to reduce dependency on oil import and to ensure the national energy supply security and sustainable energy development. The peak demand increases nearly three folds between the years 1997 and 2016. Figure 4 shows the peak demand and total energy demand for the years 1997-2004 and the forecasted peak demand and total energy demand for the years 2005 to 2020. Though the forecasted peak demand for year 2005 was 21644 MW, Fig. 3. Profile of total energy supply in APEC developing according to the Electricity Generating Authority of economies, 2001. Thailand, the peak demand in 2005 was only 20,538 Source: Report of Kyoto Protocol and APEC Economics, [6].

MW, which was recorded on April 26, 2005 at 2 pm.

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60000 450000 • In 1994, wind map of wind velocity and wind Peak Demand Yearly Energy Demand power at 10 meter height was developed by 50000 375000 KMUTT sponsored by USAID. It has been found that Phuket is one of the suitable

40000 300000 G W h . , locations for the installation of Wind Turbine Generator MW , (WTG) in Thailand. Some specific sites of Phuket Island

30000 225000 Demand

gy have been measured and evaluated by EGAT, the results Ener Peak Demand Peak 20000 150000 y show that the monthly wind speed varies from 4.0 to 6.1 m/s. This site is good for installation of large wind Yearl

10000 75000 turbine generation. Furthermore, many parts of the peninsular have the accessible roads for huge mobile 0 0 crane and 33 kV distribution line of Provincial

7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Electricity Authority (PEA) exists for grid connection. 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Years As a part of the EGATs WTG demonstration Fig. 4. Thailand’s peak demand forecast [16]. projects, three wind turbine generators were installed in Promthep Alternative Energy Station, Phuket. Two of Currently, Thailand imports electricity from Laos them are 10 kW units that are used for battery charging and importing electricity from Myanmar is also under purpose since 1993 and a 150 kW unit was connected to negotiation. As far as Thailand is concerned, energy the distribution grid since 1996. Figure 5 shows the security is in question with approximately 7904 MW of location of 3 WTGs in Phuket. electricity projected to be imported from 2011 to 2020, Table 5 shows the wind turbine installation around as explained in Table 4. Thailand, their installed capacity along with some details. Table 4. Electricity supply Management, unit is in MW. New Capacity Imported Year Total in Thailand electricity 2011 0 597 597 2012 1470 0 1470 2013 2205 710 2915 2014 1470 0 1470 2015 1470 460 1930 2016 0 600 600 2017 1700 1337 3037 2018 1195 1400 2595 2019 1470 1400 2870 2020 1195 1400 2595 2020 1195 1400 2595 Source: Ministry of Energy (MOEN).

4. WIND ENERGY STATUS IN THAILAND Various studies in wind have been conducted in Thailand and some of them are listed below: • In 1975, average wind velocity in Thailand was investigated by National Office (NEPO) using data from Thai Meteorological Fig. 5. 150 kW WTG in Phuket. Department

• In 1981, database for average wind velocity in Thailand at 10 meter height was developed by Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) and King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT)

Table 5. Current status of wind energy in Thailand. Sectors/Manufacturers Wind (kW) Description EGAT 150 100% imported Ratchaburi Energy, RE 5 Vertical axis, Technology transferred, Low wind speed. Wind Win Tech. Co. Ltd 3 Horizontal axis, 70% imported, 30% local made, Low wind speed SCI Electric Manufacture Co. Ltd 3.5 Vertical axis, Local made, Technology transferred, Low wind speed SCI ElectricManufacture Co. Ltd 1 100% local made, Low wind speed

208 D. Thakur and N. Mithulananthan / International Energy Journal 11(2010) 203-212 5. BENEFITS OF WIND ENERGY IN

THAILAND Cost of Energy (Baht/kWh) EGAT had installed 150 kW WTG in Phuket peninsula. Biomass (Empty Fruit Bunch) 2.2 This facility of electricity generation from wind energy was connected to the grid of Provincial Electricity Landfill Gas (MSW) 8.75 Authority (PEA) in 1996. The main purpose of EGAT to Incinerator (MSW) 16.99 establish this project is to demonstrate the electricity Biogas (MSW) 12.97 Cost of Energy generation from wind energy to gain experience for Biomass (Gasifier) 2.57 identifying the best possible technologies and types of (Baht/kWh) Biogas (Pig farm) 1.92 WTG in line with the speed and direction of wind varied from seasonal changes. Therefore, 150 kW WTG will be Biomass (Rice Husk) 2.29 the basis information to use for the future experiments. Wind 2.22 Thus, it shows that WTG is economically and PV 11.18 enviromentally beneficial to Thailand. As of now, there are a number of isolated and grid connected projects of Fig. 6. Cost of energy (Baht/KWh). Source: Energy for Environment Foundation WTG underway.

Economic Benefits Hence, the good FIRR, low maintenance cost and the competitive cost of energy among renewable energy 150 kW wind turbine generator (WTG) which supplies sources make the WTG economically viable in 250,000 kWh to the distribution grid every year is a Thaialnd. As a result, EGAT has planned to install large success story of wind power generation in Thailand. The WTG of about 750KW x 3 as immediate plan around WTG technology for grid connected is easily to operate existing WTG location at Phuket and more on the way. and has the low cost in maintenance. The 150 kW WTG is automatic operated in 24 hours, which depend on Environmental Benefits wind speed and wind direction. In general, 16.13% The four key greenhouse gases (GHGs) with global frequency of NW wind direction with an annual average warming potential: carbon dioxide (CO ), methane wind speed of 5.2 m/s occurred in Phuket. Table 6 2 (CH ), nitrous oxide (N O) and hydrofluorocarbons shows economic parameters of 150 kW WTG in Phuket. 4 2 (HFCs), are coming from five main sectors of Thailand: The calculations were made with 9.5% discount rate energy, industrial processes, agriculture, land use without subsidy. change, forestry and wastes. Among these, energy sector

is the dominant one. Three studies have been undertaken Table 6. Economic Parameters of 150 kW WTG in Phuket Islands. on the national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory and the Total investment cost Baht 13,100,000 potential for GHG mitigation in Thailand; namely 1) Electrical energy generated 197,000kWh/yr Thailand’s National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, 1990 Operation and maintenance Baht 260,000/yr (Environmental Policy and Planning (OEPP), 1990); 2) Cost of generation Baht 9.45/kWh Thailand’s National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, 1994 FIRR 14.0% (OEPP, 1994); and 3) National Clean Development Source: Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand. Mechanism Strategy Study of the Kingdom of Thailand (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment or The WTG in Phuket shows that the cost of MONRE, 2004). The results are summarized in Tables 7 producing power from wind in Thailand is higher than and 8 respectively (Source: 1/ OEPP (1990); 2/ OEPP producing power from conventional sources like fossil (2000); 3/ MONRE (2004). fuels, but most competitive with other renewable energy and also FIRR is quite good. Figure 6 shows the cost of energy by different renewable sources in Thailand.

Table 7. Past and projected net GHGs emission from five main sectors (Gg: 1000 tonnes = 1Gg). GHGs 1990 1994 1998

CO2 163,996 202,458 204,292 CH4 57,695 66,598 79,537 N2O 3,506 17,317 13,646 HFCs NA NA 136 Total 225,297 286,373 297,611 GHGs 2000 2010 2020

CO2 202,610 268,722 414,938 CH4 79,070 88,726 100,584 N2O 15,063 17,771 18,507 HFCs 241 443 668 Total 296,984 375,661 534,697

D. Thakur and N. Mithulananthan / International Energy Journal 11 (2010) 203-212 209 Table 8. GHGs emission by sectors. Percentage of CO Emissions Sector 2 1990 1994 1998 Energy 35.37 45.54 51.06 Industrial Processes 4.36 5.58 3.61 Agriculture 24.21 27.03 23.26 Land Use Changes 34.71 21.6 17.02 Waste 1.36 0.26 5.05 2000 2010 2020 Energy 49.77 58.32 67.44 Industrial Processes 4.54 5.62 5.86 Agriculture 23.08 18.64 12.99 Land Use Changes 17.03 10.36 6.37 Waste 5.59 7.05 7.34 Source: MOEN.

Now, consider the targeted 100 MW wind turbine 7. POLICIES AND PLANS FOR RENEWABLE (by 2011), which can replace the same MW of power ENERGY DEVELOPMENT plant generated by fossil fuels. Therefore, certain The government has an established policy on New and amount of CO produced by fossil fuels can be reduced 2 Renewable Source of Energy Development and as wind turbine is clean green energy technology. promotion. Under the 7th NESDP (1992-1996) the Taking a reference of 150 KW wind turbine research and development, production and utilization of generator in Phuket, which generates 250,000 NRSE are promoted in the following areas [10]-[12]: KWhr/year in average. That means, 100 MW wind • The production of non-conventional energy turbine generator generates 166,666,666.7 KWhr/year. technologies that are commercially viable and In general, coal power plant (CPP) produces 800 - would better the quality of life in rural areas. 1050 grams of CO2 per kWhr, which includes manufacturing the generating equipment and processing • The utilization of non-conventional energy sources the fuel. If we consider, CPP produces 1000 grams of such as solar energy, thermal energy and energy from agricultural and industrial residues, e.g. CO2 per KWhr, then we can easily find by how much biogases, rice husk and municipal waste. CO2 will be reduced by replacing with 100 MW wind energy. • The establishment of private energy plantations for the industrial production of fuel wood and charcoal In 1KWhr, coal produces 1kg of CO2. In 166,666,666.7 kWhr/year, coal produces 166,666,666.7 as energy sources for rural areas. Furthermore, measures that should encourage Kg or 166,666.67 ton of CO2. Therefore, if 100 MW wind turbine generator is more widespread use of Renewable Energy replacing the same capacity of coal power plant even Technologies include: with half of CPP plant factor then it will deduct • Fiscal incentives (subsidies, grants or tax breaks) 166,666.67/2 tonnes (88.335 Gg) of CO2 per year. This • Guaranteed prices and markets for electric power ton of CO2 reduction per year has high positive impact in produced by renewable energy based technologies the environment, locally and globally. • Integrated planning considering renewable, research and development, information and 6. BARRIERS OF EXPLOITING WIND education programs as well as encouragement of ENERGY IN THAILAND private sector participation. In addition, rules and regulations on energy use The barriers in promoting wind energy or renewable and associated environmental standards may favour the energy in Thailand is summarized in Table 9. utilization of Renewable Energy Technologies. Most of these barriers can be addressed by Different mechanisms for the promotion of renewable improvement in policies and regulations in renewable energy sources (RES) and energy efficient technologies energy and energy efficiency. Amendment of policies (EET) have been established by Thai government with and regulations should be done both in country level and one of target to reduce annual growth rate of energy regional level, to be more supportive towards the consumption from 13% to 10% per year. Table 10 promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency. summarizes different types of mechanisms opted by the Though some of the policies have been implemented by government [13]-[15]. Thailand to achieve the target to increase the contribution of renewable energy source in generation mix by 8% and wind is expected to provide 100 MW by 2011. 210 D. Thakur and N. Mithulananthan / International Energy Journal 11(2010) 203-212

Table 10. Mechanisms for the promotion of RES. S.N Mechanism Objectives Descriptions 1. ENCON -Providing financial help and Energy conservation program supports energy program incentives conservation and renewable energy -Public awareness technologies -Research and development 2. PP program -Power purchasing from small Power purchase program develop to promote producers-SPP, VSREPP. the use of domestic RES and EET to generate and sell power to grid. 3. RPS Promote the extensive use of Under RPS, power companies that wish to bid available RES to supply power to EGAT must produce 5 % of their installed energy capacity from RES, otherwise pay a fine of 1.3 times the electricity fee produced from RES.

8. CONCLUSION [5] Domingo, N.C. and F.V. Ferraris. Renewable Resources in Southeast Asia (SEA). University of The Thailand government has a long established policy the Philippines Solar Laboratory, University of the on renewable energy development. The fund known as Philipines,Diliman,Quezon City, Philippines. ENCON provides financial incentives for Energy [6] Report of Kyoto Protocol and APEC Economies Conservation projects related to renewable energy Can renewable energy meet East Asia’s energy research. The fund also supports development and demands? Available public awareness promotion related to renewable energy online: www.climatechangeissues.com/cci in order to stimulate an investment in projects related to kyotoapec.php renewable energy and energy efficiency and to [7] Energy for Environment Foundation. Study on encourage banking community to provide loan facilities approaches in supporting and promoting electricity at low interest rates. Further the government has generation from wind and solar energy. Available formulated and employed policies like SPP program, online:http://www.efe.or.th/download/solar_wind/e subsidy SPP program, VSREPP program. x_sum_eng.pdf, [Retrieved on: February 2006] However, further promotion is essential as the [8] Energy Policy and Planning Office, Ministry of percentage of wind energy added to the national grid Energy. Energy strategy: Energy for Thailand’s still lies in a very small percentage. Thus it’s important competitiveness. Available online: for Thailand to implement sound policy measures in http://www.eppo.go.th/doc/strategy2546/strategy.ht order to achieve its targets. Measures should be taken to m increase awareness among the potential stake holders [9] Lidula, N.W.A., Mithulananthan, N., Ongsakul, regarding the wind energy technology and to increase W., Widjaya, C. and Henson, R., 2004. ASEAN technical and human resource capability. By looking at towards clean and sustainable energy: potentials, the available potential on wind energy, it would be utilization and barriers. Renewable Energy 32(9): feasible to have a high wind power penetration in 14441-1452. Thailand’s electricity generation mix and enhance [10] ASEAN Center for Energy. Energy fundamentals. energy security. Available online: http://www.aseanenergy.org/ pressea/thailand/countryprofile/energy_fundamenta REFERENCES ls.htm, [Retrieved on: February 2006] [1] Ramboll, “Wind energy - resource and [11] Wattana, A. CDM in Thailand. A presentation by technology”, 1998, Available Tummakird, CDM Cooperation Center, Office of online: www.eppo.go.th/encon/encon-D09- Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and WindResources.doc, [Retrieved on: February planning (ONEP), Ministry of Natural Resources 2006] and Environment (MONRE), The Royal Thai [2] Sorapipatana, C., 1984. An assessment of the Government upper wind potential of Thailand by analyzing pilot [12] Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the balloon data. AIT Thesis no. ET-84-4, Asian Pacific (ESCAP). The energy conservation fund. Institute of Technology; p. 2. Available online: http://www.unescap.org/drpad/ [3] Amatayakul, W. and C.S. Greacen. 2002. vc/conference/bg_th_14_ecf.htm, [Retrieved on: Thailand’s experiences with clean energy March 2006] technologies: power purchase programs. UNDP’s [13] Renewable Energy Today. 2005. Thailand looks to International Seminar on Energy for Sustainable renewable energy resources. Available Development and Regional Cooperation, Beijing, online: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_ China, 25-26 July 2002. m0OXD/is_2005_Feb_14/ai_n12412869, [4] True Wind Solutions, “Wind energy resource atlas [Retrieved on: April 2006] of southeast Asia”, The World Bank, Asia [14] Royal Danish Embassy, , Thailand. 2004. Alternative Energy Program, September 2001 Energy in Thailand. Available D. Thakur and N. Mithulananthan / International Energy Journal 11 (2010) 203-212 211 online: http://www.ambbangkok.um.dk/NR/rdonlyr [15] NIDA Consulting Center. 2006. Thailand long es/D8A28FB6-9DF0-45E0-990A- term load forecasts. February. 2AC58C0B3E7B/0/SectorOverviewEnergyinThail [16] COGEN-AIT. 2005. Overview of Policy and16August2004.doc, [Retrieved on: February Instruments for the Promotion of Renewable 2006] Energy and Energy Efficiency in Thailand, EC- ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003.

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