sustainability
Review Subsidence Mechanism and Stability Assessment Methods for Partial Extraction Mines for Sustainable Development of Mining Cities—A Review
Yang Yu 1 ID , Shen-En Chen 2 ID , Ka-Zhong Deng 1,* ID , Peng Wang 3 and Hong-Dong Fan 1,4
1 School of Environment Science and Spatial Information, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China; [email protected] (Y.Y.); [email protected] (H.-D.F.) 2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd., Charlotte, NC 28223, USA; [email protected] 3 School of Mechanics and Civil Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China; [email protected] 4 State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0516-8388-5986
Received: 14 November 2017; Accepted: 4 January 2018; Published: 6 January 2018
Abstract: Partial extraction methods such as underground strip pillar mining or room-and-pillar mining are widely adopted techniques to control ground subsidence. However, pillar failure in partial extraction mines may introduce violent secondary ground collapses. The stability of partial extraction mines dictates the safety of ground surface structures and the environmental health state of the surrounding mining areas. To reuse mining subsidence lands, it is necessary to evaluate the stability of the land through mine subsidence assessments. This paper summarizes current pillar stability assessment methods and their limitations, and the rock mechanics associated with the stability of abandoned mines. The effects of multiple factors that affect mine stability are discussed in detail; special attention has been extended to discuss the weathering effects associated with infused water and spontaneous combustion, as these are some key reasons for pillar strength degradation in abandoned mines. The mechanism of mine collapse and the corresponding post-mining disasters are also summarized. Finally, suggestions and strategies to improve current mine stability assessment methods are proposed based on the perspective of subsidence control.
Keywords: coal mine; stability assessment; pillar strength; pillar load; ground subsidence; room-and-pillar mining; underground strip pillar mining
1. Introduction Mining typically results in substantial abandoned mine lands that are problematic and can cause hazards to the environment [1]. Mining-induced land waste is a major environmental problem in a sustainability context [2]. According to the Bureau of Land Management of the U.S., there are currently about 500 thousand abandoned mines in the U.S. and many of them present serious threats to the environment [1]. A similar problem pervades all mineral rich nations, for example, since 2005, China had over 809.6 thousand hectares of area with abandoned mines and 1439 thousand hectares of surface land area were deemed wasted [3]. The subsidence land resulting from underground mining is an important source of abandoned mine lands. Most of the abandoned underground mines are documented in old mine maps, such as in Figure1, showing massive rooms and pillars.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 113; doi:10.3390/su10010113 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2018, 10, 113 2 of 21 Sustainability 2018, 10, 113 2 of 21
Figure 1.1. TypicalTypicalabandoned abandoned mines mines of of partial partial extraction extraction from from China: China: (a) room-and-pillar(a) room-and-pillar mine; mine; (b) strip (b) pillarstrip pillar mine. mine. Massive Massive coal pillarscoal pillars and voids and voids are left are underground. left underground.
The partial extraction methods such as undergroundunderground strip pillar mining (some researchers also used the term “strip mining”, caution should be takentaken to note that the “strip mining” usually refers to surfacesurface mining)mining) oror room-and-pillarroom-and-pillar mining (bord-and-pillar(bord-and-pillar mining)mining) were sometimes adopted to control strata movement and reduce miningmining subsidence.subsidence. However, partial extraction methods may result inin more more severe severe post-mining post-mining hazards hazards if mines if mi collapsenes collapse in the future.in the Thefuture. use ofThe mining-influenced use of mining- landinfluenced is restricted land is becauserestricted of because such uncertainty of such uncertainty of ground of surface ground stability. surface stability. Perhaps Perhaps the most the severe most damagesevere damage brought brought about by about thecollapse by the collapse of abandoned of abandoned mines is mines the violent is the andviolent massive and massive ground collapseground incollapse room-and-pillar in room-and-pillar mines. mines. Several Several mining mining areas areas in China in China have have already alread beguny begun to be to subjectedbe subjected to theseto these violent violent disasters. disasters. For For example,example, from 2004 to to 2016, 2016, the the Yuli Yulinn mining mining area area was was subjected subjected to 96 to 96mining-induced mining-induced earthquakes earthquakes with with magnitudes magnitudes exceed exceedinging two two on on the the Richter Richter scale scale [4]. [4]. As As a a result, result, panic has spread amongamong residentsresidents livingliving aroundaround miningmining areas.areas. Besides the engineering safety, there are also long-termlong-term effects on the environment. For example, example, localized pillar failures may introduce atmospheric air into the abandonedabandoned mine shafts and thusthus increase the possibility of spontaneousspontaneous combustion of the residual coal.coal. This will further increase the danger of massive cavity collapse, and will also allow greenhouse and toxic gases to return to the atmosphere. According to incomplete statistics, 2.3 billion tons of coal remained as coal pillars near Ordos, ChinaChina inin 20072007 [ 5[5].]. The The remnant remnant coal coal presents presents a long-terma long-term stability stability issue issue for futurefor future land land use anduse sustainableand sustainable development. development. On the On other the hand,other mininghand, subsidencemining subsidence affects the affects soil physical the soil properties physical (i.e.,properties soil moisture, (i.e., soil hardness,moisture, porosity)hardness, and porosity) chemical and properties chemical (nutrients,properties pH(nutrients, value), whichpH value), will furtherwhich will affect further the soil affect quality the andsoil plantquality community and plan aroundt community the mining around areas the [ 6mi,7].ning The areas degradation [6,7]. The of soildegradation quality and of soil plant quality community and plant structures community induced structures by mine subsidenceinduced by canmine last subsidence at least 10 yearscan last with at naturalleast 10 successionyears with natural [7]. The succession long-term [7]. effectiveness The long-term of ecological effectiveness remediation of ecological thus remediation depends on landthus stability.depends Finally,on land the stability. stability Finally, of partial the extraction stability of mines partial affects extraction the environment mines affects of water the environment resources [8, 9of]. Awater stable resources partial extraction[8,9]. A stable mine partial can protect extraction the integrity mine can of protect overburden the integrity and preserve of overburden a water body, and whilepreserve mine a water collapse body, will while lead tomine overburden collapse stratawill le failures,ad to overburden sinkholes orstrata ground failures, fissures, sinkholes and theor waterground from fissures, aquifer and or the from water ground from surfaces aquifer can or from leak intoground the undergroundsurfaces can leak voids into through the underground the fissures, finallyvoids through resulting the in fissures, a decrease finally in water resulting resources in a decrease near the in ground water surfaceresources [8 ,near9]. Moreover, the ground the surface water quality[8,9]. Moreover, in mining the areas water may quality degrade in because mining the area fissuress may can degrade serve asbecause channels the to fissures introduce can hazardous serve as contaminantschannels to introduce from the hazardous ground surface contaminants and underground from the ground voids into surface the aquifer and underground [9]. Therefore, voids stability into evaluationsthe aquifer [9]. of mining-influencedTherefore, stability landevaluations are an importantof mining-influenced part of land land use ar [10e ]an and important the sustainable part of developmentland use [10] and of mining the sustainabl cities. e development of mining cities. When facingfacing minemine subsidence,subsidence, the the key key issues issues of of concern concern are: are: the the stability stability of theof the ground ground surface, surface, the timethe time and extentand extent of collapse, of collapse, and the and associated the associated disasters, disasters, the effect the on effect surface on structures surface structures and effects and on terrestrialeffects on life.terrestrial Figure life.2 shows Figure a scenario 2 shows of a localizedscenario subsidenceof localized during subsidence room-and-pillar during room-and-pillar collapse and ancollapse idealized and subsidencean idealized basin. subsidence Mining basin. subsidence Mining was subsidence studied and was utilized studied to and evaluate utilized the to hazardous evaluate miningthe hazardous influences, mining in which influences, the mine stabilityin which and the damage mine fromstability mining and on infrastructuredamage from are mining evaluated on byinfrastructure the ground surfaceare evaluated displacement by the [ 11ground,12]. For surface longwall displacement roof-caving [11,12]. mining, For such longwall displacement-based roof-caving minemining, stability such displacement-based evaluation is reliable, mi asne thestability ground evaluation movements is reliable, are continuous, as the ground and themovements overburden are stratacontinuous, can fully and subside the overburden in a relative strata short can period. fully subside By analyzing in a relative the ground short period. surface By subsidence analyzing laws, the ground surface subsidence laws, it is easier to know whether a mine has reached a final stabilized state. However, unlike longwall mining, pillar collapses associated with partial extraction mines may Sustainability 2018, 10, 113 3 of 21
Sustainability 2018, 10, 113 3 of 21 it is easierSustainability to know 2018, 10 whether, 113 a mine has reached a final stabilized state. However, unlike3 longwallof 21 mining,result pillarin secondary collapses strata associated collapse, with partialmaking extraction it difficult mines to evaluate may result mine in secondarystability with strata ground collapse, result in secondary strata collapse, making it difficult to evaluate mine stability with ground makingdisplacement it difficult measurements to evaluate minealone. stability Hence, withexisti groundng mine displacement stability assessment measurements methods alone. based Hence, on displacement measurements alone. Hence, existing mine stability assessment methods based on existingclassical mine subsidence stability theories assessment cannot methods address based the lo onng-term classical behaviors subsidence sufficiently. theories Therefore, cannot address this classical subsidence theories cannot address the long-term behaviors sufficiently. Therefore, this paper presents a comprehensive review of the mechanics of mine failures (summarized in Figure 3). the long-termpaper presents behaviors a comprehensive sufficiently. review Therefore, of the mechan this paperics of mine presents failures a comprehensive (summarized in Figure review 3). of the As the secondary ground subsidence induced by mine collapse is more violent and is harder to mechanicsAs the of secondary mine failures ground (summarized subsidence ininduced Figure by3). mine As the collapse secondary is more ground violent subsidence and is harder induced to by predict, special attention was paid to the stability of partial extraction mines (especially room-and- minepredict, collapse special is more attention violent was and paid is to harder the stability to predict, of partial special extraction attention mines was (especially paid to room-and- the stability of partialpillarpillar extraction mining). mining). minesIn In this this (especiallypaper, paper, current current room-and-pillar stabilitystability assessment mining). methodsmethods In this paper,for for partial partial current extraction extraction stability mines mines assessment are are summarized, and suggestions on ways to improve the stability assessment of abandoned mines are methodssummarized, for partial and extraction suggestions mines on ways are summarized, to improve the and stability suggestions assessment on ways of abandoned to improve mines the are stability offered. assessmentoffered. of abandoned mines are offered.
Figure 2. Schematic drawings of (a) localized subsidence due to room-and-pillar collapse and (b) FigureFigure 2. 2.Schematic Schematic drawings drawings ofof ((aa)) localizedlocalized subsidence due due to to room-and-pillar room-and-pillar collapse collapse and and (b) ( b) continuous mining subsidence: α stands for boundary angle of subsidence range; φ stands for continuouscontinuous mining mining subsidence: subsidence: αα standsstands for boundary angle angle of of subsidence subsidence range; range; φ ϕstandsstands for for maximum subsidence angle; and area (1) for uniform subsidence; non-uniform compressive area (2) maximummaximum subsidence subsidence angle; angle; and and areaarea (1)(1) forfor uniformuniform subsidence; non-uniform non-uniform compressive compressive area area (2) (2) and tensile area (3). andand tensile tensile area area (3). (3).
Figure 3. Causation-theory relations for partial extraction mine voids stability analysis
Figure 3. Causation-theory relations for partial extraction mine voids stability analysis 2. AbandonedFigure Mine 3. Causation-theory Stability Assessment relations Methods for partial for extraction Partial Extractionmine voids stability analysis
2. Abandoned2. Abandoned2.1. The Classic Mine Mine Methods Stability Stability Assessment Assessment MethodsMethods for Partial Partial Extraction Extraction
2.1.2.1. The The ClassicMassive Classic Methods Methodscoal pillars will be left underground to support the overburden in partial extraction mines, hence, the stability of coal pillars is a critical element controlling mine stability, and the MassivestabilityMassive assessment coal coal pillars pillars of will thewill beresidual be leftleft underground undergroundcoal pillars can to refer support to pillar the the overburden overburdendesign methods. in in partial partialMark extraction [13,14] extraction mines,mines,separated hence, hence, theclassical the stability stability design of coal ofmethods coal pillars pillars into is aempirical criticalis a critical element safety element factor controlling controllingmethods mine and mine stability, analytical stability, and “yielding the and stability the assessmentstabilitypillar” assessmentmethods: of the residual The of safety the coal residual factor pillars methods coal can pillars refercalculate tocan pillarthe refer safety designto factorpillar methods. bydesign dividing methods. Mark the strength [13 Mark,14] of separated [13,14] the classicalseparatedcoal designpillar classical methodsby the design stress into methodsapplied, empirical andinto safety theempirical factoryielding methodssafety pillar factor anddesign analyticalmethods methods and “yielding consider analytical pillar”the “yieldingplastic methods: pillar”deformation methods: of Thethe pillars.safety Classicfactor methods methods calculatelook at the the following safety factor elements. by dividing the strength of the The safety factor methods calculate the safety factor by dividing the strength of the coal pillar by the coal pillar by the stress applied, and the yielding pillar design methods consider the plastic stress applied, and the yielding pillar design methods consider the plastic deformation of the pillars. deformation of the pillars. Classic methods look at the following elements. Classic methods look at the following elements. Sustainability 2018, 10, 113 4 of 21
2.1.1. Pillar Load The loads applied to coal pillars include the development loads and the abutment loads, and Sustainability 2018, 10, 113 4 of 21 the latter usually appear near the abutment seams [13]. Widely-used load theories include pressure arch (PAT),2.1.1. tributary Pillar Load area (TAT) and beam theories [15–17]. Figure4 shows the typical conception of different kindsThe of loads loads applied on pillars. to coal pillars In Figure include4, thePA deisvelopment the abutment loads and load, theP abutmentC is the loads, load lossand the due to roof caving orlatter load usually transfer, appear and nearP Ttheis abutment the TAT seams load. [13]. The Widely-used PAT assumes load theories that an include arch pressure will form arch above the (PAT), tributary area (TAT) and beam theories [15–17]. Figure 4 shows the typical conception of coal seam carrying most of the overburden weights, the coal seam near arch springing will carry PA different kinds of loads on pillars. In Figure 4, PA is the abutment load, PC is the load loss due to roof and the pillars below the arch will carry PC; while TAT assumes that the overburden load is evenly caving or load transfer, and PT is the TAT load. The PAT assumes that an arch will form above the distributedcoal among seam carrying the pillars, most of thus,the overburden each pillar weights, will the carry coal PseamT if near the roomsarch springing are formed will carry (Figure PA 4a,b), but it mayand overestimate the pillars below the the stress arch will on carry the coal PC; while pillars TAT [13 assumes,18]. At that first, the overburden the strata load properties is evenly were not considereddistributed in the load among calculation, the pillars, thus, Heasley each pillar [19,20 will], Singhcarry PT et if the al. rooms [21] and are formed Rezaei (Figure et al. [4a,b),22] modified but the theory andit may included overestimate the mechanical the stress on propertiesthe coal pillars of overburden[13,18]. At first, and the coalstrata seams, properties thus were improving not the considered in the load calculation, Heasley [19,20], Singh et al. [21] and Rezaei et al. [22] modified the accuracytheory of pillar and stress included estimation. the mechanical properties of overburden and coal seams, thus improving the Beamaccuracy theories of pillar such stress ascantilever estimation. beam, masonry beam and the Winkler foundation beam, etc. treat the roofBeam and pillarstheories assuch the as combination cantilever beam, of masonry different beam kinds and of the beams Winkler and foundation analyzed beam, the etc. pillar stress based ontreat structural the roof mechanics and pillars as [17 the,23 combination]. These methods of different analyzed kinds of beams the structures and analyzed of overburdenthe pillar stress strata and consideredbased the on interactions structural mechanics between [17,23]. roof stability These method ands loads analyzed on thethe structures coal seam, of butoverburden are not strata as popular as and considered the interactions between roof stability and loads on the coal seam, but are not as PAT andpopular TAT in as pillar PAT and design. TAT in However, pillar design. the However, beam theoriesthe beam theories provide provide an easy an easy way way to to analyze analyze the roof stability, becausethe roof stability, the laminated because overburdenthe laminated strataoverburd canen bestrata treated can be as treated the combination as the combination of different of kinds of beam (e.g.,different Voussoir kinds of beam,beam (e.g., cantilever Voussoir beam) beam, cantilever [23–25]. beam) [23–25].
Figure 4.FigureThe 4. pillar The pillar load load models: models:( a(–a–dd)) areare pillar pillar load load models models in room-and-pillar in room-and-pillar mining or mining or undergroundunderground strip pillar strip pillar mining; mining; (e, f()e, aref) are pillar pillar loadload models models in inlongwall longwall mining. mining. (a) is for (a the) is pillars for the pillars with the same size and the mining panel is large; (b) is for the pillars with the same size and the with the samemining size panel and is small. the mining (c) is for panel the pillars is large; with different (b) is for sizes the and pillars the mining with thepanel same is large; size (d and) is for the mining panel is small.the pillars (c) iswith for different the pillars sizes with and differentthe mining sizes panel and is small. the miningIn (c,d), panelthe large is large;panel pillars (d) is carry for the pillars with differentmore load sizes than and small the production mining panel (Prod.) is pillars. small. The In (longwallc,d), the pillar large load panel calculation pillars considered carry more the load than small productionload distribution (Prod.) in pillars.(e,f). PT for The TAT longwall load; PA for pillar abutment load load; calculation PC for load considered loss due to roof the caving load distribution or load transfers to production pillars; PD for the development load. in (e,f). PT for TAT load; PA for abutment load; PC for load loss due to roof caving or load transfers to productionEquation pillars; (1),PD thefor parameters the development of which load. are summarized in Table 1, can be used for 2D (two- dimensional) and 3D (three-dimensional) pillar stress calculation of partial extraction mines: