SYMPOSIA

Development Perspectives Of The Biobased Economy: A Review

J. W. A. Langeveld,* J. Dixon, and J. F. Jaworski

J.W.A. Langeveld, Research, P.O. Box 247, 6700 AE, Wagenin- ABSTRACT gen, the Netherlands; J. Dixon, Australian Centre for International This paper provides an outline of the biobased Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Bruce 38 Thynne St, Fern Hill Park, economy, its perspectives for and, Canberra ACT 2617, Australia; J.F. Jaworski, formerly of Life Science more particularly, for development purposes. Industries Branch, Industry Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Received 23 Possibilities of development of biobased prod- Sept. 2009. *Corresponding author ([email protected]). ucts, advanced , and viable and effi cient Abbreviations: 1,3 PDO, 1,3-Propanediol; DDGS, Distillers Dried biorefi nery concepts are explored. The paper Grains with Solubles; DME, Dimethylether; EU, ; lists non-fuel (e.g., chemicals, GAP, Good Agricultural Practices; GHG, Greenhouse gas; MDG, pharmaceuticals, biopolymers) and presents Millennium Development Goal; MFC, Microbial Fuel ; PET, basic principles and development options for Polyethylene terephthalate; PHA, Polyhydroxyalkanoate; PLA, biorefi neries that can be used to generate them Polylactic acid; R&D, Research and development. alongside biofuels, power, and by-products. One of the main challenges is to capture more ith the adoption of the Millennium Declaration, the real- value from existing crops without compromis- Wization of poverty alleviation and ing the needs and possibilities of small-scale, received renewed attention and support. The Millennium Devel- less endowed farmers. Biobased products offer opment Goals (MDGs) were subsequently formulated. The most the most development perspectives, combining important of these goals for the CGIAR system is the halving large market volumes with medium to high price of hunger and poverty by 2015 in developing countries strongly levels. Consequently, the most can be expected from products like fi ne chemicals, lubricants, linked to agriculture. Modest progress toward MDGs is occurring and solvents. In addition, biosolar cells can in a dynamic context characterized by changes in demography, help to relax pressures on biomass production markets and prices, institutions and culture, policies, agricultural systems while decentralized production chains and environmental resources, and technological development. can serve local needs for energy, materials, and The discussion of agricultural futures in a biobased economy nutrients as their requirement for viable eco- in this article is framed by the commitments underpinning the nomic development are linked to larger mar- MDGs. This assumes that agricultural production to meet the new kets. Research challenges include development demands, which will emerge in a biobased economy, will be com- of such production and market chains, and of plementary to basic agricultural products and services required to biosolar cells and selection of model crops that meet the basic requirements of mankind echoed in the MDGs, offer perspectives for less favored producers especially those related to food, health, and environment. and underdeveloped rural areas.

Published in Crop Sci. 50:S-142–S-151 (2010). doi: 10.2135/cropsci2009.09.0529 Published online 27 Jan. 2010. © Crop Science Society of America | 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permission for printing and for reprinting the material contained herein has been obtained by the publisher.

S-142 WWW.CROPS.ORG CROP SCIENCE, VOL. 50, MARCH–APRIL 2010 Agriculture still underpins key livelihoods for most that off ers opportunities for small-scale farmers in less people living in rural areas. In addition to the provision developed areas. of food, fi ber, and energy, agriculture also contributes to poverty reduction and economic development by pro- BIOBASED PRODUCTS viding employment in and income from value chains. Facing a future shortage of petrochemicals, biomass is Diversifi cation, defi ned as an increased number of activi- expected to be the main future feedstock for chemicals. The ties generating output or added value for the farm use of vegetable oils, crop starch, residual (from household, can be defi ned at diff erent levels (e.g., fi eld, production), and (from straw and wood) farm, region, or country) of aggregation. to produce polymers, lubricants, solvents, surfactants, and The development of a biobased economy will take place specialty and bulk chemicals traditionally made from fos- in an uncertain context, contributed to by climate change, sil feedstocks is receiving more and more attention (Van production of biofuels, fossil fuel price, global fi nancial Haveren et al., 2007). Currently only a tiny proportion systems, and the nexus with food security. Between 1970 of the huge variation of compounds produced by plants is and 2004, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions increased by tapped for commercial use. The challenge is to create viable 70%. By 2015 the world will need to provide extra food business models for biobased products, and to tailor plants for an additional 750 million people. Land use manage- and plant systems to optimize available functionalities. ment, agronomy and livestock sciences, and technological To this purpose, dedicated programs implemented in the development are key factors determining the net outcome , European Union (EU), and elsewhere (e.g., of these processes. Proper agricultural management can Canada, Japan, Malaysia) apply industrial crops and biomass contribute to increasing carbon soil sinks (Govaerts et al., for high-value products in advanced production chains. 2009), reducing GHG emissions and providing feedstocks Biobased products refer to non-food products derived for . Industrial production technologies can pro- from biomass (plant, animal, marine, residual), ranging vide new uses for agricultural feedstocks. from high-value added (usually low volume) fi ne chemi- The potential of the bioeconomy extends well beyond cals (pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food additives) to high bioenergy. While a small share of fossil oil is used for chem- volume materials (enzymes, biopolymers, biofuels, fi bers, ical production and the remainder for fuel and energy, etc.) They may include existing products (paper and pulp, the economic value of the food and chemistry sectors is detergents, lubricants), or new ones (vaccines made from approximately equal. A long term and sustainable market plants or second generation biofuels). can be envisaged for technologies that produce chemicals, materials, and pharmaceuticals from plant-based feed- Biomaterials stocks (Sanders et al., 2007), which will supplement the Modern non-medical biomaterials include pharma- emerging demand for bioenergy feedstocks and the still ceuticals, chemicals, specialty products, industrial oils, growing demand for food and other agricultural products. biopolymers, and fi bers (Thoen and Busch, 2006). Pro- Such a development will need to be supported by pro- duction of pharmaceutical feedstocks, providing a major cessing steps that are energy effi cient and cost-eff ective. opportunity for agriculture and household livelihoods, is Biorefi neries provide suffi cient opportunities to allow based on the provision of genetic material and production such a development. The development of the bioeconomy of feedstocks. It involves specialist knowledge markets has often been portrayed as sustainable or environmentally with small production volumes. The high added value friendly, but there are key resource-related concerns that provides a potential avenue for development, but given need to be addressed as biobased systems evolve. These high research and development costs, it may require long include non-renewable energy use, renewable energy and term collaborative relations to link farmers to research, land use effi ciency, carbon emissions and sequestration, production, and marketing activities. soil fertility and erosion, water quality and quantity, wild- Chemicals and their feedstocks provide more predict- life habitat, invasive species, and crop pests (Anex, 2007). able markets and specifi cations than pharmaceutical prod- This article explores possibilities of biomass applica- ucts. Chemical markets refer to bulk chemicals with high tion for development purposes—in particular, biofuels, volumes, but low values, and fi ne chemicals with smaller biobased products, and biorefi neries. It provides an over- market size, but higher added value. The potential list of view of non-fuel products, including chemicals, pharma- biobased chemicals is considerable and includes 1,3-Pro- ceuticals, and biopolymers, and discusses basic principles panediol (1,3 PDO), a building block for polymers that and development options for biorefi neries that can be is mostly made from maize (Zea mays) syrup by modi- used to generate both fuels and products. Furthermore, fi ed Escherichia coli . The world market has been it discusses development opportunities and research estimated at 230,000 t in 2020 (Carole et al., 2004). Suc- requirements in light of developing a biobased economy cinic acid, another chemical building block, is generated by the of glucose and is applied in food, the

CROP SCIENCE, VOL. 50, MARCH–APRIL 2010 WWW.CROPS.ORG S-143 chemical industry, and pharmaceutics. The world market glucose syrup made from maize, cane, potato, or wheat currently amounts to 25,000 t (Sijbesma, 2009). Both 1,3 (Vaca-Garcia, 2008), but may, in the future, be of lig- PDO and succinic acid are targets of eff orts to improve nocellulosic origin (Carole et al., 2004; Dornburg et al., production effi ciency (Carole et al., 2004; Koutinas et al., 2006). Starch-based are applied as packaging 2008) involving crops like sugarcane (Saccharum offi cina- materials, kitchenware, car interiors, horticulture devices, rum), maize, rice (Oryza sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), and diapers (Johansson, 2000). and potato (Solanum tuberosum) (Thoen and Busch, 2006). Fossil fi bers like polyester or nylon off er large oppor- Specialty chemicals serve as adhesives, solvents, and sur- tunities for biobased feedstocks (Carole et al., 2004). factants (an important group of products applied in deter- Natural fi bers can be applied in high value-added com- gents, cosmetics, and manufacturing processes). Surfactants, posite materials using cellulosic feedstocks from wood and still mainly petroleum-derived, are increasingly made from straw, plus classical crops like kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), renewable feedstocks. Production exceeds 2 million t. They sisal (Agave sisalina), jute (Corchorus spp.), fl ax (Linum usita- provide a large market for renewable feedstock, mostly tropi- tissimum), and hemp (Cannabis sativa). Additionally, euca- cal vegetable oils (Turley, 2008). Coconut (Cocos nucifera) and lyptus (Eucalyptus spp.) may replace synthetics like rayon oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) are preferred feedstocks because of (Nowicki et al., 2008). Composite materials based on cel- the shorter length of their fatty acids. Longer-chained oils lulosics off er special qualities (reduced weight, improved from temperate crops (rapeseed- Brassica spp., sunfl ower- safety, and good acoustic properties), and natural fi bers Helianthus annuus) are more suited for use in polymers, lubri- are being used to reinforce synthetic materials rather than cants, adhesives, solvents, and surfactants. replace them (Vaca-Garcia, 2008). Solvents, applied in the manufacturing of pharma- ceuticals, paints, and inks, are increasingly produced from Development Perspectives biobased products like ethyl lactate, a lactic acid deriva- The size of existing (fossil dominated) markets and tive (Carole et al., 2004). Lactate esters are produced from potential biobased shares shows large variations. The high- alcohols and fatty acids, with both obtained via fermen- est market volumes are reported for polymers, solvents, tation of carbohydrates (cereals, potato, and beets). and surfactants. The best prospects are for pharmaceutical Rapeseed and sunfl ower oils are major sources of fatty ingredients, enzymes and specialties (solvents, surfactants) acids; soybean (Glycine max) oil provides the most veg- (Carole et al., 2004), followed by bulk chemicals and bio- etable resins (Johansson, 2000). polymers (Nowicki et al., 2008). Biobased market develop- Industrial oil products like high quality lubricants and ments are supported by ambitious policies in the EU and hydraulic oils off er considerable biobased market potential. the United States—the latter targeting a 12% replacement Biolubricants constitute an innovative area for agricul- of chemical feedstocks in 2010 and 25% in 2030 (Thoen ture and industry. Biobased hydraulic fl uids comply with and Busch, 2006). At current fossil oil prices, however, pro- industrial quality standards, as do soy based color inks, duction is not competitive (Lazerri, 2009). which dominate due to superior performance (Nowicki Impacts of enhanced biomaterial production and et al., 2008). Sunfl ower and saffl ower (Carthamus tincto- application include: rius) oils have high oxidation resistance, while oils high in − reduced demand for fossil fuels; erucic acid (crambe-Crambe maritima, carinata– Brassiaca − increased added value generation for biomass produc- carinata) show more lubrication qualities (Lazerri, 2009). ers and traders; Bioplastics show huge opportunities, given that plas- − reduced GHG emissions; tics are extensively used worldwide (Carole et al., 2004). − industrial development; Starch plastic application, beginning already in the 1970s − development opportunities for rural areas, including and currently being commercially produced, off ers a employment; major end use for cassava (Manihot esculenta) (Nigeria, Bra- − reduced toxicity and enhanced health implications. zil), maize, and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Starch proper- While not all these impacts are options for develop- ties depend on the amylose/amylopectin ratio and size of ing countries, it is diffi cult to evaluate biobased product starch granules. Amylose ethers off er biodegradable alter- groups in terms of their development prospects. They will natives for polyethylene and polystyrene (Somerville and represent combinations of market size, price plus potential Bonetta, 2001). share for biobased feedstocks, and the opportunities this Commercially interesting polyesters, made from off ers for farmers in developing countries or local laborers starch or sugar via fermentation, include polylactic acid (Table 1). (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) (Turley, 2008; Evaluating a combination of opportunities (feedstock Vaca-Garcia, 2008). The PLA is competing with fossil added value, employment, import replacement, export) polymers like PET and links to the large market of pack- off ered by the entire production chain, rather than con- aging and fi ber/fi berfi ll materials. The main feedstock is sidering biomass feedstock market values alone, suggests

S-144 WWW.CROPS.ORG CROP SCIENCE, VOL. 50, MARCH–APRIL 2010 Table 1. Main development perspective of biobased products.†

Potential Potential Potential Potential Market Market biobased biobased impact for local local Prospects for Product Feedstocks size price share production size producers employment development Pharmaceuticals Selective crops Very small Very high Very high Very low Very low – Very poor Bulk chemicals Starch, sugar Very large Low Modest Very low Very low – Poor to modest crops, proteins Fine chemicals Oil, starch, sugar Very small Average to Low Low Modest Very limited Modest to good crops, straw good Solvents Oil, starch, sugar Small Low Very low Very low Very low Very limited Very poor crops, straw Surfactants Various Small Low Modest Low Low Very limited Poor Lubricants Oil crops Very small Low Modest to Low Low Good Modest to good high Polymers Mostly starch & Very large Very low Low Modest Very low Very limited Very limited sugar crops Fibers Lignocellulosic Modest Rather low Low Modest Low Good Modest to good crops, residues, grasses

†Source: composed by the authors using data on market size and price and projections of potential market share and size as well as expected perspectives (employment, income) for local biomass producers and laborers. ADVANCED BIOFUELS that fi ne chemicals, lubricants, and fi bers may off er the best prospects for developing countries. While many government policies are based on the principle that biofuels should not compete directly with Research Priorities food security, the reality is that biofuel production, whether Bioproduct research initiatives focus on plant breeding, fi rst or second generation, may compete for scarce natural product development and improvement of production pro- resources (soil, water, nutrients). Naturally, as agricultural cesses. Pharmaceuticals, oil products, and (fi ne) chemicals productivity increases, resources can be freed from food often have specifi c feedstocks. Other product types could production for the production of energy and biobased prod- be made from larger numbers of crops. In practice, how- ucts. This section explores some options for the sustain- ever, production chains often are based on a single crop, able and balanced development of an agriculture providing such as Dow’s PLA, which is made from maize. food and fuel, and the scientifi c and technological needs Perspectives of breeding are reviewed by Ranalli for the next generation of biofuels produced in a biobased (2007). Van Beilen et al. (2007) explored the use of sugar economy, recognizing that the ultimate limitation on the beet (Beta vulgaris), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), and Miscan- production of biomass lies with photosynthesis. thus (Miscanthus spp.) for production of chemicals, biopoly- Cereals constitute the majority of all crops cultivated, mers, and fuels. With some exceptions (e.g., tobacco in making up 70 to 90% of reported arable annual crops. Zimbabwe, Malawi, China, and Laos), these crops are not The potential of cereal biorefi nery for biobased produc- generally cultivated by smallholders in developing coun- tion (e.g., biofuels) in developing countries is restricted tries. Restrictions on genetic modifi cation may limit the by public perceptions of cereals as food—although a large development of suitable plant varieties. and growing proportion of cereal grains is used for animal There is need for a knowledge platform for research feed. Social tensions caused by the food versus fuel debate on oil-producing plants that are more productive in exist- have put serious limits on this development pathway, ing and designer oils, and to identify molecular markers for sometimes leading to the exclusion of specifi c crops, and breeding (Graham, 2007). The EPOBIO, a research consor- defi ning detailed environmental, economic, and social tium in Europe, considers three crops: rapeseed, oat (Avena criteria to be met by producers in other situations. spp.), and crambe (Crambe abyssinica) (Carlsson, 2007). Sugar and oil crops, two other major sources of fi rst Commercial exploitation of less common fatty acids generation fuels, are less common, but may play an impor- (e.g., retrieved from Calenda offi canalis) is hindered by low tant role in specifi c regions. Research and development yield, small seeds, and limited geographical distribution. have been much less spectacular than those reported for Further, there is a need to understand the metabolic path- cereals, but still signifi cant eff orts for improvement have ways and molecular interactions linked to a given fatty been made, often in close collaboration with industry. acid. Many have been identifi ed that could be used Availability of lignocellulosic crop residues, a major feed- to alter oilseed fatty acid composition. Transgenic plants stock of second generation biofuels, is determined by crop created with these genes show low yields, leaving many area, yield, harvest index, and demand for other purposes, unanswered questions (Graham, 2007). such as livestock fodder. The greatest biomass productivity

CROP SCIENCE, VOL. 50, MARCH–APRIL 2010 WWW.CROPS.ORG S-145 is expected for sugarcane in Brazil, followed by maize in the and integrated crop–fi sh production systems of Southeast U.S. Second generation technology could, however, threaten Asia. In the long run, however, these systems may relax soil fertility as soil cover is removed, and in a similar fashion biomass constraints, both locally and on an international soil erosion and soil health, including the depletion of soil level. They, further, may be expected to lead to increased nutrients, structure, and organic matter, which underpins input use effi ciency (off ering more biomass for the same agricultural productivity and food security. input of water, nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.). Their impact, While the impact of large-scale cultivation of biomass in combination with other innovative photosynthetic- for fi rst or second generation biofuels is debated, a greater related research (e.g., on transplanting C4-systems into consensus appears to exist about small-scale biomass for C3-crops) can be tremendous. biofuel applications in developing countries. Local pro- duction of biomass, or local use of residues, may help Research Priorities local communities improve access to renewable energy Current cereal research for advanced biorefi ning sources and, hence, reduce workloads and pressure on focuses on improving starch and straw for biofuels. Cell wood resources, and help gain independence from often wall structure degradability is expected to become an expensive fossil fuel sources. This holds promise for less important breeding target, while production of polymers endowed small-scale farmers in isolated inland areas. and bioplastics would require breeding for other, special- Still, developments that take advantage of new tech- ized, traits. nologies are needed to avoid the food vs. fuel controversy, There are many lignocellulosic crops that are exten- sometimes referred to as ‘next generation biofuels’. A specifi c sively found in developing countries. Choice of a specifi c scientifi c development is focusing on photosynthesis, produc- crop will depend on agro-ecological and economic condi- tion of by plants (and some bacteria), using chlorophyll tions. Poplar (Populus spp.), a fast growing, vegetative prop- to harvest solar energy. As photosynthetic effi ciency funda- agated crop native to temperate and subtropical regions, mentally limits potential biomass production, it is important whose genome (40,000 genes) has been sequenced, has to examine ways to increase the current effi ciency. been defi ned as an ideal research crop. Research focuses Although higher photosynthetic effi ciency may result on insect and disease resistance, herbicide tolerance, and in a higher production of biomass, energy delivered from lignin content (Boerjan, 2009). this biomass still could not avoid competition with food. Miscanthus, a perennial grass, has a high yield potential In theory, future biofuel systems can be envisaged in and can be grown eff ectively under low input conditions. which plant fuel cells tap photosynthetic products directly. It is, however, not fully developed for widespread cultiva- This bypasses the development of plant structural elements tion. There are urgent needs to establish a robust breeding (stems, root, and reproductive elements), potentially real- program. Potential improvements of Miscanthus include izing productivity and effi ciency gains. Innovative appli- tolerance to drought and low temperatures, stem borers, cations of , nanotechnology, and genomics and fungal diseases (Clifton-Brown et al., 2008). provide tools to study and understand the fundamental New concepts for increasing photosynthetic effi ciency processes of photosynthesis, starting from the molecular that are currently being developed include (Arshadi and building blocks via the thylakoid membrane to the leaf. Sellstedt, 2008): This knowledge is the key to improving the effi ciency of · Artifi cial leaves, using light to extract electrons from photosynthesis, either by direct energy tapping or by the water to produce hydrogen and synthetic gas. This production of energy-effi cient biomass (Fig. 1). involves ultra fast light harvesting and micro reac- tors, a photocatalysis system, and an inorganic nano- Development Perspectives structure to generate the fuels; The potential contribution of crops or plant systems · BioSolar Cells, which are organisms designed with with enhanced photosynthetic capacity cannot be easily synthetic to produce fuels (butanol, metha- overestimated. Improving existing light use effi ciency rates nol, , lipids, and hydrogen) without the bio- by a tenth of the current values can lead to considerable mass intermediate, and with a positive contribution yield potential increases. The potential for development- to solving the CO2 problem. Solar energy may be related improvement will depend on the application of an temporarily stored in a carbohydrate biofi lm grown enhanced production system. Artifi cial leaves and bioso- on a low-cost biobattery system; lar cells are most likely to be implemented in high tech · Plant Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) for nondestruc- environments and will, for the time being, not be directly tive in situ harvesting of bio-energy, which is carbon linked to vulnerable groups in developing countries. neutral and free of combustion emissions. Oxidation Algal production may be implemented in a less of organic compounds produced by plant cells and sophisticated setting, off ering potential for resource-poor excreted by roots generates electricity as bacteria farmers in the tropics, in ways similar to the complex donate electrons to an anode;

S-146 WWW.CROPS.ORG CROP SCIENCE, VOL. 50, MARCH–APRIL 2010 Fig. 1. Options to improve energy capture by plants for enhanced production of food, fuels and products.

· Biofuel and fatty-acid producing algae or cyanobac- of biomass. Feedstock selection, logistics, and biorefi ning teria. Algae known to contain very high contents techniques are used to optimize valorization of available of oil are slow growers. In addition, production of functionalities and biomass utilization. Complex input- omega-3 fatty acid can be performed by marine algae. output chains help to realize optimal economic and social Optimizing the photosynthetic capacity of algae will opportunities. This is done by fi rst generating (low vol- enable commercial production for biofuels and food. ume) high added value products, followed by other, less The suggestions discussed above link to innovative valuable products (Fig. 2). and exciting research on more effi cient photosynthetic sys- The following biorefi nery types can be distinguished: tems, e.g., the introduction of an effi cient C4-system with (i) whole crop, (ii) oleochemical, (iii) lignocellulosic feed- 1 its high CO2 upload capacity at the surface of the Rubisco stock, and (iv) green. enzyme by the transfer of sets of genes to C3-crops such A whole crop biorefi nery processes grain into a range as rice or wheat. This would allow an improvement of the of products, usually via ‘dry’ or ‘wet’ milling and conse- Rubisco system, playing a central role in C3 photosynthe- quent fermentation and distilling of grains (wheat, rye, sis, which is less effi cient at current CO2 concentrations maize). Wet milling starts with water-soaking to soften and will lead to more effi cient water use. Another exam- grain kernels, followed by grinding. It uses well-known ple is the combination of bacteria photosystems absorbing technologies to separate starch, cellulose, oil, and proteins. light in the near infrared where plants, algae, and cyano- Dry milling grinds whole grains before mixing the fl our bacteria are not active. with water, adding enzymes and cooking the mash to Clearly, it is a long road before advanced systems for break down the starch. This hydrolysis step can be elimi- direct photosynthetic harvesting can be expected. Major nated by the simultaneous use of enzymes and . After technological challenges lying ahead include improv- fermentation, ethanol is distilled, concentrated, purifi ed, ing genetic aspects of photosynthetic systems, increasing and dehydrated. The residue (stillage) is separated into a insight in biochemical production and composition of solid (wet grains) and liquid (syrup) phase, which can be photosynthetic products and enzymatic mechanisms, plus combined and dried to produce distillers dried grains with development of feasible, aff ordable, and eff ective produc- solubles (DDGS), an animal feed. Alternatively, grains tion systems. Other applications, such as the use of algae may be processed into starch, and further to polymers or or cyanobacteria, are close at hand. Successful application bioplastics. In a simultaneous process, straw can be con- will require effi cient production systems and organisms verted into energy or products, following the principles of adapted to these systems. the lignocellulosic feedstock biorefi nery discussed below (Clark and Deswarte, 2008). PROCESSING FOR THE BIOBASED An oleochemical biorefi nery combines production ECONOMY: of biodiesel with that of high added-value vegetable-oil The biorefi nery concept aims to make optimal use of plant components. In this concept, energy produc- 1Description of biorefi neries is based on Kamm et al. (2006), Clark and tion is not a primary, but only one optional application Deswarte (2008), and De Jong et al. (2009).

CROP SCIENCE, VOL. 50, MARCH–APRIL 2010 WWW.CROPS.ORG S-147 based products. It uses oil-crop fatty acids, fatty esters, and glycerol to produce (basic) chemicals, functional monomers, lubricants, and surfactants. In the long run, oleochemical biorefi ning may produce feedstocks for fos- sil-based refi neries. Success of the biorefi nery will depend on its integration with existing fossil chains, its building blocks providing a neat interface (De Jong et al., 2009). Lignocellulosic feedstock biorefi nery encompasses transformation of lignocellulosic biomass into intermedi- ate outputs (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin) to be processed into a spectrum of products and bioenergy. Three process- ing routes may be chosen. Following the bio-chemical route, a Sugar Platform Biorefi nery treats lignocellulosic biomass to release cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cel- lulose then is converted using enzymatic hydrolysis into glucose, mannose, and xylose. The sugars are converted Fig. 2. Market prices versus market volumes biobased “products.” into biofuels (ethanol, butanol, hydrogen) and/or added- Source: De Jong et al. (2009). value chemicals. Lignin is applied in combined heat and power combustion, but may in the future be transformed routes in developing countries, and the scale and location into added-value chemicals (De Jong et al., 2009). of the biorefi neries. Thermo-chemical refi ning applied in the Syngas Plat- Major sugar and starch crops can be applied in fermen- form Biorefi nery consists of high-temperature-cum-pres- tation processes that provide inputs for the production of sure gasifi cation of lignocellulosic biomass into syngas. chemicals, specialty products, and fuels. Vegetable oils can The gas is cleaned and used to produce biofuels [Fischer- be applied as plasticizers, lubricants, dyes, and resins. While Tropsch diesel, dimethylether (DME), or alcohol] and/or most small-scale farmers produce some of these crops, they a variety of base chemicals (ethylene, propylene, butadi- will not necessarily profi t from future biobased develop- ene, etc.) using catalytic synthesis processes (De Jong et ments. Well endowed large-scale farmers are the fi rst to fi ll al., 2009). A mixed approach, the so-called Two Platform the need for extra biomass feedstocks. To realize develop- Concept Biorefi nery (or Integrated Bio/Thermo-chem- ment potentials, biorefi neries should fi t in the needs and ical Biorefi nery), integrates sugar and syngas refi neries possibilities of small scale farmers and their families. to generate bioenergy and/or biobased products. For this Further, their role in production chains should safe- purpose, sugars are treated and biochemically processed, guard perspectives for a profi table feedstock provision whereas lignin is thermochemically treated. Sugar refi n- and/or integration in labor patterns and local employment, ing (fermentation and distillation) and syngas residues are while increased demand for local resources (land, water) applied in combined heat and power production units to should not limit their access to such critical resources. It is cover (part of) the energy requirements. likely that the best prospects are for systems with limited Green biorefi neries, feeding grass to a cascade of pro- capital requirements or systems providing a guarantee for cessing stages, off er an innovative alternative processing a long collaboration. Refi neries off ering cheap and local route for grass feedstocks. Essential is the mechanical grass sources of energy, and activities that reduce water contents (“green biomass”) fractionation into a liquid phase con- of (intermediate) feedstocks (limiting transportation costs taining soluble compounds (lactic acid, amino acids) and a and risks of decay) off er the best development options. solid phase mainly consisting of fi bers. Overall economic The potential of lignocellulosic biomass production effi ciency of the biorefi nery is mainly determined by the in developing countries is huge, but current use or eco- economic return of the fi bers (De Jong et al., 2009). Major system service (fuel production, , water cap- characteristics of these dominant biorefi nery processes are ture) places limits on its application. Marginal lands may presented in Table 2. provide only low to moderate yield levels. The potential for the production of chemicals, lubricants, and other bio- Development Perspectives based products has to be evaluated but second generation Biorefi neries off er prospects of enlarged sector out- bioethanol production may be a viable alternative locally. put value and prospects for growth of smallholder farmers’ Sugar beet has been identifi ed as model crop for incomes, but value added and income eff ects will depend research on chemical building blocks, but its relevance on product and market diff erentiation. The relevance of for developing countries currently is limited. Cassava, a biorefi neries for development depends on a link to avail- local low-cost source of starch, has interesting prospects able biomass resources, options for economic conversion as a source of bioethanol. EMBRAPA has bred cassava

S-148 WWW.CROPS.ORG CROP SCIENCE, VOL. 50, MARCH–APRIL 2010 Table 2. Main characteristics of major biorefi nery types.† Biorefi nery Feedstock & conversion Impacts Remarks Whole crop Cereal crops, dry or wet Link to monomer and polymer production, but large scale Mainly from maize, wheat. Moder- biorefi nery milling production leads to competition with food production. Straw ately capital intensive. applicable to lignocellulosic biorefi nery. Oleochemical feed- Oil crops (rape seed, soy- Links to production of chemicals, functional monomers, lubri- Close to full commer-cialization. stock biorefi nery bean, oil palm) cants, and surfactants. Direct competition with food. Capital intensity is moderate. Lignocellu Lignocellulosic crops, resi- Reduced competition with food, feed production, high water Not yet on commercial scale. Capi- losic biorefi nery dues of food & feed crops use effi ciency, high potential for GHG emission reduction. tal intensive. Green Biorefi nery Mainly grass Links to production of proteins, sugars and fi bers. No direct R&D phase. competition with food.

†Source: Kamm et al. (2006), Wolf et al. (2005), De Jong et al. (2009). cultivars with high sugar content specifi cally designed for food safety, and risk assessments. In this connection, good bioethanol production. agricultural practices (GAP) promoted in agriculture and processing by FAO are of signifi cance. Public-private part- Research Priorities nerships could coalesce around improved crop cultivars Prospects for biorefi nery research are mainly found and production practices for smallholder farmers. Research in determining its potential for development applications. could also refer to ex ante impact assessment with a particu- What refi nery systems off er opportunities to poor farmers lar focus on equity outcomes of biobased economy. in isolated areas? How are existing systems for food and Third, in relation to sustainable development, research the systems for feed production and processing linked? on production and processing scale is important. In the Routes need to be identifi ed to develop cheap and robust, early stages of the development of a biobased economy, but effi cient, systems that do not threaten the position of downsizing processing technologies and plant sizes to the vulnerable groups. local level will contribute to three economic drivers. A Priorities for research should be linked to those for- larger share of the farm population will have the opportu- mulated for crop applications (biobased products, biofu- nity to grow feedstocks, including those in poor marginal els). As was discussed above, a combination of market size, environments. Local employment opportunities will be price, and perspectives for competitive feedstock produc- created in regions lacking in development opportunities, tion must be considered against the needs and possibilities while short feedstock value chains may raise farm gate of rural poor plus farmers. Extra attention here is needed feedstock prices. to link existing crop production with biorefi nery systems Related to this is the organization of processing facili- and to defi ne systems that are best fi t to serve local needs, ties. Economies of scale may be expected to apply to bio- while preserving fragile social and ecological systems. based production as they do to food production chains. Feedstock production may in many instances be expected DISCUSSION to cluster biorefi neries, which may often be located in From a value chain and systems perspective, the bio- higher production areas (e.g., irrigated areas), thus indi- based economy opens a range of research and develop- rectly leading to negative equity outcomes. Application ment issues, which can be grouped into four principal of remote and local pre-treatment units linked to central emphases along a “U impact pathway/value chain” frame- processing facilities may provide an interesting alternative work (Dixon et al., 2007). These are (i) consumer prefer- for this problem (Clark and Deswarte, 2008). ences, (ii) process engineering, (iii) socioeconomics, and On the other hand, by-products can stimulate the (iv) production. development of enhanced secondary income generating First, market research needs to be done on consumer opportunities, e.g., distiller’s grains as concentrate feed for preferences for biobased products. While of less impor- animal fattening activities. Therefore, livestock extension tance when such products are used in intermediate steps, and improvement may well be an ideal complement to consumer acceptance of innovative biobased end products biorefi nery development. will need to be assured. In many cases consumers may A fourth major research area will be sustainable prefer biobased products to petroleum products provided feedstock production practices. Increasing demand for quality is not compromised. While there has been con- agricultural products may cause food prices to increase, sumer resistance to GM products in many countries, this increasing income and land values for large farmers and may be diff erent for non-food applications. reducing net income/increasing food insecurity for the Related to this, and moving down the produce value majority of small farmers who are net purchasers of food. chain, a strong growth in process engineering research The tendency for expansion of production onto marginal may be expected, especially related to process effi ciency, land will threaten soil health, thus requiring two major

CROP SCIENCE, VOL. 50, MARCH–APRIL 2010 WWW.CROPS.ORG S-149 research thrusts: fi rst, conservation agriculture systems Balanced rural development will be essential to posi- that maintain soil cover, increase water use effi ciency and tion the growth of the biobased technologies and economy reduce soil erosion; second, the substitution of perennials in sustainable development space. Mankind requires a wide for annual feedstocks for similar reasons. The latter may range of products from agriculture, including food, feed, lead to increases in agroforestry or mixed food-feedstock- and ecosystem services, alongside newer products described livestock plantation systems, which can provide low cost in this article. Experience from the sug- and reliable biomass and avoid annual cultivation and gests that agricultural intensifi cation should be dispersed management costs while stabilizing standing biomass in rather than concentrated in high potential zones; it should times of drought, plus self-evident advantages in relation also be “pro-poor, pro-women, and pro-environment,” to habitat and biodiversity. embodying and equity principles. The increased demand for biomass may lead to A focus on rural development does not imply that increased harvest of crop residues, including straw and there is no need for technological research. The challenge stover, as feedstock, whether for biofuels, biobased prod- is to foster an innovative biobased economy that is tech- ucts, or biorefi neries. The removal of a high fraction of nically feasible, profi table, and socially desirable. With crop residues could lead to a shortage of fodder for rumi- respect to research, there is need to understand how to nants, and reduce practices of mulching systems, which capture more value from existing crops. protect the soil surface, reduce erosion, reduce weed pres- There is a need to aim for ecological effi ciency, but sure, and improve water productivity. In this respect, residue recovery and biomass harvest demand more of the proportion of crop residues required to maintain soil water and soil resources that are already heavily stressed. health should be determined (Sayre and Dixon, 2006). Consequently, it is important that processing must be There is suffi cient potential to redirect nutrients contained integrated with biomass production to yield ecological in byproducts from bioenergy and biorefi nery systems to improvements. Demand for biomass as a feedstock may farmers’ fi elds. Anex et al. (2007) report a potential return allow a redesigning of agriculture, in terms of crops, crop- rate of 78% of applied N in maize or switchgrass (Panicum ping systems, and nutrient management. virgatum) production. Biorefi neries will be a key component of a resil- ient and sustainable bioeconomy, preferably with viable CONCLUDING REMARKS small-scale options to foster local economic development There is a huge potential for agriculture as we move in marginal and remote areas. The various components toward a biobased economy. To capitalize on this, sys- of healthy agricultural and industrial ecosystems need to tems and participatory approaches are needed to develop be integrated. Biorefi neries will need to be optimized so agriculture practices, institutions (including markets), that a wider range of the ecological functions that agricul- and processing systems. As the anticipated growth of the tural and natural lands currently provide, such as nutrient biobased economy will strengthen the demand for bio- cycling, and the protection of water mass, ecosystem function in biomass scarce regions such and soil resources, will be delivered. However, it should as South Asia may be threatened. Resource planning, be noted that this is unlikely to happen unless appropriate including water, energy and byproducts, and associated economic incentives are created (Anex et al., 2007). transportation, storage, and processing infrastructure can ensure optimal supply of agricultural produce to a variety References of markets. Anex, R. 2007. Sustainability and the biorefi neries of the future. p. While the food versus fuel debate has been overheated, 7–8. In D. Clayton and E. Hughson (ed.) Products from plants– we conclude that food security should not be threatened from crops and to zero waste biorefi neries. 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