CEU eTD Collection

Exploring indirectevidencesofenviro A thesissubmittedtothe Department of Mountains (CentralAsia)duringthelastcentury Central EuropeanUniversityin Degree ofMaster Science Nailya MUSTAEVA Nailya MUSTAEVA July, 2009 Budapest

EnvironmentalSciences andPolicyof nmental change in the Pamir-Alai inthePamir-Alai nmental change partfulfilmentofthe CEU eTD Collection Central European University. place isavailable fromtheHeadofDepa Further information ontheconditionsunderwh University, Budapest. Mountains (CentralAsia) duringthelastcentury. Mustaeva, N.2009. Forbibliographicandreferencepurposes (3) University, whichwillprescribe theterms and may not bemade availableforusebythird Theownershipofanyintellectualpropertyrightswhichmay is vestedintheCentral EuropeanUniversity, (2) (in writing)oftheAuthor. of copiesmadeinaccordancewithsuchinstru Librarian. This pagemust form partofanysuch lodged intheCentralEuropeanUniversity Copyrightintextof full, orofextracts,may bemade onlyinaccord (1) Notes oncopyrightandtheownership ofintellectualproperty rights: Exploring indirectevidencesofenvi thisthesisrestswith and conditionsofanysuchagreement. Library.Detailsmay beobtainedfrom the ii ctions may notbemade withoutthepermission subject toany prioragreement tothecontrary, rtment ofEnvironmental SciencesandPolicy, ance withinstructions given bythe Authorand copiesmade. Furtherco theAuthor.Copies(by this thesisshouldbereferredtoas: parties withoutthewrittenpermission ofthe MasterofSciencethesis,CentralEuropean ich disclosuresandexploitationmay take ronmental change in the Pamir-Alai be described inthis thesis any process)eitherin pies (byanyprocess) CEU eTD Collection of learning. application for another degree or qualification of thisor anyother university orother institute No portion of theworkreferred tointhis thesishasbeen submitted insupport of an Author’s declaration iii Nailya MUSTAEVA

CEU eTD Collection environmental changeinthePamir-Alai Mounta for thedegreeofMasterScienceand Nailya MUSTAEVA ABSTRACT OFTHESISsubmitted by: Keywords: data collection. with theresultsandtrendsbasedonsystem environmental changeinthePamir-Alai mountains water level fluctuations. Theresults of the written recordsofindirectobservations.The selected among themost populartour areas: theKuhistoniMatcha,FanMountai region (CentralAsia)throughtheindirectobservations.Thepa The thesisexploresseveraltypesofenvir indirect observations, glacier melting, climate change, Pamir-Alai CENTRAL EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY EUROPEAN CENTRAL istic siteswithsufficientava entitled: Exploringin onmental changeinthePamir-Alaimountainous iv research focusesonglaciermelting andlakes’ atic instrumental observationsandpurposeful ins (Central Asia)during thelast century research confirm thatindirectevidence of ns andtheLeninPeak,whichhavebeen Month andYearofsubmission: July,2009. as reportedbyobserversiswellconsistent direct evidencesof per assessesthreegeographic ilability ofandaccesstothe CEU eTD Collection and mountain hikers,forthei Tupitsin, SergeiSeriy,Ganakhovsky, supported itwiththerelevant Silvestrov, theRussiantravellersandalpinists, Last butnottheleastIwouldliketoexpressmygratitudeOlegYanchevskyandIlya Prof. AlehCherpattheearlystage of my research. European University and inparticular menti I wouldliketothanktheDepart Mr. AleksandrYablokov,Ms.ValentinaAsanovaandAnvarKhomidov. and particularlyname Dr.Begmurod Mahmad Hydrometeorology oftheRepublicTajikistan,fo throughout theresearch.Iam thankfultothe friend andcolleague,whoencouragedme to I wouldliketoexpressmysincereappreciati my researchatallstagesof Steffen Mischke (FreieUniversitaet Berlin),mysupervisors,foradvisingandcoordinating I wouldliketoexpressmydeep

itsprogress,andmaking valuab r inputtotheresearch. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS illustrations. Iam alsothankful toOlegMonsar,Vladimir est gratitudetoPr ment ofEnvironmental SciencesandPolicy oftheCentral on thevaluablecommentsofProf.AlanWattand Evgeny Smirnov andDmitry on toMr.ViktorNovikov(UNEPGeneva),my v aliev, Dr.Umed Karimov, Mr.Ilhom Rajabov,

undertake thisstudyand who playedasignificant specialists oftheStateAdministration of of. RubenMnatsakanian(CEU)andProf. r asubstantialcontributiontotheresearch, le commentsandimprovements. roleinthestudyand greatly assistedme Zelentsov, alpinists CEU eTD Collection ANNEX II ANNEX I REFERENCES 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5. DISCUSSION OFTHE MAINRESEARCH FINDINGS 4. REPORTING ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES IN THE PAMIR-ALAI 3. RESEARCHDESIGN 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND BACKGROUND 1. INTRODUCTION 6.2. Recommendations 6.1. Conclusion 5.4. Concluding remarks 5.3. Potential risksassociated withclimate change impactson glaciers 5.2.4. The present behaviour of surge-type glaciers 5.2.3. Ice breaks and cracks 5.2.2. Moraines and debris 5.2.1. Formation of glacial lakes and fluctuation of water level in the selected lakes 5.2. Indicators ofglacier melting and transformation 5.1. Linksbetween glacier meltingandclimatechange 4.1.3. The Lenin Peak region, PAMIR 4.1.2. The 4.1.1. Kuhistoni Matcha region, GISSAR-ALAI 4.1. General description ofthestudy area 3.3. Uncertainties andlimitationsof the research 3.2. Methods ofdataanalysis 3.1.2. Interviews 3.1.1. Documentarydata 3.1. Methods ofdatacollection 2.2.2. Aerial photographyremote and sensing 2.2.1. Early expeditions 2.2. Evolutionofinstrumental research inthePamir-Alai 2.1. Geographic features and climatic observations 2.1.2. Examples ofenviro 2.1.1. The role ofindirectob 2.1. Defining reportingsources and value ofindirect observations 1.5. Structure ofthe thesis 1.4. Limitationsofthe research 1.3. Overview ofmethodology 1.2. Aims,objectives and hypothesis ofthe thesis 1.1. Settingthescene ...... 54 ...... 55 Fan Mountains ...... 9 ...... 46 ...... 17 ...... 43 ...... 1 ...... 16 ...... 13 ...... 1 ...... 16 nmental changesintheSw ...... 44 , GISSAR-ALAI ...... 4 ...... 3 ...... servations in geogra ...... 5 ...... 17 ...... 4 ...... 16 ...... 5 ...... 31 ...... TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS TABLE OF ...... 27 ...... conditions ofthePamir-Alairegion ...... 14 ...... 20 ...... 43 ...... 22 ...... phy, geology anden vi ...... 40 ...... iss Alps and the Himalayas as defined by indirect by Alps and theHimalayasasdefined iss ...... 19 ...... 3 ...... 37 ...... 7 ...... 38 ...... 37 ...... 12 ...... vironmental sciences ...... 20 ...... 7 ...... 40 ...... 12 ...... 39 ...... 8 ...... 39 9 1

CEU eTD Collection mountains...... Table 5.1 Table 4.1 Table 3.1 Overviewoftheindicatorsenvironment changeinthePamir-Alai Selectedregionsofthestudyareaandreferenceobjects...... Methodologicalframeworks ofthethesis...... LIST OFTABLES vii

42 18 22 CEU eTD Collection Fig. 4.20 Fig. 4.19 Fig. 4.18 Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.14 Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.12 Fig. 4.3RaigorodskyGlacierin1986...... Fig. 4.2KuhistoniMatcharegion...... Fig. 4.22 Fig. 4.21 Fig. 4.16 Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.10 Fig. 4.9ShchurovskyGlacierterminus: moraine anddebris...... Fig. 4.8ShchurovskyGlacier:glacialbreaks...... moraine...... Fig. 4.7RaigorodskyGlacier:alpinemeadow Fig. 4.6RaigorodskyGlacier:dangerouscracks...... Fig. 4.5RetreatofRaigorodskyGlacier...... Fig. 4.4RaigorodskyGlacierin2006...... Fig. 4.1Pamir-Alai mountain regionwith Fig. 5.1Changeinairtemperature Fig. 4.27MassBalanceoftheAbramovGlacier...... Fig. 4.26Abramov Glacierretreat...... Fig. 4.25 Fig. 4.24 Fig. 4.23 KuzgunGlacier:icebreaksattheterminus...... TheLeninPeakregion...... LakesMutnie...... LakePiala...... MalayaGanzaGlacier:hiddenicecrack...... BodhonaGlacier:sideboards...... BodhonaGlacier:moraines anddebris...... FanMountains...... LeninGlacier:glaciallakes...... KuzgunGlacier:deadice...... MalayaGanzaGlacier:meltdown oficesheets...... Kshemish Glacier:debrisontheterminus...... Ak-Terek[Western] Gl KrasinGlacierin2006...... KrasinGlacierin1981...... LeninGlacier:massive icecracks...... acier: icecracks...... LIST OFFIGURES mountains of Tajikistan...... theselectedstudysites...... viii and juniperforestontheglacial

33 24 28 30 22 25 32 30 34 29 26 35 35 29 30 21 26 38 24 25 34 33 30 36 36 26 26

CEU eTD Collection UNFCCC UNEP pers. com m.asl m km IPCC CEU GLOF United NationsFramework ConventiononClimateChange United NationsEnvironment Programme Personal communication Metres abovesealevel(altitude) Metre Kilometre Intergovernmental PanelOnClimate Change Central European University Glacial LakesOutburstFlood LIST OFABBREVIATIONS ix

CEU eTD Collection indigenous peopleaswell asnotesoftr observations decreased: livingexperience and knowledgeoflocalcommunitiesand (Orlove increasingly affectedthepopulat the pastcentury,whenimpacts ofglacier The needforsystematic environmental monitoring inthemountain regions became priorityin glaciers, forests,landresources,etc. valuable andreal-time studiesof thedistan processing andexchangeskyrocketed.Variousme and diversityofenvironmental monitoring subs development technologyandsophi ofinformation compounds suchasweather,climate, glac instrumental observation networkfortheenvironment, includingitssensitive andvariable encouraged thescientific communitytoestablish, maintain andcoordinate the regular people. Theneedinacomprehensive studyand globally bythescientificcommunity, professi glacial andmountainsystems, th development agenda. The evidence of environmenta the generalpublic,standingasonemost ur change, inparticular climate change,attractsma 1 In thepast centuryand increasingly inthe21 1.1. Settingthescene 1. INTRODUCTION et al. 2005,Yablokov2005).Ontheotherha ed areasandinfrastructure, a e Arcticandotherclimate se avellers became lessandmarginal. fluctuations, catastrophi t andpotentiallyhazardousmountainlakes, gent issuesonthemode onals incertainocc th iers andbiosphere.Nowadays,withthe jor attention of scientists,policy makers and tantially increased, while century the issueofglobal environmental sticated remotesens analysis ofenvironm thods ofremote sensingallowundertaking l change isexceptionally dramatic in the nd, theimportanceofindirect nd threatenedthehumansafety nsitive areasandisreported upations andindigenous c floods, and mudflows c floods,andmudflows ing methods, therange rn globalandnational ental transformationsental thespeedofdata CEU eTD Collection important, especially in light data gaps.Theneedfor updatingand populariz Alai region, toidentify sensitivevulnerable na provide auniqueopportunitytoassessthestate andtrendsoftheenvironment inthePamir- information sourcesas wellascommunication withregularvisitors andlocalinhabitants raising publicawarenessabout information usefulforcomprehending thelo alpinists, fieldnotesbytrave travellers’ information. Touristi their observationsofthePami lakes andotherhikingdestina valuable data.Thespectacularmountain environm non-scientific (popularandprof In additiontothedirect andremote instrume lakes orsurge-typeglaciers), glaciers and lakesusually pursuethespecificobj lakes, whilethemajority remains poorlyunstu locations. Therearestillveryfewregularly(a the systematic instrumental environmental obs studied andsystematically monitored. Dueto observed environmental trends.Until recently such non-scientificinformation tocoverdataga factors, whichencourageadditiona availability ofdataonindire In thePamir-Alai regionofCentralAsia,one whilethefieldexpeditionsa llers and non-scientificmanuscrip ct environmental observationsis of globalclimate changeand tions) attract numerousvisitors c andotherpopularmaps, sket essional) reportsavailablefo r-Alai andcompareittothe theimpacts andconsequenc l environmental researchinthis nd sufficiently)observe its relative remoteness an 2 ntal means ofenvironmental observations,the ervation networkcouldnotcoverallimportant died. Theremotesensingmethods appliedfor cal andregional environmental change and oftheimportant gl , thePamir-Alai region wasnotthoroughly tural resources andsystems inthe andtofill ps andestablishlinkswiththeinstrumentally ectives (e.g.monitoring of hazardousglacial ing thescientifickn ents oftheregion(f nd groundsurveysar r thePamir-Alai regionprovide its impacts onglaciers,water , whomemorize anddescribe modest. Yet,therearemany ches, photographs,reportsof ts provide valuable pieces of baseline dataandprevious es. Theanalysisofthese regionthroughanalysisof obal mountain areas,the d mountainglaciersand amous glaciers, peaks, owledge isextremely d geographicfeatures, e usedrarely. CEU eTD Collection by theprofessionalgroupsa altitude areasofthePamir-Ala glaciers ofthePamir-Alai remain verypoorly resources andotherearth’ssy The 1.2. Aims,objectivesand driving forcesofthesechangesandtoa changes inthemountains ofCentralAsia,and research islikelytomake avaluablecontributiontothepresent-dayresearchofenvironmental ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ aim

Objective 4.Comparative analysis ofthe Objective 3.Identificationofthereferen Objective 2. Definition ofthemost releva Objective 1.Selectionofth and photographs),thereferenceobjectsw manuscripts, verbalcommunication bythelocal communitiesandtravellers, visuals description ofindirectobservations(touristandalpinistre regions withthelong-terminstrumental recordsandscien visitors (tourists,alpinists,hikersand travellers) a objects, etc.; sufficient availability of indirect observations reportsabout geographic sites/natural oftheresearchistotrack To addresstheaim oftheresearch, nd thelocal communities. hypothesis ofthethesis i byanalyzingtheindirectnon-s stems. Giventhefactthatmany andmedium-sized small evidencesofenvironmental ch e mountain regionswiththelackofscientific dataand dvance similar kindsoffutureresearch. the objectivesaredefined asfollows: 3 studied, theinformation ce environmental object to helpincreasepublicawarenessaboutthe different information sourcescontaining nt groupsofobservers, such asregular ith long-term instrumental observations. nd indigenouslocalpeople; cientific (popular)observations tific studyhistory; anges inpoorlystudiedhigh collected throughthis s intheneighbouring ports, non-scientific

CEU eTD Collection (written) information sourceshave beenrevi environmental changesinthePamir-Alai. Thro the climatic trendsand enablethe correlati while theinstrumental hydrom objects suchasregularlyobservedglaciersinthe neighbouringre To compliment the findingsoftheresearchin became availableandmorerecentyears (1990-2008). 1930-1990, whenthefirstsoliddesc supported byunstructuredinterviews withtheta descriptive manner ofthe scientific manuscripts, notesof of information containingindir The researchcomponent ofthethesisisbasedonreview andanalysisofarchivalsources attention isgiventothemountai developing thesystematic instrumental observa modern datarecordsandprovidesinsightsintotheroleofnon-scie indirect observations.The theoreticalframewor The thesisisgroundedontherevi 1.3. Overviewofmethodology about climate change impacts in mountain lakes)inthePamir-A records ofevidenceenvironmental change(g The indirectnon-scientificobservationssuppo Hypothesis ofthethesis

qualitative researchisthemain approachofthestudy,whichisalso eteorological observationsprovideabasisforunderstandingof ect observationrecords,suchas n environments andglaciers. the mountainsofCentralAsia. travellers,visualsrelevant lai regionandplaytheimporta ew ofnumerous sourcesof riptive materials bythetrav on ofthecausesandeffectsobserved 4 ewed andanalysed.The interviews with12 the studyarea,repr lacial melting, thewaterlevelchangeof rgeted groups.Theperiodofdatacoversthe ughout theresearch,more than50indirect rt andexpandthescientificinstrumental tions andappliedresearch.Theparticular k ofthethesis reviews thehistorical and tothePamir-Alai region.The touristandalpinistnotes,non- ellers (indirectobservations) nt roleinpublicawareness gions arecarefullyselected, information inthefieldof esentative (reference) ntific knowledgein CEU eTD Collection studying theevolutionof mountai theoretical frameworks andhighlig aims andobjectivesaswellmethodology and The thesis consists of the six main chapters. Th 1.5. Structureofthethesis process ofdatacollection. means (telephone,internet)bythis inhabitants (hunters,pastur associated withalimited num population migration andtheloss provided bythelocalresident tourists) records turned tobeequally oreven the perceptionandpersonalexperi in theregiongeneral.Theissueofobjectiv the early1990s becauseofcivilwarinTajikista observations areassociated withthe reducedvisits objectivity insuchreporting.Thekeyreasons of popularreportingonenvironmental changeinthePamir-Alaiandcertainlackof The main uncertainties identifiedduring theresear 1.4. Limitations findings. methods played animportant roleinconfirma inhabitants havebeenundertaken.Thecollecti representatives oftheprofessionalgroup(tourists,alpinistsa of the research of theresearch e grazers,farmers). Thepoor ber ofinterviewers among theprofessionalgroupsoflocal s/indigenous people,whichis oflocalknowledge.Thelimita n environments withthefocu hts practicalexamples andvalu groupofobserversintroduced ence factors. Inmany casesthetravellers’ (alpinistsand 5 tion orrejectionoftheresearchhypothesisand ity ofthepopula e firstchapterpresents more reliable compared totheinformation on andanalysisofthedatausingabove n andunstablepoliticalsecurity situation limitations. Thesecondchapterconsidersthe oftouristsandalpini ch are attributedtoinsufficient availability of insufficientdatarecordsinindirect accessibility tocommunication nd experts)andwith10local r reportingismainly linkedto s ontheSwissAlpsand the e ofindirectobservations in major complications tothe possibly attributedtothe tions ofthestudyarealso the research subject, its sts tothestudy areain CEU eTD Collection summary oftheresearch resultsandrecommendations forfurtherstudiesandpolicy-making. causes andeffectsofenvironmental changein and lakes’waterlevelchange. environmental changesintheselectedsiteswith research designandmethodologicalframeworks of thelocal systematic observat Himalayas. Additionally, thisch The fifthchapterdiscussestheresearchfindingsandpossible ions ofnatureandcl apter providesinsightstothe 6 thePamir-Alai. The final chapter provides a thefocusonissueof glacierdegradation . Thefourthchaptersummarizes observed imate. Thethird chapterelaborates onthe Pamir-Alai regionandevolution

CEU eTD Collection exploration inthefamous mountainous globalregi science withaparticularfocusonachievement The followingsubchaptersdiscuss mountain climbers(XiaoandSmith 2007). wealth ofdatafrom indirectobservations.Theseareusually travellers, (professional) visitorstothemountain regions trends andcanprovideinvaluablelocal hunters andpeasants)arewellawareofseason people andlocalcommunities.Inmany instances themountain dwellers(pasture grazers, possess traditionalknowledgeof the selectionofrightinterviewgroupsand One ofthekeyelements forsuccessful collection especially indealingwiththesocialand traditional knowledge asasourcesofindirect received throughthedirectobser more detailedandthorough resear especially whentheknowledgeofindigenous others (Wilson 2007).The methods ofindirectob or purposefulexplorationofthephenomenon but Indirect methods ofresearchareusuallyreferr 2.1. Definingreportingsourcesand 2. THEORETICALFRAMEWORKANDBACKGROUND theenvironment, arecommo ch. Although,itisgenerally accep vations ismore reliablea the role of indirect environmental issues(Merceretal.2007). value ofindirectobservations information. Inaddition,non-nativeregular 7 ed asthose,which dono reporters. Themain observers/reporters,who canprovidesignificantcontributionstothe s ingeography,geologyandnatureresource people providedavaluableinformation for observation, stillplays asignificantrole, al andlong-term environmental eventsand servations werecommonlyusedinthepast, ons, suchasSwissAlpsandtheHimalayas. and analysisoftheindirectobservationsis rather relyonthereportedobservationsof observationsin nd objective,theimportance of nly found among theindigenous nly foundamong ted that the scientificdata t imply theintentional tourists, alpinistsand the development of CEU eTD Collection provided byfarmers, hunters andsh exploration ofmany wassuccessfullyem deposits by thelocal communitiestodefine thevaluable 1930s, whentheSovietexpertscarefullysearched attempts toexplorethenatural the main initialsourceofinfo industrialization andmining development sincethe1920s,knowledge oflocalpeoplewas in geologicalsurvey.Bolotova The valueofindirectobservationsandtradi Marco Polo,playedadominant roleinre-designingtheworldmap. Jacobs (2005)recognizesthat travellers madeagreatcontributiontothema Indirect observationshelpedtofostermany geographical discoveries:mariners, fishermen and adaptation (Pey receives anincreasingattention inthefieldofbiodiversityconserva initially appreciated indefining the species of geology (Bolotova2006).Inenvi component indiscoveringthedepositsofminera development ofindustrialrevolutiontheindire composed themain part ofgeographicaldi professional knowledgeasameans ofindirect and technology.Inthe13 Since theancient times indirectobservationsplayedakeyroleinthedevelopment ofscience sciences 2.1.1. Theroleofindirectobservations et al. 2009,Charnley th century theparticular attention to the notesandobservationsby famous adventurerandtrader, rmation aboutmineral depositsa resources ofthePamir-Alaiin details weremade 1920- inthe (2006) reportsthatintheS ronmental sciences thevalue epherds (Luknitskiy1955). et al. in geography,geologyandenvironmental 2007,SillitoeandMorzano2009). tional knowledgewaswidelyrecognizedandused floraandfauna.Nowthetraditionalknowledge pping oftheworld’spreviouslyunknownareas. 8 scoveries (Jacobs2005). observations, wasattainedtogeographyand ct methods ofobservationservedasakey ls andhelpedtomake geologicaldepositsinthearea.The fast forandanalyzedthe ployed duetoinitialinformation and hints theimportance of traditional and oviet Unionduringtheeraof of indirectobservationswas nd theirprospects.The first tion andclimatechange significant progressin indirect observations Later on,withthe CEU eTD Collection dates backtoseveralcenturies, whenthelocal The historyofincorporation oflocalknowledge defined byindirectobservations 2.1.2. Examplesofenvironmentalchangesin instrumental monitoring. essential formany typesofresearch,especial relies onremotesensingandco Although theevolutionofdatacollectionand Glacier andmade asignificantcontribution an important roleinre-construction of theeventsprior to theiceavalanche at the Didal et al. description ofcircumstances whichhadprovokedthecollapseof 2002, enabledtodefineanalterna communities in2002-2008 afterthe scientific research.Forexample, theindire The indirectobservationscould (Korchagin 2008). references forcomparative analysis ofch the records offloraorfaunacomposition in the habitats wasmostly basedonindirectobservations(Schensul development ofinitialnature communities aboutflora andfauna species(Schensul attention of thescientists received theap environmental systems andsubstantiallycontri The positiveeffectofindirectobservationsalwa 2009). In1974inTajikistan,theindirectob resource referencebooks,inventor mputer technologies,thevalueof also contributetotherefiningandsuppor tive versionoftheca disaster happened to KolkaGlacierin theCaucasusin in studyingothergl ct observationsbythe anges nowadaysobservedintheecosystems 9 people reported thatthenearby glaciers, which plication of traditiona theSwiss AlpsandtheHimalayasas processing means significantlyadvancedand past (byforesters, hunter ly intheregionswithscarcecoverageof buted tothefieldresearch.Theparticular ys playedanimportant to environmentalscienc servations bythelocalcommunitiesplayed tastrophe andresultedinmore detailed et al. aciers (Yablokov2005). et al. indirectobservationsremain the notoriousglacier(Evans 1999).Forexample,the ies ofspecies,andmaps of 1999).Evennowadays, mountaineers andlocal l knowledgeoflocal s) serveasimportant roleinthestudyof ting evidenceofthe e intheSwissAlps

CEU eTD Collection centuries. Goudie (1993)mentioned thatinthe13 glaciologists, isgroundedonthe The conclusiononsubstantialre that occurredwithinthewell-known glaciersof The inputsbymountaineers andlo environmental changeandstress These findingsextensivelyincreasethekn travelling alongtheSchnidejochGlacierin200 an explorationofarchaeologicalartefact melting exposedittotheopenair(Orlove mountains, andwhosebodyremained frozenfo travelling alongthemountains, discoveredOetz steady trendtowardsglacierretreatwasidentifiedascontinuous.In1991twohikers,while glaciers intheSwissAlpsenlarged, whereasothe (Farinotti important inthedevelopment oftrendsm The roleof indirect observations of villagers, hikers andtourists haslong beenasserted as glaciers andfacilitated these transformations wasrecognizedasthestimulus tomore systematic observationof create thecatastr had beensteadilymoved towardsthevillage, blockedthe valleyanddammedtheriversto 2005). Theindirectevidence ofglacialmelting is drier andhotter summers,are the likely dominant factors inglacier retreat (Orlove described inthelocalsources.However,re et al. 2009,CrateandNuttal2009).In1970s, ophic floods(Orlove the initiationofglaciol the importanceofindirectobse treat oftheAletsch Glacier indirect observationsbylocal cal residentstotheexplorat et al. s datingback3000BCbyaSwisscouple,who, et al et 2005).Theparticularattent ountainous environmentountainous cha 10 ogy inSwitzerland(Orlove . 2005,Strauss2003).Otherexample includes 3 discoveredanarrowquiver(Foulkes2008). cords ofValBavonavillagersstatedthatthe owledge ofscientis r 5thousandyearsuntil recently, whenice i, aBronzeAgeman, whoperishedinthe the SwissAlpsarepart th rs substantially retreated. Adecade later, a even more vividly reflectedinvisuals. The century theglacier wa glaciologists observedthatsome ion ofenvironmental changes rvations anddatacollection. at present, asreportedby villagers forthepastfew ts abouttheglobal ion ofthescientiststo nge intheSwissAlps et al. icularly interesting. s veryadvancedas 2005).

et al . CEU eTD Collection promote andsupportthesystema fluctuations intheSwiss AlpsandtheHima value andcontributionofindi The aboveexamples oftraditional knowledgeand Conway’s notes. Glaciology (1993)withfrequent advances of some glacierswithin theHisparGl state ofthelocalenvironment (Knight in theKarakoram hadlongservedasareference photographs andpaintingsofthepastpres in theHimalayas. Thefieldnotesby theBrit The valueofindirectobservationswas alsoascer environmental changeduetoimpacts pictures, photographs,andsketchesofthe degradation arefoundnotonlyintrimlines andmora past glaciationandshowitsrapidretreatinthelast150years. so-called ‘climate hikingpasses’alongtheGrindenwaldGlacier,storeevidencesof observed changesinthemountainous environments andinparticularwithintheglaciers.The mountain touristsandhikerstrav few years.TheUniversityofBerninSwitzerlandinitiatedtheprogra comprehension ofclimate changeand associated impacts onglaciersadvanced inthe recent The roleofindirectobservationsandattraction Switzerland). the comparative analysisofglaciercha rect observationsishigh.The tic monitoringandresearch. elling intheSwiss Alpstor reference totheformer state of globalwarming (ClimateGuide2009). 1999, Kik1971).Theenvironmental changesand nge (e.g.Grindelwaldan ish travellerSirWilliam 11 ent provideuniqueopportu layas demonstrate thatindirectobservations past andpresent,whichtellthestoryof travellersinthepersonalresearchandbetter for comparative analysisandresearchofthe acier basinwerereportedintheJournalof tained in manyscientific notes by thetravellerssuggest thatthe ines oftheglacier, ecord, reportandunderstandthe of snow andiceasdescribed Theevidencesoftheglacial cases ofglacierretreatand mme ofinvolvement of Martin ConwayMartin (1894) d Rhoneglaciersin but inmany touristic nities inundertaking studiesofglaciers CEU eTD Collection commonly associated with a ‘whitespot’, which remoteness andsevereclimate conditionsof The explorationofthePamir-Alaihasbeen longconsideredproblematic duetothe 2.2. Evolutionofinstrumental and severalhundredspeciesof of flora,includingendemic andwildrelatives combined withgeographic isolation promotes summer (TajikMeteorological Service2009).Such mm ofprecipitation.Theannualairtemperature cold andaridclimate (100-500mm), while The climatic regi conditionsofthePamir-Alai Shoumatoff 2000). Fedchenko Glacier,oneofthe mountains andthelargestglaciers 1998) dividethePamir-Alai into mountains (Shchetinnikov1998,Narama 2001).Scientists(Bazhev etal.1975,Shchetinnikov mountains alongthesouthern towards KyrgyzstanandUzbekistan.ThePamir-Alai consists of the Alaiand Turkestan Pamir-Alai mountainsislocatedontheterritor Fergana Valleyinthenorth andtheAmu-Dary east andtheHindukush-Karakorammountains in asl. Thismountain system isgeographicallyli (Nizhnikovsky 1999a).ManypeaksofthePamir-A The Pamir-Alairegionisoneofthehighestm 2.1. Geographicfeaturesandclimatic conditions ofthePamir-Alairegion fauna(SafarovandNovikov2003). Fergana Valley,Zeravshana two sub-regions:thePamir and aremainly locatedinthecent researchinthePamir-Alai largest valleyglaciersintheworld(Shoumatoff and the Gissar-Darvazmountains receive1800-2000 12 very reachbiodiversity exceeding 3000 species nked tothe Tien-Shan of thedomestic species,likewheatandapple, on arediverse:eastern a riverinthesouth.Themajor portionofthe theregion.Thedefinition ofPamir was ountain systems oftheformer SovietUnion y ofTajikistan,whereassome partsstretch was usuallyillustrated to indicate the siteon ranges from -18°Cinwinterto+10°C thesouth-eastandisborderedby lai mountains exceed heightsof 6000m. greatvariety oftheclimatic conditions nd GissarrangesandthePamir ral andwesternPamir withits the Gissar-Alai.Thehighest mountains inthenorth- Pamir isknownforits CEU eTD Collection 1 Fedchenko discoveredtheLeninPeak reaches ofZeravshanin1868(Yatsenko1940, thewell-knowntravellerandresearcher century, whenA.Fedchenko, The firstthoroughinvestigationofthePamir-Ala 2.2.1. Earlyexpeditions types ofenvironmental monitoring. explore thePamir-Alaithroughnatureobser The followingsubchaptersdescribe and aerialphotographycame development ofanetwork ofhydrometeorologi research occurredinthe1930sandonwards,whenTajik-Pamir expedition gave risetothe attributed tothenatureobservationandfield Until thelate1920s,main methods ofthere Bealby 1898). Pamir, anddepictedtheethnicenvironmenta famous traveller, provided an illustrated manuscript describing weather,waterandnature of the map. The first recordsaboutPamir tothe19 dateback Fergana scientificexpedition,whichinvolved The progressofgeographicexpl and faunaofPamir(Beletsky1970). contribution tothedevelopment ofthefirstmaps the southern partoftheFerganaValley.The results ofthis research made avaluable At that time the peak was named after Kaufman, the Governor-General of Turkestan (Nizhnikovsky 1999). to thescenelater.

oration inthePamir-Alai con thefirstattempts researchers ofthe andtravellers to 1 , KyzylsuandMuksuRiversexploredPamir from surveys. Thesignificantadvance ininstrumental 13 several well-knownastr cal andotherobservations.Remotesensing search in thePamir mountains weremostly vation andfieldresearchuptothemodern i wasinitiatedinthe and sketchesoftheglacierspeaks,flora l peculiarities inhis sketches(Hedinand Beletsky 1970).Inhisfurthersurveys th century,whenSvenHedin,the tinued inthe1870swith second halfof the19 , examined theupper onomers, geologists, th

CEU eTD Collection detailed cataloguingand inventory Russian Academy ofScienceincollaboration w Alai tookplacesincethe late1950s, whenthespeci The development oftheaerialphotographyandre 2.2.2. Aerialphotographyandremotesensing Anzob, Shahristan,Khaburobad,Sanglok,Bu high mountain meteorological stationswereesta observatory inthemiddle partofFedc stations inthePamir-Alai region,includingesta progress wasmade insettingupthenetwork fauna, ecosystems, geology,hydrology,glacialarea In 1932,theTajikPamir expeditionmade asubstant Soviet alpinists(Yatsenko1940). the development oftourism andsport.Severalhighpeaksof thePamir wereclimbed bythe nature resourcepotentialassessment andca expedition (SafarovandNovikov2000).Themain The newwaveofthePamirresearchbegan regular observations(Yatsenko1940). the 1883Pamir expedition,thefield researchin territory fromtheLakeKarakultoupper Pamir scientific expedition resulted inthe ex expedition wasinvestigationa zoologists andtopographers(Romm 1937,Belets 1980). Intheearly1990s thescien nd mapping ofpoorlystudiedareasinthePamir. In1883the tific databaseofth of allglaciers,in henko Glacier(Yatsenko1940,IGRAN2009).Several rtography. Significant prog lunkul, Ishkashim (Mahmadaliev2007). 14 streams ofPamirRiver(Beletsky1970).After ploration oftheEaster blishment ofthehigh-a in 1928withtheSoviet-German scientific the Pamir-Alaiceasedwithoutfollow-upin ith theTajikglaciologists implemented the blished shortlyandco of instrumentalobservationsandweather mote sensingoftheglaciersinPamir- ky 1970).Oneofthemain tasksofthe ial contributioninstudyoflocalflora and alists oftheInstitute achievements wereattainedingeology, e IGRANcollectedtheunique recordsof cluding thoseofsurge-type (Kotlyakov s, etc.Atthesame time,significant n Pamir, covering the n Pamir,coveringthe ltitude meteorological ress wasachievedin of Geography of the ofGeographythe vered theregionsof CEU eTD Collection (Yablokov 2005,Dolgushin1973). satellite andaerialsurveyenabledtoupdate explore thechangesoccurredtosurfaceprofil (Osipova andTsvetkov2003).Interpre the satellite images of thePamir andstarted syst tation oftheimages ofthe 15 the catalogueofallglaci ematic observationsofth es and terminus oftheglaciers. In1998, the past andpresenthelpedto ers ofthePamir-Alai e surge-type glaciers CEU eTD Collection The researchdesignofthethes environmental trendsin conduct interviewsandtostudycorrelationswith undertake theresearchof the FanMountainsandfascinatingreadingof My professionalexperienceinstudyofclimate 3. RESEARCHDESIGN term datarecordsofhydrological,meteorological andglaciologicalinstrumental observations In ordertosupportthefindings inrelationto data collectionledtomore focusedframing problem ofthe andhelpedto enabled tofill-in thegaps andtoclarify anumbe generalization oftheobtainedmaterials. Th targeted objectswithinthedefinedareasof manuscripts andfieldnotes,il The datawas collectedthroughthereviewof 3.1.1. Documentarydata 3.1. Methods ofdatacollection to correlatethecausesandeff hydrometeorological observationsprovidedanunde neighbouring regions)havebeenselectedas findings oftheresearch,regularlyst literature andarchivalreviewinterviews descriptive manner ofqualitativ theneighbouringregions. travellers’ records,in ects oftheobservedenvironmenta lustrations, photosandtouristic is tailoredtoth e researchwasthemain approachofthisstudyandincluded the observedtrendsofclimate change,thelong- udied objects(representative glaciers inthe 16 theresearchwassetuponsampling and e datacollectionamong with thetargetedgroups.Tocompliment the change andglaciertren r ofquestions.Infact, e conditionsofthePamir-Alai region.The cluding descriptionsof thefield notesstrongly motivated me to areference, whiletheinstrumental the travelandguide rstanding ofclimatic trendsandenabled systematicscientific l changesinthestudyregion. reports. These the initial phase of the ds, hikingpracticein the localpopulation the define thepriorities. tours,visuals,to researchdataon materials, diaries, lection ofthe CEU eTD Collection notes andjournalsofthe first lakes change) duetoclimate variability. Thema indirect evidencesofenvironmental change(i by alpinistsandtourists.Thisincludesnumerous The main researchmethod wasid 3.2. Methods ofdataanalysis water resources. their competence inenvironmental monitoring,cl another aspectofdatacompila The interview withexperts, particularly, glac telephoneandpersonally. through e-mail, aspects entirelynew revealed which sometimes to updatethedataandprovided andspecialized indigenous people.Traditional alpini included ofinterviewers targeted group Interviews playedanimportantroleindata 3.1.2. Interviews validity andreliabilityof dataandsources. environment inCentralAsiaweresortedandan national institutionsaswellstudies relate define theglobalandregionale area. Thelatestmaterials availablefrom intern were collectedandsynthesizedinaccordancew travellers (1930-1990)and tostudythenotes,touristic reports nvironmental change.Th tion andverification.Theexperts were chosen on-hand experience and personal explanation of the indicators, indicators, ofthe on-hand experienceandpersonalexplanation entification, selection collection andverifica collection d toclimate change impacts onthemountainous 17 sts and tourists, regular mountain travellers and andtourists,regularmountaintravellers sts knowledge defined thoughtheinterviewenabled knowledge defined n particular glacier/per of the problem. The interviews were conducted conducted were Theinterviews of theproblem. ational andregionalsourceswerereviewedto iologists, meteorologis alysed. Aparticularattentionwasgiventothe ith theselectedreferenceobjectsofstudy imate changeanditsimpacts onglaciersand in approach wastoreview themanuscripts, datawithindicationsanddiscussionsof and analysisofin e publicationsand tion of the findings. The The findings. tion ofthe manent snowcoverand ts andbiologists,was formation collected assessments ofthe accordingto CEU eTD Collection 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Table 3.1. scientists. A summaryofmethods usedtoachieve differences andsimilarities inindirectobser The dataandmaterials obtaineddu findings werecompared totheclimatic dataand and othernon-scientific fieldmaterials co

objects intheneighbouring Selection ofthereference alpinists, hikers andtravellers indigenous people, tourists, visitors andinterviewers among potential observers, regular Selection anddefinition of Alai mountainous system withinthe Pamir- areas research Selection anddefinition of the findings and discussion Interpretation oftheresearch objects correlation withthereference and areas change intheresearch ofenvironmental Analysis areas observations in the research correspond to the field regions, which could potentially

Objective Objective Methodological frameworks of thethesis ring the interviews andliterature reviewhelpedtodefine with experts interview andconsultation Literature review, experts groups, consultation with interview withtarget data, Documentary data documentary review of experts, Consultation with data documentary review of experts, Consultation with experts consultation with data,and Documentary Methods llected intherecentperiod (1990-2008). The 18 vations byindigenouspeople,travellersand data onreferenceglacierslocatedinthe area. the objectivesofresearchisprovidedin defined andselected Pamir-Alai mountainous system areaswithinthe The research Recommendations developed Recommendations defined environment of thePamir-Alai change on themountainous Potential impact ofclimate points identified andcorrelated andreference in researchareas environmental changesoccurred Potential linkagesbetweenthe defined andassessed in theneighbouring regions environmentalobjects Reference selected target group defined and The potentialinterviewersand Results Results Table 3.1 CEU eTD Collection indicators andcouldnotbe study areas,didnotprovideexplicitinformati means. Ontheotherhand,briefsurveyscond grazers, hunters wasnot addressed becauseof inaccessibility andlack ofcommunication The contact withlocal communities wasproblema information providedbythelocal communities. whom areofforeignorigin) appear tobe experience. Inmany casesrecordsof professional The objectivityofreportingisan records, whichmakes itdifficulttostudythelong-term environmental trends. It isalsounderstandablethatinmany casestouristvisitsprovidemos probably duetocivilwar reduction intouristandalpinisttravelsto One ofthereasonsreducednumber ofre among thelocalcommunities. indirect reporting,quest The main uncertainties areattributed totheinsufficient level of details available from the 3.3. Uncertaintiesandlimitationsoftheresearch ionable credibility insome casesandalimited number of interviews in Tajikistanandlogi clarified orreviseddueto issue,whichisrelatedtothehuman perceptionandpersonal the Pamir-Alaimountainssince1990s.Thisis 19 more detailedandcredible compared tothe on aboutthemain environmental andclimatic stical constrainsin ucted withthelocal inhabitants, living inthe ports inthe lastfew years islinked tothe travellers (alpinists and tourists, many of tic: the target group consisting of pasture the reasonsmentioned above. the neighbouringcountries. tly seasonalandirregular CEU eTD Collection 2 representative glaciersa that fieldsnowandiceresearchwillstart glaciological fieldsurveysofglaciersinthePa meteorologicalpersonnel significantlyaffected deteriorated. Thecollapse oftheSovietregi lakes. However,sincetheearly1990s parametersobservations oftheclimatic and observations. Themeteorological st The Pamir-Alai regioniscoveredbythene mountains attractspecializedand primary visitingsitesfortheregularmountain t have doubled.TheKuhistoniMatcha,IskanderkulLakeareaandtheFan Mountainsarethe (7134 m.asl) totalled1600(Niz This chapterprovidesanovervie 4. REPORTINGENVIRONMENTAL first half of the20 The studyareaisthehighaltitude 4.1. Generaldescripti indicators of environmenta discussed inthechapteraregl the Pamir-Alai regionoverthepastandpres

In Tajikistan theLenin Peak is alsocalled IbnSino Peak. th centuryanumberofalpinists,whoclimbedintheLeninPeak nd lakesweresurveyedand on ofthestudyarea l trendsand effects.

hnikovsky 1999a),andbythepresenttime thisnumbermay aciers andselectedmountain w ofthereportedenvironmenta trained peopleandalpinists. regionofthePamir-Alai inCe ations locatedalmost atall again. Thus,in2005-2007alimited number ofthe 20 study hydrologicalconditionsintheriversand mir-Alai. Afteralongbr ent periods.The main environmental objects CHANGES IN THE PAMIR-ALAI CHANGES INTHEPAMIR-ALAI and hydrologicalobservations,limited the me, civil war, lack of finance andtrained me, civilwar,lackoffinance quality andquantityoftheseobservations ourists andhikers.TheLeninPeakother

twork ofhydrological andmeteorological status reportsprepared. altitudes conductinstrumental lakes, whichcouldserveas l changesastheyoccurredin ntral Asia (Fig.4.1).Inthe eak thereissome hope 2 region CEU eTD Collection (UzGlavHydromet 1999). many glaciersofthePamir-Alaiwith systematic observationsconducted until 1999 Glacial MonitoringDatabase(mai representative glacierforthe changes andtrendsasdescribedinthefieldnot regularly studied(Table4.1)areselectedas environmental trends and conditions overthetime. Theglaciersandlakes, whichhavebeen by visitors,tourists,mountain pr and networkofsystematic monitoring. Inthisco Kuhistoni MatchaandtheFanMountains)are In spiteofintensetouristic Pamir-Alaimountain region sites withtheselectedstudy whole regionisAbramovWorld Glacier,whichisincludedinto activities, theabovementione ofessionals couldplayanesse ntained bytheUniversityofZu Source: Novikov2009 Fig. 4.1 21 reference objectsforcomparativeanalysisof covered with limited observationprogramme es andbythe instrumental records. Themain ntext, the role of indi ntial roleincomprehending the d areas(theLeninPeak,the rich) andiscorrelatedto rect fieldobservations

CEU eTD Collection cold and humid (from November toApril)an In thismountain region,therearetwo different Turkestan mountainranges.Thelargest The KuhistoniMatcharegion(F 4.1.1. KuhistoniMatcha region,GISSAR-ALAI Lenin Peakregion Fan Mountains Region Kuhistoni Matcha Study areas Zeravshan River, whichhasastra Selected regionsofthestudyareaandreference objects Turkestan-Alai Region Pamir Gissar Mountains ig. 4.2)intheupperZeravshanbasinincludesZeravshan and tegic value inCentral Asia. Kuhistoni Matcha region Source: Novikov2009 Zeravshan Glacier Fig. 4.2 22 d warm anddry(from MaytoOctober),when climatic periodsobservedthroughout theyear: Glaciers Glaciers andlakes Glaciers Glaciers Indicator intheregionisalsoasourceto Oktyabrsky Glacier Glacier Oktyabrsky Yakarcha Glacier Zeravshan Glacier Reference point Table 4.1 CEU eTD Collection debris (Fig.4.3and4.4, Silv formerly coveredbytheglacie and melting (Monsar2008).Incomp either disappearedorchanged Moreover, thealpinistpaths,whichwerede glacier visiblyretreateda (Shestakov 1998)duetotheincreasedmelting andicecracksontheglacier(Fig.4.7). The the main glacierbody,whichhadbeenaccessiblebefore 1990s,became impassable Evident transformation oftheclimbing routesoccurred at at present they lieonth pathways andtypicalroutes.Wh Monsar (2008)pointedoutth 2008 turnedtobeextremely aridandhot(S the period1997-1998wasreportedas reported byseveraltravellers more unstable.Theincreasednumber ofcaseswi reports itappears that in thepast twenty-thi the field notesandtravelling journals (Zigmantas 1997;Shestakov1998). From thesefield travellers’ observations.Thetouristsandalpi The descriptionofclimatic conditionsin more than1-3days(Mikhailov1978). 1973, Emelyanova 1987),whenthe period fortourism andalpinism isfrom theend the fluctuationsofairtemperatureareinsi e bedrockanddebris. nd iscoveredbyrocks(Fig.4.5,Shestakov1998, Monsar2008). estrov 2009,pers.com). (Tupitsin2009,pers.com, Kushmantsev 2007).Forexample, in unrecognizableways,mainly duetosignificanticereduction r became exposedtotheopen at intenseglaciermelting caus ile many passesinthepast were arison with thepast years, extremely humid withsevere weather issteadyandsunny,w gnificant (Maksimov1973).Themost favourable ilvestrov 2009,pers.com) scribed asreliablein1973(Maksimov 1973),are rty years thelocal weather has changed towards the Matcharegionhas 23 nists thoroughlydepicted of Julyuntil the end of September (Maksimov th temperature andprecipitation anomalies is Raigorodsky Glacier air andarenowcoveredwith some sectionsofthebedrock ed changes in the touristic ed changesinthetouristic coveredwithsnow andice, rainfalls, whiletheyearof ith rainfallslastingnot . Zigmantas (1997)and a longhistoryofthe theirobservationsin . Thepathto CEU eTD Collection

Raigorodsky Raigorodsky Glacier in1986 Source: Silvestrov2009 Fig. 4.3 Retreat ofRaigorodsky Glacier Source: Novikov2009 Fig. 4.5 24 Raigorodsky Raigorodsky Glacier in2006 Source: Silvestrov2009 Fig. 4.4 CEU eTD Collection bypasses androutes(Fig.4.8,Tupitsin2008). glacier became soextensiveanddangerousth breaks anddebris(Fig.4.9)ascomparedto com), whereasthelower partoftheglacier retreat. Itsterminus isnowpositionedathigher Kuhistoni Matcha.Itseems that Similar trends areobservedat Other changes associatedwithglacierme The icefreeareaisexpa and wasvegetation-freenowappearsasanalpi Glacier Raigorodsky Glacier: dangerous cracks Raigorodsky Glacier: dangerous . Theformer morainewhichhasbeenprev Source: Monsar2008 Fig. 4.6 nding (Fig.4.7,Monsar2008). Shchurovsky Glacier in recent years this lting areobservedinthelowerpartof 25 1987(Mikheev1987).Theicecracksinthe body isincreasinglycoveredwithstones,ice altitude thaninthepast(Smirnov 2009,pers. ne meadow withgrass at travellershavetolookforalternative Raigorodsky Raigorodsky Glacier: alpinemeadow and glacier experiences arapidmelt-down and iously coveredwith , oneof thelargest valley glaciers inthe juniper forestonthe glacial moraine

Source: Monsar2008 Fig. 4.7 debris(in1960-70s) and evensmalltrees. Raigorodsky CEU eTD Collection terminus andformerly glaciatedareasbecame rocky anddusty landscape (Fig.4.11, Vitchak Birksu Glacier.While thelowerpartsofthese glacier The glacialdegradationisreportedat been observedbefore(Maksimov 1973). Glacier here reportedlyincreased.In2007Kushmantsev (2007)reportedthattheicefallof [Western] Glacier Significant changesoccurto some otherglaciers such as Ak-Terek [Western] Glacier: ice cracks icecracks Glacier: Ak-Terek [Western] Shchurovsky Glacier: glacialbreaks was completely covered withthe icecracks and melted to anextent, which hasnot Source: Tupitsin 2008 Source: Tupitsin Source: Tupitsin 2008 Source: Tupitsin Fig. 4.10 (Fig. 4.10,Monsar2008,Kushmantsev 2007).Thenumber oficecracks Fig. 4.8 Kshemish Glacier,AksuTamingen Glacier 26

Shchurovsky Glacier terminus: moraineand Kshemish Glacier: debris on theterminus Kshemish Glacier:debris s experiencedvisibletransformation of Source: Tupitsin 2008 Source: Tupitsin Source: Tupitsin 2008 Source: Tupitsin Farahnou Glacier Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.9 debris

and Ak-Terek Farahnou and CEU eTD Collection of glacialretreat(Papagnutstsi1968,Zaytse appeared as aresult ofvalley crystal clearlakes(Salamatov there werehundredsofsmall glacierscommonl climate favourtheabundantna ranges andoccupies anareaof800sq. km (B The system oftheFanMountains(Fig.4.12)islocatedbetweenZeravshan andGissar 4.1.2. TheFanMountains,GISSAR-ALAI (Asanova 2006). the annualairtemperature raised by+0.4°C), climate warming athighaltitudes(asobserved 2009, pers.com). Themelting of the glaciermelt intensifiedinthepast (Makhmadaliev located within themoraine ‘blanket’ of formation oftheglaciallakesandstreams. In1996therewasoneglaciallake,which 1991, Novik1996,Kushmantsev 2007),theirupperpartsareexposedtorapidmelting and in the 20 glacier declineintheKuhistoni Consistent withthetrendsdescribedabove, occupied largersurfacearea. group ledbyKushmantsev (2007) th centuryitsareareducedby1.2sq.km and et al. 2002;Yablokov,2009pers.com). The blockages bytherockslides,while 1978, Papagnutstsi1968).Theorigin Matcha region.ObservationsofZeravshanGlaciershowthat tural resourcesandbiodiversit Zeravshan Glacierisassociated with noticed thatthenumber ofla 50-60 years(Yablokov2009pers.com, Khomidov Aksu Glacier v 1972)fillingthe arash 1963).Thearash geographical position andmild 27 y foundonthenorthernslopesanddozensof regular monitoring andscientificdatasuggest at thenearbyDekhavzmeteorological station in spiteoflittle (Novik1996).However,in2007the its terminus retreatedfornearly2km ancient moraines. research datademonstrate that y (Zaytsev1972).Inthepast the othersformed asaresult kes increasedtothreeand ofthelakesdiffers;some creased precipitation regional (andglobal) CEU eTD Collection Glacier 2002). Similar changesoccur inthenearbyglaciers.Theintensiveretreatof Adamtash increasingly coveredwithstonesand rapidly retreating:itsmorainesnolongercontai termini. Currently The evidenceofformer glaciationispresent pers. com). Mountains expandedfromAugusttoSeptem appears tobechanging: thetravellersrepo July reaching27-30°C(Papagnutstsi1968).Howeve continental (Gusev2005).Theweatherinsummerwasusuallystablewithairtemperatures in The climate conditionsintheFanMountains leftalongtrackofform Bodhona Glacier er icebody,andincomparis Source: Novikov2009 , oneofthevalleyglaciersinFanyMountains,is debris (Fig.4.13and4.14,Simonov 1991,Andreev Fan Mountains Fig. 4.12 ber (Seriy2009,pers.com, Ganakhovsky2009, 28 rt thatthedryandwarmseasoninFan in theform of largemoraines andretreated n asolidicesupportandglacierterminus is havelongbeenrecognizedasdryand r, inthelastdecadeslocalclimate on withthepastyears its CEU eTD Collection evident thattheglacierexperien with cracks,thelower Gazizov 2008,Savenkov2006).Wh cracks, whichareusuallyhiddenunderthesnow and upperpartsoftheglacier(Gazizov2008,Gusev2005,Ivanov2006).Thedepthsome lower part. However,in thepastyearssu 1937 MukhinandGusev(1949),discoveredthat The changesinthe glaciers’ surface appearance surface increased(Ganakhovsky2009). terminus reduced by300m (Boshtruk1990).Itisassertedthaticecracksontheglacier Bodhona Glacier:moraines anddebris Source: Fany2005 Fig. 4.13 part experiences adramatic icemelting (Fig.4.16, Simonov 2004).Itis ces acontinuousdegradation. ile theupperpartof

rface icecracks became widespread in themiddle 29 Malaya GanzaGlacierhad cracksonly inits alsoshow significant transformations. In cover, canreachtensofmeters(Fig.4.15, Bodhona Glacier: sideboards Source: Soshnikov2006 Malaya GanzaGlacier Fig. 4.14 iscovered CEU eTD Collection Tikhomirova andKornienko2007). camping stopformany travellers(Pri recent years thevolumeofwatersignificantly increased andthelake became main the Adamtash Glacierhadrelativelylowwaterlevelin al glacial water,theyquicklyrespondtoanych water levels.Sincemany lakesintheFanM The glaciermelting potentiallyimpactsonlakes . 2008).Itwasreportedthatthe Malaya Ganza Glacier: hidden ice cracks hiddenicecracks GanzaGlacier: Malaya Source: Savenkov2006 Source: Mustaeva 2006 Source: Mustaeva Lake Piala Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.17 Lake Piala boichenko 1996,Nikonorov1998,Ganakhovsky2004, anges intheglaciersupstream (Makhmadaliev 30 (Fig. 4.17),around-shapedlake,atthefootof ountains areofglacialoriginandfedby Malaya Ganza Glacier: meltdown ofice sheets GanzaGlacier: Malaya and triggers theintensivefluctuations in 1970s (Zaytsev1972).However,inthe Source: Simonov 2004 Source: Simonov 2004 Lakes Mutnie Fig. 4.16 Fig. 4.18 et CEU eTD Collection stretched fromthewestto eastfor highest peakoftheformer SovietUnion andth Tajikistan andKyrgyzstan(Nizhnikovsky1999a). The LeninPeakregion(Fig.4.19)islocatedin 4.1.3. TheLeninPeakregion,PAMIR (Mahmadaliev experience dramatic melting,itisknownthat (Yablokov 2000).Although therecentresultsshowthat retreat amounted to5mperyear.Lateron,thespeedwasreduced2-3year observed in1972-1977,whentheterminus glaci ofthe 2006, Mahmadaliev of atmospheric precipitationandannualairte Meteorological Service(Yablokov2003).Theinstru Yakarcha Glacier The strong correlation ofenvironmental cha mountain visitors. reasons ofwaterlevelfluctuationssinceth limited observationdataforthe former capacitytosupplyenoughwaterinview attributed tothedecreaseofgl 1960s (Papagnutstsi1968).Thedecreaseofthewa Energiya Glaciers,show thatthe waterlevel of the la com) ofthe In contrast tothe Lake Mutnie et. al Lake Piala (3800m. whichhasbeen asl), 2008,Yablokov2006). et. al (Fig. 4.18), 2008).Themost in , thefieldobservations(Ganakhovsky2009,Seriypers. acial waterinputfrom thesurr Lake Piala 200 km (Beletsky1970,Nizhnikovsky 1999a).

the double-lakesystem locatedbeneath doesnotprovidethereliableconclusionson 31 the north-easternPamir, ontheborderbetween nges intheFanMountainsiswitnessedat mperatures intheregionincreased(Asanova ere areseveral alternativeexplanations by the bodyofglaciercontinuestosubside e highestpeakoftheZaalai range,whichis of theexhaustionicereserves.However, tensive melting of The LeninPeak(7134 mental climate datashowthattheamount ter availabilityin er retreatedfor25m,i.e.thepaceofits ke decreasedin comparison withthe regularly studiedbytheTajik ounding glaciers,whichlosttheir Yakarcha Glacierdoesnot Yakarcha Glacierwas the lakeisprobably m asl.)isthethird Chimtarga and CEU eTD Collection now coveredbythedead iceandseparatedfr present-day situation.Signifi in theenvironment, description Many travellers(Zelentsov2003; higher thanusual(Salnikov2008). pers. com), whereasin2008thesnowlinewasf 2000-2003 wascharacterisedasmuchwettercomparing to1970-1980s(Yanchevsky2009, suggest thatlocalweatherconditions areprob 2006, Potapenko2008).However,theindirectobservationsbytravellersinrecentyears the firsthalfofAugustwhen It isknownthatthemost favourableseasonfo cant changesoccurredto the localweatherisreasonablystableandpredictable(Foigel of glaciersdoneinthepastcouldhardlybecompared tothe Salnikov 2008)recogni Source: Novikov2009 The LeninPeakregion Fig. 4.19 32 om themain glacialbody(Fig.4.20 and4.21). r mountaineeringandclimbing intheregionis ound atthealtitudeof5000m asl.,i.e.500m ably changing. Forexample,thesummer of Kuzgun zed thatinviewofobviouschanges Minjar Glaciers, Glaciers, andMinjar which are CEU eTD Collection increased meltingofice,numerous crack moraine of take intheirclimbing. Forex Some changesoccurredinthepassesandroutes cracks (Fig. 4.23).Thenumber ofglaciallakeson Nizhnikovsky (1999a)described was justafew of themintheupper part of LeninGlacier More icecracksarealsoobservedonotherglac (Nizhnikovsky 1999b). climbing and crossing theglacierbecame a phenomena at increased. Nizhnikovsky(1999)re The latter issignificantly retreated andshie Kuzgun Glacier: ice breaks at theterminusKuzgun Glacier:icebreaks Source: Kiev’s Tourist Club 2008 TouristClub Source: Kiev’s Lenin Glacier.However,inthepast 20yearsitbecame inaccessible due tothe Minjar Glacier Fig. 4.20 . However, atpresent they become sonumerous thatthe ample, until1980many travelle that thetopplateauofLeninGlacierbecame inice abundant ported thaticecracksinth s andwater discharge(Nizhnikovsky1999a). 33 lded indebris.Thenum iers. In1936Beletskymentioned thatthere withinthe glacier,wh real challengeandseriousrisk tolife Lenin Glacieralsoincreased(Fig.4.22). Kuzgun Glacier:deadice Source: Zelentsov 2003 Zelentsov Source: . However,inthelate1990, Fig. 4.21 rs usedthepassalong e pastwereratherrare ber oficecracksalso ich alpinistsusually CEU eTD Collection steppes downfromthepass Significant changesoccurred to the position of glaci is approaching was ‘dead’ andthevastmorainesseparateditfrom extended itsglacialbodyinth Yanchevsky 2006)foundoutthat positioned onthesteepslopes.Manyalpi the processofvisibledegrada While thesmall andmedium sizeglaciersinth glacial streams undertheterminus. Lebedev (2001)recognizedthattheglaciersignificantlymelted small andformed many bedrocks andmoraines. Theretreatoftheglac (Lebedev 2001,Vetluzhskih2003).The glacierextr

Lenin Glacier: glacial lakes glaciallakes Lenin Glacier: Source: Andreev 2008 Source: Andreev Kuzgun Glacier,breakingawaythemassive bl Fig. 4.22 Zolotoi Telenok e recentdecade(Fig.4.24and tion, quitedifferent changesare Krasin Glacier(asurge-type/pulsating glacier)significantly , isnolongerconnectedtothe 34 nists (Nizhnikovsky1999a,Zelentsov 2003, e regionwithintheLeni ier isobserved inthe Kuzgun Glacier emely retreatedandiscoveredwithstony er termini. Atpresent, the glacier, which Lenin Glacier: massive ice cracks cracks massiveice Lenin Glacier: Source: Slavin2007 ocks ofice(Zelentsov2003). 4.25). Formerly itsbottom part observed atseveralglaciers Fig. 4.23 . At present . At n Peaksystemundergo Sauksay riverbasin. Glacier Krasin Glacier № 197

CEU eTD Collection Oktyabrsky Glacier The impact ofsteadyclimate ontheglaciersinregionwasreported warming reasons oftheglacierdegr and decreaseinatmospheric prec Fig. 4.27,UzGlavHydromet 1999,Yablokov2003).Th observations theglacierlost instrumental observationsfrom 1967.Thest another representativeglacier, The correlationbetween theincrease pers. com). shows thattheglacierbody ispronetomultip 2003). Thesimilar rateisobser intensive retreatofthisglacierwasrecord average speedofretreat Source: Yanchevsky 2009 Source: Yanchevsky Krasin Glacierin1981 Fig. 4.24 (4570 m asl.),whichisrepresentati adation (UzGlavHydromet 1999). Maly Oktyabrsky Glacier 18% ofitsglacial mass andretreatedfor500m (Fig.4.26and ved atpresent(Khomidov 2009,pers Abramov Glacier ipitation over the last 30 years are considered as the key inairtemperature andglacial ed during1960-1975andto 35 le icecracksandglaciallakes(Khomidov 2009,

udy showedthatfortheentireperiodof (3800m.asl), whichhasthesteady amounts to10mperyear.The most ve totheabove-describedregion.The e steadyincreaseofairtemperature Source: Yanchevsky 2009 Source: Yanchevsky Krasin Glacierin2006 Fig. 4.25 degradationis . com).Therecentsurvey talled 150m (Yablokov witnessed at Maly CEU eTD Collection

Source: SANIGMI, UzGlavHydromet 2006 UzGlavHydromet Source: SANIGMI, Source: SANIGMI, UzGlavHydromet 2006 UzGlavHydromet Source: SANIGMI, Fig. 4.27 Fig. 4.26 36

CEU eTD Collection Zeravshan mountains,ice melting and glacierdete instrumental records confirm theincreaseinth usually favours theglacialaccumulation The increaseofairtemperatur factors (Mahmadaliev the individualtopographyofth (5-10%). Theunevennessindistri Darvaz (2%); on thecontrary, thedecrease in precipitation isobserved inthedownstream ar in theamount ofatmospheric precipitationar the region willlikely continue to within thePamir-Alai system. Accordingtothe projections forDehavzandFedchenko,thesele Meteorological Service2009).Thefigure5.1show temperature inthehighaltitudesincreasedfr The long-term datarecordsofthemeteorologi 5.1. Linksbetweenglacierme patterns ofglacierdegradationarelinke reported by instrumental observationsoverth 2006). Increaseinairtemperaturesandchangesatmospheric precipitation,whichhavebeen exposure ofbedrock,andfluctu which mostly involvetheretreatofglacierbody,reduction The resultsofthestudys RESEARCHFINDINGS THEMAIN OF 5. DISCUSSION et al. how thattheglaciersof 2008,Asanova2006). e causesglaciermelti e selectedregionsandimpacts ations ofthewate increaseinthenext several bution of atmospheric precipitation is mostlyattributed to lting andclimatechange d toclimatevariability andchange. (Shchetinnikov 1998, Yablokov2003).Although the om 0.2to0.4°Cintherecent 50-60years(Tajik 37 eas ofZeravshanRiver(12%)andGissar and precipitation isobserved inthe Eastern Pamir e atmospheric precipitation inthe Gissar and e notuniform.Theincreaseofatmospheric e recent decades,suggest that theobserved numerical climate models, airtemperatures in cal observationsshowthattheannualmean thePamir-Alai experi r levelintheglac cted highmountain observationlocations rioration isprevalent. Experts(Khromova s thetrendofannualairtemperature and ng, whereastheincreas decades. Thechangesand trends of localandregionalweather of theterminus, increased ial lakes(Khromovaetal. ence intensivechanges,

e inprecipitation

CEU eTD Collection glacier. Largeglaciers,like The rateofglacialdegradationislinkedto the lossoficedueto et al. 2006)explainthattheincreas ed inputofatmospheric prec melting andtransformation (FuandYi2009, Khromova of waterlevelintheselected lakes arecons The development ofmoraines,debris,andtheformation ofglacial lakesas 5.2. Indicatorsofglacier to climate warming. of Yablokov(2000)andMakhmadaliev Glacier retreat, whereasthesmall ones(less 1sq.km), like are melting more rapidly.Theseobservations increased summermelting. Source: Shchurovsky Glacier melting andtransformation

adopted from et al. Fig. 5.1. Mahmadaliev the surfaceareaandelevation/exposition ofthe 38 (2002),thatsmall glac idered among themain (21.4sq.km), experiencelongandsteady correspondtothefindingsandprojects Bodhona GlacierandMalayaGanza et al. et al 2006).Visual observationsof . 2008 ipitation cannotcompensate iers aremost vulnerable indicators ofglacier wellas fluctuation CEU eTD Collection Glacier Haritashya corresponds tothefindingsoflocal(Mahmadaliev increased waterlevelinlakesduetoacce with climate variability andchange, andthe st in some regularlakes. Thefluctuations of thewaterin Glacier melting hasaneffect notonlyontheform ( glacial lakesandstreams formation couldbere numerous glacial lakesarealsoobservedat of glaciallakes.Thevi The rapidmeltingofglaciersinthePamir-Alai 5.2.1. Formationofglaciallakesandfluctuationwater level intheselectedlakes reduction andclimate warming. glacier degradation inthePamir-Alai inrecent are evidentindicatorsof glacier The increasednumber oficecracks and breaksal 5.2.3. Icebreaksandcracks climate warming. several small glaciers of Gissar-Alai,like suggest thattheglaciersexperienceseriousde The moraines anddebris,whic 5.2.2. Morainesanddebris environments. Haritashya , implies thatthe degradation became more et al. et al . 2009). 2009) experts inrelationtotheclimat sible evidence comes from h arecommonly foundon surfacechangeandmelting. Th

Lenin Glacier.Overall,the increased rate of the 39 lerated meltdown ofthesurrounding glaciers Adamtash Glacier, lated toclimate warming inthehighaltitudes years match theglobaltrendsofglaciermass promotes formation increasingnumber ofthe ate ofglaciersthatfe formations. Formation offreshmoraines at ong withthesubsidence ation ofglaciallakes et al pronounced intherecentyearslightof . 2008)andforeign( Tamingen almost allglaciersofthePamir-Alai, e changeimpacts inthemountain Lake Piala e studyshowsthatpractically and Kshemish Glacier areprobablyassociated ed thelakebasin.The but alsoonwaterlevel Birksu glaciers oftheglacialbody Chen et al , . 2007, Aksu and

CEU eTD Collection Pamir, large all glaciersofthePamir-Alai b subsidence include: degradation. Inthe Gissar-Alai glaciers with The presentbehaviouroftheselect 5.2.4. Thepresentbehaviourofsurge-typeglaciers Glacier Mahmadaliev affect thehydrological balance.The pr Since theglaciers playakeyroleinriverr 5.3. Potentialrisksassociatedwithcl warming. the recent advanceoftheselectedsurge-type Pamir-Alai (Yablokov2005,OsipovaandTsvetkov In general,theissueof glacier doesnotnecessarily mean thattheglacier isgrowing. promotes rapidslidingoftheglaciermass down radiation), whichislinkedtotheglaciermelting andunder-icewaterformation whichfurther attributed tothetypicalsurgingbehaviour,especially after2005(thepe advance. Yanchevsky(2009,pers.com) indicates glacier, whichpushesdowntothemain glacierbodyviaicefallandmakes suchavisible (primarily because ofintenseatmospheric precipitation during 2000-2005)inthecircusof the recent advanceof state ofadvanceincomparison and Shchurovsky Glacier Lenin Glacierinthefoothills et al . 2008)indicatethatclimate change Malaya Ganza Krasin Glacier glaciersurginganditsdrivingfact withtheearly1980s.Zelents ecame increasingly covered with . ed surge-typeglacierssuchas Glacier is caused bythe accumulation ofcriticalsnow-ice mass ojections bylocal experts (Makhmadaliev imate changeimpactsonglaciers , unoff, theobservedchangeshaveapotentialto

Adamtash Glacier, 40 of LeninPeakfeaturesvividsignsglacial increasing number ofice cracksand surface the slope.Thus,thevisualenlargementthe of glaciersisstronglyat that theadvanceofth 1998). Therefore,we may causetheintensivedegradation ors isnotthoroughl ov (2009,pers.com) assertsthat Farahnou Glacier ice cracks andbreaks.Inthe Krasin Glaciersuggests the riod ofintensivesolar e glacierisprobably tributed toclimate cannot claim that y studiedinthe et al et , Ak-Terek . 2002, CEU eTD Collection mountain shepherds,pasture grazersand comprehensive research itissuggested to enla indirect method ofenvironmental studyinth inaccessibility oftheregion (high corresponds tothetrendsreported tourists) throughtheindirectobservationof The researchfindingsshowthatinmostcases 5.4. Concludingremarks reported duetocombination ofseveralfactors. marmot (MarmotaMenzbieri and distributionofmountain biodiversity lossandspecies migr biodiversity becauseofalteration thetypical The glacialmelting andthelossofsnow more detailedrecommendations develop policies,whichdulyinte the potential risks associated with glacier security andeventriggertheconflicts(Novikov deficitcouldchal mountains serveaswatertowers,theissueof has astrategicvaluefortheAmu-Darya and resource availabilityandduetoreducedinput livelihoods andeconomic stabilityoftheregi disasters intheform offloods,mudflows, GLOF consequences oficemelting wouldbeassociated and melting of many glaciers inthe 21 ) populationinthenorthernPamir (Mahmadaliev biodiversity, includingsubstan isprovidedintheconcludi grate earlywarningandenvir ation. Inrecentyears,the evidentchange in thecomposition altitude zone) andthelack of byinstrumental observationsat hunters tothegroupofinterviewers. st degradation andwaterresourcereduction 41 century. It is expected that the short-term

of melt waterbyglaciers isexpected.Aswater rge theareaof thestudy Syr-Darya basin states wherethePamir-Alai cover hasapotentialimpact onmountain data provided bythetravellers (alpinists and environmental changeinthePamir-Alai e Pamir-Alai ishighlyvaluable.For more conditionsatspecialised habitatsand cause 2004).Therefore,itis on. Inthelong-term,deficitofwater withthe increased numberof water-related s, etc.,andcouldpresentrealriskstothe ng chapter of thethesis. tial reductionoftheendemic onmental monitoring. Alistof instrumental observations, the thereferencesites.Dueto lenge theenvironmental regionandtoinclude important toaddress et al . 2008)is CEU eTD Collection ** Pamir mountains * Gissar-Alai mountains lakes in theselected Fluctuation of waterlevel type glaciers Behaviour ofthesurge- change glacier surface and oficecracks Number glaciers partsofthe Terminal and outflows Number ofglaciallakes Indicators indirectly inthePamir-Alai The tablebelowprovidesanoverviewofenvironmentalchangesobservedandreported Overview oftheindicators oftheenvironm Lake Mutnie* Lake Piala* Lake Krasin Glacier** Shchurovsky Glacier* Ak-Terek Glacier* Farahnou Glacier* Adamtash Glacier* GanzaGlacier* Malaya Minjar Glacier** Kuzgun Glacier** Lenin Glacier** Glacier GanzaGlacier* Malaya Shchurovsky Glacier* Bodhona Glacier* Adamtash Glacier* Aksu Glacier* Glacier* Kshemish Glacier* Raigorodsky Aksu Glacier* Birksu Glacier* Tamingen Glacier* Lenin Glacier** observations Sites ofindirect region inthepastyears. № 197** 42 ent changeinthePamir-Alai mountains Abramov Glacier Zeravshansky Glacier Yakarcha Glacier Abramov Glacier Oktyabrsky Glacier Abramov Glacier Reference glacier Zeravshansky Glacier Yakarcha Glacier Oktyabrsky Glacier Zeravshansky Glacier Yakarcha Glacier - Increasing, Increasing, Retreating Increasing trends The identified Decreasing Decreasing Increasing for some state ofadvance Variable, Surface subsiding Table 5.1 CEU eTD Collection glaciers. Thestudy confirms thatthe glaciers the Pamir andGissar-Alai intherecent years. degradation ofbodymany glaciers serveasreliableindicators ofenvironmental changein rapid melting ofglaciers,increasednumber of Significant changesoccurtothetouristicrout conditions ofthePamir-Alai. valuable piecesofinformation forcomprehe personal communication withthelocalinhabitants (residents of small remote areas)provide The writtenrecordsof regular visitors (tourists,al Kuhistoni Matcha,FanMountai experts, thestudyareacoversseveralmost visitedtouristicsites in CentralAsia:the records andconsultations withthelocal commun environmental changeas itoccurs inthest indirect observationsenabletofill-inthegapsinknowledgeandcompletepictureof aboutthecurrent field reportsandinformation incomplete instrumental observations inthemo global mountainous climate-sensitive areas.Itis exploring theenvironmental changesinthe The main research findingssuggestthatindirect 6.1. Conclusion systems inthe Pamir-Alai mountain re recommendations forenhancingthestateof The finalchaptersummarizes themain 6. CONCLUSIONANDRECOMMENDATIONS ns andtheLeninPeak. gion usingtheindirectobservations. 43 nding trendsandchangesintheenvironmental udied area.Basedonthe indirect observation Pamir-Alai mountainregionsimilarly toother of theGissar-Alai (Kuhi environmental knowledgeandobservation es insnow-coveredandglaciatedareas.The state ofglaciersinthePamir-Alai region,the observationscouldplay Similar trendsareobservedinthereference untain environments andseriouslack of the research findingsa ities andnational/international travellers and pinists, hikers, research travellers) aswell shownthatinthe conditionsof rareand glaciallakes,retreatofterminusand nd providesseveral stoni Matchaandthe an important role in CEU eTD Collection 2. Development ofearlywarningsystems topr undertake furtherstudies. areas, provide betteraccesstothe traditiona approach willimprove thepublicparticipation compilation andsupplement theexistinginstrume integrate theindirect/voluntary the visitors, tourists, alpinists, and local inhabitants 3. Encouragement ofcollectingand reporting th change adaptationstrategies. timely reportaboutpotentialrisksposedbyGL glaciers and lakes. Theearly warningsystems the findings of thethesis itisnecessary tounder environmental changeandglaciermelting systems ofinstrumental environmental observationsandmonitoring. Fan Mountains)retreatmorera 1. Integrationofindirectmethods ofenvironm Based ontheresearchfindings,following 6.2. Recommendations possesses many unstudiedglaciersandhas target groupscouldbeusedforfieldresear research ofthemountain environments of The researchshowsthatindirectobservations is possibly associatedwiththeirsm pidly comparing totheglacie observations withthemodern aller surface sizeandlowerelevation. in thehighmountains irregular networkofobservations. the Pamir-Alairegion.Similar methodology and ch intheupperAmu-Darya Riverbasin,which recommendations havebeenelaborated: 44 provide valuablecontribution totheframework of environmental changesinthemountainous ental researchwiththemodernmethodsand ental OFs, floodsordroughtsandsupportclimate would enableto systematically observe and take further in-depth studies of theidentified l knowledgeandstimulate researchersto e indirectobservationsin thePamir-Alaiby event thepotential risks,associated with ntal observationnetworks.Thisintegrated . Itisnecessary to encourage the rs aroundtheLeninPeak,which technological means ofdata ofthePamir-Alai Itisadvisableto . Basedon CEU eTD Collection 5. Raisingawarenessof policymakers, scientis knowledge ofenvironmentaltrendsinth photographs, non-scientificmaterials), couldhelpinraisingawaren touristic and alpinist associations in maintaining thedatabase of travelling materials (maps, awareness inthekeytouristic destination other hand,itwouldbefeasibletointroduce glacial lakes, etc.),andhelp toaddress thepos development of thesystematic monitoring andin the responsible publicbodiesandthe general Pamir-Alai andreportaboutthepot 3 change inthehighmoun Alai incommunicating theindirectobservations. 4. Enhancement ofcooperationwithtouristica regional institutions. climate andenvironmental changeinthemount professional groupsoftravellerstocarefullyreco makers, researchers,andthepublicatlarge. regions, particularlyinthePamir-Alai andtargetthevari raising publicawarenessonglobal,regionaland For example, the initiative of the University of Bern described in previous chapter in Bern chapter previous of described University the of initiative Forexample, the tains of the Pamir-Alai

ential risks andhazardsassociatedwiththesechangesto e mountainous regionsofCentralAsia. 3 andtopromote volunteerobservationactivitieson 45 sible impacts innearrealtime manner. Onthe public. Suchafeedbackwillpromote further . Itisimportant to ainous regions,anddevelopnetworkingwith the newinternationalexperienceforpublic Improved networkingan nd alpinistassociations ts, andlocalresidentsaboutenvironmental local environmental ch strumental research (e.g. surge-type glacier, rd/picturize thechan ous groupsofaudience:policy implement programmeson ess andincreasethe activeinthe Pamir- ange inthemountain ges observedinthe d collaborationwith CEU eTD Collection Barash, F.1963.MountaintraveltotheFanMo Asanova, V.2006.Thestateofclimatein Andreev, V.2002.TraveltotheFanMountains. Crate, S.,andNuttal,M.2009.Anthropologyclimatechange Conway, M.1894. Climate Guide.2009.AvailableattheURL: Qi,Y.2007.Changesinglaciallakesandglaciersof Chen, X.,Cui,P.,Li,Y.,Yang,Z.,and Charnley, S.,Fisher, A.,Jones,E.2007.In Bolotova, A.2006.Thestate,geologistsand Beletsky, E.1970. Bazhev, A.,Kotlyakov,V.,Rototayeva,O.,andVarnakova,G.1975.Theproblemsof Emelyanova, N.1987.Mountaintravel tothe Dolgushin, L.1973.MedvezhyGlacierhascome a the Moscow StateUniversity. kategorii slozhnostipoFanskim goram].Report. klimaguide.ch/en/#/en/klimaguide/6656/ marshrute 3-ie kategoriisl The expertassessment report.Dushanbe:StateAdministration forHydrometeorology. 298-311. post-1986 inthePoiquRiverbasin,Nyalam, Xizang(Tibet). Ecology andManagement knowledge intoforestbiodiversitycons Zapas Moscow, 1971. present-day glaciatio Report. Saint-Petersburg: Appleton andCo. [Gosudarstvo, geologiIkolonizatsiy Matcha]. Report.Saint-Petersbu [Otchet ogornom puteshestviivtoroi Priroda, 8:114-116. California: LeftCoastPress,Inc. , 2:46. The LeninPeak Climbing andexplorationintheKarakoram-Himalaya. n ofthePamir-Alai Petrograd’s touristclub. , 246:14-28. ozhnosti vraioneFanskihgor . [PeakLenina].InRussian.Moscow:Mysl. REFERENCES rg: Petrograd’s touristclub. Tajikistan duringtheperiodof1940-2000(2007). a prirodivSSSR].InRussian. http://www.jungfrau- 46 [lastconsultedon25July2009]. kategorii slozhnostipo Pamiru-Alayu, raion untain region(Pamir-A . ProceedingsoftheMoscow Symposium. ervation inthePacificNorthwest. tegrating traditional andlocalecological Matcha Regionofthe Pamir-Alai system. colonization ofthena [Otchet opohode3-ei(selementami 4-oi) live [LednikMedvezhiyozhil].InRussian. InRussian.Moscow:TouristClubof : fromencounterstoactions (Pamiro-Alai)]. InRussian. lai). [Otchetogornom Geomorphology ture intheUSSR. Neprikosnovenniy New York, Forest , 88: . CEU eTD Collection Foigel, M.2006.TheLeninPeak. Farinotti, D.,Huss,M.,Bauder,A.,andFunk, Institute ofGeography of theRussianAcad Hedin, S.,andBealby,J.1898. Haritashya, U.,Bishop,M.,Shroder,J., Gusev, V.2005.Mountaintravel Goudie, A.1993.EnvironmentalChange:Contem Gazizov, D.2008.HowdidwetraveltotheFanMountains.[Nemnogo otom, kakmi s’ezdili Ganakhovsky, S.2009.MountaintraveltotheFan Fu, P.,andYi,Ch.2009.Relationshipsbetweentheheightsofmora Foulkes, I.2008.Alpinemelt revealsancien Fany. 2006.IllustrationsofBodhonaGlacier Evans, S.,Tutubalina,O.,Drobyshev,V.,Chernom in theSwissAlps. consulted onJune15,2009]. URL: assessment ofglacierfluctuations Tourist Club‘Berestye’. pohode 4-oikategoriislozhnostivraione Edition. Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. University. TouristCluboftheSyktyvkarState v Fanskiegori].InRussian.Report.Syktyvkar: Club oftheMoscowStateTechnicalUniversity. puteshestvii 4-oikategoriislozhnostipo glaciers inTibetandsurroundingmountains. Geomorphology 2009]. http://www.fany.ru/index.php?mod=gallery&page=2006/bodkhona/bodkhona06 Glacier, CaucasusMountains,Russiain2002. Hungr, O.2009.Catastrophicdetachment and geographical discoveries ontheterritory Change consulted onJune24,2009]. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7580294.stm , 94:5-18. http://www.mountain.ru/article/art

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CEU eTD Collection Xiao, H.andSmith, S.2007.Theuse oft Workman, F.1908.FurtherExplor Wilson, T.2007.Structureinresearchmet Vitchak, D.1991.MountaintraveltotheMa Vetluzhskih, V.2003.Mountaintraveltothenor Uzbekistan: MainAdministration of Tupitsin, V.2008.TraveltoMatcha.[Gornaya Tikhomirova, A.andKornienko,V.2007.TouristtraveltotheFanMountains. Tajik MeteorologicalService. Soshnikov, A.2005.IllustrationsofBodhona Slavin etal.2007. ______. 2004.MountaintraveltotheFanMountai Tourism Research University ofSheffield.Lectures.Duplicated. pohode 2-oikategoriislozhnostivraione Novosibirsk StateUniversity. Pamiru (ZaalaiskyhrebetiZulu ranges). [Otchetogornom pohode5-oika Hydrometeorology. Convention onClimateChange. Communication oftheRepublicUzbeki Geographical Journal. Report. Saint-Petersburg:Tourist Club oftheStateUniversity. Novosibirsk: Department oftourism and Moscow: TouristClub‘Plyuschiha’. [Turisticheskiy pohod2-oikategoriislozhnostivFanskiegori].InRussian.Report. observations. AvailableattheStateAdministration forHydrometeorology, Dushanbe. April 2009]. the URL: Tourist Club. 4-oi kategoriislozhnostipoFanskim goram]. [last consultedonJune15,2009]. http://www.fany.ru/index.php? Climbing theLeninPeak. http://bardjur.fizteh.ru/t , Vol.34:310–331 Issue5:495-496. 2009.Long-term datarecordsofthemeteorological ation intheHunza-NagarandHisparGlacier. The mod=gallery&page=2005/bodhona Hydrometeorology (UzGlavHydromet). 1999.Initial ourism knowledge:rese ravel/lenin2007/index.html Glacier.AvailableattheURL: 52 [PikLenina].InRussian. Report.Available at Tashkent:MainAdministration of

sport, Novosibirsk StateUniversity. hods. Department ofInformation Studies. tcha region.[Otchetosportivnom gornom dvoikaTupitsinanaMatchu].InRussian. mart)]. InRussian.Report.Novosibirsk: stan under the United Nations Framework stan undertheUnitedNationsFramework tegorii slozhnostipoSevero-Vostochnomu Matchinskogo gornogouzla th –easternPamir (Zaalai andZulumart ns. [Otchet o gornom turistskom pohode ns. [Otchetogornomturistskompohode In Russian.Report.Novosibirsk:Oblast arch propositions. [lastconsulted at19

]. InRussian. Annals of CEU eTD Collection Zigmantas, D.1997.Mountaintrav Zelentsov, D.2003.Travelto Zaytsev, E.1972.MountaintraveltotheFanMountains.[Otchet Yatsenko, V. 1940.InthePamirmountains Yanchevsky, O.2006.Mountaintravel Yablokov, A.2006.Theimpact ofglobalwarmi Yablokov, A.2005.Thedangeroussu Yablokov, A.2003. Yablokov, A.2000.Theimpact ofglobalwarming on theglaciersofTajik Russian. Report.Vilnius:Lit pohode 5-oikategoriislozhnostivgornom raione Pamiro-Alaya (Matcha)].In In Russian.Report.Moscow:TouristCl pohode 5-oikategoriislozhnostinaSevero-V Petrograd’s touristclub. kategorii slozhnostivFanskihgorah].In ‘Globus’. Severnomu Pamiru (Zaalaiskyhrebet)]. [Otchet oturistskom sportivnom pohode5- Hydrometeorology. Tajikistan. Theexpertassessment report. Hydrometeorology andUNDP. ledniki Tadzhikistana]. InRussian.Du the StateAdministration forhydrometeo izdatelstvo geograficheskoiliteraturi. the participant of thealpi assessment report.Dushanbe:theState Administration forHydrometeorology. Glaciers of Tajikistan the north-easternPamir (Zaal huania’s TravellingUnion. el tothePamir-Ala nist expedition to Pamir. Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe nist expeditiontoPamir.Moscow:Gosudarstvennoe rge-type glaciersofTajikis totheKichik-Alaiandnor . [LednikiTadzhikistana].InRussian.Dushanbe: . [VgorahPamira]. InRu 53 ub oftheMoscowStateUniversity. rology andenvironmental monitoring. In Russian.Report.Kiev:TouristClub oi kategoriislozhnosti shanbe: theStateAdministration for Dushanbe: theStateAdministration for ng on the glaciersandglaciallakesof ng onthe ostochnom Pamire (Zaalaiskyhrebet)]. Russian.Report.Saint-Petersburg: i (Matcharegion).[Otchetogornom ai range).[Otchetogornom tan. [Opasnie pulsiruyushie thern Pamir (Zaalairange). ssian. Thefieldnotesof o gornom pohode5-oi po Kichik-Alayu i po Kichik-Alayui istan. Theexpert CEU eTD Collection Dmitry ZELENTSOV YANCHEVSKY Oleg Sergei GANAKHOVSKY Sergei SERIY Evgeny SMIRNOV Oleg MONSAR Ilya SILVESTROV TUPITSIN Vladimir Viktor NOVIKOV Anvar KHOMIDOV YABLOKOV Aleksander Valentina ASANOVA Name Name Meteorologist, climate change expert, Glaciologist, field researcher,Glaciologist, field climate climate change expert,Tajikistan Glaciologist, field researcher, Glaciologist, field Alpinist, mountain traveller traveller mountain Alpinist, traveller mountain Alpinist, traveller mountain Alpinist, traveller mountain Alpinist, traveller mountain Alpinist, traveller mountain Alpinist, traveller mountain Alpinist, traveller mountain Alpinist, Environmental specialist, specialist, Environmental change expert, Tajikistan Institution, affiliation Institution, affiliation List ofinterviewers UNEP, Geneva Tajikistan ANNEX I 54 Pamir-Alai Mountainous environment of the Pamir-Alai Mountainous environment of the Pamir-Alai Mountainous environment of the Asia Central change, environmental securityin ecosystems, climate Mountainous Tajikistanglaciers of Impacts ofclimate change on the Tajikistan glaciers and natural disasters in Impacts ofclimate change on prognosis in Tajikistan Climate changeanalysis,trend and Pamir-Alai Mountainous environment of the Pamir-Alai Mountainous environment of the Pamir-Alai Mountainous environment of the Pamir-Alai Mountainous environment of the Pamir-Alai Mountainous environment of the Area ofexpertise CEU eTD Collection

10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. What werethemain information sourcesa What doyouthinkthemain reasonsofKr Did younoticeanytransformations inthem What typeofdocumentary datacanserveas What typeofglaciertransfor What glaciersofthePamir-Alai (Matcha How haschangedtheglacial andsnow conditions of thePamir-Alai intheprevious What typeofclimatic conditionshaveyoua doyouvisittheregionof How frequently What istherateof thetourist visits to thePamir-Alai? Pamir-Alai? climatic conditions of the la Pamir-Alai? Ifyes,whatarethe main reasons? change (glaciallakes,icecr Lenin Peak)haveexperiencedthemajor and lastvisitstotheregion? years inthemountainsofPamir-Alai? Mountains, theLeninPeakregion)? acks, retreatoftheterminus, st yearsimpactonitsstatus? mations haveservedasthema List ofquestions ANNEX II 55 transformations intherecent years? region, FanMountains,theregionof asin Glacier’s advancing? Howdidthe asin Glacier’sadvancing? interest (KuhistoniMatcharegion,Fan nd referenceguideofyourtravelstothe ountainous routesandtr nd yourteam experiencedintherecent10 evidence oftheglaciers change in vegetation, etc.)? change invegetation,etc.)? in indicatorsoftheglacier avel passesinthe transformation?