The Chronic and the Entrenched: Ethno-Religious Violence in Sri Lanka
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The Chronic and the Entrenched: Ethno-religious Violence in Sri Lanka Gehan Gunatilleke The Chronic and The democratic transition of January 2015 promised an end to ethno-religious violence in Sri Lanka. Yet, more than two years later, this promise is yet to be realised. Despite the change of government, chronic violence against religious minorities has continued the Entrenched: throughout the country. This phenomenon prompts further reflection on what drives ethno-religious violence in Sri Lanka. It points to the possibility that some forms of violence stem from deep-seated prejudices and beliefs that are not dependent on Ethno-Religious governmental support, and cannot be transformed through democratic transitions alone; it points to the potentially entrenched nature of communal violence in contemporary Sri Lanka. Violence in This study delves into the post-January 2015 context in Sri Lanka and examines how Sri Lanka ethno-religious violence has persisted, particularly in its chronic form. It discusses factors that entrench such violence: the Sinhala-Buddhist entitlement complex and existential fears, and the exceptionalism afforded to the Buddhist clergy. Each of these factors fundamentally shapes the nature of the Sri Lankan state, and its capacity and willingness to advance religious freedom. The study also reflects on the inadequacy of current approaches to combating ethno-religious violence in Sri Lanka. It concludes by assessing the need for a process of cultural transformation that confronts the root causes of such violence. Gehan Gunatilleke is an attorney-at-law and doctoral student in international human rights law at the University of Oxford. ISBN 978-955-580-215-4 9 789555 802154 Gehan Gunatilleke Printed by Horizon Printing (Pvt) Ltd. The Chronic and the Entrenched: Ethno-Religious Violence in Sri Lanka Gehan Gunatilleke International Centre for Ethnic Studies & Equitas – International Centre for Human Rights Education 2018 The Chronic and the Entrenched: Ethno-Religious Violence in Sri Lanka Colombo, 2018 © 2018 International Centre for Ethnic Studies and Equitas – International Centre for Human Rights Education 2, KynseyTerrace, Colombo 8 Sri Lanka E-mail:[email protected] URL: www.ices.lk: www.equitas.org ISBN 978-955-580-215-4 Copyright to this publication belongs to the International Centre for Ethnic Studies (ICES) and Equitas – International Centre for Human Rights Education. Any part of this book may be reproduced with due acknowledgement to the author and the publishers. The interpretations and conclusions expressed in the study are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the ICES, Equitas or the donor. This publication is made possible with the financial support of the Government of Canada provided through Global Affairs Canada. Printed By: Horizon Printing (Pvt.) Ltd. 1616/6, Hatharaman Handiya, Malabe Road, Kottawa, Pannipitiya Cover design by Nishika Fonseka The Chronic and the Entrenched: Ethno-Religious Violence in Sri Lanka Gehan Gunatilleke Gehan Gunatilleke is an attorney-at-law and doctoral student in international human rights law at the University of Oxford. He is the Research Director at Verité Research, and an advisor to Sri Lanka's Ministry of Foreign Affairs on international human rights treaty compliance. His previous publications include ‘The Chronic and the Acute: Post-War Religious Violence in Sri Lanka’ (ICES/Equitas 2015) and ‘Confronting the Complexity of Loss: Perspectives on Truth, Memory and Justice in Sri Lanka’ (Law & Society Trust 2015). iv Table of Contents Preface ............................................................................................... 1 Research Method and Approach ........................................................ 3 Chapter 1: Background and New Developments ................................. 5 1.1 Defining ethno-religious violence............................................... 5 1.2 Past findings and recommendations ..........................................8 1.3 New developments.................................................................... 11 1.3.1 Mainstreaming of Sinhala-Buddhist militant groups ............................ 15 1.3.2 Muslim factionalism ..............................................................................19 1.3.3 Emergence of Tamil-Hinduism .............................................................24 Chapter 2: Contemporary Ethno-Religious Violence ........................ 28 2.1 Violence against minority groups ............................................ 28 2.1.1 Violence against Muslims ...................................................................... 28 2.1.2 Violence against Christians ....................................................................34 2.2 Fault lines ............................................................................... 39 2.2.1 Socio-cultural fault lines ........................................................................39 2.2.2 Economic fault lines ..............................................................................47 2.2.3 Political fault lines .................................................................................50 Chapter 3: The Entrenchment of Ethno-Religious Violence ............. 55 3.1 State and minority relations .................................................... 55 3.2 Drivers of entrenched violence ................................................ 62 3.2.1 Entitlement complex ..............................................................................65 3.2.2 Existential fears .....................................................................................73 3.2.3 Buddhist monastic exceptionalism .......................................................77 Chapter 4: Transforming Ethno-Religious Relations........................ 83 4.1 Cultural legitimacy .................................................................. 84 4.2 Ordinary virtues and cultural transformation ......................... 86 Bibliography .................................................................................... 97 v Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Dr. Mario Gomez, Dr. Benjamin Schonthal, Dr. Kumudu Kusum Kumara, Shamara Wettimuny, Sanjayan Rajasinhgam, Dr. Nishan de Mel, Dr. Godfrey Gunatilleke, Dr. Nimal Gunatilleke, Dylan Perera, Sarinda Perera, Deepanjalie Abeywardana and Mohamed Aaseem for their generous time in reviewing drafts and ideas, and for their feedback. He is indebted to the publishers, International Centre for Ethnic Studies (ICES) and Equitas, for their role in shaping the scope and content of this study. The publishers and author are particularly grateful to Nishika Fonseka for designing the cover page, and Sharni Jayawardena for editing and proof reading the study. They also appreciate the support provided by the staff at ICES in facilitating access to research material. vi Preface The democratic transition of January 2015 promised an end to ethno-religious violence in Sri Lanka. Up until this moment, Sri Lanka’s post-war state had enabled such violence by supporting militant groups that perpetrated violence with impunity. Thus the election of Maithripala Sirisena – and importantly, the defeat of Mahinda Rajapaksa – was characterised as a watershed moment in post-war inter-communal relations in the country. Sirisena’s ascendency was facilitated by a coalition of anti- Rajapaksa forces, which included religious minorities. However, more than three years later, the promise of ending ethno-religious violence is yet to be realised. In the 2015 study, The Chronic and the Acute: Post-War Religious Violence in Sri Lanka,1 this author classified ethno-religious violence along a spectrum of intensity: (1) chronic violence, which involves continuous, low-intensity attacks, and (2) acute violence, which involves episodes of high-intensity violence. These categories help us understand the extent to which ethno-religious violence persists in contemporary Sri Lanka. On the one hand, there is general consensus that incidents of acute violence have reduced since Sirisena took office. On the other, chronic violence has continued throughout the country. This phenomenon prompts further reflection on what drives chronic violence in Sri Lanka. It points to the possibility that some forms of violence stem from deep-seated prejudices and beliefs that are not dependent on governmental support, and cannot be transformed through democratic transitions alone; it points to the potentially entrenched nature of ethno-religious violence in Sri Lanka. Identity politics play a pivotal role in the persistence of violence in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankans identify themselves principally along ethnic and religious lines. Yet scholars including Rajesh Venugopal2 and David Smock3 observe that the line between ethnicity and religion is often blurred in Sri Lanka because ethnicity and 1 Gehan Gunatilleke, The Chronic and the Acute: Post-War Religious Violence in Sri Lanka (Equitas and ICES 2015). 2 Frances Stewart, ‘Religion versus Ethnicity as a Source of Mobilisation: are there differences?’ CRISE Working Paper No. 70 (July 2009), at 8, citing Rajesh Venugopal. 3 David Smock, ‘Religion in World Affairs: Its Role in Conflict and Peace’, United States Institute of Peace Special Report 201 (February 2008), at 2. 1 religion closely overlap.4 In this context, a conception of ‘ethno-religious’ identity has emerged in Sri Lanka as distinct from purely ‘ethnic’ or ‘religious’ identity. These identity groups include ‘Sinhala-Buddhists’,