Supplements – What Actually Works

DISCLAIMER

All documents included or exchanged between Scott Swaffield / Pinnacle Physique and the Client are the intellectual property of Scott Swaffield / Pinnacle Physique and are not to be copied, sold, published, posted, or redistributed either in part or in full without written consent. All violations will be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law.

Scott Swaffield is not a doctor or registered dietician. The contents of this document should not be taken as medical advice. It is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any health problem – nor is it intended to replace the advice of a physician. Always consult your physician or qualified health professional on any matters regarding your health. Use of the information in this document is strictly at your own risk. Scott Swaffield and/or Pinnacle Physique will not assume any liability for any direct or indirect losses or damages that may result including, but not limited to, economic loss, injury, illness or death.

PREFACE

The goal of this eBook is to provide you with a no-nonsense approach to learning foundational nutritional knowledge that is backed by science with the most current and relevant research available. It contains information that is suitable for beginner, intermediate, and advanced trainees, so take from it whatever information is relevant to your goals. You may ask “is it necessary to utilise everything covered in this eBook to be successful?” No, but the more you apply, and the more effort you put into your nutrition, the better your results will be. I highly recommend note taking as you read through.

A credible and successful coach should always view evidence objectively without bias and be willing to adapt their position on a topic when new research comes to light. Keep in mind that when a coach/scientist/researcher begins to take a stand for any one methodology, regardless of what new evidence arises, this is what is called a “zealot”. These days zealots flood the industry for one simple reason, their business depends on whatever methods they have attached themselves to. My goal is to look at the evidence as unbiased as possible and maintain the willingness to change my views if it allows my clients and I to achieve better results. Nothing I write or practice is influenced by any one method, nor do I benefit in any way from backing a particular approach.

All literature referenced is up to date as of December 2019, however I am aware that there is always ongoing research that will bring new evidence to light. I welcome evidence-based discussion on any nutrition topics or to be presented with any relevant research you feel has been overlooked. Please feel free to contact me by email at - [email protected]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

How to be a Flexible Dieter ...... 7

Building Blocks of Nutrition

Fundamentals of Macronutrients ...... 9

Fundamentals of Micronutrients ...... 18

Piecing it Together — Creating a Flexible Meal Plan ...... 25

Determining Your Calories

Calorie Calculations ...... 27

Macro Ratios ...... 29

Track Your Calories Without Counting ...... 30

Supplements – What Actually Works

Protein ...... 33

Amino Acids ...... 35

Caffeine, Pre-Workouts and Fat-Burners ...... 36

Glucosamine ...... 39

Creatine ...... 39

Fish Oil ...... 40

My Recommendations...... 41

Meal Spacing & Timing

Pre/Post-Workout Nutrition ...... 43

Meal Spacing ...... 44

Eating at Night ...... 45

Fasting ...... 46

Hierarchy of Nutrition ...... 48

Tracking Foods & Bodyweight ...... 52

Diets

Fundamental Principles of Diets ...... 55

Exploring Common Diets ...... 56

Building Muscle and Getting Lean

Bulking and Cutting ...... 60

Body Recomposition ...... 61

Diet Breaks ...... 63

Nutrition for Injury Recovery ...... 65

The Importance of Sleep ...... 73

Staying on Track

Travelling and Eating Out ...... 74

Staying Calm and Support ...... 75

Sharing Your Progress ...... 76

Appetite Reduction ...... 76

Mindful Eating

The Art of Eating Slowly ...... 79

The 30-Day Mindful Eating Challenge ...... 82

Six Reasons Why You’re Not Losing Fat ...... 83

Common Myths & Questions ...... 86

Conclusion ...... 106

About the Author ...... 107

Online Coaching ...... 108

References ...... 110

HOW TO BE A FLEXIBLE DIETER

The problem with health and fitness today is the way we look at things like foods, diets, and exercises. We look at them as black or white, good or bad. Articles claim to have all the answers with headlines like “only eat these top 10 muscle building foods.” It’s a great eye-catching line but what is really happening is they’re missing the big picture. When we look at foods this way, we are looking at them in isolation and we miss what we should really be looking at: What should the overall base of your diet should be? Where should your calories be at? How much protein should you consume for your goals? There is no such thing as a good or bad food, but there is such a thing as a good or bad diet. The difference is mentality.

Being flexible is a mindset; you get to work towards specific goals for the day in a way that educates you on why you are doing it and how to apply it. In the context of dieting, being flexible means allowing yourself to still enjoy your favorite foods and treats in moderation without the accompanying feelings of remorse or guilt. It means handling your diet in a strategic and intelligent manner that allows you to see consistent and significant results. In short, a flexible dieter is able to incorporate nutrition into their life, as opposed to a strict dieter who has trouble incorporating life into their nutrition.

There is no right or wrong way to become a successful flexible dieter, but I am a firm believer in an inclusive flexible diet. Inclusive means you are consuming a variety of good nutritious whole food sources to obtain all your vitamins and minerals, including a variety of essential proteins/fats, fiber and water. Traditional meal plans are very exclusive even though they are typically consuming ‘healthy’ foods;

however, if you’re only consuming a few food sources then you are only receiving limited nutrients and are most likely missing others. Over a period of time this will lead to nutrient deficiencies and poor health. As long as you are covering the bases first, you will feel fuller, have more energy, and generally feel good. Then the remaining daily calories can be filled with the foods you enjoy, in moderation and without the feeling of remorse or guilt. It is important to remember that nutrition for both fat loss and muscle gain is a marathon not a sprint!

Stay calm and stick to your diet even if you do overeat or eat something that’s not in your plan. Fast or slow, the goal is sustainable progress over the long haul, not something to lose and gain repeatedly year after year. If it’s simple and something you can do with minimal effort, the likelihood of staying with it for life is much higher than more involved or restricted programs. As a guide, use the 80-20 rule where 80% are ‘cleaner,’ more nutritious foods and then the rest can be filled with the foods you fancy on that particular day. Find what you enjoy doing and make simple and effective changes in your lifestyle.

BUILDING BLOCKS OF NUTRITION

FUNDAMENTALS OF MACRONUTRIENTS

Macronutrients are the nutrients that provide calories (energy). The four types are proteins, carbohydrates, dietary fats, and water. Water does not provide calories but is still considered a necessary nutrient for sustaining life. Macronutrients are needed in large quantities, hence ‘macro’ meaning large. The only other substance that provides calories is alcohol; however, alcohol is not classed as a macronutrient because we do not need it for survival.

PROTEIN

Protein comes from the Greek word proteos, meaning ‘first’. Hence, it’s the first macronutrient I discuss. Nearly every biological process depends on protein; it is essential for the structure of cells, immune function, hormone regulation, growth, and repair of tissue [1]. About half of the protein in the human body is stored in the muscle functioning as contractile proteins, which are constantly being broken down and rebuilt (anabolism = building up, catabolism = breaking down).

Protein is formed of peptides and amino acids (essential and non-essential), which are important in the rebuilding (anabolism) of muscle. I suggest 4-5 servings of protein per day spaced about 3-5 hours apart. Ideally every serving of food should contain roughly 25-50g of protein (Women 25-40g, Men 35-50g) for maximal results [1–6]. This would total 140-250g daily for men or 100-200g daily for women. This up-regulates the process of protein synthesis which helps build and repair muscle. Protein synthesis is the process in which muscle is created.

Even if you’re not a bodybuilder, getting more protein in your diet has significant benefits. Protein has an effect of feeling full to help you reach your goals [7–9]. Protein also helps slow digestion of other nutrients, reducing the insulin load on the body [10]. Likewise, it has a high thermic effect (thermogenesis) on the body and supports an increased metabolism, by making the body work harder to break it down. Thermogenesis is the process in which the body uses calories to fuel digestion. Protein uses 20-35% of its caloric value to digest itself, whereas carbohydrates use 5-15% and fats only 0-5% [9]. As an example, if you ate a piece of chicken with 40g of protein (160 calories), you would burn 32-56 calories of that chicken just to fuel digestion. This is another great reason why protein is so useful when dieting. It may seem small but looking at this over a longer period of time it starts to add up to a significant reduction in calories and greater weight loss.

The proteins in different food sources each have a specific make up of amino acids. The top protein sources are meat, egg and dairy, as these are considered complete (or whole) protein sources and contain all the essential amino acids [2, 11]. Three of the essential amino acids (Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine) are commonly referred to as branch chain amino acids (BCAAs). They can stimulate muscle growth, reduce muscle fatigue, and in some cases have even be shown to help burn fat [3, 5, 6, 8, 12]. When all 9 essential amino acids are combined in supplement form it is referred to as EAAs.

Look to the following page for examples of complete lean protein sources.

Protein Type Complete Lean Protein Sources

• Chicken (breast + skinless thighs) Lean Meats • Turkey • Beef or Bison (90%+ when buying ground meat)

• Tuna • Cod Fish • Salmon • Sardines • Tilapia • Other white fish

• Cottage cheese (0-1%) Dairy • Low fat Greek yogurt (<10g carbs/cup) (Low Fat) • Low fat cheese (eg. Low fat Ricotta) • Milk (0-1%)

• Tofu • Quinoa • Soy

Vegetarian Note: beans, seeds and nuts all contain incomplete proteins which can be combined to make complete proteins but will have more carbohydrate content.

• Whey • Casein Protein • Egg • Milk Supplements Note: Isolate, concentrate and blends of the above sources are optimal when compared to soy, hemp and vegan sources. [11]

Eggs • Egg whites • Omega-3 eggs or pasteurized • Whole eggs chicken eggs

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates, commonly referred to as ‘carbs’, have been unjustifiably demonized in recent years as a cause for weight gain. No nutrient is inherently bad, but most carbs (especially sugars) are highly palatable meaning they taste good and are easy to eat; this is why carbs are what most people tend to overeat on.

Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which is our main fuel source for exercise. They support a healthy metabolism, help reduce fatigue, and are used as an immediate source of energy. Carbohydrates are also protein sparing - meaning they stop the breakdown of muscle during times of stress [13, 14]. When the body is in motion and undergoing strenuous exercise, carbohydrates will be the main fuel source for the body. I’m a big believer in putting the majority of your carbs around your workout to support performance [15].

Most carbohydrates are considered to be either ‘complex’ or ‘simple.’ Complex carbohydrates are typically the carb sources that are more nutrient dense, fibrous and less processed. These complex carbohydrates are broken down slower by the body. Simple carbohydrates are often processed versions of foods that contain less nutrients and fiber. An example would be brown bread (complex) vs white bread (simple). Consume the majority of your carbohydrates from complex/fibrous sources, as they will be more filling and give you longer lasting energy.

Fiber – Fiber is a subset type of carbohydrate that plays many roles. There are two types, soluble (dissolves/breaks down in water) like oats, nuts, flax, and fruit, and insoluble (doesn’t dissolve/break down) like whole grains, wheat, corn, and adds volume to your diet. Fiber will help to keep you full, slow emptying of food from your stomach, improve cholesterol, insulin control and keep you more regular. Aim for

5g per meal and 20-50g per day. A typical half cup serving of vegetables is 5g fiber.

The following table contains examples of carbohydrate sources.

Carbohydrate Best Time to Eat Sources Type

• Recovery drinks • Dextrose • Maltodextrin fruit juice (in moderation) After or during • Breakfast cereals Simple Sugars exercise • Ice cream (low fat) • Dried fruit (raisins, dates, apricots, prunes, mangoes, cranberries)

• Oats • Bread (muffins, bagels) Throughout the day, • Rice (white, brown) Complex breakfast, post • Quinoa workout meal • Couscous • Potatoes (white, sweet, yams)

• Kale Spinach • Cucumber • Broccoli • Onion • Asparagus • Tomato Fibrous Fruits • Green beans • Avocado and • Peppers With most meals • Berries Vegetables • Carrots • Kiwi • Lettuce • Plums • Cantaloupe • Bananas • Apples

Note that these are just examples, and everyone has different preferences. Play around to see what works best for you with regards to food sources but ensure you include a variety of sources in your diet.

DIETARY FATS

It’s important to understand differentiation between “body fat” and “dietary fats” which are often confused. Despite having the same name, they are essentially unrelated. Dietary fats are a macronutrient that we consume from foods, whereas body fat is the storage created from excess calories to be used during times of calorie restriction (dieting). Body fat can come from carbs and protein as easily as it can from dietary fat. Dietary fats aren’t a bad thing; they have many useful purposes in the body. Fats are necessary for the proper regulation of hormones and can even help with fat burning indirectly through proper regulation of hormones [16, 17]. There are also many fat-soluble vitamins which need to be consumed with fat in a meal to be properly absorbed by the body. Fats are an essential nutrient so you should try to get a variety of fats to improve overall health [2].

Unfortunately, fats are also very calorie dense and can be stored easily when eaten in excess, so in most cases low-moderate levels must be consumed for optimal fat loss. Higher levels can be consumed when athletes are in off-season or training for non-physique related goals. However, this isn’t an excuse to consume too much as this can lead to excess fat storage and reduce performance. Fats are mostly used when the body is at rest, or lightly moving. If you were laying on the couch or going for a light walk, fats will be the preferable energy source for the body to use [18].

Dietary fats include a number of different types which are commonly seen on food packaging. Healthy types of fats include:

• Omega-3 Fatty Acids – From oily fish, salmon, and fish oil capsules. To a lesser extent flax oil/seeds, which are great for reducing inflammation.

• Omega-6 and Omega-9 Fatty Acids – From nuts and oils.

• Saturated Fats - Yes, even saturated fats are good for us. Animal sources and in particular eggs, red meat and coconut oil contain mostly saturated fats which help in the formation of testosterone and other vital hormones [17].

I suggest finding a balance between all fats. On the following page I provide some recommendations for how much of these fats you should include in your diet and examples of where they can be found.

Note: most things like nuts and seeds, have a variety of fats so may be in more than one column.

Type of Fats Benefits and Effects Sources

• Extra virgin olive oil Reduce inflammation • Avocado fruit and oil and oxidative damage, heart • Peanut oil Mono-unsaturated disease, blood • Macadamia nut oil (30-50%) pressure, cholesterol • Seeds (pumpkin, sesame) and controls blood • Nuts (peanuts, macadamia, sugar. hazelnuts, cashews, and almonds)

ω-3 essential fatty acids • Fish (salmon, mackerel, herring, sardines, tuna, trout, etc.) and fish oil Anti-inflammatory, thins the • Wild game blood, reduces heart • Grass-fed meat disease, cancer, arthritis, • Eggs blood pressure and • Walnuts improves brain function Poly-unsaturated • Flaxseeds and oil (25-40%)

omega (ω) 3 & 6 • Vegetable oils fatty acids • Corn oil ω-6 essential fatty acids • Safflower oil

pro-inflammatory, helps with • Sesame oil muscle repair and brain • Soy function • Grain-fed meat • Nuts (brazil, pine, walnuts, pecans) • Seeds (chia, flax, sunflower,

• Animal products, meats • Butter Hormone regulation, • Eggs Saturated immune function, brain • Milk (20-30%) function and reduces inflammation • Cheese • Coconut (oil, cream, flesh) • Chocolate (70%+)

ALCOHOL

Alcohol is not typically classified as a macronutrient because it is not needed for regular bodily function. However, alcohol does contain calories and so it is important to be aware of its impact on your diet. Alcohol, whenever taken in, is the first fuel to burn. While alcohol is being burned your body will not burn fat. This does not stop fat loss; it simply postpones it. Since alcohol does not get stored as glycogen like carbs, fats, and protein do, it must be burned off until it is gone [19– 23]. Alcohol has also been shown to be able to reduce levels of testosterone, one of the most important hormones within the body [24, 25]. Maintaining adequate levels of testosterone within the body is absolutely necessary for muscle growth.

WATER

Water is essential for health, performance, fat loss, building muscle mass, and optimizing overall body functions. The average human body is composed of 50- 65% water, with muscles being 70-80% water. Your body can even make use of water in as little as 5 minutes after it’s consumed. To determine how physical performance could be affected by dehydration, a study was conducted in 2007 where subjects were asked to perform 5 sets of back squats, either hydrated or dehydrated. When dehydrated, the overall amount of repetitions they were able to perform was significantly reduced [26].

As a general recommendation start by drinking 3-6 liters of water a day. It is not as important to track water, but always aim to hit the minimum. The harder and more intense your training is (and the hotter the weather), the more water your body will need. Look for clear urinations 4-5 times per day. If you find it hard to drink a lot of water, carry a water bottle so it is always available. If you’re not a fan of plain water then crystal-light, MiO and other calorie free sweeteners can be helpful for getting

in total water volume. Try not to rely too heavily on artificial sweeteners, as they can sometimes cause you to feel bloated and have an upset stomach. Don’t overlook other sources of water such as milk, tea, coffee and shakes which will all be a part of your total daily water consumption.

FUNDAMENTALS OF MICRONUTRIENTS

Micronutrients are a group of nutrients that include vitamins and minerals. Micronutrients play a crucial role in keeping us healthy and allowing us to make use of our macronutrients. They are needed in much smaller quantities than macronutrients, hence “micro” which means small. Adequate intake from food and/or supplements is absolutely necessary to promote fat loss and muscle gain.

When your diet lacks specific vitamins and minerals you are considered to have a deficiency. Deficiencies can create or exacerbate chronic health conditions. Nutrient deficiencies are quite common, and typically a result of poor overall diet or reduced calorie intake. When someone reduces food intake in an effort to lose body fat, they’re almost certain to develop a nutrient deficiency. Why? Because as overall food intake goes down, so does the variety of food and nutrients. Generally speaking, as long as you have an all-inclusive diet with a large variety of fruits, vegetables, and whole foods, you shouldn’t have any significant deficiencies; but in some circumstances it may be necessary or beneficial to use additional supplementation [2].

VITAMINS

Vitamins come from our diet, either from foods we eat or supplementation. We need vitamins in our diets because our bodies cannot synthesise them quickly

enough to meet our daily needs. The exception is vitamin D, which the body can create from cholesterol when exposed to sunlight. The most common vitamin deficiencies are vitamin A, B12 and D.

Vitamin A helps form and maintain healthy skin, teeth, bones, and eye pigments necessary for vision [27]. Most people in developed countries don’t need to worry about deficiencies in vitamin A but developing countries and India have been shown to have deficiencies in as much as 50% of the population [28, 29]. These deficiencies can include eye damage and a suppressed immune system [27]. The highest sources of vitamin A come from organ meat, fish liver oil, sweet potatoes, carrots, and dark green leafy vegetables.

Vitamin B12 is essential for blood formation, as well as brain and nerve function. B12 is only found in sufficient amounts in animal products and to an extent some seaweed. It has been found in some studies that up to 80-90% of vegans and vegetarians are deficient in B12 [30, 31]. These deficiencies can cause blood disorders and impaired brain function [32, 33]. The main sources of B12 include shellfish, organ meat, red meat, eggs, and milk products.

Vitamin D helps regulate the amount of calcium and phosphate in the body which are important for a vast multitude of functions in the body. In the U.S., up to 42% of people are deficient in vitamin D, and this number significantly increases for anyone with darker skin tone [34, 35]. People with vitamin D deficiencies can experience muscle weakness, bone loss, an increased risk of fractures, and possibly even reduced immune function [36–39]. Vitamin D is primarily produced from cholesterol in your skin when exposed to sunlight but can also be obtained in smaller doses from cod liver oil, fatty fish, and egg yolks.

Vitamins are generally categorized as either fat soluble or water soluble depending

on whether they dissolve best in fats or water. Vitamins B, C and H are best taken with water, while vitamins A, D, E and K are best taken with a meal containing fat. Although to keep things simple and not have to overthink which vitamins should be taken when or with what, I recommend simply taking them with a balanced meal of fats, carbs, protein and water to ensure you’re always making the most of your vitamins.

MINERALS

Like vitamins, minerals come from our diet or supplementation and are required to keep processes within our bodies running smooth and efficiently. If the body is lacking minerals it can develop deficiencies that may lead to serious health consequences. The most common minerals in our diet are potassium, magnesium, calcium, salt, iron, zinc, copper, chromium, iodine, selenium, fluoride, manganese and molybdenum. Again, like vitamins, as long as you have an all-inclusive diet you should be obtaining the minerals you need [2]. The exceptions are iron, calcium, iodine, and magnesium which can be common deficiencies among certain populations.

Iron is a large component of red blood cells which are responsible for carrying oxygen to your cells. Iron deficiencies are one of the most common deficiencies in the world effecting more than 25% of the world population [40, 41]. Vegans and vegetarians are also at an increased risk because they only consume a very specific type of iron found in plants that does not absorb as well as the type of iron found in animal products [42, 43]. The most common symptoms of iron deficiencies are tiredness, weakened immune system, anemia, and impaired brain function [44, 45]. The best sources of iron include red meat, organ meat, shellfish, canned sardines, beans, seeds, and dark leafy greens.

Calcium is essential for every cell in your body. It maintains and aids in the growth of bones and teeth, as well as the ongoing function of your heart, muscles, and nerves. One study estimated that as little as 20% of people in the U.S. were meeting the recommended daily intake of calcium [46]. Most of the bodies calcium is stored within the bones which is why the common signs of deficiencies are soft bones or osteoporosis [47, 48]. Dietary sources of calcium include boned fish, dairy products, and dark green vegetables.

Magnesium is essential for bone and teeth structure and it’s estimated that less than half of the U.S. population consumes enough daily [49]. Low magnesium intake has been associated with many conditions such as type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, heart disease, and osteoporosis [49, 50]. Severe deficiencies can lead to restless leg syndrome, muscle cramps, fatigue, migraines, and an abnormal heart rhythm [51–53]. The highest sources of magnesium include whole grains, nuts, dark chocolate, and dark leafy greens.

Iodine is an essential mineral responsible for normal function of the thyroid and production of thyroid hormones [54]. Iodine deficiency affects nearly a third of the worlds population and is among the leading causes of mental retardation at birth [55–58]. The highest sources of iodine are found in seaweed, fish, dairy, eggs, and most table salt.

ELECTROLYTES

Electrolytes are a specific group of minerals made up of sodium, calcium, potassium, chloride, phosphate and magnesium. These minerals all contain an electric charge (hence ‘electro’) and play a key role in maintaining the balance of fluids in the body as well as your bodies acid/base PH levels. For this reason, your hydration levels can be directly related to your electrolyte ratios. The more you

sweat, the more electrolytes you will need to replenish. An imbalance of electrolytes can lead to many side effects such as muscle cramps, dehydration and reduced performance [59]. In my opinion the most important electrolyte worth covering from a performance standpoint would be sodium.

Sodium, also known as salt, is a mineral that often gets a bad rap among the general population. In the community of strength sports however like powerlifting, strongman, and even bodybuilding it’s considered by many to be one of the most effective and necessary performance enhancers out there. Salt has many benefits including improved stamina, endurance, and better recovery from training. This is mostly due to the fact that sodium is primarily stored within the blood, increasing total blood volume, and blood is responsible for carrying vital nutrients to the muscles [60, 61]. In one study it was found that triathletes supplementing with salt- laced water finished a medium-distance race 26 minutes faster than a group without salt [62]. In a more recent study on endurance runners it was found that “maximal performance was enhanced significantly” by supplementing with sodium [63]. Many record holding professional powerlifters and bodybuilders such as Stan Efferding and Brian Shaw also claim that consuming sodium prior to weightlifting impacts how well they perform [64].

The 3 common types of salt you will come across are table salt, sea salt, and Himalayan salt. These salts mostly consist of sodium and chloride but also include other trace minerals. Many brands of table salt also include added iodine. Iodine is added to table salt as part of a world wide initiative by the government to prevent iodine deficiencies which are incredibly common and responsible for many poor health conditions [58]. My recommendation would be to try and consume different types of salt rather than sticking to only one kind as you will get different trace minerals from each of them—once again, variety is important.

Some studies have associated high salt intake with high blood pressure, but it is not as simple as that [65]. Correlation does not always equal causation, people who often consume high levels of sodium are consuming it from less healthy sources and have poor eating habits. If someone is obese and regularly eating salty fast food etc. that does not mean the high intake of sodium alone is to blame for elevated blood pressure; rather, it is more likely due to the overall quality of their diet. A subset of the population is also termed “salt-sensitive”. A person is considered to be salt- sensitive if an increase of salt intake causes more than a 10 mmHg change in arterial blood pressure [66]. Salt-sensitive individuals should indeed carefully monitor their salt intake; however, for the rest of the population, evidence supporting reduced sodium being beneficial is less conclusive [67]. Currently both very high and very low sodium intakes can be associated with cardiovascular disease [68, 69]. However, while consuming too much sodium is not directly a problem, consuming too much sodium in combination with too little potassium is an issue [64]. It takes 3 molecules of sodium to transport 2 molecules of potassium into the cells [70]. When potassium is not increased along with sodium, problems can arise such as salt sensitivity [60]. Consuming a good amount of fruits and vegetables should have you covered for potassium and most electrolytes. However, people who follow diets consisting mainly of these “cleaner” or healthier unprocessed foods are often lacking in sodium.

Water retention is also commonly associated with increased salt intake, but the relationship between salt intake and water retention varies and cannot be calculated as simply as carb-water retention, where 1g of carbs holds 3g of water. Your body is constantly adapting and tries to maintain a balance of fluids. When sodium is increased above the levels you are used to you will hold onto more water, but each person will have different “normal” levels of sodium depending on how much they regularly consume. As an example, if someone’s normal salt intake is 2g, their

bodies water levels will be balanced at 2g but if they suddenly increase to 3-4g a day they will hold onto extra water until the kidneys filter it out. Likewise, someone who normally consumed 6g a day will have balanced water levels but if they increase to 10g a day or decrease to 3g a day their water weight will increase/decrease until the body adapts and normalizes its fluid balance [71]. Due to the blood volumizing properties of sodium, getting a large dose of sodium above your normal levels can sometimes cause acute edema which is where there is excess fluid under skin that can appear as slight swelling. This typically remains until your kidneys filter out the excess water or you sweat it out [72]. The increased blood volume from raising your salt intake is also the reason your muscles can appear larger and more vascular shortly after consuming a high salt meal [60].

So how much salt is optimal? The recommended dietary intake for sodium is 2.4g or 6g salt (2.4g sodium in 6g salt), the amount in one teaspoon of table salt [73]. The more active an individual however, the higher the need for sodium and other electrolytes. With 1 litre of water you can sweat out over 1g of sodium, so the general rule of thumb is to supplement 1-2g sodium for every litre of water lost training. An individual consuming 3-4 litres of water a day could benefit from 3-8g of sodium [61, 74, 75].

In summary:

• Consume various sources of salt and eat a good variety of fruits and vegetables to get your electrolytes.

• Salt is not detrimental for those who are not salt-sensitive

• Salt has many performance enhancing abilities and plays an important role.

• When increasing sodium, also increase potassium.

• The more physically active you are the more electrolytes you need.

• 1-2g sodium for every 1 litre of water.

• Typically, people who eat “clean” or healthier unprocessed foods will be lacking in sodium.

PIECING IT TOGETHER – CREATING A FLEXIBLE MEAL PLAN

Now that you know the fundamentals of macro’s and micro’s you’re equipped with the knowledge you need to begin creating your own meal plans. The total quantity of food in your meal plan is of course goal dependent, but it is going to be built upon an important underlying framework.

• Start with 3 large meals a day (breakfast, lunch, dinner) and put in 2-3 smaller meals/snacks around the bigger meals.

• Get a variety of protein, carbohydrate, and fat sources.

• Start with good quality protein at every meal for maximum results (roughly 25- 50g of protein).

• Focus on slow releasing carbohydrates (oats, sweet potato etc.). These will give you longer lasting energy and a more satiated feeling.

• Get a variety of fats (omega 3,6 and even saturated fats) in daily and weekly.

• Drink plenty of water for reduced food cravings, increased metabolism, energy, focus, and even strength (Body weight in Kg/32+1L=Litres per day).

Example: 80kg/32 + 1L = 3.5L of water per day

• Consume fibrous vegetables (full of antioxidants) which are needed for good

digestion and the feeling of being fuller for longer due to their bulk. Try and eat 2-4 servings of vegetables and 1-2 servings of fruit per day. This amount can change depending where you are in relation to your goals.

• Eat an inclusive diet: don’t always eat the same types of foods. A larger variety of foods means a larger variety of micronutrients and a smaller chance of becoming deficient with anything.

• Plan ahead. When starting out it is vitally important to plan each day in advance as you’re still learning your body and what each food is comprised of. I find one is more successful when they plan each day out in advance that way there is no stress about not having food available.

DETERMINING YOUR CALORIES

CALORIE CALCULATIONS

Measuring metabolism is tricky, and calculating exact metabolic demands isn’t any easier. It is possible to approximate your basal metabolic rate (BMR)—in other words, the energy cost of keeping you alive—but, measurements are only as good as the tools we use. While we may have our “metabolism” estimated in the gym or by our fitness trackers (estimated like calorie counts on labels are), these estimates can be off by 20-30% in normal, young, healthy people. And, these estimates are probably even more inaccurate in other populations [76–80]. Even if we could determine our exact metabolism in a lab it wouldn’t be useful because our metabolism is dynamic and depends on our activity levels, stress, hormones, environment and diet duration. As you eat less your metabolism slows, and as you eat more your metabolism speeds up [81–84]. This leaves us with to ability to do no more than use a rough formula and gauge our weight regularly so we can make the necessary adjustments along the way.

Currently, one of the most widely accepted formulas for estimating caloric requirements is:

Target weight in pounds x (9 to 11 + Number of training hours per week)

For example, weighing 200lbs and training 2 hours per week:

200lbs x 11 to 13 = 2,200 to 2,600 calories per day

Those with a slow metabolism and inactive lifestyle you may want to use 8 to 10 rather than 9 to 11, while those with a fast metabolism and active lifestyle may want to use 11 to 12.

For a quick and easy to use calculator visit my website below. This calculator uses my own modified formula and activity levels that I find from experience to be the most suitable for when clients and I are trying to establish a baseline calorie target.

>> Pinnacle Physique Calorie Calculator <<

MACRO RATIOS

To understand macronutrient ratios, you must first understand that each macronutrient has its own caloric value:

• 1 gram of protein = 4 calories

• 1 gram of carbohydrates = 4 calories

• 1 gram of fat = 9 calories

• 1 gram of alcohol = 7 calories

Note: for alcohol I recommend counting it as carbs. If a drink is 400 calories divide this by 4cal/g which gives 100g and include it as 100g carbs towards your daily carb limit instead of worrying about tracking alcohol separately.

Macronutrient ratios are the ratio of protein to carbs to fats in a diet. For example, a diet consisting of 50% protein, 35% carbs, and 15% fats would be portrayed as 50/35/15 or 50p/35c/15f.

The way we come to values such as these is by first determining our protein. Your macros will change depending on goals and will need to be adjusted accordingly, but protein is the most important factor and should be prioritized. As an example, let’s say you weigh 200lbs and need to consume 200 grams of protein based on your goals. If you’re consuming 2600 calories and 200 grams (800 calories) of that is protein, that gives us 31% protein and leaves us with 69% to split between carbs and fats. The ratio of carbs to fats chosen will be dependent on how well you feel/respond to each, this ratio is second to protein and personal preference.

200 g of protein x 4 calories = 800 calories of total protein 800 protein calories / 2600 daily calories = 31% protein

TRACK YOUR CALORIES WITHOUT COUNTING

First of all, on the “calories consumed” side of most calculations, you need to figure out how many calories are in the foods you want to eat. And that takes handbooks, websites, databases, and math. Just to plan your lunch. Next, you have to assume that the handbooks, websites, and databases’ calorie estimates are correct. They’re often not. In fact, research has shown they can be off by about 25% because of incorrect labeling, laboratory measurement error, and food quality [85, 86]. Then, of course, there’s the “calories burned” side. Estimating your calorie expenditure each day comes with another 25% measurement error because of the equipment you’re using, laboratory measurement errors, and individual differences [76–80]. There is a possible 25% error on the “calories consumed” side, and another 25% error on the “calories burned” side. Sure, we should have an idea of how much food we’re eating each day, so we can adjust based on our goals. But, counting calories precisely isn’t always needed. Fortunately, there is another way. On the following pages is a simple 4 step process to determining your own portion sizes. This method is curtesy of Dr. John Berardi co-founder of Precision Nutrition.

Men eating 3 - 4 meals as outlined would get around 2300 – 3000 calories daily

Women eating 3 – 4 meals as outlined would get around 1200 – 1500 calories daily

Calorie Counting Daily vs. Weekly – Counting calories daily has always been the most common method because it’s the easiest; however, it is not the only way. Calories can also be counted on a weekly basis which allows you more freedom if you have days where you eat less/more calories than what you planned for your daily limit. If you eat less or more calories than planned on any given day, you can certainly make up for it the following day or days. For example, if your goal is 2500 calories a day, that’s 17,500 a week, and if you’re short 300 calories one day you can simply get that 300 calories over the rest of the week as long as you have 17,500 by the end of the week [87]. This also gives you an amazing opportunity to be pro active in your approach and gives you another tool to use to maintain a flexible diet. If you know you have an event coming up on the weekend that will be calorie heavy, you can make some calorie/cardio adjustments the few days leading up to it to try and offset the incoming calories as much as possible. It goes without saying though that this should be practiced in moderation. A weekly target allows you more freedom, but it wouldn’t be effective to eat your weekly calories in a day or two. Ideally, still aim to hit your daily protein targets as much as possible.

SUPPLEMENTS – What actually works

Protein SUPPLEMENTS

There are many types of protein supplements on the market, and many forms that it can come in, such as powders, bars, and other foods. The protein within these supplements can come from different sources with varying quality. Protein quality is measured by its biological value (BV) which measures how well the body can absorb and utilize it. The major supplement sources of protein listed in order of decreasing BV are going to be Whey, Casein, and Egg protein, followed by the plant-based proteins Soy, Rice, Pea, and Hemp protein [11, 88]. If you are not vegetarian or vegan, then whey protein is going to be your best source along with whole foods such as beef, fish and poultry.

The building blocks of protein are amino acids which come together to create complete protein. For our purposes there are 2 types of amino acids, essential and non-essential, and there are 20 amino acids in total, 9 essential and 11 non-essential [1]. Essential amino acids cannot be produced by the body and need to come from our diets, whereas non-essential amino acids are already produced within the body. As touched on previously, there is a process that occurs within the body called ‘protein synthesis’ that is responsible for muscle tissue repair and growth. This process is stimulated by ingesting 2-3 grams of an essential amino acid called leucine and is believed to last for roughly 2-3 hours (which is the reason for spacing out protein servings) [89, 90]. There is typically 2-3g of leucine in a 25-50g serving of protein [88].

The quality of a protein or biological value (BV) will be ranked based on how much leucine it contains. When buying a protein product, the most important thing to look for is the leucine content. A quality protein brand should list exactly how much leucine a serving contains (ideally 2-3g). Although there are 20 different types of amino acids, the one that really matters in the grand scheme is leucine. Unfortunately, when a supplement company lists “25g protein per serving,” there is no requirement for that 25g to contain any leucine. Often what cheaper supplements will do is create that 25g protein from the lowest quality amino acids. If you can’t find leucine anywhere on the label its likely a cheap product that does not contain a significant amount of leucine. This cheaper protein may not be ideal for muscle building, but it is still far better than nothing. Also, be aware of what is considered a “serving size” on the nutrition label. A serving is not always 1 scoop; sometimes it is listed 1 ½ scoops or 2-3 scoops.

It has widely been accepted that the optimal protein serving size in a single meal is roughly 25-50g in order to hit the target of 2-3g leucine to stimulate protein synthesis. However, the most recent research does propose that any “extra” protein consumed over the “optimal” amount of 25-50g may actually be stored within the body promoting durations of protein synthesis much longer than 2-3 hours [2, 4]. Aiming for 25-50g doses of protein per meal would still likely be optimal for anyone looking to get 100% from their protein and maximizing muscle mass, but for most people the focus should still be on consuming adequate daily protein [88].

Whey Protein – Whey Protein is the highest quality source of protein from a supplement and is derived from cow’s milk—which is important to know for vegans or vegetarians, and those who are lactose intolerant [11]. Whey can be broken down even further into 3 different categories: concentrate, isolate and hydrolyzed whey. Concentrate is going to be the most basic, cheapest and containing the most milk.

Isolate has undergone a filtering process which has removed a large amount of the milk product from it and will be absorbed a little quicker into the body. Lastly, hydrolyzed protein has undergone another level of filtration to remove even more of the milk product and going to be absorbed the quickest. The price point between all 3 types of whey is quite substantial, and the speed of absorption is not nearly as different as most companies would like you to believe. But, if you are someone who doesn’t do well with dairy, you will probably find a noticeable difference between them. I personally do not do well with the levels of milk within a whey concentrate but can tolerate hydrolyzed whey.

Casein Protein – Casein protein is also derived from milk but will digest slightly slower in the body than whey protein. It is often recommended to have casein in the evening before bed to keep protein synthesis going throughout the night; however, these claims don’t seem to hold true, as casein before bed has not been shown to be superior to other sources of protein before bed (such as whey) [2].

Egg Protein – Egg protein comes from egg whites and will perform better than plant-based proteins but is slightly lacking in essential amino acids compared to whey [11].

Plant-Based – Plant based proteins like Soy, Rice, Pea and Hemp are not going to be as high quality as animal-based proteins but can still help you meet your goals [2, 11].

Amino acid SUPPLEMENTS

Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) – Of the 20 amino acids, 9 essential and 11 non-essential, BCAAs are made up of 3 essential amino acids. These are Leucine, Iso-Leucine, and Valine. Just like we talked about with protein, BCAA’s (again,

specifically leucine) can stimulate protein synthesis—the muscle building process. If you are consuming enough protein throughout the day, you shouldn’t need to supplement with BCAAs. But if you are dieting and on reduced calories, BCAA supplements have been shown to be of some use to take during your training sessions to help with recovery [12]. Another use for BCAAs is that you can turn a lower quality protein into a higher quality protein simply by adding BCAAs. Let’s say you have a low-quality protein supplement that only contains 1 gram of leucine, you could add 2 grams of BCAA’s which would likely up the total leucine content of that meal to 3 grams, giving you a higher quality protein [89].

Essential Amino Acids (EAAs) – As stated previously, of the 20 amino acids, 9 of them are considered essential amino acids. An EAA supplement is going to contain all 9 of these as opposed to a BCAA supplement which contains only 3 essential amino acids. EAA supplements are relatively new and beginning to replace BCAA supplements on the market as it is being found that EAAs outperform BCAAs [91]. Think of BCAAs and EAAs like turning your car on, you can turn the car on, but you still need fuel to get anywhere. BCAAs can “turn on” the muscle building process (protein synthesis) but because they lack all 9 of the essential amino acids, they are unable to keep it going. An EAA supplement, however, contains all 9 essential amino acids; so not only can it turn on the muscle building process, but it is able to keep it going long enough to create muscle tissue [92].

Caffeine, pre-workouts, and fat-burners

Before I get into the pros of caffeine, I want to bust one myth: that caffeine is a diuretic (a substance that increases loss of water from the body). Past studies have shown that caffeine was indeed a diuretic, but high dosages were used and not on habitual users which is very different from someone regularly taking moderate

doses. More recent applicable studies have shown caffeine to have no effect on hydration levels [93].

Caffeine has many performance improving abilities. The first, and obvious one, is cognitive performance such as alertness, improved short term memory, and reaction time. These effects can last as long as 2-6 hours depending on how much of a tolerance has been built up [94]. Next is physical endurance during exercise. Endurance times have been shown to increase by as much as 27% when tested on trained cyclists [95]. Unfortunately, studies show that it doesn’t seem to influence the actual weight you can lift. But, it does lower pain threshold, which makes an exercise feel easier and may allow you to squeeze out a few more reps than you normally would [96].

Finally, fat loss. That’s right: caffeine is one of the most potent fat-burning substances on the market. Although, you will never see it advertised as such. Most ingredients for the “fat-burning” supplements out there have little proof that they cause any significant fat loss, but one thing you will find is that all of them contain caffeine—which is dirt cheap on its own. Caffeine as a fat-burner works in two ways. Firstly, it’s been shown that it can increase your resting metabolism by as much as 3- 11%, meaning you will burn more calories throughout the day [97, 98]. Secondly, from the improved endurance it provides, you will be able to train much longer and at a higher intensity, helping you burn extra calories [95, 96].

We also have a few post-exercise benefits that have been found. When you take caffeine prior to working out it can surprisingly reduce muscle soreness over the next couple days [99]. Likewise, caffeine can be helpful if you need to replenish your energy quickly after a workout to be ready for your next activity. Taking caffeine after a workout with your meal has been shown to increase the rate your muscles replenish

themselves with glycogen (energy) by as much as 66%! [100]

Despite the abundant pros to caffeine, it’s important to be aware of the cons as well. Some of the downsides are increased chances of anxiety, heightened blood pressure, insomnia, headaches, and dependence [101–104]. If you have high blood pressure, I would be careful not to take too much caffeine. I also recommend not taking caffeine at any point in the evenings because with the effects lasting up to 6 hours it will likely impact your sleep [105]. If you are a habitual user, you may also experience headaches the first week that you stop using it, but you can reduce or eliminate this by slowly decreasing your usage over a week or two.

One thing about caffeine that many people are unsure or unaware of is suitable dosages. It has been found that the optimal amount to increase performance in the average individual is 200mg, with a large difference between 100mg and 200mg but no large difference between 200mg and 300mg [94]. Recent research proposes a dosage of 3mg/kg to 5mg/kg of bodyweight [2, 3, 95]. Keep in mind that anyone who has built up a tolerance to caffeine will experience dosage effects differently. A good rule of thumb is that your typical cup of coffee will contain 80-120mg of caffeine and other sources like tea, soda and chocolate may contain 15-60 mg.

Regarding the timing of caffeine intake, you can notice the effects quite quickly and it seems to reach its peak level in the body roughly 45 minutes after consumption. If you’re a coffee drinker, you’ve probably noticed that when you increase your coffee consumption you tend to build up tolerances. Surprisingly this can happen in as little as 2-3 weeks. To continue seeing the performance benefits of caffeine I would recommend not taking it every day and saving it for the times you really need it, as well as taking a week off every 2-3 months. I personally recommend not splurging on pre-workouts and fat-burners when you can substitute the main

ingredient caffeine for a fraction of the price. glucosamine

Currently the research surrounding glucosamine sulfate, glucosamine hydrochloride and a similar supplement, chondroitin, is very inconsistent and often biased in the methods for conducting these studies. Some studies have shown minor to moderate benefits for joint health and joint pain reduction [106]; however, it has also been widely disputed. If you are in need of a joint pain relief supplement, you can try it and see if it has a noticeable effect for you. creatine

Creatine is naturally produced within the body by the kidneys, liver and pancreas. It can also be obtained from food (particularly meat) and supplementation. The energy needs of brief, rapid and powerful movements lasting fewer than 10 seconds, such as a short sprint or jumping, are mostly fueled (albeit indirectly) with creatine.

There are various forms of creatine on the market such as monohydrate, ethyl ester, HCL, and micronized, but the only one so far that is backed with substantial research and proven is creatine monohydrate [107, 108]. Creatine monohydrate is one of the most studied supplements in existence and has an overwhelming amount of research showing its effects [109, 110]. Creatine can have a volumizing effect on the body in 3 ways: drawing water into the cells, sarcoplasmic hypertrophy (muscle growth) and increasing contractile protein content [111].

It is not uncommon to gain 2 kg in the first week of supplementing creatine, as well

as a noticeable increase in power performance [109, 112]. It’s worth noting that anyone on a plant-based diet may see the largest increases from supplementing creatine due to a lack of meat in their diet [113]. Often, it’s recommended to go through loading phases of creatine but the research does not seem to support the idea that there is a benefit to following a specific loading protocol; instead, just supplement 5g daily for the same results [2]. Creatine has also been found to have a relatively short half-life, meaning once mixed into a shake it will lose some of its potency if not consumed soon, so it would be advisable not to pre-mix it too far ahead of time.

Fish oil

Fish oil has been heavily researched over the years and has quickly become one of the most common and recommended supplements (for good reason). Its benefits are numerous: reduced inflammation, healthier skin, bone health, heart health and plenty more [114]. The caveat though is that you need to be aware of what you are looking for, and how much to take, as not all fish oil is equal. Most of the benefits lie in the EPA/DHA [115]. When looking at content labels on fish oils, the higher the combined EPA/DHA, the better. The more active you are, the more EPA/DHA you can make use of. It’s shown that an adult training regularly can make use of 2-3 grams of EPA/DHA in a day [2]. It would be recommended to try and aim for this daily to see maximal results. Now for those of you running to your cupboards to check the EPA/DHA on your fish oil pills, you might be surprised at how low of dosages many brands are, and that to get 2-3 grams of EPA/DHA you'd be pounding back dozens of pills. That is why a high strength supplement is recommended. The lowest ones could take you dozens of pills, whereas their high- strength counterparts could be as little as 3-6 pills.

For those not comfortable with taking a large amount at once, it can be taken throughout the day at separate meals. Alternatively, fish oil can be taken in liquid form where the highest dosages of EPA/DHA are found. 1-2 tsp usually contains 2-3g of EPA/DHA and can be quicker and easier for someone who dislikes pills. Omega 3 (EPA/DHA) is also fat soluble, meaning it will be digested best with fats, so that is why it’s ideally taken with a well-balanced meal containing fat.

My recommendations

• Find a high-quality protein powder containing 2-3g of leucine per serving to supplement your diet or add BCAAs/EAAs to a lower quality powder. If you don’t have any special dietary requirements, use whey protein. Casein is significantly more expensive and usually not worth the small difference in absorption time.

• It is up to you if you wish to take anything pre-workout. If you do, I would recommend 3mg/kg to 5mg/kg of caffeine 15-30 minutes before training. Start on the low end and judge how you feel. 3mg/kg for a 70kg individual would be 210mg of caffeine.

• If you struggle to always hit your daily protein targets or often feel sore, then I would recommend using an intra-workout supplement. You may see some benefit to supplementing with amino acids. Ideally, choose EAAs over BCAAs.

• Start taking a creatine monohydrate product. It is a heavily proven supplement, cheap, and makes a noticeable difference. Don’t bother with the more expensive hyped up products like HCL/Micronized that offer no proven additional benefits.

• Glucosamine could be worth trying if you have joint pain or inflammation, but studies are conflicted.

• Daily Multivitamin. It can cover small deficiencies that your diet may overlook.

• Take 2-3 mg of combined EPA/DHA omega-3 (fish oil) a day as this is what our diets usually lack.

To see the exact supplements I take myself and what I recommend to my clients, follow the link below

>> Scott’s Recommended Supplements <<

MEAL SPACING AND TIMING

Pre/post-workout nutrition

Pre-workout, I suggest eating a meal 30-90 minutes before exercise, and containing 25-50g of protein and a source of carbohydrates. Remember, carbohydrates are the main fuel source for exercise, and a light carb meal prior to training will allow you to work harder [15]. A serving of protein will help preserve muscle mass while dieting and help repair muscle tissue [6]. Everyone has preferences, however, when it comes to training after a meal; you may need to have a meal with slightly less carbs (same for protein), or have it a little longer before training, but I recommend trying not to skip a pre-workout meal. If your stomach can’t handle food, try a shake. Try to keep your pre-workout meal light enough that it doesn’t feel heavy in the stomach during training or take too long to digest.

Post-workout, I would recommend consuming another meal that is well balanced containing a serving of 25-50g protein to prolong protein synthesis and recovery. A post-workout meal can also help you regain your energy to carry on with the rest of your day, this will be especially important if you have another physical event soon that you need to be ready for [100].

It was once believed that following a workout for 1-2 hours there would be an “anabolic window” where it became critically important to consume protein and carbs to achieve superior progress. However, current literature doesn’t seem to support the idea that protein and carbs post-workout offers any added benefit over consuming them prior or during training. The idea of an “anabolic window”

originally came from studies comparing post-workout protein to no protein at all, and consuming protein post-workout did indeed offer a noticeable benefit; but, they were not comparing pre to post workout protein, simply protein or no protein. It’s shown that consuming an adequate dose of protein prior to training will stimulate protein synthesis to last long until after your training is complete, well throughout what could be considered the “anabolic window” [2, 4, 116–118].

The good news is that you don’t need to feel pressured into pounding back a protein shake directly after your workout. I still recommend getting a serving of protein around your workouts to promote recovery, either one before, after, or both; but, if life gets in the way and you can’t get your post-workout meal in right away, don’t worry—you won’t be sabotaging your progress. Simply get it in as soon as you can and remember that daily protein intake will be the most important factor.

Meal spacing

The motivation behind spacing your meals throughout the day is the effect it has on muscle tissue. As discussed earlier, protein is very anabolic, meaning it preserves muscle tissue in a time of calorie restriction and builds muscle (anabolism) in a time of increased calories. The idea here is that if we can space our protein intake throughout the day over 4 to 5 meals it will prolong protein synthesis and give us a little extra benefit compared to consuming all our protein in 1 or 2 meals. Some studies have shown that if a person spaces their protein servings over 4-5 meals compared to 1-2, on average there is a 5-8% increase in muscle mass after 12 months of consistent training [3]. This may not sound like a lot, but building muscle is a slow process and every bit helps. This also isn’t as hard to do when some of your protein servings come from a shake and you are having pre/post-workout meals. Keep in mind though that as previously mentioned, there is current research

bringing to light new views on this proposing that “extra” protein over the optimal serving size may actually be stored within the body promoting longer durations of protein synthesis [119]. This reinforces the idea that total day protein must still be prioritized over micro-dosing protein.

Eating at night

Most ‘experts’ who recommend limiting carbs at night do so because they believe that since you will be going to sleep soon, your metabolism will slow down and those carbohydrates will have a greater chance at being stored as fat, compared to if they were consumed earlier in the day where they would have a greater probability of being burned. The logic behind this seems reasonable enough: you are laying down, not moving, so obviously you aren’t burning as many calories as you would throughout the day. Well, in multiple studies they’ve found that during sleep the metabolic rate was not lower than when tested during the day [120, 121]. Additionally, it was noted that exercise increased one’s metabolic rate during sleep [122].

The other argument often used by ‘experts’ is claiming that insulin sensitivity is reduced at night, shifting your carb storage towards fat and away from muscle. Again, this does sound reasonable: insulin levels do vary throughout the day and affect how carbs are stored [123, 124]. To see if this theory had any merit, a study was conducted in Israel where people were placed on a calorie restricted diet for 6 months and split into 2 groups [125]. Each group consumed the exact same food and amounts but distributed their meals very differently. One group ate their food during the day, and the other consumed 80% of their food at night. What they found was quite the opposite to what was previously believed. The group consuming food at night lost significantly more weight and bodyfat than the other group. They were

also better satiated and less hungry!

Now, there are a lot of factors that come into play here with insulin sensitivity and hunger. I am not advising eating most of your food before bed because spacing your meals throughout the day does have other benefits such as increased lean body mass. The only truth about meals before bed is that people tend to overeat in the evenings. This has nothing to do with timing but rather eating extra calories, which is the cause for weight gain. With all the studies out there now disproving these antiquated beliefs, it is safe to say that the body doesn’t seem to respond significantly different between nighttime and daytime eating.

FASTING

FASTED TRAINING

Fasted training is where you perform your cardio or workout after a period of usually 12+ hours without consuming any calories. The idea behind it is that it is supposed to increase the amount of fat you burn by utilizing bodyfat for energy instead of the calories you consumed, because your insulin and glycogen levels will be considerably lower. There is some evidence to support this; however, in the studies conducted on this it was done with acute research and only shows us what is happening very short term. Studies conducted over a longer period (4-6 weeks+) have all shown there to be no difference in bodyfat utilization or resultant weight loss compared to unfasted training [126]. At this time there is currently no medium/long term research showing a benefit to training fasted, so it is recommended to go with what you feel you prefer. Skipping breakfast can be a viable way of reducing your daily calories (as long as you don’t make up for them later by eating more) which may lead to increased fat loss, but it is not due to being

in a fasted state. If performance during a workout is a priority, however, it may be advisable not to train in a fasted state, as performance can be negatively impacted.

ALTERNATE DAY FASTING

Alternate day fasting is a weight loss tactic that can indeed produce results as a method for controlling your weekly food intake. During this time period calories will be consumed only every second day or aggressively reduced on specific days. During a recent 12-month study it was shown that the benefits from alternate day fasting come from the overall reduction in total calories, however, and not from fasting [87]. Alternate day fasting does not appear to outperform daily caloric restriction assuming your daily calories remain the same. It is still a valuable tool, but not a superior tool. Psychologically it can still help some people with weight loss or weight management because they can keep their calorie restriction to specific days and not feel like they are always dieting. Again, this comes down to managing calories over a weekly basis rather than daily basis and is going to be up to a personal preference of which method you find easier to adhere to.

HIERARCHY OF NUTRITION

NUTRIENT BREAKDOWNS

When building your meal plan or diet each of these topics discussed build off of each other, with total calories providing the foundation.

Supplements Meal Timing Micronutrients, Fiber & Water

Macronutrients

Total Calories

When it comes to the success of a diet strategy, there are certain factors that have a larger impact than others. The figure below shows the relative importance of each factor, and how they may help maximize performance.

5% 10%

15% 50%

20%

CALORIES (50%)

The most important factor for weight change is calorie balance based on needs and goals.

Energy Balance Equals Calories In (What we Eat) Minus Calories Out (What we Burn) Energy Balance = Calories In - Calories Out

• If your goal is to lose body fat, you should be in an energy deficit. If your goal is to gain muscle mass, you should be in an energy surplus, consuming more than you burn.

• While we have less control over energy spent (it is also harder to expend than consume), we can control our intake. As an example: if a bar is 300 calories, it’s easier to not eat the 300 calories than it is to do 30 minutes of cardio to burn it.

MACRONUTRIENT BREAKDOWN (20%)

• If total calories are the biggest factor when determining body composition, the next behind is the composition of those calories (macronutrients). Each of these macros are broken down differently in the body, as they are primarily used for different purposes.

• If protein is too low, it is hard to keep muscle in a caloric deficit and you may not be able to gain optimal muscle in a caloric surplus. The ratio between fat and carbs can also have significant impacts on your energy levels, performance, and fullness (which can help with adhering to your target calorie intake).

MICRONUTRIENTS, FIBER AND WATER (15%)

• As we discussed earlier, the problems with rigid meals plans is they lack variety, which means missing important micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Micronutrients each have a different function in the body, so it’s important not to be deficient in any.

• Variety is consuming multiple food sources (meats, veggies, fruits, fats, etc.). By allowing yourself flexibility and variety, you can still eat (in small amounts) what you like, and this will help with a successful plan.

• Fiber is important in keeping the gut healthy. Not only do fruits and vegetables contain good amounts of micronutrients, many are also high in fiber.

• Without water, performance will suffer. As little as 2% dehydration has been shown to reduce performance [26].

PROTEIN DISTRIBUTION AND MEAL TIMING (10%)

There is an optimal amount of protein volume at each sitting, but this will depend on the size and gender of the individual. Based off current research, I suggest for men to consume meals containing roughly 35–50g and for women 25-40g of good quality protein. A common myth is that eating smaller meals every 2-3 hours will stimulate metabolism, but research shows that metabolism doesn’t change if you are consuming 3 or 6 meals per day and it comes down to total calories that are consumed over the 24-hour period [127, 128].

Every time we eat a good amount of protein in a meal it is an opportunity to grow, but we don’t want to constantly eat without having our protein in a good serving size, or

the muscle building processes (protein synthesis) could be down regulated and may not be as effective. On the other side of things, extreme intermittent fasting (eating 1-2 meals/day) isn’t enough protein feedings to optimize body composition. We need to find a balance. While it depends on your life and schedule, I suggest 4- 5 servings of protein per day spaced about 3-5 hours apart. For men this total would be roughly 140-250g and women 100-200g daily.

SUPPLEMENTS (5%)

Supplements are the least important part of the puzzle; it won’t bring success unless the other 95% is completed first. An obvious time to supplement would be if you have some deficiency or condition that requires them (e.g. low iron in females/vegetarians [74]). I believe that many supplements are a waste of money and I would recommend sticking to the ones I listed earlier that are backed by research and may help you work towards your goals. Also note that I do not consider protein powder a supplement in this situation, as protein is a necessary macronutrient.

TRACKING foods and bodyweight

WEIGHING AND DOCUMENTING FOOD

The reason why you should generally weigh foods and not measure foods by their volume is due to the inconsistent volumes in comparison to weight. One cup of a food varies greatly due to its size, how packed it is, mashed vs whole etc. Especially when starting out, I would suggest weighing foods. Accurately weighing your food can be an eye-opening experience.

Ideally, measure foods in their uncooked states. Depending on the cooking process and how long it is cooked for, the final nutrition profile may change, and the nutrition labeling typically refers to an uncooked state. Be careful what labels say, as one brand may say uncooked and one brand may say cooked for the nutrition profiles. Meats are an exception where I generally weigh them cooked because some meats such as chicken can be pumped full of water to increase their total weight for pricing purposes [129].

Recording what you eat can be done using a spreadsheet, pen and paper, or an integrated online database. The most popular database or app would be MyFitnessPal. There are usually some mistakes in the databases, so be wary and check a couple of sources if unsure. As you gain experience with tracking, eyeballing food portions will become easier, but it is still important to be careful and regularly recheck to see if you are still on track. Often people don’t realize how easy it is to mistake the number of calories they are getting.

Here’s a couple comparisons of common foods showing how easy it is to make this mistake. Can you eyeball the differences?

TRACKING BODYWEIGHT

Body weight is one of the most important variables to track as it tells us where you are in relation to your goals. I suggest weighing yourself after you wake up, without clothing, and after using the bathroom for the truest measure. This is the number you should track. If you are unable to do this at home (like only having a scale at the gym) you need to at least be very consistent with when and how you weigh yourself (same time of day, same amount of clothing, same meals before hand, etc.) Bodyweight will easily fluctuate by 2-3% daily due to hydration, sodium intake, food intake, hormonal changes, etc., on a day to day or week to week basis, so don’t fret if your bodyweight increases. If you eat a carb heavy meal the night prior to weighing you may be holding excess water until you’ve burned it off—for every 1 gram of carbohydrates consumed you hold onto 3 grams of water [130]. The more consistent you are with your diet and routine, the more consistent your weight will be and the easier it will be to see changes.

As useful as the scale can be for tracking, it should not be the “end all be all” of gauging progress. A good way to look at it is that its simply another tool in your toolbox. When exercising it is common to be building muscle at the same time as losing fat (especially for beginners), which is why you may not see the weight on the scale moving despite making actual progress. Muscle is also slightly denser than fat, causing fat to occupy 15% more space than an equal weight of muscle mass [131– 133] (not 5x the space which is a common myth). Therefore, utilizing progress photos, measurements, how clothing is fitting, and the scale together is going to create a much more accurate picture of the progress you are making.

DIETS

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPleS OF DIETS

All diets have one thing in common. Every diet operates on the same, single, fundamental principle: you eat less calories than you burn.

Not one diet yet discovered is going to be inherently better for weight loss than another. The best diet is simply the one that you can incorporate into your lifestyle the easiest. There is no miracle diet, there is no quicker diet, there is no inherently “better” diet. It is about finding the one that suits your lifestyle best. I am a fan of an all-inclusive diet where you don’t restrict yourself to certain things. Some people do simply find they react better to fats vs carbs which is okay, but if you find that keto works better for you it doesn’t mean its going to work better for someone else, or that it’s a better diet.

Exploring common diets

KETOGENIC DIET

The ketogenic diet was originally created to help with epilepsy in children. It is only recently that ketogenic diet has been used as a method for weight loss. The basis of the diet is that you eat high fat, high protein foods and less than 50 grams carbohydrates. The bodies preferred source of energy comes from carbohydrates which are converted into glucose, but when the body is restricted from eating carbs for about 3-7 days (sometimes weeks), the body will enter a state of ketosis to find a new source of energy [134, 135]. This new source of energy comes from dietary fat (not body fat) in the form of ketones. The body produces ketones to replace glycogen/glucose in the absence of carbohydrates [134, 136, 137].

I’m not fan of low carb/ketogenic diets for long term fat loss, as I am a firm believer in maintaining muscle to help stimulate fat loss in the long run. Although ketogenic style diets have been shown to sometimes produce the greatest short-term effects for fat loss, this does not seem to be sustained past 4-6 weeks when an individual’s metabolism has slowed [138]. The initial jump in weight loss is heavily contributed to water loss, as carbohydrates hold onto water (1g carbs holds 3g water)[130, 139]. It is also common for people using the ketogenic diet to crave carbohydrates and be prone to cheating on their diet. This may result in big rebounds which cause them to store even more fat than when they first started dieting [138]. If cheating on the diet occurs and you leave the 0-50g range of carbs, your body leaves its state of ketosis and you will have to go through the initial waiting period (3-7 days) to re- enter it. The research is conflicted, but some studies have shown it to have a negative impact on physical performance and not ideal for building muscle, so if these are your goals, this may not be the ideal diet for you [140, 141].

PALEO DIET

Also known as the “caveman diet”, Paleo focuses on foods that we can theoretically hunt or find in nature, the same way our hunter-gatherer ancestors did before the agricultural revolution—and before obesity became an epidemic. The diet relies on grass-fed meat, fish, eggs, nuts, seeds, and fresh fruits and vegetables. There are very few carb sources in this diet.

LOW FODMAP DIET

FODMAP stands for "Fermentable Oligo-, Di-, Mono-saccharides and Polyols" and was created to help people with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). It works on the premises that you restrict your body from eating certain molecules that the body cannot properly digest. Some example foods that are to be avoided are some vegetables and fruits, beans, lentils, wheat, dairy products with lactose, high fructose corn syrup, and artificial sweeteners.

ATKINS DIET

Founded by the renowned cardiologist Dr. Atkins, this diet reigns among all thing’s low carb. Atkins 20 (the traditional plan) has you eating a total of 20 “net carbs" (total carbs minus the fiber and sugar alcohols in foods), while Atkins 40 has you eating 40 "net carbs" to provide a slightly more liberalized plan. The initial jump in weight loss that people experience on this diet can typically be contributed to water loss due to the elimination carbs, as with the keto diet.

GLUTEN FREE DIET

Like the name suggests, this diet avoids foods with gluten. Gluten free diets have primarily been recommended for those with medical conditions that leave them

intolerant to gluten, such as celiac disease. Most studies have been conducted on medical patients so there really isn’t any research yet confirming its benefit to people in the general population. Gluten is mainly found in grains such as wheat, barley, rye and sometimes oats.

VEGETARIAN / VEGAN / PESCETARIAN

While not necessarily a diet, but rather a lifestyle, Vegetarians, Vegans, and Pescatarians follow a similar path. Vegetarians abstain from consuming meat, poultry, game, fish, shellfish or by-products of animal slaughter. The inclusion of dairy and eggs will depend on the type of vegetarian diet. Vegans strictly eat no animal products or by-products, nor do they wear or use any products made with or derived from animals. A Pescatarian does not eat meat but will still consume fish.

INTERMITTENT FASTING

Typical intermittent fasting protocol is going 16 hours without consuming calories followed by an 8-hour window where you can eat and drink your calories. The main benefit to this diet is going to be adherence; some people find it easier to avoid meals for a prolonged period and eat their food in 1-2 meals. Aside from promoting adherence and fitting into your lifestyle, there does not seem to be any statistically significant benefits that are replicable as of yet. If you are someone that struggles with portion control, this could be a good option. The downside though is that your protein servings will no longer be spaced out throughout the day, and we covered earlier why spaced protein servings could be beneficial. My recommendation would be if you choose to implement intermittent fasting try to still get 4-5 servings of protein throughout the day, but protein only - no carbs or fat along with it. Protein shakes or very lean fish/poultry can be a good option for this.

OTHER NOTEWORTHY DIETS

• Slimfast

• Weightwatchers

• Slimming World

• Alkaline Diet

• South Beach Diet

• Bernstein Diet

• Sugar Free Diet

• Carnivore Diet

These diets also have their own pros and cons but still revolve around the premise of consuming less calories than you burn throughout the day. There is no one superior, or magic diet. If there is a diet that you find allows you to easily control your calorie intake, then it could be a suitable option for you. But do not fall into the trap of marketing and listening to celebrities paid to endorse products.

BUILDING MUSCLE AND GETTING LEAN

BULKING AND CUTTING

Traditional “bulking and cutting” is going through distinct phases of calorie manipulation in order to gain muscle or lose fat. Classic “bulking” is when calories are increased significantly above maintenance, typically in the range of a 750-1000 calorie surplus per day. If an individual maintains bodyweight at 2500 calories, they would likely consume in the range of 3250-3500 calories per day when bulking. The goal of a bulk is to gain as much strength and muscle mass as possible. It doesn’t need to be done for a specific period of time; it’s simply continued until one is content with their progress. In natural individuals (not enhanced with steroids) the added weight from bulking (when done carefully) should be mostly muscle mass, but there’ll undoubtedly be an increase in fat mass as well [142], which leads into the next stage of cutting.

During a “cut” or “cutting” phase, calories are significantly reduced below maintenance, typically around 500-600 calories. If an individual maintains body weight at 2500 calories, they would consume roughly 1900-2000 calories per day. The goal of a cut is to lean down and lose as much fat as possible while preserving as much muscle as possible. During a cut, the majority of the weight loss should be in the form of fat mass, but some muscle mass will be sacrificed [3, 143]. Like bulking, it does not need to be done for a set period of time. Bulking and cutting can occur in longer phases of months or rotating in shorter “mini” cycles only lasting weeks. The calorie deficit created from cutting can be from a reduction in calories, increased energy expenditure through exercise, or a combination of both. An

example would be a 500-calorie deficit created through reducing calories by 250 combined with a cardio session burning 250 calories.

BODY RECOMPOSITION

Bulking and cutting phases have their distinct pros and cons, and indeed seem to be the best methods for accomplishing their respective goals. Bulking and cutting with a large calorie surplus or deficit will certainly be the quickest routes for gaining muscle and strength and losing fat, but they aren’t without their downsides. Despite these benefits, bulking and cutting also tend to be accompanied by the largest increases in fat gain and muscle loss [142, 143]. In the right circumstances though, distinct bulking and cutting phases make perfect sense.

Building muscle and losing fat, nonetheless, is not as black and white as it was once believed. It has been shown to be entirely possible to build muscle and lose fat at the same time; this is referred to as “body recomposition,” or “body recomp” [6, 144]. It has long been thought that building muscle while losing fat wasn’t possible for most people, and only applied in a handful of limited scenarios. Body recomposition, however, is actually a realistic and possible goal for many people, if not everyone.

Body recomposition is most easily done with new trainees, overweight individuals, “detrained” individuals, and those utilising steroids; but, it is not limited to these groups, and can be done in even highly trained individuals. As a new lifter you are as primed for muscle growth as you will ever be, meaning calories are able to be pulled from stored body fat to fuel the muscle building process. Similar to new lifters, overweight individuals will have very large energy reserves stored in body fat and can eat in a caloric deficit while still having plenty of energy to fuel the muscle

building process. Thirdly, "detrained individuals who once had more muscle, either from an earlier stage in their life or prior to an injury, can utilise the muscle memory effect to rebuild muscle very quickly, making it easier to burn fat at the same time [142]. Lastly, anyone using anabolic steroids will be able to build muscle mass very quickly allowing the body to tap into fat stores to fuel the high calorie needs of muscle building. It is safe to say though that most people could still fall into one of those four categories. Even if you have been training for years it may not have been smart enough or hard enough, allowing you to still fall into the “new trainee” category.

So now you’re probably wondering “how can I effectively go through body recomposition?” Despite being able to build muscle and burn fat at the same time, a clear goal should still be in mind of either becoming leaner or getting bigger. Your caloric intake will need to be centered around maintenance calories, which is the number of calories you need to eat to maintain your weight. If your goal is to build muscle, you should enter a slight caloric surplus increasing your calories above maintenance by 5-25%. If you’re leaner, less advanced, or more genetically gifted for building muscle, you should use a surplus that’s closer to the upper limit. If your goal is to get leaner, use a conservative reduction of 10-20% below your maintenance calories. The more fat you have to lose, the bigger the deficit should be.

Body recomposition will give much slower and steadier results than bulking and cutting, but it will do so without large amounts of fat gain or muscle loss. A successful body recomp is going to come down to optimizing your training, nutrition, and recovery methods, such as getting enough sleep and reducing stress. Training MUST be consistent, intense, programmed, and executed with a clear purpose. It will be mandatory for nutrition to be planned carefully with clear macronutrient

targets put in place and then followed consistently above all else. Training, nutrition, and recovery are all pieces to the puzzle that is your body, and you likely won’t get to where you want to be through body recomp without all the pieces being in place and optimized to their fullest.

Diet breaks

Diet breaks are just what they sound like: periods where you routinely take 1-2 weeks “off” from your diet in an effort to improve long term adherence by reducing the psychological and physical stress that can sometimes be accompanied with dieting.

One study in 2003 compared two groups of individuals: one group dieted consistently for 20 weeks, and one group utilized diet breaks over the same 20-week period. To the surprise of the researchers, they found that the weight loss results and body composition were nearly identical between the two groups [145]. More recently in 2018 a similar study was conducted comparing 16 weeks of continuous dieting to 16 weeks of dieting broken up into blocks of 2 weeks reduced calories and 2 weeks of calories at maintenance levels [146]. This second group was monitored over 30 weeks in order to match 16 total weeks of dieting. Again, it was found that results between groups were nearly the same, with a slight edge going to the group utilizing diet breaks. During a follow up 6 months later they also found those who participated in the diet breaks managed to continue losing weight, whereas those who dieted consistently had a much higher chance of rebounding and gaining the weight back.

These studies give us some clear insights into the idea that diet breaks may be a valuable tool for fat loss and improving long term adherence. It’s important,

however, to be clear on both the pros and cons of diet breaks, and how to successfully implement them. Taking short breaks may be able to reduce some of the stress brought on by dieting, but they aren’t true “breaks” or time off as some might first think. Despite it being a break, calories are not significantly increased; rather, calories are brought back up to maintenance during the break, which may not actually feel like a break to some. If your maintenance is 2500 calories and you are dieting on 2000 calories, during the break you would increase your calories back up to 2500. Many would not consider this a true break as you aren’t throwing caution to wind and eating however you feel. It’s still necessary to strategically be tracking what you are eating. Not only that, but by doing this you would need to be dieting for twice as long. What could be accomplished in 16 weeks will take 30 weeks utilizing diet breaks, so some may rather “put their nose to the grindstone,” so to speak, and just get it done quicker. I don’t personally believe one method can be considered superior; both are shown to work, so this simply gives us another weapon we can use in our arsenal against fat loss. The method you choose will be highly dependent on the type of person you are, how well you manage stress during dieting, the extent of your goals, and how long you have to diet.

nutrition for injury recovery

The right foods can speed injury recovery. This is important—but often ignored. With all the pain, swelling, redness, and dysfunction, injury recovery is highly organized and consistent. To better understand how we can use nutrition to speed up recovery, it’s important to first understand the three distinct stages of repair: inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling.

During the first phase (inflammation) we often experience pain, swelling, redness and heat as our body increases blood flow to the injured area to allow the healing process to begin. Blood contains the nutrients and oxygen that will be needed for the repair of tissue. Although painful and irritating, we need the inflammatory process for repair. Without inflammation, injuries wouldn’t heal, so any attempt to eliminate the inflammation is a mistake in the initial stages of an acute (days) injury. Chronic (weeks/months) injury is different. Excessive inflammation, especially if it’s prolonged, can lead to other problems. This is why anti-inflammatory drugs are often prescribed by physicians during chronic pain.

During the second phase (proliferation) normal flow of blood (oxygen/nutrients) has been restored to the injured area and now new tissue, commonly called “scar tissue”, is beginning to form. This usually occurs over the few weeks following the initial injury. Scar tissue will lay down in alignment with the forces being placed on the area, which is why rehab and therapy are so important during this phase.

Lastly, the third phase (remodeling) is where the final tissues are laid down. These tissues, much like those in the second phase, are also created along areas of tension and stress. Therefore, rehab and therapy are still very critical throughout the entire

recovery process to help ensure the tissues are arranged in line with the adjacent original fibers.

Once we understand how healing works, we can decide how to best use food and supplements in helping the process along. We know that during the initial acute stages of inflammation we don’t want to interfere with inflammation, but we also don’t want to make it worse. During this phase we want to reduce pain, without effecting inflammation; this can be tricky, as the strategies to eliminate pain often target inflammation.

DIETARY FATS

Since you’ve already read through the dietary fats section, you should be familiar with omega 3, 6 and 9 fatty acids. Remember that omega-6 fats (vegetable oils/saturated fats) will be pro-inflammatory, and omega-3 fats will be anti-inflammatory. Normally during healthy periods of living we want a ratio of 1:1 to 3:1 of omega-6 to omega-3 to keep inflammation balanced. However, during injury recovery we want to tweak this and decrease our omega-6 and increase our omega-3 so it looks more like a 1:2 ratio. Even though high levels of omega-3 causes an anti-inflammatory response in the body, this doesn’t interfere with repair; rather, it only helps with injury healing and tissue creation. To increase our levels of omega- 3 we can use fish oil supplementation of 3-9 grams per day along with increasing our intake of olive oil, nuts, avocados, flax oil, and other seeds. Bear in mind that if we are less active during the recovery process and increasing our omega-3 fat intake, we may need to adjust our portion sizes to avoid weight again.

PROTEIN

During an injury recovery, protein becomes even more important to aid with tissue

repair. A minimum of 1 gram of protein per pound of total bodyweight, or 2.2 g/kg total bodyweight, should be consumed. Overweight/obese individuals may need to slightly reduce this to 75-85% of this recommendation.

HERBS

Beyond a healthy fat balance, certain dietary herbs have been shown to help manage inflammation: turmeric (curcumin), garlic, bromelain, boswellia, and flavonoids [147]. Adding turmeric to food every day can be a good strategy, but for most people using 400-600 mg of supplementation 3x per day will be more manageable [148]. Garlic has also been shown to help manage inflammation in the amounts of 2-4 grams of whole garlic cloves each day or 600-1200 mg of supplementation [149]. Bromelain is an extract found in pineapple that is usually supplemented in doses of 500-1000 mg/day [150]. Boswellia, a type of tree, can also offer some benefit at 300 mg doses 3x per day [151]. Flavonoids found in cocoa, tea, red wine, fruits, vegetables and legumes can help through their antioxidative properties [152]. It’s often easy to boost your flavonoid levels through eating more of these foods in general during acute injuries, but supplementing with extracts (blueberry/grape/green tea/citrus) may lead to more powerful effects.

NSAID’s (Non-Steroidal-Anti-Inflammatory-Drugs)

Some examples of common NSAIDs would be ibuprofen, naproxen and celecoxib. These are often considered the first line of defense against acute injury, pain, and inflammation and are readily prescribed by doctors and available over the counter. The role of NSAIDs is to reduce inflammation and pain, and they usually manage to do this quite well. However, new research suggests that in some cases, NSAIDs may actually hinder injury healing in the mid-term. Some studies, but not all, have shown

NSAIDs to reduce recovering ligament strength by about 32% [147, 153]. It is also

important to note that there are many cases where taking high doses or prolonged doses can have negative effects on the GI with an increased risks of stomach ulcers [154]. Due to this it is important to use caution with the use of NSAIDs. Always take the recommended doses and try to avoid using them for a prolonged period of time or not when completely necessary.

CALORIE NEEDS DURING RECOVERY

During the acute phase of injury repair, basal metabolic rate (BMR) may increase by 15-50% based on the severity of the injury. For example, a minor injury or surgery may increase BMR by 15-20%, whereas a major surgery could lead to as much as a 50% increase in BMR [147]. Remember, BMR is the number of calories your body needs just to maintain basic functions, not including any calories burned for daily movement or exercise. Now how does this relate to calories? Let’s assume we have an individual with a BMR of 1950 calories per day, a 15-50% increase would be an extra 293 to 975 calories needed to support recovery compared to what would be needed during normal sedentary conditions. The other thing to keep in mind though, is that during the initial recovery stages, you’re likely not training, or have reduced your training, meaning you are going to burning less calories than normal. So, we need to consider that our BMR will increase, but our daily expenditure will also decrease with the reduced exercise.

VITAMINS AND MINERALS

There are many vitamins and minerals that are necessary for maintaining good health, but there are a few specific ones that may be beneficial for speeding up recovery time aid in the healing process. Vitamins A, B, C, and D as well as the minerals iron, calcium, copper, magnesium, zinc, and manganese, are all important for injury recovery [147, 155–157]. Some findings have interestingly showed that

vitamin E, however, may slow healing, so it would be wise to avoid any vitamin E supplements during recovery [158]. Most of these will be attainable in adequate amounts through a balanced diet, but some may need additional supplementation, such as Vitamin A, C, copper, and zinc.

Vitamin A can support early inflammation during injury, aid post injury immune suppression, and help with the formation of new tissues. Typically, 25,000 IU daily is recommended for short periods around serious injuries or surgery, but supplementing with 10,000 IU daily would likely be safer to avoid any possible side effects of toxicity [156]. Vitamin C plays an important role in the creation and strength of collagen fibers, and can be a powerful antioxidant and immune system booster; supplementing with 1-2 grams of Vitamin C per day during recovery can offer these benefits [157]. Copper is a mineral that assists in the creation of red blood cells and is usually recommended at doses of 2-4 mg per day during the first few weeks of injury repair [159]. Zinc plays an important role in protein synthesis, which is the process responsible for the regeneration and repair of tissues. Zinc is a common nutrient deficiency and often associated with slower wound healing. Increasing your zinc levels to 15-30 mg per day has been shown to aid the speed of healing [159, 160]. It is important to note that when supplementing with copper, or zinc, both should be supplemented, as an excess of one can create deficiencies of the other [159–161].

Two other minerals worth noting, calcium and iron, do not seem to influence injury recovery time. However, they do play a large role in preventing bone stress fractures and are common mineral deficiencies among most populations.

AMINO ACIDS

Supplementing with amino acids can greatly affect injury healing. When the body is

under stress, the importance of arginine and glutamine increases. It is also suspected that ornithine and HMB, which comes from leucine, may speed up healing times post injury. Supplementing with amino acids has been shown to stimulate collagen deposition, collagen synthesis, injury healing, and preservation of muscle mass during recovery [155].

Arginine - studies done on arginine supplementation in the range of 15-30 grams per day have shown that it may stimulate insulin release, which can lead to increased protein synthesis and collagen creation. It may also increase blood flow to the injured area through the production of nitric oxide, supporting an increased flow of oxygen and nutrients [162]. The elevated levels of protein synthesis can also reduce the loss of muscle mass. Through a proper balanced diet, you should already be getting a moderate amount of arginine, so supplementation is often recommended at only 7 grams 2x per day [147].

Glutamine - glutamine needs drastically increase during trauma, and in one study it was even proposed that supplementation can reduce the average length of a hospital stay. [163]. It is suspected that it can also speed up injury healing, although, glutamine alone has not been shown to do this. However, in one study when glutamine was combined with other supplements (arginine/HMB), collagen synthesis significantly increased [164]. A dose of 7g at 2x per day was recommended.

HMB - numerous studies have shown HMB to inhibit muscle protein breakdown as well as an increased net protein balance, which can lead to potential increases in muscle mass [165].

In general, arginine, glutamine, and HMB have yet to show conclusively significant results when supplemented by themselves—but, when used in conjunction with

each other, the results have been very promising [166]. With the case for supplementing amino acids, it is still recommended that the first priority should always be to increase calorie and protein intake during recovery, and to eat a diverse nutrient-dense diet.

SUMMARY OF BENEFICAL NUTRIENTS FOR INJURY RECOVERY

It is best advised to try and focus on foods rich with anti-inflammatory properties rather than loading up on heaps of supplements all at once. Supplementation should be reserved for when inflammation becomes a major/chronic problem and is something to be discussed with your physician first. You may also ask “why interfere with the inflammation process at all when inflammation is a necessary part of the healing process?” Well, if used in moderation at the right time, they get results. They can help reduce pain by managing, but not eliminating the inflammation, and keeping it from becoming excessive and subsequently damaging surrounding tissues.

• Reduce Omega-6/Increase Omega-3 - Ideally 1:2 ratio of omega-6 to -3

o Omega-6 (Vegetable oils, Saturated fats)

o Omega-3 (Nuts, avocado, seeds, olive oil)

• Fish Oil – 3-9 g/day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Protein – Minimum 2.2 g/kg bodyweight or 1 gram/lb total bodyweight

o Overweight/obese individuals may need to slightly reduce this to 75- 85% of this recommendation.

• Turmeric (Curcumin) – 400-600 mg 3x per day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Garlic – 600-1200 mg/day or 2-4 g whole garlic cloves for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Bromelain – 500-1000 mg/day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Boswellia – 300 mg 3x per day for 2-4 weeks post-injury (also from pineapples)

• Flavonoids – Boost through cocoa, tea, red wine, fruits, vegetables, legumes and blueberry/citrus/grape/green tea extracts

• NSAIDs – To be used with caution and not for a prolonged period

• Vitamin A – 10,000 IU/day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Vitamin C – 1000-2000 mg/day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Copper – 2-4 mg/day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Zinc – 15-30 mg/day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Arginine – 7 g 2x per day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• Glutamine – 7 g 2x per day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

• HMB – 1.5 g 2x per day for 2-4 weeks post-injury

THE IMPORTANCE OF SLEEP

Generally, people find it harder to lose body fat or gain muscle when they are sleep deprived, for many reasons. I recommend trying to get at least 6-8 hours of consecutive sleep, and then take power naps in the day (30-60 mins) if you’re feeling tired. A study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found that when people were starved of sleep, late-night snacking increased, and they were more likely to choose high-carb snacks [167]. In another study done at the University of Chicago, sleep-deprived participants chose snacks with twice as much fat as those who slept at least 8 hours [168]. A second study found that sleeping too little prompts people to eat bigger portions of all foods, increasing weight gain [169]. And in a review of 18 studies, researchers found that a lack of sleep led to increased cravings for energy- dense, high-carbohydrate foods [170].

Too little sleep has also been shown to trigger spikes in cortisol, which is a hormone that can cause the body to hold onto more fat [171]. Insulin sensitivity can also be severely reduced, and when your body doesn't respond properly to insulin, your body can have trouble processing fats from your bloodstream [172]. Researchers found that when dieters cut back on sleep over a 14-day period, the amount of weight they lost from fat dropped by 55%, even though their calories stayed equal [173]. The study participants felt hungrier and less satisfied after meals, and their energy was severely reduced. In another 8-week study, 41 participants were split into 2 dieting groups: one group slept their normal hours, and one group reduced sleep by 1 hour 5 days a week. Both groups lost similar weight, however the sleep reduced group lost significantly more muscle mass as opposed to fat [174].

STAYING ON TRACK

TRAVELLING

We all travel, but you don’t need to fail whilst you are away on business or even a vacation. Go in with the correct mindset and you will be successful. Although flexible dieting does allow you to be adaptable for different situations, it’s still generally harder to get in enough protein, fiber and healthy fats when on the road. Most foods are riddled with extra fat and sugar, so be careful! If you know you’re going away for a day, then bring some meals or food sources, making it easier to hit your daily macros. This is the biggest learning curve for most people, so the more you plan, the more chance you have at succeeding. For those on holidays who still like to enjoy food, I have had great success with only eating 2 meals per day. It may not be 100% ideal, but it will help keep your body composition in check. Try to research ahead of time for healthier restaurant options where you’re going, as the quickest/easiest options might not always be healthiest.

EATING OUT

This is very situational, but you should always go in with a plan. If you choose a 6oz steak and broccoli (with no added oil/butter) you are more likely to guestimate macros than if you ordered a chicken pizza. Luckily, most restaurants will post their nutrition information on their website. This is great in moderation, but I wouldn’t do this daily. The truth is that we don’t know how precise the nutritional info is, and the closer we can get to our goals, the better the results will be. Try to order dishes that include a good portion of protein and a serving of vegetables.

STAYING CALM

Everyone at some point will cave in on their diet, meaning eating more calories than you plan to. The only difference between the ones who succeed and the ones who fail is how they react. If you only eat foods you don’t enjoy, you will find yourself hating the diet or those around you for eating what seems like anything. Then, when the time comes that you are exposed to these foods, you won’t react well, and that scoop of ice cream will turn into the whole carton, or that spoonful of peanut butter turns into that jar. Being flexible allows you to stay calm in those situations; take the whole picture into perspective and realize that 1-2 scoops won’t delay your progress. Don’t expect and set yourself up for failure—but if it does happen, look at it as part of the plan, enjoy the moment, and don’t hate yourself. Hating yourself will just cause more stress.

SUPPORT

We are human beings that thrive on social support; we need to build and maintain relationships. To have maximum success you need to have a stable and supportive group that aids your journey. Everyone you surround yourself with needs to be on board with your goals. They can only support you if they understand what you are doing, so be open and honest with them.

It may be helpful to have a conversation about it with the people in your life. In this conversation you will want to include what you are doing and why it is important. If they understand why, they are more likely to be supportive. Don’t make assumptions that everyone will know, as this will likely not be the case. Remember that you are making these choices, and while they may be healthy choices, other

people may not understand. Try and make this process as seamless as possible, so others may not even realize you are dieting.

Don’t focus on healthy or unhealthy, clean or unclean; life is too short to worry about every little detail. If you have goals in mind, then you should be focused on those goals, but it shouldn’t stop you from enjoying everyday life. Always set achievable and realistic goals to challenge yourself and make you a better person, but if things slow down or plateau, don’t get discouraged—consistency will always win.

SHARING YOUR PROGRESS

Sharing your achievements and progress can be a valuable tool. Even sharing on social media has been shown to have a positive impact on your chances of success and help motivate you to reach your goals. In a 2013 research study published in Translational Behavioral Medicine, participants who published their weight loss progress on Twitter lost more weight than those who kept their progress to themselves [175]. Posting your accomplishments for the world to see can propel you to keep taking positive action.

APPETITE REDUCTION

For those of you who have attempted dieting before, you will resonate with me when I say appetite is your arch enemy while trying to lose those unwanted pounds. You find yourself thinking about food 24/7, and constantly feeling like you’re starving. This makes it incredibly hard to adhere to your diet, and your chances of success become slimmer and slimmer (pardon the pun). What I suggest here are 5 very straight forward and natural ways to help control your appetite.

1) Water. Could it really be this simple? The answer is yes. You can unconsciously lower your daily calories and reduce cravings just be drinking water prior to meals. A study done over a week 12 period compared a group of participants drinking 500 ml of water 30 minutes prior to meals to a group not doing so [176]. Interestingly, the 500 ml water pre-meal group showed a decrease in calorie intake at the following meal, and over the course of those 12 weeks it resulted in 44% (2 kg) more fat loss compared to those not drinking water before hand. Did the water somehow burn fat? No, but what it did do was reduce their appetites and they naturally consumed less food at each meal without even thinking about it.

2) Consume a higher protein breakfast. In reference to 2 of the larger studies done on this, a typical highly processed breakfast consisting of cereal or bagels was compared to a breakfast with eggs and beef, with both meals containing the same overall calories. In both trials the people who ate protein with their breakfast had a decrease in calories eaten throughout the day as well as less snacking [7, 8].

3) Bring out the smaller bowls. Believe it or not, it works. In one trial people were given either a small sized bowl or large sized bowl and told to go eat from a buffet without being told anything to minimize any influence [177]. The group who ate from the larger bowl ate 56% more calories! I think most of us are in agreeance that when we are given a plate we will subconsciously (or maybe not subconsciously) try to fill it.

4) Minimize the distractions to avoid mindless eating. Especially while watching T.V., as eating in front of the television has been show to significantly increase total calories consumed [178–182]. The US psychologist John de Castro led a series of studies which showed that eating in company makes you eat more. He found that the bigger the party, the more you eat. At a dinner for two, you will eat around 35% more than you would alone, rising to a 75% increase for a party of four, and nearly

twice as much at a table of seven [183].

5) Eat foods high on the satiety index. The satiety index is a list of foods ranked by how full they make you feel. For example, potatoes are higher than white bread on the index, and keep you feeling much fuller longer [184]. Processed foods are typically quite low on the index. Six higher foods on the list would be fish, chicken, beef, oatmeal, carrots and popcorn. Brown or whole grain versions of foods are often more filling, such as brown bread vs white bread, brown rice vs white rice, and white pasta vs brown pasta.

Mindful Eating

THE ART OF EATING SLOWLY

Mindful eating is all about eating slowly and purposefully, but could something this simple actually work for meaningful, long term weight loss? Absolutely. Numerous studies are now showing that the benefits of slow eating include better digestion, better hydration, easier weight loss or maintenance, and greater satisfaction with our meals [185–189]. Meanwhile, eating quickly leads to poor digestion, increased weight gain, and lower satisfaction. When you rush your meals, it might seem like each meal is over too soon, which often makes you want to eat more. Most of us lead hectic, fast paced lives, so it’s understandable that we might try to rush our meals, but eating quickly does us no favors. In one study done at the University of Rhode Island, researchers studied the effects of slow eating on 30 women and found that on average the women who ate slowly felt overall better during and after their meals, and consumed an average of 67 calories less per meal [185].

For most people slower eating can be MORE important that what they eat or when they eat. This may seem controversial because obviously if you’re eating a whole extra-large pizza to yourself then the speed at which you eat it isn’t going to be the problem. But, if we ignore the extremes, then eating slower can be one of single biggest habits to driving real change.

The reason eating slowly and mindfully has such good results is mainly because of two reasons:

1) Physiological - It takes an average of 20 minutes for the stomach to signal to the brain that it’s full, so by eating quickly it can be very easy to eat past full— and I’m sure that often your meals don’t even last 20 minutes. Eating slower will give your body time to let its natural satiety signals kick in.

2) Psychological - By eating slowly and mindfully you tend to savour your meal, feel less deprived of food, and feel satisfied with less food.

Eating slowly and mindfully is a tool that can be used anytime and anywhere. We don’t always have control over what foods are available to us, but we always have control over how quickly we chew and swallow. Think of slow eating as the low hanging fruit of nutrition; it’s super accessible in any situation. It doesn’t require any special meal plans or food scales. No matter what’s going on in your life, or what’s on your plate, you can always practice eating slowly.

Here are 4 methods you can use for practicing slower eating.

1) Do something in between each bite -

a) Take a breath or two between bites

b) Have a sip of water between bites

c) Set your utensils down between each bite

2) Minimize distractions - Eat your food in a calm environment, not while watching T.V., playing with your phone, driving, or standing in the kitchen. Sit at a table and really experience your food.

3) Savour your food - Treat it like a wine tasting: you’re visualizing the flavour, the texture, is it sweet or savoury? How does it smell?

4) Eat foods that need to be really chewed - Think about unprocessed, whole, natural foods: they’re usually pretty voluminous and take a lot of chewing, like fruits and vegetables for example. Then think about how quickly processed foods can be chewed and swallowed.

Try to be observant and take note of what affects your eating speed.

• Who are you eating with?

• What are you eating?

• Where are you eating?

• When are you eating?

THE 30-DAY MINDFUL EATING CHALLENGE

I propose to you a challenge: to eat your food slowly and mindfully for the next 30 days, implementing the tactics you have just learned. You may be shocked at what you achieve, even if you change nothing else. These methods are simple and effective, but not necessarily easy. That is why I suggest you don’t aim for perfection on day one, but rather try to improve a little each day, utilizing more and more of these methods. Begin with one slow meal, then work towards eating all your meals slowly, and over time you can build up how long you spend at meals.

If you forget to eat slowly at a meal, don’t be hard on yourself; simply try again at the next meal and be aware of when and why it happens. With the case for mindful eating, every little bit counts. Even if it only ended up giving you a 70-calorie reduction at each meal, that could be hundreds of calories a day, thousands of calories a week, and noticeable long-term weight loss or maintenance - just from eating slower.

After you’ve completed the 30-day challenge, take note of how you feel. Do your clothes fit looser? Are you feeling fuller and enjoying your meals more? Do you have a better mental relationship with food? At this point you should be finding mindful eating much easier to do than when you first began, and the goal should be for this to eventually become second nature to you. I hope you decide to carry on long after the 30-day challenge is complete, and that mindful eating becomes a part of your daily life.

six REASONS WHY YOU’RE NOT LOSING FAT

The number one underlying principle behind fat loss comes down to one simple thing: eating less calories than you’re burning, or, calories in minus calories out [190, 191]. Have you ever felt though like you’re doing everything right and still not losing weight? Well, despite this being a simple concept, there’s a lot of factors that should be taken into consideration for why you might be consuming too many calories. These are innocent mistakes that even the most dedicated fitness professionals make. No diet is perfect, and if you want to see change, you have to take a hard look at yourself and be willing to accept that you too might be making some of these mistakes.

1) Eyeballing your calories - How accurate do you think you really are? Was that really 1 tbsp of olive oil you just poured into the pot? Or perhaps you didn’t even think it worth counting just a “drizzle” as you cook? 1 tbsp of olive oil is 120 calories, and I don’t think I could eyeball that if my life depended on it. Does this mean you have to count/measure/weigh all your foods all the time? Absolutely not. I recommend giving yourself the occasional “audit,” however, where you spend a day or two measuring your foods. You might be quite surprised as to how far off you really are, and it can be very eye opening. Remember this picture? Can you eyeball the difference?

2) Selective Memory - The brain makes a lot of decisions that we aren’t even aware of, and often that means forgetting things outside of our regular habits that it considers one-time things. It’s easy to remember the meals that you regularly have, but much harder to remember the small bits that it may consider not worth holding onto. What about that cookie you grabbed off the lunch cart at work? What about that slice of cake you had for your co-worker’s birthday just to be polite?

3) Weekends – Did you just have a successful week of dieting, managing a commendable calorie deficit of 500 calories each day? Congratulations, you’re well on your way to reaching your goals, almost… But what about the few sugar loaded alcoholic beverages you had with friends over the weekend, or the overwhelmingly big breakfast cheat meal? Monday to Friday you managed a total calorie deficit of 2500 calories, this can easily be negated by one or two days of bad decisions. This doesn’t mean you must stop enjoying your weekends, but you must employ mindfulness and moderation, and decide how high you prioritize your goals.

4) Having Complete Faith in Calorie Labels – You weighed your pasta, you measured your oils, you counted your berries, you counted everything perfectly— surely the calories are correct? Wrong. This is a common misconception; the FDA (Food and Drug Association) allows for companies to have a 20% margin in what they put onto an ingredients label [86]. Numerous studies have even tested a variety of common foods and found that many can be as much as 30% incorrect, usually above the claimed amounts [85]. The 2500 calories you meticulously counted could easily be anywhere in the 2000-3000 range. It should also go without saying that with the human error factor, things could easily be packaged or made incorrectly.

5) Choosing Incorrectly – Aside from looking at a food label, two of the most common ways to locate calories will to perform a google search or use mobile apps

like MyFitnessPal. You search “sausage 100g” and are shown hundreds upon hundreds of possible results, all with very different calorie amounts. Which one do you pick? It’s common for people to pick the lowest calorie one on the list as it can leave them feeling like they now have room for more.

6) Assuming You Burn More Than You Do – The reality is that most people grossly overestimate how many calories they burn through exercise. This only gets worse by the fact that fitness trackers have been shown to be off my as much as 20-30% in normal, young, healthy populations, and likely more in other populations [77–80]. I personally don’t feel that “calorie burned” trackers are of use from a psychological perspective since many people use it as no more than a means to reward themselves with food. We’ve likely all looked at the cardio machine that says “600 calories burned” and convinced ourselves at one point or another that we can give ourselves a small “reward” of food.

common Myths & Questions

I see a lot of similar themes in the questions I’m asked and the misconceptions I see, so I’ve chosen to discuss many of them in this section. The section may be long, but my hope is that by reading through it you may learn the answers to some of your own questions and walk away with enough knowledge to not be swayed by the common myths you will likely come across.

1) What is the best diet to follow?

All diets (whether discussed here or not) have their pros and cons. What works best for someone in the past won’t necessarily be what works best for them moving forward. The truth is, the human body is amazingly adaptable to a vast array of diets; the best diet is the one that matches the person’s unique physiology, includes foods they enjoy enough to follow consistently, and is realistic for them in terms of life logistics and budget. What all diets have in common is that you consume less calories than you are burning. If you consume more calories than you burn, you will almost always gain weight.

2) I’m new to nutrition, where do I start?

The truth is that 80% of the population has nutritional deficiencies. Until nutritional deficiencies are removed, the body simply won’t function properly—and that makes any health or fitness goal a lot harder [192]. The first order of business is to find workable strategies to round out our diet so we can get a bit more protein, ample vitamins and minerals, sufficient healthy fats, and drink more water. We start by establishing better eating habits one step at a time and determine which of these

areas are going to be most challenging. Once these are addressed, we can focus on food quality and portions. It’s not a slow process: it’s systematic. It focuses on the things that are in your way right now, and once they are eliminated, progress happens fast.

3) Is calorie counting important for weight loss?

Weight management in almost all cases is a simple equation: eat more than you burn, and you gain weight; eat less than you burn, and you lose weight. But the physiology behind “calories in, calories out” is actually much more complex and dynamic than most people realize. Plus, it’s imprecise; it’s estimated that there’s typically an error of up to 25% on the ‘calories in’ side and on the ‘calories out’ side. For many people, calorie counting may be more of a hassle than it’s worth. Instead of calorie counting, you can use a hand-measure system for portion sizes. Here how it works:

• Your palm determines your protein portions

• Your fist determines your veggie portions

• Your cupped hand determines your carb portions

• Your thumb determines your fat portions

If you find you are very consistent with your nutrition and keep an eye on your weight, you can easily monitor and increase or decrease your food intake accordingly for your goals. If you are maintaining or gaining weight and you want to reduce weight, simply reduce your portion sizes. Likewise, if you want to gain weight, you can increase your portion sizes.

4) Does spreading out my meals increase my metabolism?

No, the myth has always been that by spreading out your meals it would “stoke the metabolic furnace” and result in more weight loss. This has never been proven in any scientific literature [193].

5) If I’m above or below my daily calorie limit, can I make up for it?

Yes, absolutely. The body is not set to days, it cares more about the bigger picture. As long as by the end of the week you can hit your weekly calorie count, you can always make up for the calorie difference the following day or days [87]. For example, if your goal is 2500 calories a day, that would be 17,500 a week, and if you’re short 300 calories one day, you can simply get that 300 calories over the rest of the week. This goes without saying though: practice moderation. It wouldn’t be effective to eat your weekly calories in a day or two.

6) Should I avoid carbs?

No, but let’s make sure you’re getting the right kind of carbs. Most people would do best eating a moderate amount of quality carbs: whole grains (when tolerated), fruit, potatoes, sweet potatoes, beans and legumes, etc. For men, this usually means about 1-2 cupped handfuls per meal. And for women, about 1 cupped handful per meal.

Of course, the needs of each individual may differ based on their size, activity level, goals, and genetics, but the bottom line is that carbs are not inherently fattening, especially when from whole food sources. Getting adequate carbs can help most people exercise harder and recover better, optimizing progress [15]. Yes, this is a controversial position to take, but it works. And while avoiding carbs may facilitate

rapid weight loss initially (mostly water weight), it’s not practical (or necessary) for long-term success for most people [139]

7) Do I need to eat protein right after my workout? I’ve heard there is an “anabolic window.”

No, it is not absolutely necessary to get protein directly after your workout. The commonly heard “anabolic window,” where consuming protein within 1-2 hours post-workout is supposed to give dramatic improvements in progress, is largely a myth. Having a well-balanced meal with a 25-50g serving of protein either before or after your workout would still be recommended to promote recovery and restore energy, but there is no specific timed nutrient window around workouts that offers any extra benefits. Current literature doesn’t seem to support the idea that protein and carbs post-workout offers any added benefit over consuming them prior or during training [3, 116–118].

8) Is too much protein bad for me?

No, there is absolutely no scientific evidence showing that consuming too much protein can be harmful. The myth is that too much protein will be hard on the liver due to excess nitrogen found in amino acids. The original studies that led to this thinking were looking at individuals with kidney disease. The studies hypothesized that if you were to spike your nitrogen content it could theoretically influence the disease, and that you if you ate a ludicrous amount of protein it could be enough to elevate your bodies nitrogen content [194]. In 2016 there were multiple studies done over a 12-month period proving that there are no harmful effects [195].

9) Should I avoid grains?

No, most people trying to stay lean do best with a reasonable amount of whole grains. Grain discussions are trendy right now, as many people have suggested they’re dietary enemy #1 and should be eliminated. This is hot news, as just ten years ago they were supposedly one of the healthiest foods on the planet. Grains aren’t as evil as they’ve been made out to be by the Paleo and Whole-30 diet camps. At the same time, they aren’t the superfood vegans and macrobiotic eaters suggest either. Bottom line: While you don’t need to eat grains, unless you have celiac disease or a FODMAP intolerance, there is absolutely no need to avoid them. And even in those two scenarios, it’s only specific grains you need to worry about.

Most people follow a better, more health-promoting diet, if they’re allowed grains in reasonable amounts, along with a wide array of other non-grain carb sources like fruit, potatoes, sweet potatoes, beans, lentils, etc. Remember, it’s the ability to follow a diet consistently over time that provides the greatest results, regardless of what that diet is. And unless you’re intolerant, there’s no good reason to totally exclude certain foods, especially foods you enjoy.

10) Has my body gone into starvation mode?

No, starvation mode does not exist, at least in the way people think it does. The misconception is that people think by having calories too low, their body will prevent them losing weight and progress will come to a stop—this is simply untrue. Calories cannot be “too low” to lose weight. The first law of thermodynamics does not lie, and if you are consuming less calories than you burn, you will almost always lose weight [196]. When you are dieting or going through a period of calorie reduction, things will change: your metabolism will slow down, your hormones will change, and weight loss will become slower, but as long as calories are decreased

overtime, weight loss will continue [81]. As your metabolism changes so must your strategies for weight loss.

11) Should I drink less alcohol?

If optimal health and fitness is your priority, consider revaluating your drinking habits. Heavy drinking—more than 7 drinks a week for women or more than 14 per week for men—increases the risk for a long list of health problems involving the heart, brain, immunity, hormones, liver, and metabolism. But, even light to moderate drinking can affect sleep, appetite, and decision making—which absolutely can have a negative impact on your health and fitness goals [19–25]. It can also be easy to consume an abundance of calories from alcoholic drinks, especially sugary ones, and large part of weight gain is due to the food that you have while you’re drinking, rather than just the calories from the drink itself. Try tracking your drinking habits for a couple weeks. Look at what you have recorded and ask yourself how you feel physically and psychologically about it. Most people consume a lot more alcohol than they think, and when you stop to evaluate you might find on your own that it would feel better to cut back.

12) Should I do a detox or juice cleanse?

Probably not; most popular detox diets aren’t backed by science and haven’t been proven to remove toxins or lead to fat loss. Diets don’t clean out toxins or help you lose body fat. In fact, detox diets can work against these goals by bypassing the body’s natural detoxification systems and creating a feast-or-famine cycle of eating [197].

Among many problems, detoxes and cleanses often are protein deficient, are extremely low in energy, cause unhealthy blood-sugar swings, cause GI tract

dysfunction, and lead to a yoyo of restrictive eating and overcompensation. If doing a juice cleanse or detox diet helps you mentally get ready to make further helpful and sustainable changes in your life, OK. Just be cautious and monitor it. However, it is preferable to build life-long skills and incorporate daily practices to improve your health, performance, and body composition without extreme (and unsustainable) practices like detoxes and cleanses.

13) Do sleep habits and stress really affect weight loss?

Yes, but those effects vary from person to person, as do the best sleep and stress management strategies. Sleep is just as important as nutrition and exercise when it comes to improving your health, performance, and body composition. You should:

• Create a sleep routine, including a regular schedule

• Limit alcohol and caffeine, especially in the afternoon/evening

• Choose de-stressing activities before bed

• Set an appropriate room temperature for sleep

• Make the room dark

• Keep the room quiet

• Wake up appropriately, with light exposure and soft noise

The bodies natural response to stress is to release more of the hormone called cortisol, which can have an impact on body fat [198]. It’s all about finding the sweet spot. Too much stress, or the wrong kind, can harm our health. Yet stress can also be a positive force in our lives, keeping us focused, alert, and at the top of our game. It all depends on what kind of stress it is, how prepared we are to meet it, and how

we view it. Stress affects the mind, body, and behavior in many ways, and everyone experiences stress differently. Each of us has a unique “recovery zone,” whether that’s physical or psychological, and our recovery zone depends on several factors. It is critical to learn strategies and skills to view and handle your own stress load appropriately. The following can increase stress tolerance or diminish stress load: meditation or yoga, outdoor time, snuggling a pet, listening to relaxing music, deep breathing, drinking green tea.

14) What should I eat for 6 pack abs?

First, let’s explore whether a six pack is worth the trade-offs. To answer this, you first need to know what’s required—getting ripped abs is a much bigger undertaking than most people realize. There are definite benefits to getting that lean (<12% body fat for most men, and <20% for most women), but there are real trade-offs too. Alcohol, processed foods, and desserts all need to be severely limited if you’re trying to lose fat and show off a washboard stomach. Social situations often become difficult. Other interests and hobbies may need to decrease. However, if you really want to get a six-pack in the healthiest possible way, you’ll need to follow these principles 90-95% of the time:

• Eat protein and vegetables at every meal

• Include healthy fats at most meals

• Limit calories

• Exercise intensely 4-5 times per week

• Get at least 8 hours of sleep each night

15) Is Breakfast the most important meal?

Breakfast in no different than any other meal. Although, one of the benefits to breakfast is that its another opportunity to have protein spread out throughout the day. Consuming breakfast will also give you more energy earlier in the day, improving the way you feel, and improving performance if you have an earlier gym session. If you want better performance, I recommend having breakfast as long as it’s not adding additional calories to your day that you wouldn’t normally get.

16) What is a refeed or carb cycling?

Refeeds and carb cycling are methods where carbohydrates are increased or reintroduced into a diet that has had little or no carbohydrates in it for a period of time. The rationale behind this is that one of the hormones within the body that has an impact on fat loss is called leptin, and leptin is effected by total levels of body fat and carbohydrate intake [199]. Studies have shown that when bodyfat decreases and/or carbohydrate intake is reduced, there is also a reduction of leptin within the body [83, 199]. It has long been hypothesized that having a refeed or increased carbohydrate day could stimulate the production of leptin and restore fat burning. This is partially correct in that studies do seem to prove leptin is acutely increased after a day of increased carbohydrates; however, these same studies also conclude that there does not seem to be a relationship between increasing leptin and an increase in fat loss [83, 84]. So, at this time refeeds do not seem to offer any physical benefits, but the reintroduction of carbs in the form of a cheat meal can certainly have many psychological benefits and being able to have a brief diet break may be a useful way of adhering to your diet longer.

17) Is there a limit to how much protein my body can use in a single meal?

No, there is not a limit to how much protein your body can make use of in a single meal. This idea was originally misconstrued from how the body utilizes 25–50g of protein for activating muscle protein synthesis. This quickly led to the idea that anything above 50g would be “wasted”. Yes, 25–50g is what is most effective, but anything consumed above that will not be wasted; instead, it will be converted to glucose and used as energy by the body the same way carbohydrates would be. It is a matter of what amount is most efficient, rather than “how much” can be used. Protein will all be used, but for different process. The most recent research even proposes that “extra” protein over the optimal serving may actually be stored within the body promoting longer durations of protein synthesis. Aiming for the “optimum” amount in a meal would likely still be ideal for someone looking to get 100% from their protein and maximize lean muscle mass, but for most people the main focus should still be on consuming adequate daily protein.

18) Is Creatine just water weight?

No, creatine increases muscular size in 3 ways. Increasing the uptake of water into the cells, sarcoplasmic hypertrophy (growth) within the muscle, and an increase in contractile proteins in the muscle fibers. It also gives you a slight increase in strength.

19) What is the Glycemic Index (GI) and should I be eating high or low GI foods at different times?

The simplistic definition of the glycemic index is a foods ability to raise blood sugar. High GI foods are believed to be digested and converted to sugar much faster than low GI foods. When GI values are determined, it is done in a controlled environment,

in an overnight fasted state with isolated foods. The problem with this is that in the real world, outside of a lab, there are many factors that are going to affect the ability for us to use the glycemic index in daily applications. Some factors that can affect a foods GI are when it is consumed, what is consumed with it, the complexity of the carbs, acidity, fiber, fat, protein, ripeness and heat the food is cooked at (e.g. consuming fat during a meal will slow digestion of a high GI food source). It has long been thought that overeating high GI food source would theoretically promote weight-gain, but the current body of research evidence does not indicate that low- GI foods are superior to high-GI foods regarding fat loss [10].

Due to the current research proving no difference in bodyweight when altering high-GI and low-GI foods within a diet, my recommendation would be to focus on the bigger picture of the quality of your foods, the macro content, and vitamin and minerals, rather than overthinking where foods land on the glycemic index.

20) I want to lose fat on this part of my body, what can I do?

Unfortunately, there is no way to target fat loss. Genetics dictate where an individual will hold fat the longest. This is different for everyone, but women tend to hold weight around their stomach, hips, butt and thighs, whereas men hold around the stomach longest. Everyone will lose fat in different areas of their body before others. The closest option to “targeted” fat loss would be increasing muscle mass in that area; increased muscle mass requires the skin/fat to be stretched over a larger area, giving the illusion of being leaner.

21) How can I hit my protein targets if I’m Vegan or Vegetarian?

As a vegan or vegetarian, you can absolutely still hit your protein targets. In the protein section I do outline some sources of plant-based proteins, however it will be

much more difficult to get it from food. I recommend getting a plant-based protein powder such as a soy, hemp, rice or pea protein.

22) Can too much insulin cause weight gain?

The answer is both yes and no. It is first important to understand what insulin is and how it works. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas. When we consume carbs, the carbs are broken down into sugars; the job of insulin is to transport these sugars to parts of the body for energy, such as muscles, organs or fat cells for storage. When we eat a large amount of carbs, there is subsequently a large spike in sugar (glucose) being created, which in turn triggers the pancreas to promote a large amount of insulin to transport this newly created sugar. When there is more sugar than the muscles can handle, the excess will have to go to fat cells for storage. When we are eating more calories than we burn, and trying to put on muscle, insulin spikes can certainly increase fat gain, because the unused sugar needs to go somewhere if the muscles are full. However, if we are dieting, and in a period of calorie restriction, insulin is not going to be a factor to worry about, because there is no extra sugar to be sent to fat cells, it is all being used as energy.

23) Is eating brown bread, rice, pasta etc. better than white?

Like most things, context matters here. If a larger nutrient profile means better, then yes brown is better. But, if we are talking weight loss, not necessarily. Brown is going to have more vitamins and minerals compared to its white alternative. It will also contain more fibre, which can leave you feeling fuller for longer. When given the choice, brown will be the healthier alternative. Although white lacks the nutrient profile brown contains, it will still be reasonably similar in calories. If we are comparing for weight loss, the laws of thermodynamics still apply: if you eat less calories than you burn you will lose weight. 400 calories of white will still be the same as 400 calories of brown. If you opt for white its not necessarily going to be bad, as long as you still have a healthy spread of nutrient dense foods in your diet.

24) Can I still drink Diet Coke/Pepsi etc.? Don’t those contain aspartame?

Yes, you have nothing to fear by drinking diet or calorie free alternatives and they do indeed often contain aspartame. Aspartame is one of the most thoroughly studied food ingredients, with more than 100 valid scientific studies confirming its safety [200]. Replacing specific foods or beverages that provide a substantial portion of daily calories can provide a useful strategy for modest weight reduction. For someone restricting calories, a diet soda is unmistakably a better choice than a high-calorie regular soda [201–203]. If a person drinks two 12 oz. cans (140 calories each) of regular Coke every day, that adds up to 1960 calories per week compared to 0 calories if they had chosen Diet Coke instead.

25) Fruit contains fructose sugar, can too much fructose be bad for you?

No, overeating on fructose (within reason) is not going to have any negative effects on your health or body composition. Looking at the bigger picture, the only

downside to consuming fructose would be if you were to consume enough fruit to put you in a calorie surplus creating weight gain; but, this is due to excessive calorie consumption, and not the fact that it is fructose. There are numerous studies done comparing high fructose diets over periods of months and there has never been any impact on body weight, body composition, or health, when compared to lower fructose diets of equal calories [204].

26) Does consuming soy effect hormones like estrogen or testosterone?

No, the myth about soy protein increasing estrogen or lowering testosterone levels was created from very old and very flawed data. Much more recent research has been conducted on the effects of soy with the most noteworthy studies being done by Hamilton-Reeves et al. in 2010 and Cody T. Haun et al. in 2018 where both of these studies showed zero effect on hormone levels from consuming soy over a significant period of time [205, 206].

27) Are fresh fruits and vegetables more nutritious than frozen?

The nutrition profile of a fruit or vegetable is determined by many factors: the specific fruit or vegetable, soil quality, season, weather, growing methods used, ripeness when harvested, post harvest handling, etc. [207]. For this reason, it is complicated and difficult to compare. But, to have something more tangible to go off, there was research done in 2017 comparing the nutrient profiles of fresh, frozen, and fresh stored fruits and vegetables [208]. The findings were widespread across the board, largely inconsistent and insignificant. It was summarized and advised by the researchers that the take away from the study should be that there is no superior method of food storage, and a focus should be placed on including a variety of fruits and vegetables of different colors and from various sources of production to get your nutrients.

28) Will cooking my foods lower their nutrient content?

Yes and no. The two main factors usually considered are the effects of heat and water on nutrients. It is believed that higher cooking temperatures can break down certain vitamins, and water can cause water-soluble vitamins to leach out and be lost in the cooking process. There is some truth to these claims, but these studies tend to compare only one or two vegetables and cooking methods, making it difficult to form general conclusions or recommendations about all vitamins and minerals. One conclusion that can be made from the current research, though, is that the best cooking method is going to be dependent on what nutrient you’re looking at and what vegetable you’re cooking. Although one 2015 review of studies concluded that steaming seems to be slightly better in retaining nutrients, with boiling performing slightly worse, the difference was not significant enough to give a simple recommendation [209]. The most practical advice would be to include a variety of cooking methods and a diet with a variety of foods.

Eggs, however, appear to be one food that can have its protein digestibility altered in a positive way through cooking. Studies done in 1998 and 1999 both show that when eggs are consumed raw only 50-74% of the protein value is digested, whereas when cooked 90-94% is digested [210, 211].

29) Are artificial sweeteners like Stevia and Splenda bad?

No, a significant amount of research has been done showing that artificial sweeteners are safe when consumed in safe doses [212–217]. For example, with Stevia, the FDA has established a safe ADI of 4-MG/KG/D which translates to 40 packets per day for a 160lb individual [218]. It would seem sensible however to stay well below this safe limit. Currently there is no current literature associating the use of artificial sweeteners with weight gain. Indeed, there are observational studies

100

showing a link between higher consumption of artificial sweeteners and increased obesity; but, it’s believed that this is a case of “reverse causality”, where the people seeking out zero-calorie food and beverages tend to be the people who are already overweight or obese, and that artificial sweeteners are not the cause [217].

30) Are energy drinks harmful?

I would like to start by saying that too much of anything can be harmful. Even drinking an excessive amount of water causes water toxicity, which has proven to be lethal [219]. No two products are exactly the same, but some of the most common ingredients shared among energy drinks include caffeine, sugar, taurine, niacin, inositol, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, ginseng, guarana, and L-carnitine. When each ingredient is tested separately at the doses of a standard 473ml energy drink, they are found to be far from lethal or even harmful [220]. Lethal doses of energy drinks based upon their individual ingredients would be upwards of 50 cans in a day, but the possibility of ingredients interacting with eachother is always plausible [221, 222].

Keep in mind for most people (excluding pregnant women and children), 400mg of caffeine is considered to be a safe daily amount with minimal or no side effects, and 400-800mg approaching the upper limits of safety with increasing side effects (nervousness, disturbed sleep, lack of focus)[95]. Most energy drinks are between 100-150mg (some higher), so it is easy to reach the upper limits of caffeine safety when multiple drinks are being consumed daily. I would personally feel safe at 1-2 per day based off current literature (not that I drink that many).

In 2011 in the US, 4,854 reports were made in the NPDS (National Poison Data System) involving caffeinated products; however, the majority of these cases involved mixing with alcohol or unknown additives [223]. So, it is true that case

101

reports have associated energy drinks with adverse health effects, most commonly related to the cardiovascular system [101]. Caffeine content is probably the main culprit, but sugars also play a part, and so could other ingredients—or their combination. As with all things, energy drinks can do harm, but them actually doing so depends on many factors, such as the amount being consumed and the health state of the consumer.

31) Is it harder to lose weight as I get older because of a slower metabolism?

It is true that your metabolism slows as you age; however, it would be unrealistic to attribute all of one’s weight gain or slowed weight loss to a reduced metabolism. In 2005 a meta analysis was done studying all the current literature up to 2001 relating to change in metabolism with age [224]. It was found that on average our BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate) decreases about 1-2% every decade, which equates to roughly a 15-30 calorie reduction every 10 years. The difference between a 20-year-old and 60-year-old’s metabolism then would only be 60-120 calories a day. This shows that the amount due to aging is quite insignificant in terms of weight loss or weight maintenance. Does this mean that there will only be a 60-120 calorie BMR difference between a 20 and 60-year-old? Certainly not; a reduced activity level and reduced muscle mass (muscle burns more calories) is going to significantly reduce your TDEE (Total Daily Energy Expenditure), which is the total calories you burn in a day [225]. So, it stands to reason that the drop in burned calories as you age is due mostly to reduced activity levels and lifestyle changes rather than simply a slowed metabolism that is out of your control.

32) Can too many eggs or egg yolks increase my cholesterol?

No, this is a myth that stems from the confusion between HDL and LDL cholesterol.

HDL (high density lipoproteins) are considered healthy cholesterol and LDL (low

102

density lipoproteins) are considered “bad” cholesterol. The cholesterol that is found within eggs is healthy dietary cholesterol. To confirm this in 2016 there was a comprehensive meta-analysis done reviewing all the current scientific literature relating to egg cholesterol. It was found that not only is egg consumption unrelated to high levels of LDL cholesterol, but 1 egg a day may actually be associated with a reduced risk of stroke [226].

33) Is it true that sugar is addictive?

No, sugar is technically not addictive. Sugar is hyper-palatable, meaning it tastes amazing and is very easy to consume in large quantities, but does not cause neurochemical effects the way real addiction does. In recent years magazines and articles have been pushing ridiculous claims that sugar is addictive, even going as far as to say that it is comparable to hard drugs. Their evidence comes from a study that was done on rats in 2017 which is believed to contain many flaws and likely does not warrant these claims [227].

Current research does not support the idea that physical withdrawals and neurobiological changes are experienced from cutting out sugar. If you are presented with the option of a cookie or a giant sugar cube, I highly doubt you will go for the sugar cube. You crave things that taste good; this is very different from being addicted to a single ingredient such as sugar. Being presented with an appetizing food can activate the reward-related regions in the brain. These regions of the brain are involved in motivational and emotional responses to food, and are associated with cravings [227]. Strong habits can certainly be formed for liking and consuming sweet things; these habits can be very difficult to break and often lead to cravings, but a clear distinction should be made between “craving” something and being “addicted”.

103

34) I’ve heard there are negative calorie foods such as celery, where it burns more calories than it contains. Is this true?

No, it would not be biologically possible to burn more calories than is contained in a food. For this to happen you would need to chew the same piece of celery all day long. The snake oil salesman who like to sell diets claiming there’s negative calorie foods like to use the claim that some foods such as celery are primarily made up of insoluble fiber which means the contained calories won’t be digested. They also like to use the argument of thermogenesis saying that the little number of calories we can actually get from celery will be less than the total amount required to try and digest this fiber. This is simply untrue. If a stalk of celery is 6 calories, we may burn 1-3 calories to digest it, which is still less than the total amount. There are very low (almost 0) calorie vegetables, but there are no magic fat burning negative calorie foods [228].

35) Is there really a difference in nutrition between pasteurized eggs and regular grocery store eggs?

Yes, pasteurized eggs do indeed have a superior nutrition profile to regular store- bought eggs [229]. Pasteurized eggs also contain orange yolks, as opposed to yellow. If hens are pasture raised—meaning they are allowed to graze on green pastures throughout the day where they eat worms, insects and grass, which is all in their natural diets—then the yolk color will become orange. This orange color is due to a compound called carotenoids. Carotenoids have many health benefits and are classified as an antioxidant. When hens are caged, free-range, or cage-free, they spend very little time in pastures eating their natural diet. They mostly eat commercial feed consisting of soy and corn. This results in pale, yellow eggs. Despite a label claiming free-range or cage-free, this does not mean the hens

104

actually spend time in pastures. It simply means there is a door allowing access outside.

36) Is extra virgin olive oil the healthiest oil and does its quality matter?

Yes, extra virgin olive when compared to regular olive oil and other oils has been shown to be superior in its nutritional content. The quality of an oil also impacts its smoke point which is the temperature at which it will begin to smoke, the higher the quality the higher the smoke point. It’s also estimated that 50% of extra virgin olive oil made in Italy is not actually extra virgin, and 75-80% of extra virgin olive oil made in north America is not either [230]. Always check labels carefully and look for certifications but unfortunately there’s yet to be shown any reliable ways to look for quality without actual lab testing. The closest you can come to being sure you’re getting the real deal is price and harvest location. The higher the price the higher the quality generally and getting from a local source means less middlemen to dilute the product with other cheaper oils. Make sure as well to store your olive oil in a cool, dark place and use within a couple months to avoid oxidation which can decrease its nutrient profile [231].

105

CONCLUSION

My mission has been to provide you with a nutritional framework which you can build upon, allowing you to save time and focus your efforts for the best results. I originally developed this material for my online coaching clients after seeing people struggle with the same challenges in nutrition as they did in training. Too many people get “information overload” when it comes to nutrition, especially at times when it can seem like everyone’s advice is conflicting. This is where evidence-based information can help weed out the nonsense. I hope that you are able to walk away from reading this confident in your understanding of nutrition, and able to develop a healthier, flexible mindset towards the way you view foods.

Remember, it’s a marathon, not a sprint. Aim to incorporate your nutrition into your life, and not your life into your nutrition. Now is the time to begin implementing the strategies you’ve learned to achieve the results you’ve been after. To see the full benefit from your nutrition, it should be complimented with an equally calculated approach to training. If you have found the approach I have taken for teaching nutrition to be helpful for you, then you may be interested in seeing how I approach training and exercise in a similar way through my educational social media posts and online coaching.

106

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Scott Swaffield is a Canadian professional drug-free bodybuilder, personal trainer and nutritional advisor. He has achieved certifications in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom and has been certified in the industry since 2012. Scott aims to share the science backed knowledge and research he has curated over the years with others who are passionate about building muscle, losing fat and getting healthier.

He earned the title NPAA Elite-Pro in 2016 on the Canadian National Amateur Stage of bodybuilding and later went on to claim a 2nd place finish on Canada’s National Professional stage in 2016. He also has a background in powerlifting.

Scott has spent a great deal of time educating himself, researching, and sorting out truth from myth, and attributes it to much of his success. Having competed at a professional level he understands the importance of correct nutrition, as well as the psychological and physical demands that it can place on the body and mind. Most importantly, with thousands of hours delivering face to face client sessions, he also understands how to successfully apply his knowledge to those he works with.

Scott currently spends a great deal of time travelling the world but is based out of both London, U.K and Edmonton, Canada. He still delivers face to face training sessions for clientele, but a large portion of his training is now delivered in the form of online coaching.

107

ONLINE COACHING

WHAT IS ONLINE COACHING?

Online coaching is a new and exciting way for me to offer my clients what they need, when they need it, without the limitations and expenses of the gym. It allows me to offer a better and more cost-effective service than being with you in-person.

WHAT’S INCLUDED WITH ONLINE COACHING?

 Unlimited Coaching Support on a Weekly Basis with Check-Ins

 Members Only Site

 Tailored Training Program

 500+ Comprehensive HD Video Tutorials

o Gym & Home Exercises

o Nutrition & Supplements

o Mobility & Posture

 Blueprint to Pain Free Posture eBook

 Goal Setting (Training & Nutrition)

 Continued Training & Nutrition Guidance

108

BENEFITS OF ONLINE PERSONAL TRAINING

Affordability

Personal training online vs in a gym allows me to save on overheads like gym rent and save time by using computer software and minimizing commute time. This allows me to provide high-quality coaching at a monthly price less than a single in person session.

Accountability

One of my roles as your online coach is keeping you accountable. I take this to the next level with weekly check-ins, progress photos, measurement tracking, and nutrition logs.

Accessibility

Wherever you are in the world, and whatever your other commitments may be, you can access the materials and support you need. It’s your location, your schedule, and it’s managed for you.

Independence

The great thing about online coaching is you learn to be independent and take control of your health. I help you develop the knowledge you need and learn the skills to create habits for success. You still get the help you need when you need it and I will be right beside you, but my aim is to give you the power to not be dependent on a coach.

Enjoyment

You can train wherever you want. While I do recommend using a gym, if you don’t like gyms that’s fine. You can train at home with whatever you have available. You could find a park or spot outside, or find a friend to workout with. One of the great benefits of online coaching and my training system is its flexibility.

Support

As your online coach, I am on constant standby, ready to provide you with the assistance you need when you need it. It is important to remember that along this fitness journey we are in this together, your wins are my wins.

To learn more about online training please follow the link below and visit Pinnaclephysique.com

109

REFERENCES

1. Hoffer, L. J. (2014). Human Protein and Amino Acid Requirements. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 40(4), 460–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115624084 2. Iraki, J., Fitschen, P., Espinar, S., & Helms, E. (2019). Nutrition Recommendations for Bodybuilders in the Off-Season: A Narrative Review. Sports, 7(7), 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7070154 3. Helms, E. R., Aragon, A. A., & Fitschen, P. J. (2014). Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: Nutrition and supplementation. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-11-20 4. Schoenfeld, B. J., & Aragon, A. A. (2018). How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? Implications for daily protein distribution. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0215-1 5. Helms, E. R., Zinn, C., Rowlands, D. S., & Brown, S. R. (2014). A systematic review of dietary protein during caloric restriction in resistance trained lean athletes: A case for higher intakes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 24(2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2013-0054 6. Longland, T. M., Oikawa, S. Y., Mitchell, C. J., DeVries, M. C., & Phillips, S. M. (2016). Higher compared with lower dietary protein during an energy deficit combined with intense exercise promotes greater lean mass gain and fat mass loss: A randomized trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 103(3), 738–746. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.119339 7. Vander Wal, J. S., Khosla, P., Jen, K. L. C., Dhurandhar, N. V., Marth, J. M., & Dhurandhar, N. V. (2005). Short-Term Effect of Eggs on Satiety in Overweight and Obese Subjects. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 24(6), 510–515. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2005.10719497 8. Leidy, H. J., Ortinau, L. C., Douglas, S. M., & Hoertel, H. A. (2013). Beneficial effects of a higher-protein breakfast on the appetitive, hormonal, and neural signals controlling energy intake regulation in overweight/obese, “breakfast-skipping,” late-adolescent girls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(4), 677–688. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.053116 9. Pesta, D. H., & Samuel, V. T. (2014). A high-protein diet for reducing body fat: Mechanisms and possible caveats. Nutrition and Metabolism, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1743- 7075-11-53 10. Aragon, A. A. (2006). Elements Challenging the Glycemic Index. Retrieved from http://www.alanaragon.com/elements-challenging-the-validity-of-the-glycemic-index.html 11. Hoffman, J. R., & Falvo, M. J. (2004). Protein - Which is best? Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 3(3), 118–130.

110

12. Shimomura, Y., Shimomura, Y., Inaguma, A., Watanabe, S., Yamamoto, Y., Muramatsu, Y., … Mawatari, K. (2010). Branched-Chain Amino Acid Supplementation Before Squat Exercise and Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 20, 236–244. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afda/a44f461716f3004f69d6a639d0adcaafee26.pdf 13. Garrett, R. H. C. M. G. (1999). Biochemistry 2nd Edition. Saunders College Publishing. 14. Hart, D. W., Wolf, S. E., Zhang, X. J., Chinkes, D. L., Buffalo, M. C., Matin, S. I., … Herndon, D. N. (2001). Efficacy of a high-carbohydrate diet in catabolic illness. Critical Care Medicine, 29(7), 1318–1324. https://doi.org/10.1097/00003246-200107000-00004 15. Haff, G. G., Lehmkuhl, M. J., McCoy, L. B., & Stone, M. H. (2003). Carbohydrate supplementation and resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17(1), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1519/1533-4287(2003)017<0187:CSART>2.0.CO;2 16. Ahima RS. (2008). Revisiting leptin’s role in obesity and weight loss. J Clin Invest. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1172/JCI36284 17. Dorgan, J. F., Judd, J. T., Longcope, C., Brown, C., Schatzkin, A., Clevidence, B. A., … Taylor, P. R. (1996). Effects of dietary fat and fiber on plasma and urine androgens and estrogens in men: A controlled feeding study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 64(6), 850–855. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/64.6.850 18. Melzer, K. (2011). Carbohydrate and fat utilization during rest and physical activity. e-SPEN, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclnm.2011.01.005 19. Siler, S. Q., Neese, R. A., & Hellerstein, M. K. (1999). De novo lipogenesis, lipid kinetics, and whole-body lipid balances in humans after acute alcohol consumption. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70(5), 928–936. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/70.5.928 20. Steiner, J. L., & Lang, C. H. (2014). Alcohol impairs skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mTOR signaling in a time-dependent manner following electrically stimulated muscle contraction. Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(10), 1170–1179. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00180.2014 21. Lang, C. H., Pruznak, A. M., Nystrom, G. J., & Vary, T. C. (2009). Alcohol-induced decrease in muscle protein synthesis associated with increased binding of mTOR and raptor: Comparable effects in young and mature rats. Nutrition and Metabolism, 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-6-4 22. Parr, E. B., Camera, D. M., Areta, J. L., Burke, L. M., Phillips, S. M., Hawley, J. A., & Coffey, V. G. (2014). Alcohol ingestion impairs maximal post-exercise rates of myofibrillar protein synthesis following a single bout of concurrent training. PLoS ONE, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088384 23. Duplanty, A. A., Budnar, R. G., Luk, H. Y., Levitt, D. E., Hill, D. W., McFarlin, B. K., … Vingren, J. L. (2017). Effect of acute alcohol ingestion on resistance exercise-induced mtorc1 signaling in human muscle. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(1), 54–61. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001468 24. Frias, J. (2002). EFFECTS OF ACUTE ALCOHOL INTOXICATION ON PITUITARY- GONADAL AXIS HORMONES, PITUITARY-ADRENAL AXIS HORMONES, beta-ENDORPHIN AND PROLACTIN IN HUMAN ADULTS OF BOTH SEXES. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 37(2), 169–173. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/37.2.169

111

25. T., S., & C.J.P., E. (2003). Testosterone increases in men after a low dose of alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(4), 682–685. Retrieved from http://www.embase.com/search/results?subaction=viewrecord&from=export&id=L36460 708%0Ahttp://resolver.ebscohost.com/openurl?custid=s3733374&authtype=ip&&sid=EM BASE&issn=01456008&id=doi:&atitle=Testosterone+increases+in+men+after+a+low+do se+of+alcohol&stitl 26. Judelson, D. A., Maresh, C. M., Farrell, M. J., Yamamoto, L. M., Armstrong, L. E., Kraemer, W. J., … Anderson, J. M. (2007). Effect of hydration state on strength, power, and resistance exercise performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(10), 1817–1824. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3180de5f22 27. Vitamin A. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002400.htm 28. Allen, L. H., & Haskell, M. (2002). Estimating the Potential for Vitamin A Toxicity in Women and Young Children. The Journal of Nutrition, 132(9), 2907S-2919S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/132.9.2907s 29. Akhtar, S., Ahmed, A., Randhawa, M. A., Atukorala, S., Arlappa, N., Ismail, T., & Ali, Z. (2013). Prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in South Asia: causes, outcomes, and possible remedies. Journal of health, population, and nutrition, 31(4), 413–423. https://doi.org/10.3329/jhpn.v31i4.19975 30. Pawlak, R., Parrott, S. J., Raj, S., Cullum-Dugan, D., & Lucus, D. (2013). How prevalent is vitamin B12 deficiency among vegetarians? Nutrition Reviews, 71(2), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/nure.12001 31. Pawlak, R., Lester, S. E., & Babatunde, T. (2014). The prevalence of cobalamin deficiency among vegetarians assessed by serum vitamin B12: A review of literature. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 68(5), 541–548. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2014.46 32. Cohen, M. B. (1981). Vitamin B-12 deficiency. Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, 11(3), 226– 227. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-2998(81)80008-6 33. RC, L., & KJ, Z. (2011). Update on vitamin B12 deficiency. American Family Physician, 83(12), 1425-1430 6p. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=104349681&site=ehos t-live 34. S.A., L., S.F., V., J.P., V. G., J.M., R., & M.T., M. (2007). Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in elderly ambulatory outpatients in Denver, Colorado. American Journal Geriatric Pharmacotherapy, 5(1), 1–8. Retrieved from http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=emed8&NEWS=N&AN= 2007360693 35. A., D., B., D., J.G., W., Y.-M., P., G.M., R.-P., & M., D. L. G. (2015). Sun exposure and vitamin D supplementation in relation to vitamin D status of breastfeeding mothers and infants in the global exploration of human milk study. Nutrients, 7(2), 1081–1093. Retrieved from http://www.mdpi.com/20726643/7/2/1081/pdf%5Cnhttp://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi? T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=emed17&NEWS=N&AN=602148389%5Cnhttp://ovidsp.ovid. com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=emed18b&NEWS=N&AN=602148389 36. Lappe, J. M. (2011). The role of vitamin D in human health: A paradigm shift. Complementary Health Practice Review, 16(1), 58–72.

112

https://doi.org/10.1177/1533210110392952 37. Saliba, W., Barnett, O., Rennert, H. S., Lavi, I., & Rennert, G. (2011). The relationship between serum 25(OH)D and parathyroid hormone levels. American Journal of Medicine, 124(12), 1165–1170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.07.009 38. Pedersen, J. I. (2008). Vitamin D requirement and setting recommendation levels - Current Nordic view. Nutrition Reviews, 66(SUPPL.2). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753- 4887.2008.00101.x 39. MF, H., & TC, C. (2008). Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87(4), 1080S–6S. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=105718701&site=ehos t-live 40. WHO - Assessing Iron Defficiencies. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/micronutrients/anaemia_iron_deficiency/9789 241596107/en/ 41. Vaz‐Tostes, M. das G., Verediano, T. A., de Mejia, E. G., & Brunoro Costa, N. M. (2016). Worldwide prevalence of anaemia, WHO Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition Information System, 1993-2005. Journal of the science of food and agriculture, 96(4), 444–454. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1ay05430a 42. Carpenter, C. E., & Mahoney, A. W. (1992). Contributions of Heme and Nonheme Iron to Human Nutrition. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 31(4), 333–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408399209527576 43. Waldmann, A., Koschizke, J. W., Leitzmann, C., & Hahn, A. (2004). Dietary iron intake and iron status of German female vegans: Results of the German Vegan Study. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 48(2), 103–108. https://doi.org/10.1159/000077045 44. Iron Defficiencies. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2005.00467.x 45. Myhre, E. (1967). Iron deficiency anemia. Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening, 87(5), 318–320. 46. Bailey, R. L., Dodd, K. W., Goldman, J. A., Gahche, J. J., Dwyer, J. T., Moshfegh, A. J., … Picciano, M. F. (2010). Estimation of Total Usual Calcium and Vitamin D Intakes in the United States. The Journal of Nutrition, 140(4), 817–822. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.118539 47. Aggarwal, V., Seth, A., Aneja, S., Sharma, B., Sonkar, P., Singh, S., & Marwaha, R. K. (2012). Role of calcium deficiency in development of nutritional rickets in indian children: A case control study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 97(10), 3461–3466. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-3120 48. Prentice, A. (2002). Nutrition and health of the elderly: Osteoporosis. Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging, 6(4), 282–286. 49. Rosanoff, A., Weaver, C. M., & Rude, R. K. (2012). Suboptimal magnesium status in the United States: Are the health consequences underestimated? Nutrition Reviews, 70(3), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00465.x 50. Nielsen, F. H. (2010). Magnesium, inflammation, and obesity in chronic disease. Nutrition

113

Reviews, 68(6), 333–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00293.x 51. A., P., C., W., & R., K.-V. (1996). Prophylaxis of migraine with oral magnesium: Results from a prospective, multi-center, placebo-controlled and double-blind randomized study. Cephalalgia, 16(4), 257–263. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-2982.1996.1604257.x LK - https://tufts- primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/openurl/01TUN/01TUN_SP?sid=EMBASE&sid=EMBASE &issn=03331024&id=doi:10.1046%2Fj.1468- 2982.1996.1604257.x&atitle=Prophylaxis+of+migraine+with+oral+magnesium%3A+Resu lts+from+a+prospective%2C+multi-center%2C+placebo-controlled+and+double- blind+randomized+study&stitle=CEPHALALGIA&title=Cephalalgia&volume=16&issue=4 &spage=257&epage=263&aulast=Peikert&aufirst=A.&auinit=A.&aufull=Peikert+A.&code n=CEPHD&isbn=&pages=257-2 52. Roffe, C., Sills, S., Crome, P., & Jones, P. (2002). Randomised, cross-over, placebo controlled trial of magnesium citrate in the treatment of chronic persistent leg cramps. Medical Science Monitor, 8(5). 53. Hornyak, M., Voderholzer, U., Hohagen, F., Berger, M., & Riemann, D. (1998). Magnesium therapy for periodic leg movements-related insomnia and restless legs syndrome: An open pilot study. Sleep, 21(5), 501–505. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/21.5.501 54. Kapil, U. (2007). Health consequences of iodine deficiency. Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal, 7(3), 267–272. 55. Pearce, E. N., Andersson, M., & Zimmermann, M. B. (2013). Global iodine nutrition: Where do we stand in 2013? Thyroid, 23(5), 523–528. https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2013.0128 56. Gür, E., Ercan, O., Can, G., Akkuş, S., Güzelöz, Ş., Ciftcili, S., … Ilter, Ö. (2003). Prevalence and risk factors of iodine deficiency among schoolchildren. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 49(3), 168–171. https://doi.org/10.1093/tropej/49.3.168 57. Zimmermann, M. B., & Andersson, M. (2012). Update on iodine status worldwide. Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity, 19(5), 382–387. https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0b013e328357271a 58. Delange, F., de Benoist, B., Pretell, E., & Dunn, J. T. (2001). Iodine deficiency in the world: Where do we stand at the turn of the century? Thyroid, 11(5), 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1089/105072501300176390 59. Jung, A. P., Bishop, P. A., Al-Nawwas, A., & Dale, R. B. (2005). Influence of hydration and electrolyte supplementation on incidence and time to onset of exercise-associated muscle cramps. Journal of Athletic Training, 40(2), 71–75. 60. Sodium and Blood Volume. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.msdmanuals.com/en- gb/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/electrolyte-balance/overview-of-sodium-s- role-in-the-body 61. Winger, J. (2010). Sodium replacement and plasma sodium drop during exercise in the heat when fluid intake matches fluid loss. Journal of athletic training, 45(6). 62. Del Coso, J., González-Millán, C., Salinero, J. J., Abián-Vicén, J., Areces, F., Lledó, M., … Ruiz-Vicente, D. (2016). Effects of oral salt supplementation on physical performance during a half-ironman: A randomized controlled trial. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 26(2), 156–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12427

114

63. Freis, T., Hecksteden, A., Such, U., & Meyer, T. (2017). Effect of sodium bicarbonate on prolonged running performance: A randomized, double-blind, cross-over study. PLoS ONE, 12(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182158 64. Yang, Q., Liu, T., Kuklina, E. V., Flanders, W. D., Hong, Y., Gillespie, C., … Hu, F. B. (2011). Sodium and potassium intake and mortality among US adults: Prospective data from the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Archives of Internal Medicine, 171(13), 1183–1191. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2011.257 65. Jeremiah, S., Queenie, C., Martha, L. D., Alan R. Dyer, Linda Van Horn, Daniel B. Garside, … Paul Elliott. (2018). Relation of Dietary Sodium (Salt) to Blood Pressure and Its Possible Modulation by Other Dietary Factors The INTERMAP Study. Hypertension. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.117.09928.) 66. Pilic, L., Pedlar, C. R., & Mavrommatis, Y. (2016). Salt-sensitive hypertension: Mechanisms and effects of dietary and other lifestyle factors. Nutrition Reviews, 74(10), 645–658. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuw028 67. Adler, A. J., Taylor, F., Ashton, K. E., Martin, N., Gottlieb, S., & Ebrahim, S. (2013). Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2013(9). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009217.pub2 68. O’Donnell, M. J., Yusuf, S., Mente, A., Gao, P., Mann, J. F., Teo, K., … Schmieder, R. E. (2011). Urinary sodium and potassium excretion and risk of cardiovascular events. JAMA - Journal of the American Medical Association, 306(20), 2229–2238. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1729 69. Graudal, N., Jürgens, G., Baslund, B., & Alderman, M. H. (2014). Compared with usual sodium intake, low- and excessive-sodium diets are associated with increased mortality: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Hypertension, 27(9), 1129–1137. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpu028 70. Sodium Potassium Pump. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://socratic.org/questions/how-does- the-sodium-potassium-pump-work 71. Bankir, L., Perucca, J., Norsk, P., Bouby, N., & Damgaard, M. (2017). Relationship between Sodium Intake and Water Intake: The False and the True. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 70(Suppl1), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1159/000463831 72. Paller, M. S., & Schrier, R. W. (1982). Pathogenesis of Sodium and Water Retention in Edematous Disorders. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 2(2), 241–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6386(82)80070-X 73. Strom, B. L., Yaktine, A. L., & Oria, M. (2013). Sodium intake in populations: Assessment of evidence. Sodium Intake in Populations: Assessment of Evidence, 1–210. https://doi.org/10.17226/18311 74. American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, American College of Sports Medicine, Rodriguez, N. R., Di Marco, N. M., & Langley, S. (2009). American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 41(3), 709–31. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31890eb86 75. Sanders, B., Noakes, T. D., & Dennis, S. C. (2001). Sodium replacement and fluid shifts during prolonged exercise in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 84(5), 419–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210000371

115

76. Gal, R., May, A. M., van Overmeeren, E. J., Simons, M., & Monninkhof, E. M. (2018). The Effect of Physical Activity Interventions Comprising Wearables and Smartphone Applications on Physical Activity: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Medicine - Open, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-018-0157-9 77. Shcherbina, A., Mikael Mattsson, C., Waggott, D., Salisbury, H., Christle, J. W., Hastie, T., … Ashley, E. A. (2017). Accuracy in wrist-worn, sensor-based measurements of heart rate and energy expenditure in a diverse cohort. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm7020003 78. Feehan, L. M., Geldman, J., Sayre, E. C., Park, C., Ezzat, A. M., Young Yoo, J., … Li, L. C. (2018). Accuracy of fitbit devices: Systematic review and narrative syntheses of quantitative data. JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 6(8). https://doi.org/10.2196/10527 79. Alinia, P., Cain, C., Fallahzadeh, R., Shahrokni, A., Cook, D., & Ghasemzadeh, H. (2017). How Accurate Is Your Activity Tracker? A Comparative Study of Step Counts in Low- Intensity Physical Activities. JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 5(8), e106. https://doi.org/10.2196/mhealth.6321 80. O’Driscoll, R., Turicchi, J., Beaulieu, K., Scott, S., Matu, J., Deighton, K., … Stubbs, J. (2018). How well do activity monitors estimate energy expenditure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the validity of current technologies. British Journal of Sports Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099643 81. Trexler [email protected], E. T. ., Smith-Ryan [email protected], A. E. ., & Norton [email protected], L. E. . (2014). Metabolic adaptation to weight loss: implications for the athlete. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11(1), 1– 16. Retrieved from 10.1186/1550-2783-11-7%5Cnhttp://0- search.ebscohost.com.library.ucc.ie/login.aspx?direct=true&db=gft&AN=94935341&site =ehost-live 82. Rosenbaum, M., Goldsmith, R., Bloomfield, D., Magnano, A., Weimer, L., Heymsfield, S., … Leibel, R. L. (2005). Low-dose leptin reverses skeletal muscle, autonomic, and neuroendocrine adaptations to maintenance of reduced weight. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 115(12), 3579–3586. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI25977 83. Rosenbaum, M., Nicolson, M., Hirsch, J., Murphy, E., Chu, F., & Leibel, R. L. (1997). Effects of weight change on plasma leptin concentrations and energy expenditure. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 82(11), 3647–3654. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.82.11.3647 84. Dirlewanger, M., Di Vetta, V., Guenat, E., Battilana, P., Seematter, G., Schneiter, P., … Tappy, L. (2000). Effects of short-term carbohydrate or fat overfeeding on energy expenditure and plasma leptin concentrations in healthy female subjects. International Journal of Obesity, 24(11), 1413–1418. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801395 85. Urban, L. E., Dallal, G. E., Robinson, L. M., Ausman, L. M., Saltzman, E., & Roberts, S. B. (2010). The Accuracy of Stated Energy Contents of Reduced-Energy, Commercially Prepared Foods. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 110(1), 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2009.10.003 86. Bender, M. M., Rader, J. I., & McClure, F. D. (1998). Guidance for Industry: Nutrition Labeling Manual - A Guide for Developing and Using Data Bases. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 1–24.

116

87. Trepanowski, J. F., Kroeger, C. M., Barnosky, A., Klempel, M. C., Bhutani, S., Hoddy, K. K., … Varady, K. A. (2017). Effect of alternate-day fasting on weight loss, weight maintenance, and cardioprotection among metabolically healthy obese adults: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine, 177(7), 930–938. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.0936 88. Stokes, T., Hector, A. J., Morton, R. W., McGlory, C., & Phillips, S. M. (2018). Recent perspectives regarding the role of dietary protein for the promotion of muscle hypertrophy with resistance exercise training. Nutrients, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020180 89. Norton, L. E., Wilson, G. J., Layman, D. K., Moulton, C. J., & Garlick, P. J. (2012). Leucine content of dietary proteins is a determinant of postprandial skeletal muscle protein synthesis in adult rats. Nutrition and Metabolism, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-9- 67 90. Wilson, G. J., Layman, D. K., Moulton, C. J., Norton, L. E., Anthony, T. G., Proud, C. G., … Garlick, P. J. (2011). Leucine or carbohydrate supplementation reduces AMPK and eEF2 phosphorylation and extends postprandial muscle protein synthesis in rats. American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology and Metabolism, 301(6). https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00242.2011 91. Wolfe, R. R. (2017). Branched-chain amino acids and muscle protein synthesis in humans: Myth or reality? Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0184-9 92. Jackman, S. R., Witard, O. C., Philp, A., Wallis, G. A., Baar, K., & Tipton, K. D. (2017). Branched-chain amino acid ingestion stimulates muscle myofibrillar protein synthesis following resistance exercise in humans. Frontiers in Physiology, 8(JUN). https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00390 93. Armstrong, L. E., Pumerantz, A. C., Roti, M. W., Judelson, D. A., Watson, C., Dias, J. C., … Kellogg, M. (2005). Fluid, electrolyte, and renal indices of hydration during 11 days of controlled caffeine consumption. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 15(3), 252–265. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.15.3.252 94. Lieberman, H. R., Tharion, W. J., Shukitt-Hale, B., Speckman, K. L., & Tulley, R. (2002). Effects of caffeine, sleep loss, and stress on cognitive performance and mood during U.S. Navy SEAL training. Psychopharmacology, 164(3), 250–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-002-1217-9 95. Spriet, L. L. (2014). Exercise and Sport Performance with Low Doses of Caffeine. Sports Medicine, 44, 175–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0257-8 96. Duncan, M. J., & Oxford, S. W. (2011). The effect of caffeine ingestion on mood state and bench press performance to failure. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(1), 178–185. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e318201bddb 97. Koot, P., & Deurenberg, P. (1995). Comparison of changes in energy expenditure and body temperatures after caffeine consumption. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 39(3), 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1159/000177854 98. Dulloo, A. G., Geissler, C. A., Collins, A., & Miller, D. S. (1989). Normal caffeine consumption: Influence on thermogenesis and daily energy expenditure in lean and

117

postobese human volunteers. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 49(1), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/49.1.44 99. Hurley, C. F., Hatfield, D. L., & Riebe, D. A. (2013). The effect of caffeine ingestion on delayed onset muscle soreness. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(11), 3101–3109. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0b013e3182a99477 100. Pedersen, D. J., Lessard, S. J., Coffey, V. G., Churchley, E. G., Wootton, A. M., Ng, T., … Hawley, J. A. (2008). High rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis after exhaustive exercise when carbohydrate is coingested with caffeine. Journal of Applied Physiology, 105(1), 7– 13. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01121.2007 101. Di Rocco, J. R., During, A., Morelli, P. J., Heyden, M., & Biancaniello, T. A. (2011). Atrial fibrillation in healthy adolescents after highly caffeinated beverage consumption: Two case reports. Journal of Medical Case Reports, 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-1947-5-18 102. Vlachopoulos, C., Hirata, K., Stefanadis, C., Toutouzas, P., & O’Rourke, M. F. (2003). Caffeine increases aortic stiffness in hypertensive patients. American Journal of Hypertension, 16(1), 63–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0895-7061(02)03155-2 103. Karacan, I., Thornby, J. I., Anch, A. M., Booth, G. H., Williams, R. L., & Salis, P. J. (1976). Dose-related sleep disturbances induced by coffee and caffeine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 20(6), 682–689. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpt1976206682 104. David Robertson, M.D., Jürgen C. Frölich, M.D., R. Keith Carr, J. Throck Watson, Ph.D., John W. Hollifield, M.D., David G. Shand, M.D., and John A. Oates, M. D., Robertson, D., Frölich, J. C., Carr, R. K., Watson, J. T., Hollifield, J. W., … Oates, J. A. (1951). Effects of Caffeine on Plasma Renin Activity, Catecholamines and Blood Pressure. New England Journal of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/2051-1426-2-12 105. &NA; (2002). Caffeine for the Sustainment of Mental Task Performance: Formulations for Military Operations. Nutrition Today, 37(1), 26–27. https://doi.org/10.1097/00017285- 200201000-00009 106. Gregory, P. J., Sperry, M., & Wilson, A. F. (2008). Dietary supplements for osteoarthritis. American Family Physician, 77(2), 177–184. 107. Williamson, L., & New, D. (2014). How the use of creatine supplements can elevate serum creatinine in the absence of underlying kidney pathology. BMJ Case Reports, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2014-204754 108. What is the best form of creatine? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://examine.com/nutrition/what-is-the-best-form-of-creatine/ 109. Studies related to Power Output and Creatine. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://examine.com/rubric/effects/view/e5b1982aceddbdc18407270d37a52046/f6cfed9 dba2b80222e8ec46bc0916461/all/ 110. Jäger, R., Purpura, M., Shao, A., Inoue, T., & Kreider, R. B. (2011). Analysis of the efficacy, safety, and regulatory status of novel forms of creatine. Amino acids, 40(5), 1369–1383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-011-0874-6 111. Studies related to Hydration (Total Body Water) and Creatine. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://examine.com/rubric/effects/view/e5b1982aceddbdc18407270d37a52046/125994 b3032942b8ffd0dd9aa9c85f6d/all/

118

112. Kutz, M. R., & Gunter, M. J. (2003). Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation on Body Weight and Percent Body Fat. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17(4), 817– 821. https://doi.org/10.1519/1533-4287(2003)017<0817:CMSOBW>2.0.CO;2 113. Brosnan, M. E., & Brosnan, J. T. (2016). The role of dietary creatine. Amino Acids, 48(8), 1785–1791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-016-2188-1 114. Fish Oil. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://examine.com/supplements/fish-oil/ 115. Li, H., Ruan, X. Z., Powis, S. H., Fernando, R., Mon, W. Y., Wheeler, D. C., … Varghese, Z. (2005). EPA and DHA reduce LPS-induced inflammation responses in HK-2 cells: Evidence for a PPAR-γ-dependent mechanism. Kidney International, 67(3), 867–874. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00151.x 116. Aragon, A. A., & Schoenfeld, B. J. (2013). Nutrient timing revisited: Is there a post-exercise anabolic window? Functional Foods: The Connection Between Nutrition, Health, and Food Science, 65–89. https://doi.org/10.1201/b16307 117. Ivy, J. L., & Schoenfeld, B. J. (2014). The timing of postexercise protein ingestion is/is not important. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 36(6), 51–55. https://doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0000000000000108 118. Schoenfeld, B. J., Aragon, A. A., & Krieger, J. W. (2013). The effect of protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy: A meta-analysis. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-10-53 119. Pennings, B., Groen, B. B. L., Van Dijk, J. W., De Lange, A., Kiskini, A., Kuklinski, M., … Van Loon, L. J. C. (2013). Minced beef is more rapidly digested and absorbed than beef steak, resulting in greater postprandial protein retention in older men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 98(1), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.051201 120. Katayose, Y., Tasaki, M., Ogata, H., Nakata, Y., Tokuyama, K., & Satoh, M. (2009). Metabolic rate and fuel utilization during sleep assessed by whole-body indirect calorimetry. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 58(7), 920–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2009.02.025 121. Seale, J. L., & Conway, J. M. (1999). Relationship between overnight energy expenditure and BMR measured in a room-sized calorimeter. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 53(2), 107–111. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600685 122. Mischler, I., Vermorel, M., Montaurier, C., Mounier, R., Pialoux, V., Péquignot, J. M., … Fellmann, N. (2003). Prolonged daytime exercise repeated over 4 days increases sleeping heart rate and metabolic rate. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 28(4), 616–629. https://doi.org/10.1139/h03-047 123. Biston, P., Van Cauter, E., Ofek, G., Linkowski, P., Polonsky, K. S., & Degaute, J. P. (1996). Diurnal variations in cardiovascular function and glucose regulation in normotensive humans. Hypertension, 28(5), 863–871. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.28.5.863 124. Van Cauter, E., Shapiro, E. T., Tillil, H., & Polonsky, K. S. (1992). Circadian modulation of glucose and insulin responses to meals: Relationship to cortisol rhythm. American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology and Metabolism, 262(4 25-4). https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1992.262.4.e467 125. Sofer, S., Eliraz, A., Kaplan, S., Voet, H., Fink, G., Kima, T., & Madar, Z. (2011). Greater

119

weight loss and hormonal changes after 6 months diet with carbohydrates eaten mostly at dinner. Obesity, 19(10), 2006–2014. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2011.48 126. Vieira, A. F., Costa, R. R., Macedo, R. C. O., Coconcelli, L., & Kruel, L. F. M. (2016). Effects of aerobic exercise performed in fasted v. fed state on fat and carbohydrate metabolism in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Nutrition, 116(7), 1153– 1164. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114516003160 127. Schoenfeld, B. J., Aragon, A. A., & Krieger, J. W. (2015). Effects of meal frequency on weight loss and body composition: A meta-analysis. Nutrition Reviews, 73(2), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuu017 128. Cameron, J. D., Cyr, M. J., & Doucet, É. (2010). Increased meal frequency does not promote greater weight loss in subjects who were prescribed an 8-week equi-energetic energy-restricted diet. British Journal of Nutrition, 103(8), 1098–1101. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114509992984 129. Supermarkets selling chicken that is nearly 1/5th water. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/06/supermarket-frozen-chicken-breasts- water 130. Fernández-Elías, V. E., Ortega, J. F., Nelson, R. K., & Mora-Rodriguez, R. (2015). Relationship between muscle water and glycogen recovery after prolonged exercise in the heat in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 115(9), 1919–1926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-015-3175-z 131. Urbanchek, M. G., Picken, E. B., Kalliainen, L. K., & Kuzon, W. M. (2001). Specific force deficit in skeletal muscles of old rats is partially explained by the existence of denervated muscle fibers. Journals of Gerontology - Series A Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 56(5), B191–B197. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/56.5.B191 132. Mendez, J., & Keys, A. (1960). Density and Composition of Mammalian Muscle. Metabolism-Clinical and Experimental, 9(2), 184–188. Retrieved from isi:A1960WP37300007 133. Farvid, M. S., Ng, T. W. K., Chan, D. C., Barrett, P. H. R., & Watts, G. F. (2005). Association of adiponectin and resistin with adipose tissue compartments, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 7(4), 406–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-1326.2004.00410.x 134. Ketogenic Diet. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499830/ 135. Danial, N. N., Hartman, A. L., Stafstrom, C. E., & Thio, L. L. (2013). How does the ketogenic diet work? Four potential mechanisms. Journal of Child Neurology, 28(8), 1027–1033. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073813487598 136. Harvey, C. J. D. C., Schofield, G. M., Williden, M., & McQuillan, J. A. (2018). The Effect of Medium Chain Triglycerides on Time to Nutritional Ketosis and Symptoms of Keto- Induction in Healthy Adults: A Randomised Controlled Clinical Trial. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2630565 137. J.M., S., & P.A., D. (2017). Ketones and Human Performance. Journal of special operations medicine : a peer reviewed journal for SOF medical professionals, 17(2), 112–116. Retrieved from http://www.embase.com/search/results?subaction=viewrecord&from=export&id=L61814

120

8228 138. Paoli, A. (2014). Ketogenic diet for obesity: Friend or foe? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11(2), 2092–2107. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110202092 139. Composition of weight lost during short-term weight reduction. Metabolic responses of obese subjects to starvation and low-calorie ketogenic and nonketogenic diets. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC333231/ 140. Zajac, A., Poprzecki, S., Maszczyk, A., Czuba, M., Michalczyk, M., & Zydek, G. (2014). The effects of a ketogenic diet on exercise metabolism and physical performance in off-road cyclists. Nutrients, 6(7), 2493–2508. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6072493 141. Paoli, A., Cancellara, P., Pompei, P., & Moro, T. (2019). Ketogenic Diet and Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: a Frenemy Relationship? Journal of Human Kinetics, 68(1), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2019-0071 142. Garthe, I., Raastad, T., Refsnes, P. E., & Sundgot-Borgen, J. (2013). Effect of nutritional intervention on body composition and performance in elite athletes. European Journal of Sport Science, 13(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2011.643923 143. Robinson, S. L., Lambeth-Mansell, A., Gillibrand, G., Smith-Ryan, A., & Bannock, L. (2015). A nutrition and conditioning intervention for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: Case study. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-015-0083-x 144. Argus, C. K., Gill, N., Keogh, J., Hopkins, W. G., & Beaven, C. M. (2010). Effects of a short- term pre-season training programme on the body composition and anaerobic performance of professional rugby union players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(6), 679– 686. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640411003645695 145. Wing, R. R., & Jeffery, R. W. (2003). Prescribed “breaks” as a means to disrupt weight control efforts. Obesity Research, 11(2), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2003.43 146. Byrne, N. M., Sainsbury, A., King, N. A., Hills, A. P., & Wood, R. E. (2018). Intermittent energy restriction improves weight loss efficiency in obese men: The MATADOR study. International Journal of Obesity, 42(2), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2017.206 147. Dr. John Berardi. (n.d.). Nutrition for Injury Recovery. Precision Nutrition. 148. Hewlings, S., & Kalman, D. (2017). Curcumin: A Review of Its’ Effects on Human Health. Foods, 6(10), 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods6100092 149. Schäfer, G., & Kaschula, C. (2014). The Immunomodulation and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Garlic Organosulfur Compounds in Cancer Chemoprevention. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry, 14(2), 233–240. https://doi.org/10.2174/18715206113136660370 150. Müller, S., März, R., Schmolz, M., Drewelow, B., Eschmann, K., & Meiser, P. (2013). Placebo- controlled randomized clinical trial on the immunomodulating activities of low- and high- dose bromelain after oral administration - New evidence on the antiinflammatory mode of action of bromelain. Phytotherapy Research, 27(2), 199–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.4678 151. Siddiqui, M. Z. (2011). Boswellia serrata, a potential antiinflammatory agent: An overview. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 73(3), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.4103/0250-

121

474X.93507 152. García-Lafuente, A., Guillamón, E., Villares, A., Rostagno, M. A., & Martínez, J. A. (2009). Flavonoids as anti-inflammatory agents: Implications in cancer and cardiovascular disease. Inflammation Research, 58(9), 537–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00011-009-0037-3 153. Su, B., & O’Connor, J. P. (2013). NSAID therapy effects on healing of bone, tendon, and the enthesis. Journal of Applied Physiology, 115(6), 892–899. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00053.2013 154. Drini, M. (2017). Peptic ulcer disease and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Australian Prescriber, 40(3), 91–93. https://doi.org/10.18773/austprescr.2017.037 155. Tipton, K. D. (2015). Nutritional Support for Exercise-Induced Injuries. Sports Medicine, 45, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0398-4 156. Polcz, M. E., & Barbul, A. (2019). The Role of Vitamin A in Wound Healing. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 34(5), 695–700. https://doi.org/10.1002/ncp.10376 157. Ringsdorf, W. M., & Cheraskin, E. (1982). Vitamin C and human wound healing. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, 53(3), 231–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030- 4220(82)90295-X 158. Hobson, R. (2016). Vitamin E and wound healing: An evidence-based review. International Wound Journal, 13(3), 331–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.12295 159. Stechmiller, J. K. (2010). Understanding the role of nutrition and wound healing. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 25(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533609358997 160. Zinc Recommendations in Wound Healing. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.managedhealthcareconnect.com/articles/rationale-zinc-supplementation- older-adults-wounds 161. Zinc And Copper Compete For Absorption. (n.d.). Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/scott/Downloads/copper-iron-zinc-factsheet-nov-09.pdf 162. Hicks-Roof, K. (2018). The Use of an Arginine-Enriched Oral Nutrition Supplement to Enhance Wound Healing from a Cesarean Section. Case Reports in Clinical Nutrition, 1(1– 3), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1159/000494666 163. D’Souza, R., & Powell-Tuck, J. (2004). Glutamine supplements in the critically ill. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 97(9), 425–427. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.97.9.425 164. Ellinger, S. (2014). Micronutrients, Arginine, and Glutamine: Does Supplementation Provide an Efficient Tool for Prevention and Treatment of Different Kinds of Wounds? Advances in Wound Care, 3(11), 691–707. https://doi.org/10.1089/wound.2013.0482 165. Trexler, E. T., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Stout, J. R., Hoffman, J. R., Wilborn, C. D., Sale, C., … Antonio, J. (2015). International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: beta-hydroxy- beta-methylbutyrate (HMB). Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-015-0090-y 166. Seker, D., Ergil, J., Ozkan, D., Akinci, M., Yalcindag, A., Ginis, Z., … Arik, E. (2013). The effects of supplementation with a mixture of arginine, glutamine, and ??-hydroxy ??- methylbutyrate on the healing of colon anastomoses. Acta Chirurgica Belgica, 113(6), 444– 448. https://doi.org/10.1080/00015458.2013.11680961

122

167. Brondel, L., Romer, M. A., Nougues, P. M., Touyarou, P., & Davenne, D. (2010). Acute partial sleep deprivation increases food intake in healthy men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 91(6), 1550–1559. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28523 168. Hanlon, E. C., Tasali, E., Leproult, R., Stuhr, K. L., Doncheck, E., de Wit, H., … Van Cauter, E. (2016). Sleep Restriction Enhances the Daily Rhythm of Circulating Levels of Endocannabinoid 2-Arachidonoylglycerol. Sleep, 39(3), 653–664. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.5546 169. Ndeltcheva, A. V., Kilkus, J.M., J., Kasza, K., Schoeller, A. ., & Planner, D. (2006). Sleep Curtailment Is Accompanied By Increased Intake of Calories from Snacks. American Journal Of Clinical Nutrition, 89, 126–133. 170. Cooper, C. B., Neufeld, E. V., Dolezal, B. A., & Martin, J. L. (2018). Sleep deprivation and obesity in adults: A brief narrative review. BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2018-000392 171. Leproult R., Copinschi G, Buxton O., V. C. E. (1997). Sleep Loss Results in an Elevation of Cortisol Levels the Next Evening. Sleep. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/20.10.865 172. Buxton, O. M., Pavlova, M., Reid, E. W., Wang, W., Simonson, D. C., & Adler, G. K. (2010). Sleep restriction for 1 week reduces insulin sensitivity in healthy men. Diabetes, 59(9), 2126–2133. https://doi.org/10.2337/db09-0699 173. Nedeltcheva, A. V., Kilkus, J. M., Imperial, J., Schoeller, D. A., & Penev, P. D. (2010). Insufficient sleep undermines dietary efforts to reduce adiposity. Annals of Internal Medicine, 153(7), 435–441. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-153-7-201010050-00006 174. Wang, X., Sparks, J. R., Bowyer, K. P., & Youngstedt, S. D. (2018). Influence of sleep restriction on weight loss outcomes associated with caloric restriction. Sleep, 41(5). https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsy027 175. Turner-McGrievy, G. M., & Tate, D. F. (2013). Weight loss social support in 140 characters or less: Use of an online social network in a remotely delivered weight loss intervention. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 3(3), 287–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13142-012- 0183-y 176. Dennis, E. A., Dengo, A. L., Comber, D. L., Flack, K. D., Savla, J., Davy, K. P., & Davy, B. M. (2010). Water consumption increases weight loss during a hypocaloric diet intervention in middle-aged and older adults. Obesity, 18(2), 300–307. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2009.235 177. Wansink, B., & Cheney, M. M. (2005). Super bowls: Serving bowl size and food consumption. Journal of the American Medical Association, 293(14), 1727–1728. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.293.14.1727 178. Braude, L., & Stevenson, R. J. (2014). Watching television while eating increases energy intake. Examining the mechanisms in female participants. Appetite, 76, 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.01.005 179. E.M., B., D.R., A., H.L., K., T.A., P., I., P., Blass, E. M., … Koleini, M. F. (2006). On the road to obesity: Television viewing increases intake of high-density foods. Physiology and Behavior, 88(4–5), 597–604. Retrieved from http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=med5&NEWS=N&AN=1 6822530%5Cnhttp://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=emed10&

123

NEWS=N&AN=44093629 180. Halford, J. C. G., Boyland, E. J., Hughes, G. M., Stacey, L., McKean, S., & Dovey, T. M. (2008). Beyond-brand effect of television food advertisements on food choice in children: The effects of weight status. Public Health Nutrition, 11(9), 897–904. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980007001231 181. Halford, J. C. G., Gillespie, J., Brown, V., Pontin, E. E., & Dovey, T. M. (2004). Effect of television advertisements for foods on food consumption in children. Appetite, 42(2), 221– 225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2003.11.006 182. Bellisle, F., Dalix, A. M., & Slama, G. (2004). Non food-related environmental stimuli induce increased meal intake in healthy women: Comparison of television viewing versus listening to a recorded story in laboratory settings. Appetite, 43(2), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2004.04.004 183. Social Facilitation and Inhibition of Eating. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232442/ 184. S.H.A., H., J.C., B. M., P., P., & E., F. (1995). A satiety index of common foods. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 49(9), 675–690. Retrieved from http://www.embase.com/search/results?subaction=viewrecord&from=export&id=L25280 051 185. Andrade, A. M., Greene, G. W., & Melanson, K. J. (2008). Eating Slowly Led to Decreases in Energy Intake within Meals in Healthy Women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108(7), 1186–1191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2008.04.026 186. Andrade, A. M., Kresge, D. L., Teixeira, P. J., Baptista, F., & Melanson, K. J. (2012). Does eating slowly influence appetite and energy intake when water intake is controlled? International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-135 187. Tanihara, S., Imatoh, T., Miyazaki, M., Babazono, A., Momose, Y., Baba, M., … Une, H. (2011). Retrospective longitudinal study on the relationship between 8-year weight change and current eating speed. Appetite, 57(1), 179–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.04.017 188. Otsuka, R., Tamakoshi, K., Yatsuya, H., Murata, C., Sekiya, A., Wada, K., … Toyoshima, H. (2006). Eating fast leads to obesity: Findings based on self-administered questionnaires among middle-aged Japanese men and women. Journal of Epidemiology, 16(3), 117–124. https://doi.org/10.2188/jea.16.117 189. Brian St. Pierre M.S. R.D. CSCS. (n.d.). All About Slow Eating. Precision Nutrition. 190. Romieu, I., Dossus, L., Barquera, S., Blottière, H. M., Franks, P. W., Gunter, M., … Willett, W. C. (2017). Energy balance and obesity: what are the main drivers? Cancer Causes and Control, 28(3), 247–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-017-0869-z 191. World Health Organization Calories in Vs Calories out. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight 192. Chances are, you’ve got a deficiency. (n.d.). Precision Nutrition. Retrieved from https://www.precisionnutrition.com/balanced-diet-isnt-enough 193. La Bounty, P. M., Campbell, B. I., Wilson, J., Galvan, E., Berardi, J., Kleiner, S. M., …

124

Antonio, J. (2011). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Meal frequency. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550- 2783-8-4 194. A.S., L., S., A., A.W., C., B.K., E., T., G., L.G., H., … P.E., T. (1996). Effects of dietary protein restriction on the progression of advanced renal disease in the modification of diet in renal disease study. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 27(5), 652–663. Retrieved from http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=emed4&NEWS=N&AN= 1996142029 195. Antonio, J., Ellerbroek, A., Silver, T., Vargas, L., Tamayo, A., Buehn, R., & Peacock, C. A. (2016). A High Protein Diet Has No Harmful Effects: A One-Year Crossover Study in Resistance-Trained Males. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/9104792 196. Kalm, L. M., & Semba, R. D. (2005). They Starved So That Others Be Better Fed: Remembering Ancel Keys and the Minnesota Experiment. The Journal of Nutrition, 135(6), 1347–1352. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/135.6.1347 197. Detox Diets. (n.d.). Precision Nutrition. Retrieved from https://www.precisionnutrition.com/are-detox-diets-good-for-you 198. van der Valk, E. S., Savas, M., & van Rossum, E. F. C. (2018). Stress and Obesity: Are There More Susceptible Individuals? Current obesity reports, 7(2), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-018-0306-y 199. Jenkins, A. B., Markovic, T. P., Fleury, A., & Campbell, L. V. (1997). Carbohydrate intake and short-term regulation of leptin in humans. Diabetologia, 40(3), 348–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001250050686 200. Aragon, A. A. (n.d.). Aspartame and it’s safety – 100+ studies compiled validating it’s safety. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Q4pehR- h5yTJWPWckIb57DriVLx-aF5TIO-gMXmEBJc/edit 201. Fowler, S. P., Williams, K., Resendez, R. G., Hunt, K. J., Hazuda, H. P., & Stern, M. P. (2008). Fueling the obesity epidemic? Artificially sweetened beverage use and long-term weight gain. Obesity, 16(8), 1894–1900. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2008.284 202. Tordoff, M. G., & Alleva, A. M. (1990). Effect of drinking soda sweetened with aspartame or high-fructose corn syrup on food intake and body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51(6), 963–969. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/51.6.963 203. Williams, C. L., Strobino, B. A., & Brotanek, J. (2007). Weight control among obese adolescents: A pilot study. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 58(3), 217– 230. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637480701198083 204. Livesey, G., & Taylor, R. (2008). Fructose consumption and consequences for glycation, plasma triacylglycerol, and body weight: Meta-analyses and meta-regression models of intervention studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 88(5), 1419–1437. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2007.25700 205. Hamilton-Reeves, J. M., Vazquez, G., Duval, S. J., Phipps, W. R., Kurzer, M. S., & Messina, M. J. (2010). Clinical studies show no effects of soy protein or isoflavones on reproductive hormones in men: Results of a meta-analysis. Fertility and Sterility, 94(3), 997–1007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.04.038

125

206. Haun, C. T., Mobley, C. B., Vann, C. G., Romero, M. A., Roberson, P. A., Mumford, P. W., … Roberts, M. D. (2018). Soy protein supplementation is not androgenic or estrogenic in college-aged men when combined with resistance exercise training. Scientific Reports, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-29591-4 207. Michael Hull. (2018). Is there a difference between fresh, frozen, and canned vegetables? Examine. Retrieved from https://examine.com/nutrition/fresh-vs-frozen-vs-canned- vegetables/ 208. Li, L., Pegg, R. B., Eitenmiller, R. R., Chun, J. Y., & Kerrihard, A. L. (2017). Selected nutrient analyses of fresh, fresh-stored, and frozen fruits and vegetables. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 59, 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2017.02.002 209. Bureau, S., Mouhoubi, S., Touloumet, L., Garcia, C., Moreau, F., Bédouet, V., & Renard, C. M. G. C. (2015). Are folates, carotenoids and vitamin C affected by cooking? Four domestic procedures are compared on a large diversity of frozen vegetables. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 64(2), 735–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.06.016 210. Evenepoel, P., Geypens, B., Luypaerts, A., Hiele, M., Ghoos, Y., & Rutgeerts, P. (1998). Digestibility of Cooked and Raw Egg Protein in Humans as Assessed by Stable Isotope Techniques. The Journal of Nutrition, 128(10), 1716–1722. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/128.10.1716 211. Evenepoel, P., Claus, D., Geypens, B., Hiele, M., Geboes, K., Rutgeerts, P., & Ghoos, Y. (1999). Amount and fate of egg protein escaping assimilation in the small intestine of humans. American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, 277(5 40- 5). https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.1999.277.5.g935 212. Ma, J., Bellon, M., Wishart, J. M., Young, R., Blackshaw, L. A., Jones, K. L., … Rayner, C. K. (2009). Effect of the artificial sweetener, sucralose, on gastric emptying and incretin hormone release in healthy subjects. American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, 296(4). https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.90708.2008 213. Magnuson, B. A., Carakostas, M. C., Moore, N. H., Poulos, S. P., & Renwick, A. G. (2016). Biological fate of low-calorie sweeteners. Nutrition Reviews, 74(11), 670–689. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuw032 214. Fitch, C., & Keim, K. S. (2012). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Use of Nutritive and Nonnutritive Sweeteners. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 112(5), 739–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2012.03.009 215. Sharma, A., Amarnath, S., Thulasimani, M., & Ramaswamy, S. (2016). Artificial sweeteners as a sugar substitute: Are they really safe? Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 48(3), 237–240. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7613.182888 216. Urban, J. D., Carakostas, M. C., & Brusick, D. J. (2013). Steviol glycoside safety: Is the genotoxicity database sufficient? Food and Chemical Toxicology, 51(1), 386–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.10.016 217. Drewnowski, A., & Rehm, C. D. (2016). The use of low-calorie sweeteners is associated with self-reported prior intent to lose weight in a representative sample of US adults. Nutrition and Diabetes, 6. https://doi.org/10.1038/nutd.2016.9 218. Lohner, S., Toews, I., & Meerpohl, J. J. (2017). Health outcomes of non-nutritive sweeteners: Analysis of the research landscape. Nutrition Journal, 16(1).

126

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-017-0278-x 219. Farrell, D. J., & Bower, L. (2003). Fatal water intoxication [2]. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 56(10), 803–804. https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.56.10.803 220. Alex Lead. (2019). Are Energy Drinks Bad For You? - Evidence Based Analysis of 36 Studies. Examine. Retrieved from https://examine.com/nutrition/are-energy-drinks-bad- for-you/ 221. Scholey, A. B., & Kennedy, D. O. (2004). Cognitive and physiological effects of an “energy drink”: An evaluation of the whole drink and of glucose, caffeine and herbal flavouring fractions. Psychopharmacology, 176(3–4), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-004- 1935-2 222. Giles, G. E., Mahoney, C. R., Brunyé, T. T., Gardony, A. L., Taylor, H. A., & Kanarek, R. B. (2012). Differential cognitive effects of energy drink ingredients: Caffeine, taurine, and glucose. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 102(4), 569–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2012.07.004 223. Seifert, S. M., Seifert, S. A., Schaechter, J. L., Bronstein, A. C., Benson, B. E., Hershorin, E. R., … Lipshultz, S. E. (2013). An analysis of energy-drink toxicity in the National Poison Data System. Clinical Toxicology, 51(7), 566–574. https://doi.org/10.3109/15563650.2013.820310 224. Roberts, S. B., & Dallal, G. E. (2005). Energy requirements and aging. Public Health Nutrition, 8(7a), 1028–1036. https://doi.org/10.1079/phn2005794 225. McClave, S. A., & Snider, H. L. (2001). Dissecting the energy needs of the body. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 4(2), 143–147. https://doi.org/10.1097/00075197-200103000-00011 226. Alexander, D. D., Miller, P. E., Vargas, A. J., Weed, D. L., & Cohen, S. S. (2016). Meta- analysis of Egg Consumption and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 35(8), 704–716. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2016.1152928 227. DiNicolantonio, J. J., O’Keefe, J. H., & Wilson, W. L. (2018). Sugar addiction: Is it real? A narrative review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(14), 910–913. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097971 228. Secor, S. M. (2019). Negative calorie foods : An empirical examination of what is fact or fiction, 1–23. 229. Free Range VS Pastured Eggs. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://blog.eggzy.net/wp- content/uploads/2011/06/Better-Eggs.pdf 230. Is Your Extra Virgin Olive Oil Counterfeit? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2016/9/is-your-olive-oil-counterfeit 231. Olive Oil Tips For Consumers. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://olivecenter.ucdavis.edu/learn/olive-oil-tips-for-consumers

127

128