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Informal Censorship of the Press Ia Vietavai by the U.S •'1 INFORMAL CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS IA VIETAVAI BY THE U.S. MILITARY by CHARLES BENTON MOORE, B.G.S. A THESIS IN MASS COMMUNICATIONS Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS Approved Accepted -r 2 PREFACE /Jo,^5 f' "^ The author would like to express his appreciation for the invaluable assistance and cooperation given by his thesis committee of the Department of Mass Communications at Texas Tech University. Thanks and gratitude are extended to Dr. Alexis Tan, my committee chairman, who suffered through endless ques­ tions on format, style and content; to Dr. Billy I. Ross, my committee member, who continually offered sound advice and guidance; and to Professor Robert Rooker who steadfastly encouraged me to maintain scholarly yet articulate expression A special thanks goes to the many survey respondents who took the time and interest to offer their opinions on the military-press conflict in Vietnam. Their experienced opinions provided the depth to the survey chapter on informal censorship. Credit must be given to Department of Defense officials who gladly opened their files and provided background data needed for this study. Space does not permit listing all military officials who assisted in this study but special thanks are extended to Major General VJinant Sidle, Army chief of information, and Colonel Philip Stevens, a long­ time personal friend and the Army's chief of public informa­ tion. Both of these gentlemen were invaluable in their • • 11 assistance in opening doors to information which v/ould other­ wise have been unavailable. Historians may never fully resolve the debate on whether or not the military censored the press in Vietnam and whether or not the press performed its role in Vietnam in a profes­ sional and responsible manner. Yet, historians cannot fail to note the unheralded bravery of civilian and military journalists who shared death to tell the war's story. It has been said that a journalist owes nothing to those who govern his country; he owes everything to the people of his country. This thesis is dedicated to the 35 civilian correspondents and the unknown number of military journalists who gave their lives in covering the war in Vietnam. The names that follow represent just a few of those who paid the utmost price in upholding the oft-quoted yet still meaningful concept—the people have a right to know. Robert Capa Huynh Thanh My Life Magazine Associated Press Killed by Viet Minh, 1954 Killed in Mekong Delta, 1965 Peter Thiel Dickie Chapelle Killed in Mekong Delta, 1965 Killed by booby trap, 1965 Jerry Rose Margaret Higgins Associated Press Garden City Newsday Killed in air crash, 1965 Died of suspected hepatitis, 1966 Bernard Kolenberg Associated Press Charlie Chellappah Killed in air crash, 1965 Freelance Killed near Cu Chi, 1966 111 Sam Castan Tatsuo Sakai Look Magazine Nipon Keizai Shimbun Killed by mortar fire, 1966 Killed by rocket, 1968 Bernard Fall Paul Savanuch Author Stars and Stripes Killed by suspected booby trap, Killed, 1968 1967 Ollie Noona Ronald Gallagher Associated Press Freelance Killed in helicopter, 1969 Killed by artillery, 1967 Gerald Miller Felipa Schuyler CBS Correspondent Killed, 1970 Killed in helicopter, 1967 George Syvertsen Horomichi Mine CBS International Killed in Cambodia, 1970 Killed by mine, 1968 Rene Puissesseu Robert Ellison ORTF French TV Freelance Captured, later reported Killed in air crash, 1968 killed, 1970 Bruce Pigott Raimanik Lekhi Reuters CBS Killed by Viet Cong, 1968 Captured, later reported killed, 1970 Ronald Laramy Reuters Frank Frosch Killed by Viet Cong, 1968 United Press International Killed in Cambodia, 1970 John Cantwell Time-Life Kyoichi Sawada Killed by Viet Cong, 1968 United Press International Killed in Cambodia, 1970 Michael Birch Associated Press Francois Bailly Killed by Viet Cong, 1968 United Press International Killed in Cambodia, 1970 Charles Eggleston United Press International Francois Sully Killed in street fighting, Newsweek 1968 Killed in helicopter, 1971 Ignacio Ezurra Larry Burrows La Nacion Life Missing, assumed dead, 1968 Killed in helicopter, 1971 IV Henri Huet Associated Press Killed in helicopter, 1971 Kent Potter United Press International Killed in helicopter, 1971 Keisaburo Shimamoto Jiji and Pana Press Killed in helicopter, 1971 V CONTENTS PREFACE ii I. INTRODUCTION 1 Purpose of the Study 2 Limitations of the Study 3 Related Studies 3 Method and Organization 5 Significance of the Study 6 II. THE MILITARY'S PRESS ROLE IN VIETNAM 9 Introduction 9 The Flow of Military News 10 Rules for Discussion with Correspondents 14 Military Assistance to the Press 16 Military Restrictions on the Press 23 Summary 32 III. THE INDICTMENT AGAINST THE PRESS 38 Introduction 3 8 Are We Getting Through 39 Why Aren't We Getting Through 4 3 The Military 59 Summary 59 IV. THE INDICTMENT AGAINST THE MILITARY 67 Introduction 67 The Case Against the Military 68 vi In Defense of the Information Officer 90 Summary 93 V. FORMAL CENSORSHIP AND THE VIETNAM WAR 102 Introduction 102 Absence of Formal Censorship in Vietnam 103 Summary 107 VI. SURVEY OF INFORMATION CENSORSHIP IN VIETNAil 111 Introduction 111 Scope and Purpose of the Survey 112 Method and Procedure 113 Limitations of the Survey 115 Related Studies 119 Significance of the Survey 120 Survey Results 120 Summary 152 VII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 161 Introduction 161 Summary 162 Conclusions 169 Implications for Further Study 17 2 BIBLIOGRAPHY 174 APPENDIX 182 A. COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE SENT TO MILITARY INFORI'lATION OFFICERS 183 Vll C. COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE SENT TO NEWSMEN 190 D. RULES GOVERNING PUBLIC RELEASE OF US MILITARY INFORMATION IN VIETNAil (Annex A to Military Assistance Command Vietnam Directive 360-1, March 27, 1970) 197 E. POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR RELEASE OF INFORMATION (Section II, Military Assistance Command Vietnam Directive 360-1, March 27, 1970) 203 Vlll LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Complete Roster Versus Selected List Replies 118 2. Whether or Not Formal Censorship Imposed 122 3. Whether or Not Informal Censorship Imposed 122 4. Newsmen and Military lOs Replies on MACV Ground Rule Impairment 130 5. Security Reasons Used to Deny Newsmen Legitimate Information 134 6. Preferential Treatment of Newsmen 140 7. Newsmen Ratings of News Sources in Vietnam 14 6 8. Military Ratings of News Media in Vietnam 149 IX LIST OF FIGURES Figure ^^ ^ Page 1. Dual Flow of Combat News 12 2. Newsmen's and Military Information Officers' Biggest Problems in Vietnam 143 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The United States, either directly or indirectly, has been involved in the Indochina war for most of the past 20 years. The death toll has claimed more than 45,000 Ameri­ cans, more than 95,000 men "of various nationalities in the former French colonial army" and estimates of one to two million Indochinese. War always raises troublesome and even dangerous ques­ tions between the government and the press. The Vietnam war raised more than most. Even more so than in previous wars of strict wartime censorship, the government has been vehe­ mently criticized for its press policies in the Vietnam war. Despite press criticisms of censorship, news management and government lies, the amount of information that poured out of Vietnam about the war was staggering. More had been written and filmed about this conflict than during any other American war. It was television's first extensive coverage of a war. In less than 24 hours battles fought in Vietnam were viewed in living color in homes across the nation. In the opinion of Fred W. Friendly, former president of CBS News, the war in Vietnam was "... the best reported and 2 least understood war in history." 1 The Vietnam war was the military's first significant press war. In previous wars, formal censorship was imposed upon the newsmen with the military reading and editing all copy or film prior to broadcast. In Vietnam, however, press freedom, at least in respect to formal censorship, was virtually complete. The military information apparatus in Vietnam was com­ plex and proved to be both an asset and a liability to news­ men. Without military support the war could not have been "the best reported war" in history. Yet, because of mili­ tary press barriers, many writers have echoed Friendly's concern that the Vietnam war was "the least understood" war in history. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to examine the degree, if any, of informal censorship imposed by the military over the press corps in Vietnam. This includes an investigation as to the extent of military control over the news in Vietnam, whether the military exercised formal censorship, type re­ strictions imposed, and whether or not such censorship or restrictions hindered newsmen from informing the American public about the war. In addition, this study will highlight military support to the press and briefly review indictments against both the press and the military. Limitations of the Study This study is limited only to the examination of in­ formal censorship as applied by the U.S. military in the Republic of South Vietnam. It does not include the military elsewhere, nor does it include press activities of the U.S. or South Vietnamese governments. In addition, analyses of military support, press restrictions and indictments against both the press and military are limited only to Vietnam. Related Studies Although a number of scholarly works have been written about the military-press conflict in Vietnam, none examined for this study addressed the specific subject of informal censorship of the press by the military in Vietnam. Raymond Funderburk, in a University of Alabama Master's thesis, discussed in great detail military restrictions im­ posed upon the press.
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