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Article Article Shushtarī’sShushtarı’s¯ Treatise Treatise on the Limits of Theology and SufismSufism:: Discursive Discursive Knowledge Knowledge ( (ʿ ilmDirect), Direct RecognitionRecognition ( (mamaʿrifarifa),), and and Mystic Mysticalal Realization Realization ((tatahḥ.qīqq¯ıq)) in in al-Risālaal-Risala¯ al-Qu al-Qusṣ.āriyyaariyya¯ Yousef Casewit Yousef Casewit Divinity School, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; [email protected] Divinity School, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; [email protected] Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW


2 of 30 Received:Received: 16 16 January January 2020 2020;; Accepted: Accepted: 15 15 April April 2020 2020;; Published: Published: 26 2 April May 20202020
 1. Introduction Abstract:Abstract: AbūAbu¯ l l--ḤH.asanasan al al-Shushtar-Shushtarī’¯ı’ss (d. 668668/1269/1269)Sufism) heretoforeheretofore began to consolidate unedited unedited andas and a self-conscious unstudied unstudied treatise, school treatise, of “OnIslamic “On the mysticism by the beginning of theLimits Limits [of Theology [of Theology and Sufism]” and Sufism] (R. al-Qu” (R.the s. alariyya¯ second-Quṣ)ā riyya ishalf a of succinct) the is 3rd/9th a succinct account century. account of1 Practitioners the celebrated of the of Sufismcelebrated Andalus achieved ¯ı recognition as proponents AndalusīSufi poet’s Sufi understanding poet’s understanding of the relationship of the andrelationship transmitters between between discursive of an independent discursive knowledge science knowledge (ʿ ilm al-ta)ṣawwuf of ( theʿilm) by rational) of the the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the rationalAsh arite Ash theologians,ʿarite theologians, direct and direct unitive and recognition unitive recognition (ma rifa) of (ma theʿrifa Sufis,) of and the Sufis,verified and knowledge verified central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The knowledge(tah. q¯ıq) of the (ta monistḥqīq) of Realizers. the monist Following Realizers agreat. broadFollowing theorists discussion of a the broad renunciant of thediscussion major way of trends life of penned the in major Sufism the classical trends that manuals form in of Sufism, including “The Sufismthe background that form the out background of which Shushtar out of which¯ı emerges,Book Shushtarī of Gleams” this article emerges, (K. al-Luma analyzes tʿhis fī l-ta article theṣawwufQu analyzes) ofs.ariyya¯ Abū Naand theṣr al-Sarrāj Qu presentsṣāriyya (d. 378/988), a “The Nourishment of andfull presents English translationa full English and translation Arabic edition and theArabic of Hearts,” this edition text. (Qūt The al-Qulūb of Quthiss.) ariyya ¯textof Abū. The isṬālib a Qu treatise al-Makkīṣāriyya on (d. is epistemology 386/996),a treatise and on the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the epistemologythat was written that inwas order written to provide in order guidance to provide to a guidance disciple onto howa disciple to respond on how to to accusations respond to of soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not accusationsdoctrinal heresy of doctrinal and deviation heresy and from deviation the revealedexclusively, from Law. the in psychologicalrevealed As such, itLaw oterms.ff.ers As They a such, window described it offers into a progressive Shushtara window ¯ı’sascension of the soul through intothought Shushtarī’s as well thought as his understanding as well as his of understanding hisvarious own place states withinandof his stations own the ( 7thmaqāmātplace/13th within, a centuryḥwāl) ofthe ethical Islamic 7th/13th perfection intellectual century in tandem with a gradual unveiling Islamictradition. intellectual The hierarchy tradition. of knowledge The hierarchy thatof hethe of outlinesheart knowledge as it representsacquires that direct he an recognition earlyoutlines response of represents God (ma toʿrifa the ). an (Casewit growing early 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). responseepistemological to the debates growing between epistemological what may debates be called between “monotheist what Ashmay arites,” be called “monist-inclined “monotheist The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in AshSufis,”ʿarites, and” fully“monist fledged-inclined “monist Sufis,” Realizers.” and fullhandy The fledged with di thefferences acquisition“monis betweent Realizersof heightened these.” The powers three differences of perspectives perception between and lie direct in knowledge of God (maʿrifa) thehowse eachthree understands perspectives God’s lie in bestowal how each ofthrough existenceunderstands divine (¯ıjad¯ grace )God’s and, seems consequently, bestowal to have been of theexistenceshared ontological by many (ījād) Sufis statusand, from the earliest period. The consequently,of the created the realm. ontological The Ash statusarites of are the“monotheists” createdemployment realm. of the becauseThe term Ash maʿrifaʿ theyarite to mean inhabits are direct, “monotheists an unmediated, atomistic” non-discursive,because creation experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th theythat inhabit actually an exists atomistic by virtue creation of God’s that existentiatingactually exists command. by virtue of For God’s them, existentiating God transcends command creation,. centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to Forand them, creation God proves transcends the existence creation, of and a transcendent creationfigures proves like Creator.Jaʿfar the al- Ṣexistenceādiq The (d. Sufis, 148/765) of fora transcendent as their well as part, the surviving incline Creator. towardwritings The of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. Sufis,the monists for their for part, whom incline God to isward the sole the Reality, monis245/859)ts and for (Ogunnaike forwhom whom God forthcoming). all is else the is sole nonexistent For Reality, these authors, and ( adam for ma). whom However,ʿrifa is allusually contrasted with ʿilm, or elsethey is beginnonexistent by affi rming(ʿadam the). However, logic of thethey Ash beginknowledgearite by monotheist affirmingof the religious the paradigm, scienceslogic of that andthe is Ash asbased theyʿarite on acquirethe monotheist transmitted direct tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being paradigm,recognition and of Godas they through acquire spiritual direct purification,recognition of they God assert through that thespiritual Creator purification, proves the they existence assert of complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the thatcreation, the Creator because proves the latter the isexistence an “empty of creation tent”delimited sustained, because rational by theintellect the latter divine (ʿaql is), command.includingan “empty logic, Finally,tent” theology, sustained the and “monist” philosophy by (falsafa, ḥikma). theRealizer divine maintains command. that Finally, nothing the other “monist than” God RealizerWhile exists. the maintains Havingcontrast between realized that n conceptualothing the truths other ʿilm that and than theexperiential God theologians exists maʿrifa. was largely adopted in Sufi Havingspeculate realized about and the that truths the that Sufis the begin theologian todiscourse, experience,s its speculate epistemological the Realizers about implications andcan engage, that were the yet a ffi Sufitorm, bes fully andbegin worked refute to out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. experience,both groups the at theirRealizers respective can engage,levels without affirm, committing and refute to both the cosmological groups at their doctrines respective of Ash levelsarism, Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and withoutthe ontological committing categories to the of Avicennancosmological philosophy, dismisseddoctrines theological or of even Ash thespeculationʿarism, Sufi conception the as a ontological veil, or, of at thebest, categories spiritual as an adequate path of rational attempt at knowing Avicennanto God. philosophy, or even the Sufi conceptionGod (Ebstein of theforthcoming). spiritual Earlypath Sufisto God. like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā Keywords:Keywords: AlAl-Andalus;-Andalus; Mamlūk; Mamluk;¯ Sufism Sufism;; ʿmysticismajiz mysticism; mithili) (Sarrāj; Ash Ash 1914,ʿarism;arism; p. 40). theology; theology; Such figures monism; monism; tended to monotheism; monotheism;discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the ¯ realizationrealization ( (tatahḥ.qqīıqq),); Islamic Islamic epistemology epistemology purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience Religions 2020, 11, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/religions ʿ Religions 2020, 11, 226; doi:10.3390/rel11050226 and mystical unveiling, they affirmedwww.mdpi.com the utility and/journal validity/religions of the Ash arite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Religions 2020, 11, 226 2 of 32

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 1. Introduction 1. Introduction SufismSufism began began to consolidate to consolidate as as aa self-consciousself-conscious school school of Islamic of Islamic mysticism mysticism by the beginning by the of beginning of 1 the secondthe second half of half the of 3rdthe /3rd/9th9th century. century.1 Practitioners of Sufism of Sufism achieved achieved recognition recognition as proponents as proponents and transmittersand transmitters of an of independent an independent science science (ʿ ilm al-ta al-taṣawwufs.awwuf) by the) bymiddle the of middle the 5th/11th of the century 5th/11th century ṭ with thewith emergence the emergence of Arabic of Arabic Sufi Sufi hagiographies hagiographies ( abaqāt (tabaq), asat¯ well), as as well compilations as compilations of Sufi lore ofin the Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad,. Basra and the region of Khorasan. The central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. Religionsgreat theorists 2020, 11, x ofFOR the PEER renunciant REVIEW way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including2 “Theof 30 The greatBook theorists of Gleams” of ( theK. al-Luma renunciantʿ fī l-taṣawwuf way) of Abū life Na pennedṣr al-Sarrāj the (d. classical 378/988), manuals“The Nourishment of Sufism, of including Ṭ “The Book1.the Introduction ofHearts,” Gleams” (Qūt (al-QulūbK. al-Luma) of Abūf¯ı l-taālibs.awwuf al-Makkī) of (d. Ab 386/996),u¯ Nas. rand al-Sarr the “Epistleaj¯ (d. 378of al-Qushayrī”/988), “The (R. Nourishment al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the of the Hearts,”Sufism (Q beganut¯ al-Qul to consolidateub¯ ) of Abas au¯ selfTalib¯-conscious al-Makk school¯ı (d.of Islamic 386/996), mysticism and by the the “Epistle beginning of of al-Qushayr¯ı” soul on its journey back to God, these authors. conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents (R. al-Qushayriyyaexclusively, in) of psychological Abu¯ l-Qasim¯ terms. al-Qushayr They described¯ı (d. a 465 progressive/1074). Inascension chronicling of the soul the transformationsthrough of and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century the soulvarious on its states journey and stations back to (maqāmāt God, these, aḥwāl)authors of ethical conceivedperfection in tandem of the spiritualwith a gradual path unveiling primarily, though with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, not exclusively,central and ineastern psychological lands of Islam, terms. especially They around described Baghdad, a Ba progressivesra and the region ascension of Khoras ofan. the The soul through pp. 18–35). variousgreat states theorists and stations of the renunciant (maqam¯ atway¯ , a hofw lifeal¯ ) penned of ethical the classical perfection manuals in tandem of Sufism, with including a gradual “The unveiling of The idea that the ethical transformation. of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the hearthand as with it acquires the acquisition direct of recognition heightened powers of God of perception (ma rifa ).and (Casewit direct knowledge 2017, pp. of God 1–90; (ma ʿrifaBowering) 1979, the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. pp. 18–35).through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive Thesoul idea on its that journey the ethical back to transformationGod, these authors of conceived the wayfarer of the spiritual through path ritual primarily, practice though goes not hand in hand recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th with theexclusively, acquisition in ofpsychological heightened terms. powers They of described perception a progressive and direct ascension knowledge of the ofsoul God through (ma rifa) through centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling divine gracefigures seemslike Jaʿfar to al- haveṢādiq been(d. 148/765) shared as well by as many the surviving Sufis from writings the of earliest Dhū l-Nūn period. al-Miṣrī The(d. ca. employment of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, of the term245/859)ma rifa(Ogunnaiketo mean forthcoming). direct, unmediated, For these authors, non-discursive, maʿrifa is usually experiential, contrasted andwith unitiveʿilm, or recognition pp. 18–35). knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired of God throughThe idea spiritual that the ethical purification transformation can be of datedthe wayfarer back through to texts ritual ofthe practice 2nd, goes 3rd hand/8th, in 9th centuries. through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being Ma rifahandappears with the to acquisition take on aof distinctheightened technical powers of significanceperception and direct in statements knowledge of attributed God (maʿrifa to) figures like complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The Ja far al-delimitedS. adiq¯ (d. rational 148/ intellect765) as (ʿ wellaql), including as the survivinglogic, theology, writings and philosophy of Dhu¯ (falsafa, l-Nun¯ ḥikma al-Mi). s.r¯ı (d. ca. 245/859) employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive (OgunnaikeWhile forthcoming the contrast). between For these conceptual authors, ʿilmma andrifa experientialis usually maʿ contrastedrifa was largely with adoptedilm ,in or Sufi knowledge of recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety the religiouscenturies sciences. Maʿrifa thatappears is based to take on on athe distinct transmitted technical traditionsignificance (naql in statements) and acquired attributed through to formal of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. training.figures These like transmitted Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq religious(d. 148/765) sciences, as well as the moreover, surviving werewritings often of Dh seenū l-N asūn beingal-Miṣrī complementary (d. ca. to Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or variousdismissed intellectual theological sciences speculation (al- ulum¯ as al- a veil,aqliyya or, at)that best, areas an conditioned adequate rational by the attempt delimited at knowing rational intellect knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired ( aql), includingGod (Ebstein logic, forthcoming). theology, Early and philosophySufis like Nūrī (falsafa, (d. 295/907-8) hikma). famously proclaimed that “the through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences. , moreover, were often seen as being intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā Whilecomplementary the contrast to various between intellectual conceptual sciencesilm (aland-ʿulūm experiential al-ʿaqliyya) thatma arerifa conditionedwas largely by adoptedthe in Sufi ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into discourse,delimited its epistemological rational intellect (ʿ implicationsaql), including logic, were theology, yet to beand fully philosophy worked (falsafa, out. ḥikma Sufis). expressed a variety the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi of attitudespurpose toward of contemplating discursive the theologysigns and traces and of the God’s role attributes of the in rational creation. intellectFollowing (theaql Qur) inʾānic knowing God. discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety Some wereinjunctions strongly to contemplate opposed toGod’s actively signs, they involving regarded the contemplation intellect in to acquiringbe a means knowledgeof cultivating of God and of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. dismissedSome theological were strongly speculation opposed to actively as a veil,involving or,at the best, intellect as anin acquiring adequate knowledge rational of attemptGod and at knowing Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward God (Ebsteindismissed forthcoming theological speculation). Early Sufis as a likeveil, Nor,ur¯ at¯ı best, (d. 295as an/907-8) adequate famously rational attempt proclaimed at knowing that “the intellect theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the is impotentto theology. and only Like providesearly Muʿtazilite proof and for Ash thatʿarite which theologians, is impotent” they insisted (al- aqlthat ajiz¯the intellect la¯ yadullu can illa¯ ala¯ ajiz intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā mithili)(increaseSarraj¯ 1914the believer’s, p. 40). certitude Such figures in God’s tended existence to and discourage the afterlife their when followers employed fromin order delving to into the ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr speculativethe speculative rational teachings rational teachings of the of theologians the theologians and and favored favored the the use use of ofthe the intellect intellect for for the the purpose of al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. contemplatingpurpose of the contemplating signs and the traces signs of and God’s traces attributes of God’s attributes in creation. in creation. Following Following the the Qur Qurʾāanic¯nic injunctions 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating to contemplateAshʿarite God’sdoctrines signs, and creeds they within regarded their own contemplation works (Ebstein to forthcoming). be a means Although of cultivating these Sufi- certainty and certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. aligningtheologians the believer’s expressed will a withcertain God’s skepticism command. toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their Sometheology Sufis, and such were as evenH. ak trained¯ım al-Tirmidh in it. Such figures¯ı (d. 255presented/869), the held findings a mildly of Sufism favorable as complementary view toward theology and wereto theology even trained. Like early in Muit.ʿtazilite Such figures and Ashʿ presentedarite theologians, the findingsthey insisted of that Sufism the intellect as complementary can to theology.incr1 Like Iease am grateful the early believer Muto Saad’stazilite certitudeAnsari, andIzzet in AshCoban,God’sarite Frank existence theologians, Griffel, and Mehmet the afterlife theyEmin Gulecyuz, insisted when employed Oludamini that the in Ogunnaike,intellect order to can increase contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr the believer’sSamantha certitude Pellegrino, in Ian God’s Grant-Funck, existence and the and two theanonymous afterlife reviewers when of employedthis article for their in order comments. to contemplate al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. God’s signs.505/1111) Well-known were professionally figures trained such in asthe al- discursiveH. arith¯ methods al-Muh. ofasib¯ theology¯ı (d. 243(kalām/857),) and Abincorporatedu¯ Bakral-Kal ab¯ adh¯ ¯ı (d. 380Ash/990),ʿarite Ab doctrinesu¯ l-Q asim¯and creeds al-Qushayr within their¯ı (d. own 465works/1074), (Ebstein and forthcoming). Abu¯ H. amid¯ Although al-Ghaz theseal ¯Sufi¯ı (d.- 505/1111) were professionallytheologians expressed trained a certain in the skepticism discursive toward methods the science oftheology of theology ( kalvis-am¯à-vis) anddirect incorporated experience Ash arite and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, 1 I am gratefulSamantha to SaadPellegrino, Ansari, Ian IzzetGrant- Coban,Funck, and Frank the two Gri anonymousffel, Mehmet reviewers Emin Gulecyuz,of this article Oludamini for their comments. Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Religions 2020, 11, 226 Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 32 of of 32 30

1. Introduction doctrines and creeds withinSufism their began own to consolidate works (Ebstein as a self-conscious forthcoming school). of Although Islamic mysticism these Sufi-theologiansby the beginning of expressed a certain skepticismthe second half toward of the the3rd/9th science century. of1 theologyPractitioners vis- of àSufism-vis direct achieved experience recognition and as proponents mystical unveiling, they affirmedand transmitters the utility of and an validity independent of the science Ash (ʿ arite al-taṣawwuf Sunni) by creed. the middle Their of perspectives the 5th/11th century stood ṭ in contrast to the non-Sufiwith the theologiansemergence of Arabic such Sufi as Ab hagiographiesu¯ Bakr al-B ( abaqātaqill¯ an),¯ as¯ı (d.well 403as compilations/1013) and of Ab Sufiu¯ lore l-Ma in theal¯ ¯ı central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The al-Juwayn¯ı (d. 478/great1085) theorists who didof the not renunciant accommodate way of life Sufipenned claims the classical to accessing manuals of esoteric Sufism, including knowledge “The through unveiling (kashfBook ),of andGleams” instead (K. al-Luma articulatedʿ fī l-taṣawwuf a theological) of Abū Na epistemologyṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), that seeks “The toNourishment know God of and defend the tenetsthe of Hearts,” the faith (Qūt exclusively al-Qulūb) of Abū through Ṭālib al-Makkī rational (d. evidence. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. Setting aside theseal-Qushayriyya diverse) Sufiof Abū attitudes l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī toward rational (d. 465/1074). theology, In chronicling it is important the transformations to note of that the Religions 2020, 11, x FORsoul PEER on REVIEW its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path2 of primarily, 30 though not early Sufis did notexclusively, develop ain full-fledgedpsychological terms. cosmological They described and a ontological progressive ascension discourse of the of soul their through own. As such,1. Introduction pre-5th/11th various century states Sufis and stations generally (maqāmāt did, a notḥwāl pose) of ethical a formidable perfection in intellectual tandem with challengea gradual unveiling to the emergingSufism Ash aritebegan ofandto theconsolidate Mheartatur¯ as¯ıdite it as acquires a self theological-conscious direct recognition school consensus. of ofIslamic God This (mysticismmaʿrifa allowed). (Casewit by the for beginning 2017, Sufism pp. 1–90; of and Bowering theology 1979, to developthe second as more half or ofless pp.the 18–35).3rd/9th distinct century. disciplines1 Practitioners with littleof Sufism interdisciplinarity. achieved recognition Moreover, as proponents the pithy insights, and transmitters of an independentThe idea that science the ethical (ʿilm transformational-taṣawwuf) by ofthe the middle wayfarer of the through 5th/11th ritual century practice goes hand in ecstatic utterances (shathiyyat¯ ), and the theological “errors” (ghalat) of early controversial Sufis such with the emergencehand of. Arabic. with the Sufi acquisition hagiographies of heightened (ṭabaqāt), powersas well asof compilationsperception. and of directSufi lore knowledge in the of God (maʿrifa) as Abcentralu¯ Yaz and¯ıd al-Biseasternt.through am¯lands¯ı (d. of divineIslam, 261/ 874)egracespeciallyand seems around Ibn to Manshave Baghda beenur¯ d, al- Ba sharedHs.raall andaj ¯by the (d. many region 309 Sufis/ 922)of K hfromoras tended athen. The earliest to be cautiouslyperiod. The filteredgreat out theorists or interpreted of theemployment renunciant along of way the theologically termof life ma pennedʿrifa to meanthe acceptable classical direct, manualsunmediated, lines byof Sufism, thenon-discursive, abovementioned including experiential, “The Sufis, and unitive thus ensuringBook theof Gleams development” (recognitionK. al-Luma ofʿSufism fofī l -Godtaṣawwuf through and) of theology Abū spiritual Naṣr sidepurification al-Sarr byāj side (d. can378/988), with be dated little “The back cross-disciplinary Nourishment to texts of theof 2nd, interaction 3rd/8th, 9th the Hearts,” (Qūt alcenturies.-Qulūb) of Ma Abūʿrifa Ṭ āappearslib al-Makk to takeī (d. on386/996), a distinct and technicalthe “Epistle significance of al-Qushayr in statementsī” (R. attributed to (Shihadeh 2012, pp. 1–14). al-Qushayriyya) of figuresAbū l-Qāsim like Ja ʿalfar-Qushayrī al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765)465/1074). as In well chronicling as the surviving the transformations writings of Dhū of thel-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. Thesoul epistemologicalon its journey245/859) back to rifts God,(Ogunnaike that these divide authors forthcoming). theologians conceived For of theseandthe spiritual Sufiauthors, theoreticians path ma ʿprimarily,rifa is usually gradually though contrasted notwidened with ʿ inilm the, or 6th, 7thexclusively,/12th, 13th in psychological centuriesknowledge as of terms. the the latter religious They developed described sciences a that progressivean increasinglyis based ascensionon the monisttransmitted of the cosmology soul tradition through ( andnaql ) ontologyand acquired in both conversationvarious states and with throughstations and (formalmaqāmāt opposition training., aḥwāl)to ofThese lateethical transmitted Ash perfectionarite religious theologyin tandem sciences, with and aAvicennan moreover,gradual unveiling were philosophy. often seen as In being the of the heart as it acquirescomplementary direct recognition to various of Godintellectual (maʿrifa ).sciences (Casewit (al- 2017,ʿulūm pp. al- 1–ʿaqliyya90; Bowering) that are1979, conditioned by the early 6th/12th century Muslim East, theologically and philosophically inclined mystics such as Ayn pp. 18–35). delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). al-Qud. at¯ TheH. amad idea an¯that¯ı (d.the 525ethicalWhile/1131) thetransformation contrast articulated between of athe “higher”conceptual wayfarer theologyʿthroughilm and experientialritual of their practice ownma ʿgoesrifa to was hand explain largely in their adopted mystical in Sufi unveilings,hand with and the thisacquisitiondiscourse, discourse of heightenedits epistemological posed powers a direct implicationsof perception challenge were and to directyet the to theologians.knowledgebe fully worked of God About. (mau ¯SufisʿHrifa. amid¯ expressed) al-Ghaz a varietyal¯ ¯ı of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. (d. 505through/1111) divine was among grace seems the to first have influential been shared Sufi-theologian-philosophers by many Sufis from the earliest period.who both The mastered and employment of theSome term mawereʿrifa strongly to mean opposed direct, unmediated, to actively involvingnon-discursive, the intellect experiential in acquiring, and unitive knowledge of God and transformed theology and tried to theorize a method of “demonstrative unveiling” (inkishaf¯ burhan¯ ¯ı) recognition of Goddismissed through spiritualtheological purification speculation can as be a datedveil, or, back at best,to texts as ofan theadequate 2nd, 3rd/8th rational, 9th attempt at knowing that combinedcenturies. Ma theʿrifa ineluctable Godappears (Ebstein to take certainty forthcoming). on a distinct of the Early technical philosophers Sufis significancelike Nūrī with (d. in the295/907-8) statements mystical famously attributed experience proclaimed to of the that Sufis “the (Ghazfiguresal¯ ¯ı 1971 like, pp.Jaʿfar 54, alintellect-Ṣ 55).ādiq As(d.is impotent 148/765) many medievalandas well only as provides the and surviving contemporary proof writings for that which of scholarsDh ūis l impotent”-Nūn have al-Mi (ṣal- noted,rī ʿ(d.aql ca.ʿājiz he lā oscillatedyadullu illā ʿalā in ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into his writings245/859) between(Ogunnaike monotheism forthcoming). For and these monism, authors, and maʿrifa often is usually presented contrast theed latter with ʿ inilm, the or language of a knowledge of the thereligious speculative sciences rational that is teachings based on ofthe the transmitted theologians tradition and favored (naql) andthe useacquired of the intellect for the higher mystical metaphysics. In “The Niche of Lights” (Mishkat¯ al-anwar¯ ), he expresses monist views through formal training.purpose T heseof contemplating transmitted thereligious signs andsciences traces, moreover, of God’s attributes were often in creation.seen as being Following the Qurʾānic and conceivescomplementary of the toinjunctions intellectvarious intellectual more to contemplate in light sciences ofGod’sIkhw (al- ʿsigns,ulūmanian¯ they al-ʿ Neoplatonismaqliyya regarded) that contemplation are conditionedand Avicennan to be by a themeans philosophy of cultivating as a cosmicdelimited principle rational that certaintyintellect mediates ( andʿaql), between aligning includin theg the logic, believer’s divine theology, will and andwith the philosophy God’s corporeal command. (falsafa, realm, ḥikma without). denying the utility Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward of theologyWhile in the removing contrast between rational conceptual doubts andʿilm and correcting experiential creedal maʿrifa errors.was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemologicaltheology and implications were even trainedwere yet in to it. be Such fully figures worked presented out. Sufis the expressed findings of a Sufismvariety as complementary The efflorescence of a syncretic and Neoplatonized Sufi cosmology is detectable in al-Andalus of attitudes towardto discursive theology. theologyLike early and Mu theʿtazilite role of and the Ashrationalʿarite intellect theologians, (ʿaql) inthey knowing insisted God. that the intellect can alreadySome in were the writingsstronglyincrease opposed of figures the to believer’s actively like Ibn involvingcertitude Masarra thein (d.God’sintellect 319 existence /in931). acquiringHis and controversial theknowledge afterlife ofwhen God teachings employedand and in order monist to leaningsdismissed (Casewit theological 2017contemplate, pp.speculation 33–38) God’s as were asigns. veil, forced or,Well-known at best, underground as figures an adequate such periodically as rational al-Ḥārith attempt betweenal-Mu atḥāsibī knowing the (d. 4th,5th 243/857), /10th,11th Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. centuries,God (Ebstein then reemerged forthcoming). as a Early fully Sufis developed like Nūrī mystical (d. 295/907 philosophy-8) famously with proclaimed Ibn Barraj thatan¯ “the (d. 536/1141) and intellect is impotent505/1111) and only were provides professionally proof for thattrained which in the is impotent” discursive ( almethods-ʿaql ʿājiz of l ātheology yadullu illā(kalām ʿalā) and incorporated his peers in the formative early 6th/12th century.2 Andalus¯ı mystics of the 6th/12th century were loosely ʿajiz mithili) (SarrājAsh 1914,ʿarite p. 40).doctrines Such figures and creeds tended within to discourage their own theirworks followers (Ebstein from forthcoming). delving into Although these Sufi- committedthe speculative to Ash rationalarism,theologians teachings explicitly expressed of the opposed a theologianscertain skepticism to Mu and tazilism favored toward thethe and usescience Avicennan of theof theology intellect philosophy, vis-à-vis for the direct and experience were activelypurpose articulating of contemplating theirand mystical own the signs Sufi unveiling, and metaphysics traces they of affirmedGod at’s theattributes the same utility in time. creation. and Theyvalidity Following merged of the the Ash Qur Qurʿariteʾanicā¯nic Sunni teachings creed. Their and injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating Sunn¯ı H. ad¯ıth with the Neoplatonizing treatises of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan¯ al-s.afa¯), the writings certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, of Ibn Masarra and, throughḤ indirect contact, Fa¯t.im¯ı Isma¯ ¯ıl¯ı cosmological doctrines circulating in the Some Sufis, suchSamantha as ak īPellegrino,m al-Tirmidh Ian Grant-Funck,ī (d. 255/869), and heldthe two a anonymous mildly favorable reviewers view of this toward article for their comments. intellectualtheology milieu and were of even al-Andalus trained in (it.Ebstein Such figures 2014 presented). As such, the findings exponents of Sufism of this as complementary mystical discourse seemed to beto more theology interested. Like early in cosmology, Muʿtazilite and the Ash scienceʿarite theologians, of letters, cyclicalthey insisted notions that the of time, intellect and can the principle of associativeincrease correspondence the believer’s certitude between in God heaven’s existence and earth and the than afterlife in the when discursive employed methods in order toof the Ash arites, contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr or even Sufi wayfaring, ethics, and the psychology of the soul. These mystics emphasized the centrality al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. of contemplative505/1111) were “crossingprofessionally over” trained from in the the discursive visible methods signs of of Godtheology to the(kalām unseen) and incorporated celestial realities (i tibar¯ , Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their 2 For Ibn Masarra on the divine names, see also Abu¯ l- Abbas¯ b. al-Uql¯ısh¯ı’s discussion of his teachings in (Ibn al-Uql¯ısh¯ı 2017, vol. 1, pp. 240–43). 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments.

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the 1. Introduction intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that whichReligions is impotent”2020, 11 ,(al 226-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā 4 of 32 ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914,Sufism p. began40). Such to consolidate figures tended as a toself-conscious discourage theirschool followers of Islamic from mysticism delving by into the beginning of the speculativethe rational second teachings half of the of 3rd/9th the theologians century.1 andPractitioners favored of the Sufism use of achieved the intellect recognition for the as proponents purpose of contemplatingand transmitters the signs of anand independent traces of God science’s orattributesal- (ʿ ibra al-ta inṣ mincreation.awwuf al-sh) by Following ahid¯ the middle ila¯ the al-gh Qur of a¯ theʾibānic ), 5th/11th adding, century as per early Eastern Sufis, a mystical dimension to the ṭ injunctions to contemplatewith the emergence God’s signs, of Arabic they Sufi regarded hagiographiestheological contemplation ( abaqāt tenet to), asbe wellofa means “inferring as compilations of cultivating from of theSufi visiblelore in the that which is hidden” (istidlal¯ bi l-shahid¯ ala¯ al-gha¯ ib). certainty and aligningcentral andthe believereastern lands’s will of with Islam, God especially’s command. around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The (Ebstein forthcoming; Casewit 2017, pp. 266–78). Some Sufis,great such theorists as Ḥak ofīm the al renunciant-Tirmidhī (d.way 255/869), of life penned held athe mildly classical favorable manuals view of Sufism, toward including “The theology and wereBook even of Gleams” trained in (K. it. al-Luma Such figuresʿ fī l-ta presentedṣawwuf) of the TheseAbū findings Naiṣrtib al-Sarrājofar¯ Sufism-centered (d. as 378/988), complementary teachings “The Nourishment were further of developed in the 7th/13th century in the elaborate to theology. Likethe earlyHearts,” Mu (ʿQūttazilite al-Qulūb and ) Ash of ʿAbūarite Ṭ theologians,ālibwritings al-Makkī they of(d. Ibn 386/996), insisted al- Arab thatand ¯ıthe the (d. “Epistle intellect 638/1240), ofcan al-Qushayrī” Af¯ıf al-D (¯ınR. al-Tilimsan¯ ¯ı (d. 690/1290), Al¯ı al-H. arral¯ ¯ı (d. 638/1240), increase the believeral-Qushayriyya’s certitude) of Abūin God l-Qāsim’s existence al-Qushayrī and the (d. afterlife465/1074). when In chronicling employed thein ordertransformations to of the Abd al-H. aqq b. Sab ¯ın (d. 669/1270), as well as Abu¯ l-H. asan al-Shushtar¯ı. These authors were indebted contemplate Godsoul’s signs.on its journeyWell-known back figuresto God, such these as authors al-Ḥārith conceived al-Muḥ āofsib theī (d. spiritual 243/857), path Ab primarily,ū Bakr though not not only to the i tibar¯ tradition but also to Avicennan teachings and late Ash arite philosophical al-Kalābādhī (d.exclusively, 380/990), Abūin psychological l-Qāsim al-Qushayr terms. Theyī (d. 465/1074),described anda progressive Abū Ḥāmid ascension al-Ghazālī of (d.the soul through 505/1111) were variousprofessionally states and trained stations in the (maqāmāt discursive, aḥ wālmethodstheology.) of ethical of theology However, perfection (kalām in the )tandem and ontological incorporated with a gradual discourse unveiling of these 7th/13th century mystics distinguished itself Ashʿarite doctrinesof the and heart creeds as it acquireswithin their direct own recognition worksfrom (Ebstein of God the forthcoming). ( epistemologicalmaʿrifa). (Casewit Although 2017, foundations these pp. 1–90; Sufi -Bowering of Ash 1979,arism and Avicennan philosophy and moved away from theologians expressedpp. 18–35). a certain skepticism toward the sciencethe formative of theology Andalus vis-à-vis direct¯ı mystical experience discourse. As such, they no longer held i tibar¯ so centrally to their and mystical unveiling,The idea they that affirmed the ethical the utility transformation and validity of the of the wayfarer Ashʿarite through Sunni ritual creed practice. Their goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened worldview.powers of perception (Casewit and direct2017 ,knowledge pp. 1–13, of 57–90). God (maʿ Insteadrifa) of using the term i tibar¯ to mean a crossing over through divine grace seems to have beeninto shared the unseen, by many they Sufis generally from the employedearliest period. this The term to denote a shift in metaphysical perspective and 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct,described unmediated, the highest non-discursive, religious experiential, experience and unitive in terms of tah. q¯ıq. Samantha Pellegrino,recognition Ian Grant of God-Funck through, and the spiritual two anonymous purification reviewers can be of dated this article back for to their texts comments. of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th Indeed, the term tahq¯ıq, or Sufi “realization,” “authentication,” or “verification,” looms large centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance. in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) asover well as Islamic the surviving mystical writings discourse of Dhū l-Nūn from al-Mi theṣrī 7th (d./ 13thca. century onward, and seems to replace the earlier 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). ForAndalus these authors,¯ı mystics’ maʿrifa emphasisis usually contrasted on “contemplative with ʿilm, or crossing over” into the unseen. Like i tibar¯ , the term knowledge of the religious sciences thatta ish. qbased¯ıq has on a the long transmitted history. Ittradition was employed (naql) and acquired by Arabic lexicographers such as S¯ıbawayh (d. 177-80/793-6), through formal training. These transmittedand religious is arguably sciences, prefigured moreover, were in al-Kind often seen¯ı’s as (d. being 260 /873) discussion of the philosopher’s quest for the complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), includingtruth logic, (al- theology,h. aqq) in and his philosophy treatise (Onfalsafa, First ḥikma Philosophy). (Adamson and Pormann 2012). Moreover, the early While the contrast between conceptual4th,5th ʿilm and/10th,11th experiential century maʿrifa theologianswas largely adopted used in the Sufi term tah. q¯ıq to mean the rational demonstration of the discourse, its epistemological implicationstenets were ofyet theto be Islamic fully worked faith. out. They Sufis typically expressed employeda variety it in contrast to taql¯ıd, or the uncritical acceptance of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. of transmitted teachings and delegation of authority to one’s teachers (Frank 1989; El-Rouayheb 2015, Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil,p. 59).or, at The best, Brethrenas an adequate of Purity rational ( Ikhwattemptan¯ at al- knowings.afa¯), Avicenna (d. 428/1037), and Ibn T. ufayl (d. 581/1185) God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufisused like taNūrīh. q ¯ıq(d.to 295/907-8) mean the famously independent proclaimed logical that demonstration“the of the veracity of philosophical teachings. ʿ ʿ ʿ intellect is impotent and only provides proofAssuch, for that a which verifier is impotent” (muh. aqqiq (al-)aql critically ājiz lā yadullu engages illā alā and assesses received teachings, whereas a conformist ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into (muqallid) simply delegates authority to experts and transmits and explains the teachings of a school to the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the purpose of contemplating the signs and traceshis pupils of God’s (Gutas attributes 1988 in creation., pp. 187–93). Following the Qurʾānic injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they Whileregarded the contemplation theologians to andbe a philosophersmeans of cultivating use the term tah. q¯ıq to mean the critical engagement with certainty and aligning the believer’s willthe with views God’s command. that are passed down in one’s intellectual school through the independent application of Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward the tools of logic and dialectic, for Ibn Arab¯ı and his followers, the term has an entirely mystical theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite andconnotation. Ashʿarite theologians, Qunaw¯ they¯ı (d. insisted 673 /that1274) thecalls intellect his can path “the School (lit. drinking place) of Realization” increase the believer’s certitude in God’s(mashrab existence al-ta andh. theq¯ıq )(afterlifeGeoff whenroy 2013employed), while in order Shushtar to ¯ı and Ibn Sab ¯ın reserve the term for the most contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figureselevated such Friendsas al-Ḥārith of al-Mu Godḥāsibī (awliy (d.a¯ 243/857),) who experienceAbū Bakr complete, direct and unmediated immersion in al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. and authentication of God’s all-embracing reality. According to Shushtar¯ı and his likeminded peers, 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within theirthis own verified works reality(Ebstein isforthcoming). what the commonAlthough these believers Sufi- assent to through uncritical acceptance (taql¯ıd), the theologians expressed a certain skepticismtheologians toward the science attempt of theology to demonstrate vis-à-vis direct through experience logical reasoning ( aql), and the Sufis begin taste through ʿ and mystical unveiling, they affirmed thedirect utility knowledge and validityand of the experience Ash arite Sunni (ma creed.rifa). Their Although the teachings of the “Realizers” (muh. aqqiqun¯ ) became controversial for their bold monist conclusions, this 7th/13th century mystical discourse also 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban,off Frankered Griffel, nuanced Mehmet and Emin sophisticated Gulecyuz, Oludamini solutions Ogunnaike, to age-old philosophical-theological problems, such as the Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, andrelationship the two anonymous between reviewers the of Essence this article and for their the comments. attributes. By articulating a distinct ontology in conversation with the late Ash arite and Avicennan philosophical traditions, they effected a long-term epistemic shift in Islamic thought and became the subject of heated debates over the centuries. Abu¯ l-H. asan al-Shushtar¯ı (b. ca. 610/1213; d. 668/1269) was a product of this 7th/13th century Andalus¯ı-Maghrib¯ı mystico-philosophical tradition. Due partly to the instability of the Muslim West in the late Almohad period, he and other members of the school of Realization settled in the East, and their teachings left an indelible mark on Islamic thought. His heretofore unstudied treatise, “On the Limits [of Theology and Sufism],” (R. al-Qus.ariyya¯ ), which is analyzed, translated, and edited below, is a succinct account of the author’s understanding of the relationship between theology, Sufism, and the “school of realization.” Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 Religions 2020, 11, 226 5 of 32 1. Introduction

Sufism2. began Life to and consolidate Educational as a self-conscious Formation school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters The of an life independent of Abu¯ l- scienceH. asan (ʿ Al al-ta¯ı b.ṣawwufAbd) by All theah¯ middle al-Numayr of the ¯ı 5th/11th al-Shushtar century¯ı al-Wad¯ ¯ı Ash¯ ¯ı al-Lush¯ ¯ı al-Fas¯ ¯ı ṭ with the emergenceal-Riba¯ tof¯ı,3 Arabichas received Sufi hagiographies scholarly ( abaqāt attention), as well in as medieval compilations biographers of Sufi lore andin the modern Arabic and European central and eastern lands. of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The 4 great theoristslanguages. of the renunciantWhile way a of full life studypenned ofthe his classical life canmanuals be dispensedof Sufism, including with here, “The as the relevant details have Book of Gleams”been ( presentedK. al-Lumaʿ fī elsewhere,l-taṣawwuf) of itAbū is Na worthṣr al-Sarrāj highlighting (d. 378/988), a “The few Nourishment biographical of details that are mentioned the Hearts,”in (Qūt modern al-Qulūb Arabic) of Abū secondaryṬālib al-Makkī literature (d. 386/996), that and havethe “Epistle been of overlooked al-Qushayrī” ( inR. many secondary studies in al-QushayriyyaEuropean) of Abū l-Qāsim languages. al-Qushayrī Shushtar (d. 465/1074).¯ı himself In is chronicling silent concerning the transformations his family of the background, though he appears soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively,to in have psychological been born terms. into They a prosperous described a progressive family of ascension emirs associated of the soul with through the ruling Almohad authorities various statesin and al-Andalus stations (maqāmāt (Shushtar, aḥwāl¯ı )2004 of ethical, p. perfection 41). The in late tandem Moroccan with a gradual Sufi unveiling exegete, Ah. mad b. Aj¯ıba (d. 1809), of the heartclaims as it acquires that direct “he wasrecognition a vizier of God and (ma aʿ scholar,rifa). (Casewit and 2017, his fatherpp. 1–90; was Bowering an emir.” 1979, (Ibn sAj¯ıba 1985, p. 28). He pp. 18–35). was born the year of the crushing defeat of al-Na¯sir the Almohad to the Christians in the battle of The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual. practice goes hand in hand with theal- acquisitionUqab¯ (July of heightened 609/1212), powers or Las of Navas perception de Tolosa,and direct northeast knowledge of of Cordoba, God (maʿrifa which) ushered a long period of Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 through divinedecline grace that seems continued to have been foralmost shared threeby many centuries Sufis from and the resulted earliest period. in the eventualThe fragmentation of Islam employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive 1. Introduction in al-Andalus and the fall of Granada in 1492. Despite these circumstances, he seems to have received recognitiona of refined God through Andalus spiritual¯ı education purification and can wasbe dated trained back into texts a broad of the range 2nd, 3rd/8th, of religious 9th sciences, although little is Sufismcenturies. began Ma ʿtorifa consolidate appears to as takea self on-conscious a distinct school technical of Islamic significance mysticism in statementsby the beginning attributed of to 5 the secondfigures half like ofknown Ja theʿfar 3rd/9thal-Ṣ aboutādiq century. (d. his 148/765) teachers.1 Practitioners as well as ofthe Sufism surviving achieved writings recognition of Dhū l-Nūn as proponents al-Miṣrī (d. ca. and transmitters245/859) (Ogunnaike of anShushtar independent forthcoming).¯ı was science aFor merchant (ʿ ilmthese al- taauthors,ṣawwuf by profession,) maby ʿtherifa middleis usually and of the likecontrasted 5th/11th many withcentury Andalus ʿilm , or¯ı mystics of his day, he lived with knowledgethe emergencean of the itinerantof Arabic religious Sufi life sciences hagiographies of voluntary that is based(ṭabaq povertyā ont), asthe well andtransmitted as incompilations service tradition of of theSufi(naql poor.lore) and in acquiredthe We are told that he traveled widely central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The through formalacross training. the politically These transmitted fragmented religious regions sciences, of moreover, al-Andalus, were visitingoften seen the as citiesbeing of Granada and Malaga, and great complementarytheorists of the renunciantto various wayintellectual of life penned sciences the ( al-classicalʿulūm al-manualsʿaqliyya of) thatSufism, are includingconditioned “The by the Book delimitedof Gleams rational”crossing (K. al- Lumaintellect theʿ fī straitsl(-ʿtaaqlṣawwuf), including to) Moroccoof Abū logic, Na ṣtheology, wherer al-Sarr heā andj (d. visited philosophy378/988), Fes “The and(falsafa, Nourishment stayed ḥikma). in Meknesof for some time. By the time the Hearts,”While (Qūt hethe al - reachedcontrastQulūb) of between Abū North Ṭā conceptuallib Africa, al-Makk heʿīilm (d. may and 386/996), experiential have and already the ma “ʿEpistlerifa been was of largely initiatedal-Qushayr adopted intoī” (R. in theSufi Sufi tradition as transmitted al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the discourse, itsby epistemological the Granadan implications judge Mu wereh. y yet¯ı l-D to ¯ınbe Mufullyh .workedammad out. b. Sufis Mu expressedh. ammad a variety b. Ibr ah¯ ¯ım b. Suraqa¯ al-Sha¯t.ib¯ı (d. soul onof attitudesits journey toward back todiscursive God, these theology authors and conceived the role of of the the spiritual rational pathintellect primarily, (ʿaql) in though knowing not God. 662/1263) at the fortified outpost (riba¯t) of al- Uqab.¯ The latter, not to be confused for his father who exclusively,Some were in psychological strongly opposed terms. to Theyactively described involving a progressivethe intellect. ascensionin acquiring of knowledge the soul through of God and variousdismissed states and theologicalwas stations also ( knownspeculationmaqāmāt, asaḥ was Muā la) ofhveil,. yethical¯ı l-Dor, at¯ ın,perfection best, traveled as an in adequatetandem to the with East rational a wheregradual attempt heunveiling at studied knowing with or became the disciple of of theGod heart (Ebstein as it acquiresUmar forthcoming). al-Suhrawarddirect recognition Early Sufis¯ı of (d. Godlike 632 (maNūrī/1234),ʿrifa (d.). ( Casewit the295/907-8) author 2017, famously ofpp. the1–90 widelyproclaimed; Bowering acclaimed 1979,that “the Sufi classic, “The Benefits of pp. 18intellect–35). is impotentthe Gnostic and only Sciences” provides (proofAwarif¯ for that al-ma whicharif¯ is). impotent” This Ibn (al- Surʿaqlaqa¯ ʿājiz laterlā yadullu settled illā ʿalā in Cairo, and it is also possible Theʿajiz ideamithili that) (Sarrāj the ethical 1914, p.transformation 40). Such figures of the tended wayfarer to discourage through ritualtheir followerspractice goesfrom hand delving in into that Shushtar¯ı was initiated by him there (Ibn al-Khat¯ıb 1977, vol. 4, p. 206; Massignon 1949, p. 33). handthe with speculative the acquisition rational of heightened teachings powersof the theologians of perception and and favored direct knowledge the use .of ofthe God intellect (maʿrifa for) the throughpurpose divine of contemplating grace Shushtar seems to the ¯ı have wassigns been notedand traces shared for of his by God’s many intense attributes Sufis renunciation from in creation. the earliest Following and period. withdrawal the ThQure ʾānic from the world (tajr¯ıd) and for employmentinjunctions of thewearing to termcontemplate maʿ therifa toSufi God’s mean patched signs,direct, they unmediated, cloak regarded (muraqqa non contemplation-discursive,a)(Pérez experientialto be2000 a means)., Itand isof unitive incultivating Meknes that he probably wrote his recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th certainty andfamous aligning poem the believer’s “A little will Shaykh with God’s from command. the land of Meknes” (shuwaykh min ard. meknes). He then headed to centuries. SomeMaʿrifa Sufis, appears such to as take Ḥakīm on aal-Tirmidhī distinct technical (d. 255/869), significance held ain mildly statements favorable attributed view toward to figurestheology like Jaʿ andfar al were-Ṣādiq even (d. trained148/765) in as it. well Such as figures the surviving presented writings the findings of Dh ofū lSufism-Nūn al as-Mi complementaryṣrī (d. ca. 245/859)to theology. (Ogunnaike Like forthcoming). early Muʿtazilite For theseand Ash authors,ʿarite theologians,maʿrifa is usually they insistedcontrast edthat with the ʿintellectilm, or can knowledgeincrease of thethe3 believer’sreligious sciencescertitude that in God’sis based existence on the transmittedand the afterlife tradition when (naql employed) and acquired in order to The tribal designation (nisba) of al-Numayr¯ı traces back to Numayr b. Amir b. S. a s.a a, one of the clans (bu.tun¯ ) of the Arab throughcontemplate formal training. God’stribe signs. (Tqabhese¯ıla Well-known )transmitted of Hawazin.¯ figuresreligious “Al-Shushtar such sciences as ¯ı,”al-, fromḤmoreover,ārith “Shushtar” al-Mu wereḥāsibī isoften a(d. village 243/857),seen nearas being Abū Wad¯ Bakr¯ı Ash¯ (Guadix), east of Granada. It was complementaryal-Kalābādhī to (d.variousnamed 380/990), “Shushtar”intellectual Abū l-Qāsim because sciences al-Qushayrī settlers (al-ʿulūm from (d. al Tustar,- ʿaqliyya465/1074), or) Shushtarthat and are Abū (Yodar), conditioned Ḥāmid a city al-Ghazālī by in the the northern (d. region of the Ahwaz¯ province in delimited505/1111) rational were intellect Iran,professionally settled (ʿaql), there.includin trained “Al-Lg inlogic, ushthe¯ ¯ı,”discursivetheology, an ascription andmethods philosophy to theof theology town (falsafa, of Loja,(kalām ḥikma in) and the). westernincorporated province of Granada. Our author is also WhileAshʿarite the contrastdoctrinesreferred between and tocreeds as conceptual al-F withinas¯ ¯ı—tracing theirʿilm andown his experiential works lineage (Ebstein back ma toʿrifa forthcoming). the was Moroccan largely Althoughadopted city of Fez in these Sufi where Sufi- he probably stayed. He is also called discourse,theologians its epistemological expressedal-Riba¯.t ¯ıa, whichcertainimplications refers skepticism either were totowardyet his to staybe the fully in science the worked city of of theology out. Rabat Sufis (rib vis-à-vis a¯expressed.t al-fat h.direct), ora variety that experience he spent time in fortified outposts (riba¯.t). He of attitudesand mystical toward unveiling, wasdiscursive also knownthey theology affirmed as al-Madyan and the utilityrole¯ı (follower of andthe rationalvalidity of Abu¯ intellectMadyan),of the Ash (ʿaql andʿarite) in al-Sab knowingSunni¯ın¯ı creed. (follower God. Their of Ibn Sab ¯ın). For more, see (Ben Arfa Some were strongly 2015opposed, pp. 135–38).to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and 4 dismissed theologicalFor speculation medieval biographersas a veil, or, see at (best,Ibn al- asT. anaww adequatea¯h. 2008 ,rational pp. 120–33, attempt no. 6;at Ibn knowing al-T. aww a¯h. 1995, pp. 103–15; Ghubr¯ın¯ı 1979, pp. 1 239–42, no. 67; Ibn al-Khat¯ıb 1977, vol. 4, pp. 205–16;B ab¯ a¯ 2000, pp. 321–23, no. 409; Maqqar¯ı 1968, vol. 2, pp. 185–87, no. God (Ebstein I am grateful forthcoming). to Saad Ansari, Early Izzet Sufis Coban, like . Nūrī Frank (d. Griffel, 295/907 Mehmet-8) famously Emin Gulecyuz, proclaimed Oludamini that Ogunnaike, “the 114. 345; Makhluf¯ 2003, vol. 1, p. 281, no. 696). For modern secondary literature see (Massignon 1949; Shushtar¯ı 1960, pp. intellect Samanthais impotent Pellegrino, and only Ian provides Grant-Funck, proof and for thethat two which anonymous is impotent” reviewers (al- ʿofaql this ʿājiz article lā yadullu for their illā comments. ʿalā 3–20; Corriente 1988; sAdlun¯ ¯ı 2005, pp. 135–46; Shushtar¯ı 2004, pp. 5–27; Shushtar¯ı 2008, pp. 9–48; Ben Arfa 2015; Omaima ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914,1987 ;p. Fierro 40). Such1998; figuresAlvarez tended 2005, pp.to discourage 3–34; Ben-Nas their 2012 followers; Casewit from 2019 delving; Casewit into 2020 ). the speculative 5 rationalAs far teachings as his education of the theologians is concerned, and Maqqar favored¯ı only the tells use us of that the “he intellect met Shaykhs” for the (laqiya al-mashayikh¯ ). (Maqqar¯ı 1968, vol. 2, purpose of contemplatingp. 185). the Shushtar signs and¯ı was traces skilled of God in’s grammar, attributes legal in creation. theory (Followingus.ul¯ ), h. ad ¯ıth,the Qurʾanā¯nic variants (qira¯ at¯ ), and was a gifted Qur an¯ injunctions to contemplatereciter. HeGod taught’s signs, Ghaz theyal¯ ¯ı’s regardedal-Musta contemplations.fa¯, as well as al-Mufa to be as. s.meansal f¯ı ilm of al- cultivatingarabiyya of Zamakhshar¯ı (d. 539/1143) in grammar; certainty and aligningand the the believerMaqam¯ ’sat¯ will, presumably with God’s of command. Muh. ammad al-H. ar¯ır¯ı (d. 516/1122), not Hamadan¯ ¯ı (d. 395/1007) whose text was less Some Sufis, suchwidespread as Ḥakīm in al the-Tirmidh Islamicī West.(d. 255/869), Ben Arfa held speculates a mildly that favorable in his young view age, toward he would have likely studied in Guadix with theology and were evenYah. ytraineda¯ b. Mu inh .it.ammad Such figures b. Ah. madpresented b. Ibr theah¯ ¯ım findings b. Arqan of Sufism al-Numayr as complementary¯ı (d. 648/1250), a great littérateur of al-Andalus and a to theology. Like earlyscholar Mu ofʿtazilite language; and Is¯ Asha¯ b.ʿarite Shih theologians,ab,¯ known as they Ibnal-A insisteds.bagh that (d. ca. the 640 intellect/1242), acan scholar of h. ad¯ıth; and Al¯ı b. Muh. ammad b. increase the believerBaq’s certitude¯ı al-Ghass anin¯ ¯ıGod (d. after’s existence 627/1230). and At the a mature afterlife age, when he would employed have probablyin order studied to with famous Andalus¯ı scholars such as the judge Muhy¯ı l-D¯ın b. Suraqa¯ al-Sha¯tib¯ı (d. Cairo 662/1264), a follower of the school of Shihab¯ al-D¯ın al-Suhraward¯ı (d. contemplate God’s signs. Well-known. figures such as al-Ḥārith. al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990),632/1234) Abū author l-Qāsim of Aw al-Qushayrarif¯ al-Maī arif¯(d. 465/1074),and teacher and of H. Abūad¯ıth Ḥā inmid Aleppo al-Ghazālī and Egypt. (d. (Ben Arfa 2015, pp. 135–38). 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments.

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1. Introduction the Mashriq, stopping en route in Bougie (Bijaya,¯ Béjaia) in the Eastern region of modern-day Algeria. Sufism began to consolidateThis portas a self-conscious city connected school East–West of Islamic mysticism Muslim by Mediterranean the beginning of trade and was a meeting place for Sufis the second half of the 3rd/9thand century. scholars1 Practitioners at the time, of Sufism as well achieved as an recognition important as proponents stopping point for H. ajj pilgrims. The famous Sufi and transmitters of an independentrenunciant science Shu (ʿ ayb al-taṣ Abawwufu¯ ) Madyan by the middle al-Ghawth of the 5th/11th (d. 594 century/1198), who is known for founding one of the ṭ with the emergence of Arabicearliest Sufi hagiographies Sufi orders ( abaqāt (sing.), astar well¯ıqa as) in compilations the Maghrib, of Sufi was lore in a longtimethe resident of Bougie (Mahmud¯ 1973; central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad,. Basra and the region of Khorasan. The . great theorists of the renunciantUrvoy way 1976 of life; Cornellpenned the 1996 classical). Shushtar manuals ¯ıof joined Sufism, theincluding circle “The of his surviving disciples there. It is also in Book of Gleams” (K. al-LumaBougieʿ fī l-taṣawwuf that Shushtar) of Abū Na¯ı,ṣ nowr al-Sarrāj in his (d. mid-thirties, 378/988), “The metNourishment Ibn Sab of¯ın around 645/1247. Ibn Sab ¯ın is reported to the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) haveof Abū told Ṭālib Shushtar al-Makkī ¯ı:(d. “If 386/996), you seek and Paradise,the “Epistle goof al-Qushayrī” and find Ab (R.u¯ Madyan. If you seek the Lord of Paradise, al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsimcome al-Qushayrī to me” ( Maqqar(d. 465/1074).¯ı 1968 In, chronicling vol. 2, p. the 185). transformations Commenting of the on this, he added: “Abu¯ Madyan is a servant soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychologicalof terms. good worksThey described ( abdu aamal progressive), and weascension are servants of the soul of thethrough divine presence ( ab¯ıd h. ad. ra).” (Munaw¯ ¯ı 1999, various states and stations (vol.maqāmāt 2, p., aḥ 441).wāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). 2.1. The Qalandariyya Incident in Tripoli The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightenedShushtar powers¯ı’s attachmentof perception and to Ibn direct Sab knowledge¯ın marks of anGod important (maʿrifa) transitional moment in his life, and it is through divine grace seemslikely to have through been shared the latter by many that Sufis he received from the muchearliest ofperiod. his training The in the intellectual sciences, including employment of the term maʿtheologyrifa to mean ( kaldirect,am¯ ) unmediated, philosophy non-discursive, (hikma), Hermetic, experiential, and and perhaps unitive “Hindu” teachings (Akasoy 2006; Cornell recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back. to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears 1997to take, 2007 on a). distinct Following technical his significance stay in Bougie, in statements Shushtar attributed¯ı visited to the Tunisian city of Gabès (Qabis)¯ and figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d.settled 148/765) in as the well Libyan as the surviving city of Tripoliwritings (ofT. arDhūabulus)¯ l-Nūn al-Mi to teach.ṣrī (d. ca. The Tunisian biographer Ibn al-T. awwa¯h. (d. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming).after 1318) For tellstheseus authors, that he ma taughtʿrifa is usually various contrasted sciences with there, ʿilm including, or grammar (nah. w), Arabic prosimetric knowledge of the religiousliterature sciences that (maq is basedam¯ at¯ on), andthe transmitted legal theory tradition (usul ¯(naql al-fiqh) and). acquired He was also nominated for the official post of through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were. often seen as being complementary to variousjudgeship intellectual butsciences was (al- turnedʿulūm al- downʿaqliyya by) that the areH. afconditioneds.id emir al-Mustanby the s.ir who accused him of insanity (Ibn delimited rational intellect (al-Tʿaql.),aww includingah¯ . 2008 logic,, p.theology, 121). and Burm philosophyun¯ ¯ı describes (falsafa, ḥ theikma incident). in colorful terms: While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications“Some Sufiswere yet say to be that fully he worked [Shushtar out. Sufis¯ı] contrived expressed a to variety free himself from the judgeship that the of attitudes toward discursive theologypeople and of the Tripoli role of wanted the rational him intellect to assume (ʿaql) in by knowing shaving God. his beard and his eyebrows, dying his Some were strongly opposed to activelylimbs withinvolving henna, the intellect and putting in acquiring on dyed knowledge (mu a soffar God) and and showy (muzawwaq) clothes. They gave dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt .at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Earlyhim Sufis a mulelike Nūrī that (d. he 295/907-8) rode, and famously he went proclaimed to the sultanthat “the and conversed with him in that state. intellect is impotent and only providesWhen proof he for [the that sultan] which is saw impotent” him like (al-ʿ that,aql ʿājiz he lā said:yadullu ‘Get illā ʿalā him out of my sight, I have no need for ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Sucha madman figures tended like this,’to discourage so he immediatelytheir followers from left town”delving into (Burm un¯ ¯ı 2009, p. 456). the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the purpose of contemplating theDescribing signs and traces in verse of God’s what attributes appears in creation. to be thisFollowing incident, the Qur Shushtarʾānic ¯ı writes: injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating certainty and aligning the believer’sThe will prisoner with God’s of command. love (mutayyam) is content in his lunacy Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm leaveal-Tirmidhī him (d. to exhaust255/869), hisheld days a mildly in his favorable own ways. view toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early MuʿtaziliteDo and not Ash reproachʿarite theologians, him, for they your insisted reproach that the has intellect no effi cancacy, increase the believer’s certitude inFor God’s inhis existence faith, and love the will afterlife never when leave employed his gaze in (Ibnorderal-T to . awwaH¯ . 2008, p. 121). contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-QāsimShushtar al-Qushayrī¯ı’s decision (d. 465/1074), to repel and public Abū attentionḤāmid al-Ghazālī through (d. socially transgressive behavior bears the 505/1111) were professionallymark trained of in the the Qalandariyya, discursive methods a strandof theology of socially-deviant(kalām) and incorporated mysticism that flourished in 6th/12th century Ashʿarite doctrines and creedsSyria within and their Egypt own underworks (Ebstein the organized forthcoming). leadership Although these of the Sufi- Persian mystic Jamal¯ al-D¯ın Sav¯ ¯ı (d. after theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they620 affirmed/1224). the The utility Qalandariyya and validity builtof the lodgesAshʿarite in Sunni Damascus, creed. Their Damietta, Cairo, and Jerusalem, then spread into Anatolia, Iran, and India from the 7th/13th century onward. The Qalandar¯ı ascetics (nussak¯ ) were known for the practice of shaving the head and all facial hair, coloring their hands with henna, wearing 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck,outlandish and clothing, the two anonymous and carrying reviewers distinguishing of this article for their tokens comments. like banners ( alam) and battle-axes (tabarz¯ın). Although they are often portrayed as living the ideal of spiritual perfection and enjoyed the admiration of poor rural communities, they tended to unsettle the established Sufi orders and were sometimes accused of deviating from the Shar¯ı a and smoking h. ash¯ısh. They received scathing rebukes by the sharp-tongued H. anbalite theologian Taq¯ı al-D¯ın b. Taymiyya (d. 728/1328) (Karamustafa 2015, pp. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementaryReligions to 2020various, 11, 226intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the 7 of 32 delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety 101–25; KaramustafaReligions 2020, 11, 2006x FOR PEER, p. REVIEW 33).6 Various types of Sufis were known to have associated2 of 30 with the of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some wereQalandariyya strongly opposed1. Introduction at to di activelyfferent involving phases inthe theirintellect lives. in acquiring Shushtar knowledge¯ı’s antinomian of God and statement signals the fact that dismissedhe theological may have speculation alreadySufism asbegan a had veil, to an consolidateor, associationat best, asas ana self-conscious adequate with the rational Qalandar school attempt of Islamic¯ıs whomat knowing mysticism he visited by the beginning a few years of later in God (EbsteinDamascus. forthcoming).the He second Earlywas half drawn Sufis of the like to3rd/9th Nūrī this (d.century. group, 295/9071 Practitioners which,-8) famously like of him,proclaimed Sufism also achieved practicedthat “therecognition full withdrawalas proponents from the intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā world (tajrand¯ıd). transmitters Like him ofand an his independent master Ibn science Sab (ʿ ¯ın, al-ta theṣawwuf Qalandar) by the ¯ıs middle were of also the 5th/11th admired century but held with ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followersṭ from delving into suspicionwith by the the establishedemergence of Arabic Sufi orders. Sufi hagiographies Shushtar (¯ıabaqāt entered), as well the as Rib compilationsa¯t al-Qalandariyya of Sufi lore in in the 650 /1252 in the speculative rationalcentral teachings and eastern of the lands theologians of Islam, and especially favored around the use Baghdad, of the intellect Basra and for .the the region of Khorasan. The ʾ purpose ofDamascus contemplatinggreat where the theorists signs he metand of tracesthe Ibn renunciant al- of GodArab’s attributes¯ı’sway direct of life in disciplepenned creation. the al-NajmFollowing classical b.themanuals IsrQura¯ ¯ılā ofnic al-Dimashq Sufism, including¯ı (d. “The 667/ 1268) and injunctionsprobably to contemplate theBook disciples Godof Gleams”’s signs, of (theyK. the al-Luma Qalandarregardedʿ fī l-ta contemplation¯ıṣawwuf leader) of Jam Abū toal¯ Nabe al-D ṣar meansal-Sarrāj¯ın Sav¯ of ¯ı.(d. cultivating 378/988), “The Nourishment of certainty and aligning the believerHearts,”’ s( Qūtwill al-Qulūbwith God) ’ofs command. Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. Ḥ Some2.2. Sufis, His such Tomb al-Qushayriyya as inak Cairoīm al-)Tirmidh of Abūī l-Qāsim(d. 255/869), al-Qushayrī held a (d. mildly 465/1074). favorable In chronicling view toward the transformations of the theology and were evensoul trained on its in journeyit. Such figuresback to presented God, these the authors findings conceived of Sufism of as the complementary spiritual path primarily, though not ʿ ʿ to theology. LikeAfter earlyexclusively, roughly Mu tazilite seven in and psychological Ashyearsarite of theologians, beingterms. underThey they described Ibn insisted Sab a ¯ın’s thatprogressive tutelage, the intellect ascension Shusthar can of the¯ı assumed soul through leadership of increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to the “Sufi Ordervarious of states Ibn and Sab stations¯ın” (al- (maqāmāttar¯ıqa,al-Sab aḥwāl) of¯ıniyya ethical) aroundperfection 652 in tandem/1254 andwith tooka gradual the unveiling title “The Leader . Ḥ ḥ contemplate God’s signs.of the Well heart-known as it acquiresfigures such direct as recognition al- ārith al of-Mu Godāsib (maī ʿ(d.rifa 243/857),). (Casewit Ab 2017,ū Bakr pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, of the Withdrawn Sufis” (Imam¯ al-mutajarrid¯ın). AroundḤ this period, Shushtar¯ı’s followers began al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990),pp. 18–35). Abū l- Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū āmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) wereself-identifying professionallyThe trained as idea “Shushtariyya” thatin the the discursive ethical transformation rathermethods than of theology “Sabof the ¯(ıniyya”wayfarerkalām) and (throughMassignon incorporated ritual practice1949, p. goes 42). hand Shushtar in ¯ı had ʿ Ash arite doctrinesover four-hundred andhand creeds with within the disciples acquisition their own who ofworks heightened followed (Ebstein powers himforthcoming). onof perception his travels,Although andand directthese he Sufiknowledge moved- of with God a(ma groupʿrifa) to Cairo theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience where he withdrewthrough divine in al-Azhargrace seems mosque to have forbeena shared prolonged by many retreat Sufis (fromi tik af¯the). earliest In Cairo, period. he continuedThe to and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their attract disciplesemployment and of appears the term tomaʿ haverifa to mean been direct, active unmediated, around B non-discursive,ab¯ Zuwayla, experiential, the southern and unitive district gate of recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th the old Fa¯timid city. He undertook several visits to Medina and performed Hajj multiple times. In 1 I am grateful to Saad centuries..Ansari, Izzet Ma Coban,ʿrifa appears Frank Griffel, to take Mehmet on a Emindistinct Gulecyuz, technical Oludamini significance Ogunnaike, in statements . attributed to SamanthaMecca, Pellegrino, he figuresIan rejoined Grant like-Funck withJaʿfar, and hisal- theṢādiq Shaykh two (d. anonymous 148/765) Ibn Sab reviewersas well¯ın. as During of the this surviving article his for journeys, writingstheir comments. of Shushtar Dhū l-Nūn¯ı visitedal-Miṣrī (d. monasteries ca. in the deserts245/859) of the Levant(Ogunnaike and forthcoming). the Sinai and For describedthese authors, the ma monksʿrifa is usually and their contrasted practices with in ʿilm his, or poems. Towardknowledge the end of of the his religious life, Shushtar sciences that¯ı and is based his followers on the transmitted made contact tradition with (naql) the and newly acquired established through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being Shadhil¯ ¯ı ordercomplementary in Cairo to and various were intellectual formally sciences initiated (al-ʿulūm into al- theʿaqliyya order.) that Whether are conditioned or not by this the move was triggereddelimited by controversies rational intellect over (ʿaql Ibn), including Sab ¯ın’s logic, teachings theology, and and philosophy his difficult (falsafa, character ḥikma). cannot be fully substantiatedWhile by the the primarycontrast between sources. conceptual It is unlikely,ʿilm and experiential in my opinion, maʿrifa was that largely his adopted association in Sufi with the Shadhiliyya¯ discourse, represents its epistemological a breaking implications with Ibn Sabwere¯ ın.yet to Massignon be fully worked postulates out. Sufis thatexpressed he may a variety have met the of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. aging founderSome were of the strongly Shadhiliyya¯ opposed to order, actively Ab involvingu¯ l-H. asan the intellect al-Shadhil¯ in acquiring¯ı (d. 656 knowledge/1258), alongof God and with his two foremost disciples,dismissed theological Abu¯ l- Abb speculationas¯ al-Murs as a¯ı veil, (d. 684or, at/1285) best, as and an adequate Ibn At.a ¯rationalAllah¯ attempt al-Iskandar at knowing¯ı (d. 709/1309) whom he citesGod in(Ebstein his writings forthcoming). (Shushtar Early ¯ıSufis 2004 like, p. Nūrī 38). Shushtar(d. 295/907-8)¯ı himself famously expresses proclaimed his that attachment “the to the ʿ ʿ ʿ Shadhiliyya¯ intellect order is inimpotent rhyme: and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al- aql ājiz lā yadullu illā alā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into My masters,the speculative they arerational Shadhil¯ teachings¯ı, of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic in lovinginjunctions them, to my contemplate heart finds God’s its signs, pleasure they regarded (Shushtar contemplation¯ı 2008, p. 30)to be a means of cultivating certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. One biographicalSome Sufis, corrective such as Ḥakīm that al-Tirmidhī is important (d. 255/869), to note held isthat a mildly Shushtar favorable¯ı is view buried toward in Cairo, not theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary the graveyard of Damietta (Dimya¯t.). This has been convincingly established by the contemporary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can Moroccan scholar Abd al-Ilah¯ Ben Arfa (Ben Arfa 2015, pp. 139–44). The biographer Ghubr¯ın¯ı relates increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to from one ofcontemplate Shushtar God’s¯ı’s followers signs. Well-known that on thefigures year such of as his al- deathḤārith (668al-Mu/1269),ḥāsibī (d. he 243/857), departed Abū the Bakr Levant and headed backal-Kalābādhī to Egypt (d. across 380/990), the SinaiAbū l-Qāsim desert. al-Qushayrī He fell ill (d. in 465/1074), the plain and of al-AbūT. ¯ına Ḥāmid near al-Ghazālī Port Said (d. (B ur¯ Sa ¯ıd) on the Egyptian505/1111) Mediterranean: were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience “I was told by some pupils (.talaba) among our companions (as.h. ab¯ ), that he arrived at it, and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their and on its coast (sa¯h. il) he said: ‘What is the name of this area (balda)?’ and they said: ‘It is al-T. ¯ına (lit. the clay).’ He said: ‘[My] clay (.t¯ına) is drawn to this Clay/T. ¯ına (h. annat al-t.¯ına ila¯ 1 l-t¯ına)” ( IGhubr am grateful¯ın¯ı 1979to Saad, pp.Ansari, 239, Izzet 240). Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, . Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. This is Shushtar¯ı’s final statement on record. He died in T. ¯ına on 17th S. afar 668 (16 October 1269) and was subsequently carried to the graveyard of Damietta, where he was buried. The port city of Damietta,

6 For a compilation of medieval refutations and responses to the Qalandariyya, see (Qunaw¯ ¯ı 2002). Their moral code, according to the testimony given by Khat.¯ıb al-Fas¯ ¯ı, consisted of five pillars: Modesty (qana¯ at), subtlety (la.tafat¯ ), repentance (nadamat¯ ), religiosity (idiyanat¯ ) and asceticism (riyad¯ . at). (Fars¯ ¯ı 1983; Kadkan¯ı 2007; Estos 2019). Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing Religions 2020, 11, 226 8 of 32 God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into located in the deltathe of speculative the Nile River, rational was teachings repeatedly of the theologians captured and by Christian favored the Crusader use of the intellect ships coming for the from Cyprus (qubrupurposes.) in the of contemplating 7th/13th century. the signs Accordingand traces of God to the’s attributes Ayyubid¯ in creation. historian Following Abu¯ the l-Fid Qura¯ʾ’sānic (d. injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating 732/1331) “Concise History of Humanity” (al-Mukhtas.ar f¯ı tar¯ ¯ıkh al-bashar), the Mamluk¯ sultan leveled certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. the city to the ground in 648/1251, transferring its inhabitants to the village of Menshiya. Shushtar¯ı had Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward once fought the Crusaderstheology and in the were fortified even trained outpost in it. Such (rib figuresa¯.t) of Damietta,presented the and findings he and of Sufism his followers as complementary seem to Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 have been drawn toto its theology ruins.. L Sinceike early Shushtar Muʿtazilite¯ı was and already Ashʿarite a theologians, popular figure, they insisted his followers that the intellect feared can that increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to the Crusaders would desecrate his tomb. His remains were,1. Introduction therefore, disinterred shortly after his contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr death and carried to his final resting place in Cairo.7 al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī Sufism(d. 465/1074), began toand consolidate Abū Ḥāmid as a alself-conscious-Ghazālī (d. school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of Pre-modern scholars505/1111) were were professionally aware of trained Shushtar in the¯ı’s discursive gravethe second in methods Cairo. half of of theology Onethe 3rd/9th pre-16th (kalām century.) and century incorporated1 Practitioners poet of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents describes him as theAsh “Possessorʿarite doctrines of and Two creeds Graves” within ( btheiru¯ qabrayn own andworks)( transmittersBurm (Ebsteinun¯ ¯ı forthcoming).2009 of an, p.independent 459). Although Similarly, science these ( ʿSufi Abd al-ta- ṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century ṭ al-Ghan¯ı al-Nabulus¯ theologians¯ı (d. 1050 expressed/1730) records a certain visiting skepticism his toward tombwith the in the thescience emergence Christian of theology of neighborhoodArabic vis-à -Sufivis directhagiographies ofexperience Cairo ( inabaqāt ), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utilitycentral and validityand eastern of the lands Ash ofʿarite Islam, Sunni especially creed around. Their Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The his travel memoir (Nabulus¯ ¯ı 1986, p. 244). Another 18thgreat century theorists scholar, of the Arenuncianth. mad b. wayAbd of life al-Q pennedadir¯ the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The al-Qadir¯ ¯ı al-H. asan¯ı (d. 1133/1721) mentions that he paidBook his of respects Gleams” ( atK. al-Luma Shushtarʿ fī l-ta¯ı’sṣawwuf grave,) of which Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of 1 was then a gathering I placeam grateful for manyto Saad Ansari, visitors. Izzet8 Coban,His tomb Frank Griffel, inthe CairoHearts,” Mehmet is ( locatedQūt Emin al-Qulūb Gulecyuz, near) of theOludaminiAbū Avenue Ṭālib Ogunnaike,al-Makkī of Ab (d. ¯ı 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the twoal-Qushayriyya anonymous reviewers) of Abū of l-Qāsimthis article al-Qushayrī for their comments. (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the l-Hasan (shari¯ Ab¯ı l- Hasan) in the Christian neighborhood of al-Musk¯ ¯ı. The annual commemoration of . . soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not Shushtar¯ı’s death (mawlid) occurs at his tomb in S. afar, the monthexclusively, of hisin psychological death. terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling 3. Shushtarı’s¯ Writings of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). 3.1. Poetry The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) Shushtar¯ı’s extraordinarily popular poetic corpus earnedthrough him divine the grace title theseems “literary to have voicebeen shared of the by many Sufis from the earliest period. The withdrawn Sufis,” (ad¯ıb al-mutajarrid¯ın)” (Ghubr¯ın¯ı 1979,employment p. 239). He of the has term also ma beenʿrifa to aptlymean direct, called unmediated, the non-discursive, experiential, and unitive “Rumi of Western Islam” (Alvarez 2005, p. 6) though it mayrecognition be more of accurateGod through to comparespiritual purification him to Ibn can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to ¯ not al-Farid. (d. 632/1235) of the Arab East. While it is rare to findfigures amystic like Jaʿfar who al-Ṣādiq has (d. 148/765)composed as well poetry, as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. and most of the prominent Sufis of the 7th/13th century also245/859) conveyed (Ogunnaike their forthcoming). teachings and For expressedthese authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or their spiritual states through poetry, Shushtar¯ı’s compositionsknowledge are of almost the religious universally sciences that appreciated. is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired Generally speaking, the more abstract and technical prosethrough works formal of the training. monist These Sufis transmitted tendedto religious have sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the limited circulation and were confined to smaller circles ofdelimited highly trained rational intellect followers. (ʿaql),In including contrast, logic, their theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). collection of poems (d¯ıwan¯ ) tended to be more widely disseminatedWhile the andcontrast were between appreciated conceptual by ʿilm both and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi scholars and non-specialists. However, the contrast betweendiscourse, the popularity its epistemological of Shushtar implications¯ı’s Sufi were poetry yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety and the relatively limited circulation of his technical proseof worksattitudes is toward particularly discursive striking theology inand his the case. role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and ¯ His Qus.ariyya seems to have only survived in one uniquedismissed and faulty theological manuscript, speculation in as contrast a veil, or, to at the best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing hundreds (perhaps thousands) of copies of his D¯ıwan,¯ whichGod remain (Ebstein scattered forthcoming). in manuscript Early Sufis like libraries Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the and private Sufi lodges (sing. zawiya¯ ). intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic 7 Brockelman and Massignon say that he died on the 7th (instead ofinjunctions the 17th) of toS. afar,contemplate which is God’s probably signs, a scribalthey regarded error. contemplation to be a means of cultivating (Massignon 1950, p. 256). Massignon reports several visits to Damiettacertainty between and aligning 1934–36 the and believer’s claims will to have with locatedGod’s command. Shushat¯ı’s grave with the help of Shadhil¯ ¯ı Shaykhs. According to the latter,Some Shushtar Sufis, such¯ı was as buried Ḥakīm east al-Tirmidhī of the mosque (d. 255/869), of held a mildly favorable view toward Amr Abu¯ l-Ma a¯t.¯ı. Massignon adds that one Shaykh mentioned thattheology “there is anotherand were grave even of trained Abu¯ l- inH. asan it. Such al-Shushtar figures presented¯ı in the findings of Sufism as complementary Cairo, in the neighborhood of al-Musk¯ı ... which I visited on 27 Februaryto theology. 1936, and Like again early on 18 Mu Januaryʿtazilite 1937, and and Ash thanksʿarite totheologians, they insisted that the intellect can Mr. Pauty I obtained a copy of the plaque that is engraved in the prayer niche (mihrab¯ ) in seven lines” (Massignon 1950, p. increase the believer’s. certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to 275). The plaque reads that the mosque was built by the Mamluk¯ Emir Tuqtuba¯ ¯ı Tuqmbaz¯ al-Zahir¯ ¯ı al-Salahd¯ ar¯ in 748/1347. contemplate God’s signs.. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr Massignon speculates that the zawiya¯ was built for H. asan al-Tustar¯ı (d. 797/1396), the Cairene Sufi, fifty year prior to his al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. death. Sam¯ ¯ı Al¯ı al-Nashshar,¯ editor of D¯ıwan¯ al-Shushtar¯ı, claims that the grave was not identified by Massignon (Shushtar¯ı 1960, pp. 12, 13). (Massignon 1949, p. 35). Cf. (Ben Arfa 2015, pp. 140–44).505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated 8 Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- This verse is found in Rih. lat nasamat al-as¯ f¯ı h. ajjat sayyidina¯ Ab¯ı l- Abbas¯ . Cf. (Ben Arfa 2015, pp. 142, 143). theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling Religions 2020, 11, 226 9 of 32 of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in 9 hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿShushtarrifa) ¯ı’s poetry covers a wide variety of topics. However, one reason why his poetic legacy through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period.was preserved The and spread widely—his poems continue to be chanted in Sufi orders in the modern employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, andperiod unitive10 —is likely due to his gift for communicating the most sublime Sufi teachings in accessible recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributedpoetry. to He transposed profane themes and symbols employed in the colloquial rhythmic poems of figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Mitheṣrī (d. preeminent ca. Andalus¯ı zajal composer, Abu¯ Bakr b. Quzman¯ (d. 554/1159), onto a spiritual plane, 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted withthrough ʿilm, or religious zajals, strophic muwashshah. a, love poetry (ghazal), and formal monorhyme qas.¯ıdas knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired s (Nashshar¯ 1953; Shushtar¯ı 2006; Alvarez 2009; Shakir¯ 2012; Farh. an¯ 2013; Adlun¯ ¯ı 2014; H. ammada¯ 2015). through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditionedThus, by the his poetry was likely adopted by Sufi orders because he popularized the complex teachings of delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma).the 7th/13th century monist tradition through easily accessible poetry. On a more practical level, his While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adoptedpoetry in Sufi was popularized by the Shadhil¯ ¯ı Sufi order, which he joined at the end of his life in Egypt. This discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressedorder, a variety which is originally North African, spread into the Muslim East, Syria, Egypt, and then back into of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge ofal-Andalus God and and North Africa, and was most responsible for incorporating his poetry into communal dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt atSh knowingadhil¯ ¯ı and broader Sufi rituals. God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu3.2. illā Prose ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect forIt the is safe to assume that Shushtar¯ı authored approximately ten short to medium-length treatises Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the(ras Qura¯ʾilānic).11 The medieval biographers list several of these treatises, but their number, exact titles, and injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating 12 1. Introduction chronological order has yet to be definitively established by modern scholarship. One noteworthy certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. feature of Shushtar¯ı’s prose treatises is his emphasis on taxonomy. He devotes much attention to Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held Sufism a mildly began favorable to consolidate view toward as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented thethe findings second of half Sufism of the as 3rd/9thcomplementarydefining century. 1 technicalPractitioners Sufi of Sufism terminology achieved recognition and displays as proponents close familiarity with the vocabulary of both his to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians,and they transmitters insisted that of an the independent intellectmaster can Ibnscience Sab (ʿ ¯ın al-ta asṣawwuf well) asby Ibn the al- middleArab of¯ı. the13 Many 5th/11th of century his prose writings feature glossaries of technical ṭ increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and thewith afterlife the emergence when employed of Arabic inSufi Sufi order philosophicalhagiographies to ( abaqāt terms), as that well are as compilations found in his of Sufi poetry. lore in In the this sense, his prose works serve as keys to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārithcentral al-Mu andḥā easternsibī (d. lands243/857), of Islam, Abū Bakrespecially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The understanding his poetry. Aside from these glossaries of technical terms, Shushtar¯ı also wrote on al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074),great theorists and Abū of Ḥtheāmid renunciant al-Ghazālī way (d. of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methodsBook of theology of Gleams” (kalām (K.) al-Lumaand incorporatedcosmologyʿ fī l-taṣawwuf ) ( R.of Abū al-Mi Narṣajiyya¯r al-Sarrāj), the (d. classification378/988), “The Nourishment of the sciences of (R. al- Ilmiyya), identifying proper belief Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebsteinthe forthcoming).Hearts,” (Qūt Althoughal-Qulūb) ofthese(R. Abū al-Qudsiyya Sufi Ṭālib- al-Makkī f¯ı taw (d. h.386/996),¯ıd al- amma¯ and the wa “Epistlel-kha¯s. s.ofa), al-Qushayrī” and a defense (R. of the contested Sufi practice of wearing theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the scienceal-Qushayriyya of theology vis) -ofà- visAbū direct l-Qāsim experience al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validitysoul of onthe its Ash journeyʿarite back Sunni to creedGod,. these Their authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt9 Some, a ofḥwāl these) of areethical characteristic perfection of in the tandem wider with tradition a gradual of Arabic unveiling Sufi poetry, while others seem to be more unique to Shushtar¯ı. 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmetof Eminthe heart Gulecyuz, as it acquires Oludamini direct Ogunnaike, recognitionSome poems, of especiallyGod (maʿrifa the). formal(Casewitqas. 2017,¯ıdas, include pp. 1–90; doctrinal Bowering discussions 1979, of ontology, metaphysics, eschatology, or polemics Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. pp. 18–35). against the Naturalists (ashab¯ al-taba’i¯ ) who argue for the causative power of natures (elements), and scenes from Christian . . . The idea that the ethical transformationmonasteries. Heof the also wayfarer writes about through classical ritual Sufi practice themes goes such hand as thein necessity of being trained by a Sufi master, code of hand with the acquisition of heightenedconduct powers toward of the perception Shaykh, struggling and direct against knowledge the lower of God soul, (ma Sufiʿrifa wandering,) wearing the patched cloak (khirqa, shashiyya¯ ), through divine grace seems toinvocation have been ( dhikrshared), spiritual by many audition Sufis from (sama¯ the), states earliest and period. stations The of the soul, symbolism of wine, ecstatic spirituality, and employment of the term maʿrifa todirect mean witnessing direct, unmediated, or visionary non-discursive, experiences (experiential,mushahada¯ ). and Shushtar unitive¯ı also takes on the role of social critic and comments on recognition of God through spiritualtensions purification between can Sufis be and dated jurists, back the to hypocrisytexts of the of 2nd, the learned3rd/8th, scholars 9th ( ulama¯ ) who serve political rulers, and nostalgia centuries. Maʿrifa appears to takefor on al-Andalus. a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to 10 figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765)Scholars as well who as praise the surviving his poetry writings include of Ibn Dhū al-Kha l-Nūnt.¯ıb al-Mi (d.ṣ 776rī (d./1374); ca. Ibn Abbad¯ al-Rund¯ı (d. 792/1390), Abd al-Ghan¯ı 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming).al-N abulus¯For these¯ı (d. authors, 1143/1731); ma andʿrifa Northis usually African contrasted Sufis like with Ibn Ajʿilm¯ıba, (d.or 1224/1809) and Muh. ammad al-H. arraq¯ (d. 1261/1845). 11 knowledge of the religious sciencesThe followingthat is based is a liston ofthe the transmitted title of prose tradition works attributed(naql) and toacquired Shushtar ¯ı: through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ complementary to various intellectual- al- Urwa sciences al-wuthq (al-aʿ fulūmı bayan al- al-sunanʿaqliyya)wa-ih that. s .aareal- conditionedulum by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql- ), includingMa¯ yajib logic,ala¯ al-muslim theology, an andya lamahu philosophywa-ya (falsafa,taqidahu ḥikma ila¯ waf). atihi¯ (which is shortened as al-Risala¯ al- ilmiyya; see al-Ih. a¯.ta, While the contrast between conceptualvol. 4, p. 207)ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological- implicationsR. al-Qudsiyya were yet f¯ı tawh to be. ¯ıd fully al- amma¯ worked wa l-khout.as¯ .Sufiss.a expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. - Al-Maratib¯ al-¯ımaniyya¯ wa l-islamiyya¯ wa l-ih. saniyya¯ Some were strongly opposed- to activelyR. al-Baghd involvingadiyya¯ the(Shushtar intellect¯ı 1977 in acquiring; Ben-Nas knowledge 2016) of God and dismissed theological speculation- asR. al-Maqa veil, al¯or,¯ıd at al-wuj best,udiyya¯ as an f ¯ıadequate l-da¯ ira al-wahmiyya rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the intellect is impotent and only providesIbn Luy proofun¯ (d. for 750 that/1349) which mentions is impotent” in his (al-tahdhʿaql¯ıb ʿājizthat lā Shushtar yadullu illā¯ı has ʿalā other works (Tahdh¯ıb al-risala¯ al- ilmiyya, pp. 42, 43). In ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into s Abd ar-Rah. man¯ al-Badaw¯ı’s introduction to Rasa¯ il Ibn Sab‘¯ın (Ibn Sab ¯ın 1965), he mentions a treatise ascribed to Shusthar¯ı the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the entitled al-Risala¯ al-qad¯ıma li l-Shaykh ash-Shushtar¯ı in a list of works included in a manuscript codex containing Sharh. li- ahd purpose of contemplating the signsIbn and Sab‘ ¯ıntraces li-tal ofam¯ God’s¯ıdhihi .attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic injunctions to contemplate God’s12 For signs, a brief they discussion regarded of contemplation the plausible chronology to be a means of Shushtar of cultivating¯ı’s works, see (Massignon 1949, p. 57). certainty and aligning the believer’s13 For will instance, with God’s Shushtar command.¯ı quotes a poem by Ibn al- Arab¯ı in R. al-Mi rajiyya¯ (Casewit 2020), and cites the “Ringstones of Some Sufis, such as ḤakīmWisdom” al-Tirmidhī (Fus. us¯(d.. al-h 255/869),. ikam, fas. s.heldSulaym a mildlyan¯ ) in thefavorableMaqal¯ ¯ıd ,view p. 100. toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 Religions 2020Religions, 11, x FOR2020 PEER, 11 REVIEW, 226 2 of 30 10 of 32 1. Introduction 1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of Sufismthe began patched to consolidate cloak ( R.as a al-Baghd self-consciousadiyya¯ school). Some of Islamic treatises, mysticism including by the beginning his Maq ofal¯ ¯ıd and the Qus.ariyya¯ , were the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents the secondwritten half of the for 3rd/9th a disciple century. for1 Practitioners the purpose of ofSufism defending achieved Sufirecognition monists as proponents from accusations of doctrinal heresy and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century and transmitters of an independent science (ʿ al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilationsand transgression of Sufi lore in of the the Shar¯ı a. with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals4. of “OnSufism, the including Limits “ [ofThe Theology and Sufism]” (al-Risala¯ al-Qusariyya¯ ) great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including. “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “4.1.Epistle Title, of al History,-Qushayrī” Description (R. of the Manuscript, and Editorial Principles the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily,The Qu s.thoughariyya¯ notappears to be one of Shushtar¯ı’s shortest and most succinct treatises, and there is soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through exclusively,little in psychological reason to question terms. They its authorship.described a progressive To my knowledge, ascension of the the titlesoul ofthrough the treatise is only mentioned by various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling various statesthe Tunisianand stations biographer (maqāmāt, aḥ Ibnwāl) al-of ethicalT. aww perfectiona¯h. (d. after in tandem 717/1318) with a in gradualSabk al-maq unveilingal¯ ( Ibn al-T. awwa¯h. 2008, p. 121), of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, of the heartalthough as it acquires the direct edition recognition does not of God provide (maʿrifa the). (Casewit vocalization. 2017, pp. The 1–90; surviving Bowering 1979, manuscript identifies the author pp. 18–35). pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritualas “al-Shushtar practice goes hand¯ı.” It in vocalizes the title on f. 55v as al-Risala¯ al-Qas.s.ariyya¯ which is probably a scribal The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) ¯ ¯ hand withmistake, the acquisition for there of heightened appears powers to be of no perception correlation and direct between knowledge the treatise of God (ma andʿrifa the) 3rd/9th century Malamatı through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The through divineShaykh grace of Nseems¯ıshap ¯to ur¯haveH. amdbeen un¯shared b.A byh. madmanyb. SufisUm fromara¯ the al-Qa earliests.s.ar.¯ period. Rather, The like his other prose treatises employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive employmentsuch of the as term the Mimaʿrifarajiyya¯ to mean(Casewit direct, unmediated, 2020), the non-discursive, title of the Qu experiential,sariyya¯ is and likely unitive a later copyist’s addition that recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th . recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance inwas statements gleaned attributed from a toword in the text. The word that was chosen for the title, “qus.ar¯ ahum¯ ” (paragraph centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. figures like#4) Jaʿ denotesfar al-Ṣādiq that (d. 148/765) the “furthest as well as limit” the surviving of common writings believers of Dhū l-Nūn and al-Mi exotericṣrī (d. scholars ca. is to defer authority to 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or 245/859) (Ogunnaikethe theologians. forthcoming). In my For edition these authors, and translation, maʿrifa is usually the title contrasted is therefore with ʿ vocalizedilm, or as al-Qus.ariyya¯ . knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired knowledge of theTo religious my knowledge, sciences that the is basedQusariyya¯ on the istransmitted only extant tradition in MS (naql Istanbul,) and acquired Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi, Hz. through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being . through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) thatNasuhi are conditioned Dergahı by 275, the ff. 55v-64r. It was part of the collection of the Seyyid Muh. ammad Nasuhi complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). delimited(1057-1130 rational intellect/1647-1718) (ʿaql), including Sufi lodge logic, theology, in Üsküdar. and philosophy The codex (falsafa, spans ḥikma 149). folios, with 15 lines per page, and is While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi Whilein the good contrast condition between withconceptual little ʿilm physical and experiential damage. maʿ Therifa wasQu largelys.ariyya¯ adoptedis bound in Sufi in a codex along with several discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety discourse,other its epistemological prose treatises implications by the were author, yet to includingbe fully workedR. al-Mi out. Sufisrajiyya¯ expressedand aR. variety al-Baghd adiyya¯ , as well as works of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiringof Ibnknowledge Sab ¯ın of and God Shaand ran¯ ¯ı. This is a “miscellany codex” (majmu¯ a), which is to say that the volume Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing 14 dismissedconsists theological of speculation different as works a veil, or, that at werebest, as copied an adequate by therational same attempt scribe at knowing during the same period. I have God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the God (Ebsteinnot beenforthcoming). able to Early identify Sufis anylike biographicalNūrī (d. 295/907-8) reference famously to proclaimed the copyist, that Mu “theh. ammad b. al-Darw¯ısh. The intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā intellect ismanuscript impotent and only is dated provides mid-Dh proof foru¯ that l-Qi whichda 956 is impotent” (late March (al-ʿaql toʿājiz early lā yadullu December illā ʿalā 1549) based on the dates ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage15 their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the useappearing of the intellect in the for three the dated colophons. The manuscript, moreover, includes poems (ff. 87, 123v) by the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic purpose ofMu contemplatingh. ammad Wafthe signsa¯ (d. and 765 traces/1363) of God’s and theattributes poem in on creation. 87v is Following appended the toQur Shushtarʾānic ¯ı’s poems. This suggests injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating injunctionsthat to contemplate the works God’s making signs, up they the regarded manuscript contemplation (at least to thebe a firstmeans half of cultivating up to f. 89v) was likely transmitted certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. certainty andduring aligning the the 8th,9th believer’s/14th,15th will with centuries God’s command. through the Wafa¯ iyya Sufi order, a branch of the Shadhiliyya¯ in Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings ofCairo Sufism ( McGregoras complementary 2004 ). As such, the codex seems to signal an influence of Ibn Sab ¯ın and Shushtar¯ı theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can to theology.on Like the Wafearlya¯ Muiyya.ʿtazilite Moreover, and Ashʿarite the facttheologians, that a shortthey insisted work that by Abdthe intellect al-Wahh can ab¯ al-Sha ran¯ ¯ı (d. 973/1565) increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to increase thedated believer’s 952H certitude (f. 125v) in isGod’s included existence in and the codexthe afterlife indicates when employed that it was in order copied to during his lifetime, shortly contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr contemplateafter God’s Sha signs.ran¯ ¯ıWell-known wrote this figures short such work. as al- AlthoughḤārith al-Mu itḥāsibī is not (d. possible243/857), Abū to ascertainBakr if the manuscript was al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theologycopied (kalām)in and Cairo, incorporated the inclusion of a treatise by Sha ran¯ ¯ı shortly after he wrote it, in addition, the poems 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- Ashʿarite bydoctrines Muh. ammadand creeds Waf withina¯ , suggesttheir own that works the (Ebstein manuscript forthcoming). was compiledAlthough these in a Sufi- milieu that is closely connected theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience theologianswith expressed Cairo a andcertain the skepticism circle of toward Sha rthean¯ science¯ı. One of may theology also vis-à-vis speculate direct about experience a possible line of transmission and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their and mysticalfrom unveiling, the Sab they¯ıniyya affirmed to the the Shushtariyya utility and validity to the of Shtheadhiliyya¯ Ashʿarite Sunni to the creed. early Their Maml uk¯ Wafa¯ iyya Sufi order to the circle of Sha ran¯ ¯ı.16 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, 1 I am grateful Theto Saad bookhand Ansari, Izzet of Coban, the manuscriptFrank Griffel, Mehmet appears Emin to Gulecyuz, be put Oludamini together Ogunnaike, rather unprofessionally, though it is Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. not the product of a complete amateur. It does not seem to have been assembled for personal purposes since it would likely be more carelessly crafted. Therefore, it is possible that the codex was reproduced in and for a Sufi lodge where it was held. There are no seal or ownership or reading statements. The copyist, Muh. ammad b. al-Darw¯ısh, is quite inelegant and unprofessional, but he is easy to decipher.

14 In contrast to a miscellany codex, a composite codex compiles different treatises written by different hands at different dates at a later period. 15 See marginal note on ff. 29r, 38r, 149v. 16 I am grateful to one of my anonymous reviewers for these hints. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes towardReligions discursive2020 theology, 11, 226 and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. 11 of 32 Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming).He writes Early ina Sufis readable like Nūrīnaskh (d.hand 295/907 with-8) famously a thick calamus. proclaimed The that manuscript “the features fully dotted ductus, intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā and the copyist uses two inks: Black for the main text, and red for the titles and for some remarks. The ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rationalmanuscript teachings includes of the theologians almost no and marginal favored the notes use of or the glosses. intellect It for is thefully vocalized and contains frequent purpose of contemplatingshaddas. the signs I have and standardized traces of God’s attributes the use ofin creation.hamzas andFollowing the final the Qurya¯ʾsānic in defective forms. The Qur an¯ verses, injunctions to contemplatewhich areGod fully’s signs, integrated they regarded into contemplation the manuscript, to be a appear means of without cultivating red ink and are fully vocalized in the certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. present edition. Although there are a few signs of revision, the copyist is not very accurate and appears Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward theology and were toeven introduce trained in it. (or Such reproduce) figures presented syntactical the findings and of grammatical Sufism as complementary errors into the text. Given the scribal errors, to theology. Like earlymy editorial Muʿtazilite intervention and Ashʿarite was theologians, sometimes they insistedrequired that to the make intellect sense can of certain parts of the treatise. I add increase the believerangle’s certitude brackets in God< ...’s existence> to indicate and the my afterlife editorial when interventions, employed in order and to the vocalization that I provide in the contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr edition is not always consistent with the manuscript due to the grammatical errors that are introduced al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. Religions 2020, 1711, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 505/1111) were professionallyby the scribe. trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated ʿ Ash arite doctrines and1. creeds Introduction within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed4.2. a Analysiscertain skepticism of the Qus toward.ariyya¯ the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, theySufism affirmed began the to utility consolidate and validity as a self-conscious of the Ashʿ ariteschool Sunni of Islamic creed mysticism. Their by the beginning of theShushtar second half¯ı begins of the 3rd/9th by proclaiming century.1 Practitioners the unfathomability of Sufism achieved of recognition God’s innermost as proponents secret (sirr), which neitherand transmitters discursive of knowledge an independent of the science Ash (ʿ arite al-taṣawwuf theologians) by the middle nor the of directthe 5th/11th mystical century knowledge of the 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz,ṭ Oludamini Ogunnaike, Sufiswith can the attain. emergence Rather, of Arabic the Sufi seeker hagiographies accesses ( higherabaqāt), as realms well as ofcompilations knowledge of Sufi when lore hein the delves into divine Samantha Pellegrino, Iancentral Grant and-Funck eastern, and thelands two of anonymous Islam, especially reviewers around of this Baghdad, article for theirBasra comments. and the region of Khorasan. The 18 onenessgreat theorists experientially of the renunciant and becomes way of awarelife penned of his the incapacityclassical manuals ( ajz )of to Sufism, know including God. “TheThe knowers of God thusBook fall of into Gleams” four sorts:(K. al-Luma Commonʿ fī l-taṣawwuf believers) of Abū who Naṣ knowr al-Sarrāj God (d. by 378/988), imitation “The andNourishment who delegate of authority to thethe Ash Hearts,”arite theologians,(Qūt al-Qulūb) of the Abū Ash Ṭālibarites al-Makkī who (d.know 386/996), God and throughthe “Epistle rational of al-Qushayrī” argumentation, (R. the Sufis whoal-Qushayriyya are directly) of aware Abū l-Qāsim of the al-Qushayrī divine presence (d. 465/1074). and In for chronicling whom rational the transformations proofs are of secondarythe to direct soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not experience,exclusively, and in psychological finally monist terms. Realizers They described who transcend a progressive the ascension binary betweenof the soul the through knower and known, subjectvarious and states object, and stations and are (maqāmāt the locus, aḥwāl for) of God’s ethical self-seeing.perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling ofGiven the heart the as it content acquires ofdirect the recognitionQus.ariyya¯ of ,God it seems (maʿrifa). to (Casewit be a mature 2017, pp. treatise 1–90; Bowering that Shushtar1979, ¯ı composed afterpp. meeting 18–35). Ibn Sab ¯ın in 645/1247. The dating of the manuscript cannot be definitely established, The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in however,hand with and the further acquisition research of heightened comparing powers of Shushtar perception¯ı and and direct Ibn knowledge Sab ¯ın’s thoughtof God (ma isʿrifa required.) What is notablethrough isthat divine despite grace Shushtarseems to have¯ı’s reference been shared to theby many Sufinotion Sufis from of an the uncreated earliest period. intellect The in the Qus.ariyya¯ andemployment the Mi rajiyya¯ of the, term he ma doesʿrifa notto mean adopt direct, Ibn unmediated, Sab ¯ın’s non-discursive, full Neoplatonic experiential, conception and unitive of the intellect as a cosmicrecognition principle of God through that is spiritual found purification in Plotinus, can Alexanderbe dated backof to texts Aphrodisais, of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, Proclus, 9th and Iamblichus. centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to Insteadfigures he like adheres Jaʿfar al- toṢādiq a religious-Qur(d. 148/765) as wellanic¯ as the worldview. surviving writings At the of sameDhū l-Nūn time, al-Mi theṣrī hierarchy(d. ca. he outlines in the245/859)Qus.ariyya ¯(Ogunnaikebears forthcoming). some similarities For these to authors, Ibn Sab ma¯ın’sʿrifa moreis usually complex contrasted and with detailed ʿilm, or discussion of the definitionknowledge of knowledgeof the religious (h. addsciences al- ilmthat) inis based his Budd on the al- transmittedarif¯ (“The tradition Escape (naql of the) and Gnostic”). acquired In Budd al- arif¯ , Ibnthrough Sab ¯ın formal presents training. and These critiques transmitted the methods religious sciences, of the jurists,moreover, Ash werearites, often seen philosophers, as being Aristotelian complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the 19 logicians,delimited and rational the Sufis. intellect (Shushtarʿaql), including¯ı’s distinction logic, theology, between and philosophy the way (falsafa, of Sufis ḥikma and). the way of tah. q¯ıq bears the markWhile of Ibnthe contrast Sab ¯ın’s betweenBudd conceptual al- arif¯ , and ʿilm and it features experiential prominently maʿrifa was largely in the adopted writings in Sufi of Ibn Arab¯ı and his disciplesdiscourse, its as epistemological well. Shushtar implications¯ı’s hierarchy were yet of to knowledgebe fully worked also out. finds Sufis expressed echo in a the variety introduction to Ibn of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. al- Ar¯ıf’s well-known epistemological discussion in chapter 1 of Mahasin¯ al-majalis¯ (“The Splendors Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge. of God and of thedismissed Mystical theological Gatherings”), speculation a as short a veil, treatise or, at best, on as Sufi an adequate ethics that rational was attempt frequently at knowing studied and quoted by 7thGod/ 13th(Ebstein century forthcoming). Andalus Early¯ı Sufis. Sufis 20likeFinally, Nūrī (d. Ibn 295/907-8) S¯ına’s¯ famously “The Stations proclaimed of thethat Knowers”“the (maqam¯ at¯ intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the 17 Ipurpose have not of discovered contemplating a second the signs witness and oftraces the R.of QuGod’ss.ariyya¯ attributes, though in thecreation. scribe Following Muh. ammad the b.Qur al-Darwʾānic ¯ısh also copied the Miinjunctionsrajiyya¯ . I hadto contemplate the opportunity God’s to editsigns, the they latter regarded against a contemplation more reliable text to andbe a ammeans accustomed of cultivating to his editorial peculiarities andcertainty grammatical and aligning errors the (Casewit believer’s 2019 will). with God’s command. 18 ShushtarSome¯ı describes Sufis, such this stateas Ḥakīm as the al-Tirmidhī first “breaking (d. of 255/869), his concealed held secret”a mildly (kasr favorable al-.talsum view), an expressiontoward that he uses in his poetrytheology as welland were (Shushtar even¯ı trained 2008, p. in 112). it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary 19 Seeto theology. his discussion Like ofearly the “categoriesMuʿtazilite of and Sufis Ash andʿarite their theologians, sciences” (Aqs theyam¯ al-insisteds.ufiyya¯ that wa- ultheumuhum¯ intellect) which can offers a much more detailedincreasediscussion the believer’s of the certitude various sciences,in God’s modes existence of knowledge, and the afterlife and practices when ofemployed Sufis, in Buddin order al- arif ¯to , pp. 95–113, 121–35. 20 Thiscontemplate dense and God’s allusive signs. treatise Well-known is influenced, figures by such the as author’s al-Ḥārith own al-Mu admissionḥāsibī (d. in the243/857), introduction, Abū Bakr by a variety of sources. Theseal-Kalābādhī include (d.Abd 380/990), Allah¯ al-AnAbū s.l-Qāsimar¯ ¯ı al-Haraw al-Qushayrī¯ı’s (d. 481 (d./1089) 465/1074),Manazil¯ and al-s Abūa¯ ir¯ın ḤandāmidIlal al-Ghazālī al-maqam¯ (d.at¯ (Halff 1971), as well as505/1111) Muh. ammad were professionally b. Abd al-Jabb trainedar¯ al-Ni inff thear¯ı’s discursive (d. 354/965) methodsMawaqif ¯of theology. Compare (kalām the) first and sentenceincorporated of the Mah. asin¯ al-majalis¯ onAshilmʿariteversus doctrinesma rifa andwith creedsMawqif within al-tadhkira their ownof Nicholson’s works (Ebstein edition, forthcoming). p. 28. According Although to these the Moroccan Sufi- scholar Adlun¯ ¯ı, Shushtartheologians¯ı was expressed influenced a certain by Ibn al-skepticismAr¯ıf (d. 536toward/1141). the It science is worth ofnoting theology that vis-à-vis Chapter direct 1 of the experienceMah. asin¯ al-majalis¯ , as well the and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or 1. Introduction knowledge of theReligions religious2020 sciences, 11, 226 that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired 12 of 32 Sufism began to consolidatethrough as formala self-conscious training. Tschoolhese transmittedof Islamic mysticism religious bysciences the beginning, moreover, of were often seen as being the second half of the 3rd/9thcomplementary century.1 Practitioners to various of intellectual Sufism achieved sciences recognition (al-ʿulūm as al -proponentsʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the and transmitters of an independentdelimited rational scienceal- intellect (ʿ arif¯ al-ta¯ınṣawwuf ()ʿaql in), his) includin by Ish thearat¯ g middle logic,, may theology, of the have 5th/11th and also philosophy century been accessible (falsafa, ḥikma to) Shushtar. ¯ı, though there seems to be little ṭ with the emergence of Arabic SufiWhile hagiographies the contrastoverlap ( betweenabaqāt between), asconceptual well the as compilations two ʿilm texts.and experiential21 of Sufi lore ma inʿrifa the was largely adopted in Sufi central and eastern lands ofdiscourse, Islam, especially its epistemological around Baghdad, implications Basra and were the yet region to be of fully Khorasan. worked The out. Sufis expressed a variety Although Shushtar¯ı’s epistemological trichotomy is clean-cut, it is important to remember great theorists of the renunciantof attitudes way of toward life penned discursive the classical theology manuals and the of role Sufism, of the including rational “Theintellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Book of Gleams” (K. al-LumaSomeʿ fī l-ta wereṣawwuf strongly) ofthat Abū opposed when Naṣr al-Sarrājto theologians, actively (d. involving 378/988), Sufis, the“The intellect and Nourishment monist in acquiring of proclaimers knowledge ofof God absolute and oneness put these conceptual the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb)dismissed of Abū Ṭ ālibtheological al-Makkīepistemological speculation (d. 386/996), as anda schemas veil, the or, “Epistle at together, best, of as al-Qushayrī” an theyadequate are ( R.rational in reality attempt practicing at knowing Sufis who think in terms of Ash ar¯ı al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-QāsimGod (Ebsteinal-Qushayrī forthcoming).theology (d. 465/1074). or Early In they chronicling Sufis are like Sufi-philosophers Nūrīthe transformations (d. 295/907-8) suchof famously the as Ibn proclaimed Sab ¯ın that who “the are trained by Sufis, philosophers, soul on its journey back to intellectGod, these is impotent authors andconceived only provides of the spiritual proof for path that primarily, which is impotent” though not (al -ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā theologians. The Islamic tradition is replete with examples of theologians such as Ghazal¯ ¯ı who mix exclusively, in psychologicalʿajiz terms. mithili )They (Sarrāj described 1914, p. a40). progressive Such figures ascension tended toof discouragethe soul through their followers from delving into various states and stations the(maqāmāt speculative, aḥwāl ) rational multipleof ethical teachings perfection systems of inof the tandemthought, theologians with or a andgradual Fakhr favored al-Dunveiling the¯ın al-R use az¯ of ¯ı the (d. intellect ca. 604 for/1210) the who turns to Sufism at the end of of the heart as it acquires directpurpose recognition of contemplating ofhis God life. (ma the Someʿrifa signs). (Casewit wereand tracescommitted 2017, of pp.God 1–90;’s attributes Ash Boweringarite-Sufis in creation.1979, likeFollowing Ibn al-Mar the Qurʾaānic (d. 611/1214), who define mystical pp. 18–35). injunctions to contemplateunveiling God along’s signs, Avicennan they regarded terms. contemplation22 Others to still be a weremeans philosophersof cultivating such as Avicenna (d. 427/1037) The idea that the ethicalcertainty transformation and aligning of the believerwayfarer’s throughwill with ritual God’ spractice command. goes hand in with mystical inclinations. Shushtar¯ı’s own life and works blur the lines between “mainstream” and hand with the acquisition of heightenedSome Sufis, powers such of asperception Ḥakīm aland-Tirmidh directī knowledge(d. 255/869), of God held ( ma a mildlyʿrifa) favorable view toward through divine grace seemstheology to have and been were“extreme” shared even trained by Sufism,many in it. SuchSufis “theological” figuresfrom the presented earliest and the period. “philosophical” findings The of Sufism as doctrines, complementary “praxis-oriented” versus “theoretical” employment of the term matoʿrifa theology to mean. Ldirect,ikemysticism. early unmediated, Muʿtazilite This non-discursive, and picture Ashʿarite is experiential, further theologians, complicated and they unitive insisted by that the the fact intellect that Shushtar can ¯ı evolved throughout his life recognition of God throughincr spiritualease the purification believeras he’s cancertitude moved be dated in from Godback’ master sto existence texts of to the and master. 2nd, the 3rd/8th, afterlife As is 9th when common employed with inmany order to 5th–7th /11th–13th century figures, centuries. Maʿrifa appears contemplateto take on aGod distinct’s signs. technical Well-known significance figures in such statements as al-Ḥā attributedrith al-Mu ḥtoāsib ī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr he seems to have been comfortable engaging a plurality of perspectives and affiliating himself with figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d.al- Kal148/765)ābādh asī (d. well 380/990), as the surviving Abū l-Q āwritingssim al-Qushayr of Dhū l-Nūnī (d. 465/1074), al-Miṣrī (d. and ca. Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming).505/1111) wereFor these professionallya range authors, of trainedma spiritualʿrifa inis theusually teachers. discursive contrasted methods Owing with of to ʿtheologyilm his, or school (kalām) ofand realization incorporated and its perspectival engagement knowledge of the religiousAsh sciencesʿarite doctrinesthat iswith based and multipleoncreeds the withintransmitted viewpoints, their owntradition works he (naql tended(Ebstein) and acquiredforthcoming). to see them Although as complementary these Sufi- and hierarchical, rather than through formal training. Thesetheologians transmitted expressedoppositional religious a certain sciences, skepticism diff moreover,erences, toward andwere the thusoften science hadseen of ecumenicaltheologyas being vis-à mystical-vis direct experience interests and affiliations. Shushtar¯ı evinces complementary to variousand intellectual mystical sciences unveiling, (al- theyʿulūm affirmed al-ʿaqliyya the) utilitythat are and conditioned validity of bythe theAsh ʿarite Sunni creed. Their delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic,this syncretismtheology, and philosophy in his approach (falsafa, ḥikma through). his direct association with the whole spectrum of Islamic While the contrast between conceptual mysticismʿilm and experiential of his day,maʿrifa including was largely Ab adoptedu¯ Madyan, in Sufi Ibn Sab ¯ın, Ibn Arab¯ı’s student al-Najm b. Isra¯ ¯ıl, the 1 discourse, its epistemological implicationsI am grateful toweresocially-deviant Saad yet Ansari, to be Izzetfully Coban,worked Qalandar Frank out. Griffel,Sufis¯ı mystics, expressed Mehmet Suhraward Emin a variety Gulecyuz, ¯ı (author Oludamini of Ogunnaike,Awarif¯ al-ma arif¯ ) and the founders of the of attitudes toward discursiveSamantha theology Pellegrino, and the role Ian Grantof the-Funck rational, and intellect the two anonymous(ʿaql) in knowing reviewers God. of this article for their comments. Shadhil¯ ¯ı tradition. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like4.3. Nūrī The (d. Way 295/907-8) of the Theologianfamously proclaimed that “the ʿ ʿ ʿ intellect is impotent and only provides proof for thatIn which his discussion is impotent” of (al- Ashaql ājizarism lā yadullu (paragraphs illā alā #3–22), Shushtar¯ı quotes the theologian as saying: “I ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologianssee nothing and except favored that the use I see of Godthe intellect after it.” for Inthe other words, the theologian knows God “by theological purpose of contemplating the signs and tracesproofs, of God’s and attributes seeks in proofs creation. of Following the Creator the Qur fromʾānic things.” The created realm serves as an intermediary injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, theyfor regarded the theologian contemplation to arriveto be a atmeans the of truth cultivating through the study of the cosmos. In explaining the way of certainty and aligning the believer’s will withthe God’s theologian, command. Shushtar¯ı offers a clear summary of the basic Ash arite cosmological and teleological Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figuresarguments presented for the God’sfindings existence,of Sufism as complementary describing the created realm as one that is composed bodies, or to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashcombinationsʿarite theologians, of indivisiblethey insisted atoms that the (sing. intellectjawhar can la¯ yanqasim) that take on accidents (sing. arad. ). A body increase the believer’s certitude in God’s “mustexistence necessarily and the afterlife have when a combiner,” employed in for order “when to one sees a built wall, one knows by self-evidence that Ḥ ḥ contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figuresit hassuch a as builder.” al- ārith al-Mu Shushtarāsibī¯ı (d. outlines 243/857), the Abū Ash Bakrarite arguments for the cosmos’ origination in time and al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the explainsdiscursive methods that since of theology the cosmos (kalām is) and composed incorporated of temporally originated atoms and accidents—which are Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their noneternalown works (Ebstein since theyforthcoming). change Although and must these inhere Sufi- in a locus (mah. all)—it must be created. Its Creator must theologians expressed a certain skepticism towardbe eternal the science and noncorporeal,of theology vis-à-vis given direct the experience impossibility of infinite regress. In arguing for God’s existence, ʿ and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the theutility theologian and validity resorts of the toAsh thearite proof Sunni of creed. reciprocal Their hindrance (burhan¯ al-tamanu¯ ), and the impossibility of infinite regress (al-dawr wa l-tasalsul). 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel,This Mehmet argument, Emin Gulecyuz, which isOludamini explained Ogunnaike, in the Qur anic¯ language of God as Artisan (sani¯ ) and His Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. . creation as artisanry (mas.nu¯ ), traces back to Aristotle’s First Mover argument. Simply put, things are in motion, and they require something to put them and keep them in motion based on the laws of physics. Therefore, there has to be an Unmoved Mover, otherwise one must believe in an infinite regress of

commentary of Abu¯ Ish. aq¯ b. Dihaq,¯ also known as Ibn al-Mar a (d. 1214), who influenced Ibn Sab ¯ın presumably through his student Ibn Ah. la¯ (d. 645/1247), cover similar themes and are worded in somewhat similar fashion as Shushtar¯ı’s R. al-Qus.ariyya¯ . 21 It came to be treated as an excellent systematic summary of the Sufi path and provides an outline of the categories of seekers (.talib¯ ¯ın): The renunciant and the knower of God ( arif¯ ). See al-Nama.t al-tasi¯ of al-Ishar¯ at¯ wa l-tanb¯ıhat¯ ,(Ibn S¯ına¯ 2002, pp. 353–67). 22 See my forthcoming study, edition, and translation of Ibn al-Mar a’s commentary on Ibn al- Ar¯ıf’s Mah. asin¯ al-majalis¯ . Religions 2020, 11, 226 Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 132 of of 30 32

1. Introduction movers. Following thisSufism argument, began to Shushtar consolidate¯ı guides as a self-conscious the reader school through of Islamic the standardmysticism by proofs the beginning for God’s of oneness, as well asthe essential second attributeshalf of the 3rd/9th of life, century. knowledge,1 Practitioners power, of will,Sufism speech, achieved hearing, recognition and as seeing.proponents He refutes the doctrineand of unificationism transmitters of an ( itti independenth. ad¯ ) and science the Mu (ʿ tazilite al-taṣawwuf denial) by the of divine middle ofattributes the 5th/11th (ta century.t¯ıl). He ṭ views these teachingswith asthe deviationsemergence of fromArabic the Sufi consensual hagiographies “ (Sunnabaqāt¯ı),doctrinal as well as compilations position,” of a Sufi position lore in thatthe central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The he describes as thegreat “safest theorists and of best the approach”renunciant way since of life it penned is aligned the classical with scripture manuals of and Sufism, strikes including a balance “The between extreme doctrinesBook of Gleams” pertaining (K. al-Luma to theʿ fī l-ta relationshipṣawwuf) of Abū between Naṣr al-Sarrāj the Essence (d. 378/988), and “The the Nourishment attributes. of Shushtar¯ı is alsothe critical Hearts,” of (Qūt the al-Qulūb philosopher’s) of Abū Ṭ denialālib al-Makkī of the (d. existence 386/996), and of attributes the “Epistle that of al-Qushayrī” are additional (R. to the divine Essence.al-Qushayriyya According) of Abū to thel-Qāsim only al-Qushayrī surviving (d. manuscript,465/1074). In chronicling Shushtar the¯ı claimstransformations that Ghaz of theal¯ ¯ı soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not collapses the attributesexclusively, [life, power,in psychological will, seeing, terms. They hearing, described speaking] a progressive intothe ascension attribute of the of soul knowledge through (see #21). This readingvarious flatly states contradicts and stations (maqāmāt Ghazal¯ , ¯ı’saḥwāl own) of ethical position perfection in his in work tandem “Moderation with a gradual inunveiling Belief” Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 (al-Iqtis.ad¯ f¯ı l-i tiqad¯ of), the and heart it isas hardit acquires to believe direct recognition that Shushtar of God ¯ı(ma hadʿrifa such). (Casewit little 2017, knowledge pp. 1–90; Bowering of Ghaz 1979,al¯ ¯ı’s 1. Introduction theology. Given thepp. latter’s 18–35). enormous influence in al-Andalus and given that Shushtar¯ı was licensed The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginningto teach of his Mustas.handfa¯ on with legal the acquisition theory, it of seems heightened likely powers that of the perception unprofessional and direct knowledge copyist corruptedof God (maʿrifa the) 1 the second half of the 3rd/9th century. Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponentstext. The original archetypethrough divine manuscript grace seems may to have been the wordshared ibytiz manyal¯ ¯ı which Sufis wasfrom eventuallythe earliest period. corrupted The and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century by scribes and reademployment as ghazal¯ ¯ı of. Thisthe term passage, maʿrifa to then, mean woulddirect, unmediated, be a continuation non-discursive, of the experiential, discussion and unitive on the with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the Mu tazilite denial ofrecognition the attributes of God ratherthrough thanspiritual a discussion purification can of Ghaz be datedal¯ ¯ı. back23 to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “IfThe we take the extantfigures like manuscript Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq to be(d. 148/765) accurate as andwell as assume the surviving that Shushtarwritings of¯ı Dhū misread l-Nūn Ghazal-Miṣal¯rī ¯ı,(d. then ca. Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishmentone possible of explanation245/859) for (Ogunnaike this error forthcoming). would be that For ourthese author authors, assumes maʿrifa is that usually Ghaz contrastedal¯ ¯ı’s true with position ʿilm, or is the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. more aligned withknowledge that of the of philosophers the religious sciences as expressed that is based in “Theon the Aims transmitted of the tradition Philosophers” (naql) and (acquiredMaqa¯sid al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the . al-falasifa¯ )24 or the pseudo-epigraphicthrough formal training. work, These “That transmitted Which religious is Withheld sciences, from moreover, the Unqualified” were often seen (al-Ma as beingdnun¯ soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by. the exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soulbihi throughala¯ ghayr ahlihi).delimited Shushtar rational¯ı’s misreading intellect (ʿaql may), including then indicatelogic, theology, his awareness and philosophy of early (falsafa, polemics ḥikma). against various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual Ghazunveilingal¯ ¯ı, who was accusedWhile the by contrast his adversaries between conceptual of being ʿilm tainted and experiential by philosophy. maʿrifa was largely Whatever adopted the in case,Sufi of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, Shushtar¯ı opposes thediscourse, position its epistemological of the philosophers implications and were those yet who to be maintainfully worked that out. all Sufis the expressed attributes a variety (apart pp. 18–35). of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. from will and speech) are reducible to the Essence. He seems to prefer earlier classical Ash arism’s The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of Godunderstanding (maʿrifa) of thedismissed attributes theological as being speculation neither as other a veil, than or, at nor best, identical as an adequate with therational Essence. attempt Presumably, at knowing through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period.he agrees The with Baqill¯ Godani¯ (Ebstein and Juwayn forthcoming).¯ı, whose Early works Sufis werelike Nūrī also (d. in 295/907-8) wide circulation famously inproclaimed al-Andalus. that 25“the employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive ʿ ʿ ʿ While Shushtarintellect¯ı passes is impotent over M andatur¯ only¯ıdism provides and proof the H .foranbalite that which legal-theological is impotent” (al- aql tradition ājiz lā yadullu in silence,illā alā recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into as well as the Zahirite¯ literalist school of Ibn Hazm (d. 456/1064) of Cordoba, it is important to note centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to . the speculative rational teachings. of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Mithatṣrī (d. his ca. attitude towardpurpose theology of contemplating as a whole the signs is and not traces dismissive. of God’s attributes In the Qu in creation.s.ariyya¯ Followingand other the treatises,Qurʾānic 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted withShushtar ʿilm, or ¯ı takes Ashinjunctionsarism as to the contemplate soundest God’s and signs, most they adequate regarded expression contemplation of to the be trutha means at of the cultivating rational knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired level. He clearly statescertainty in the andMaq aligningal¯ ¯ıd thethat believer’s the great will saints with God’s are thosecommand. who can engage each discipline at through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward its own level. The saints who master the discursive knowledge of the theologians ( ilm) are superior to complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). illiterate saints whotoare theology. not schooled Like early in Mu theʿtazilite Islamic and sciences.Ashʿarite theologians, In this sense, they theinsisted discursive that the knowledgeintellect can While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted( ilm in) Sufi of the theologians,increase which the believer’s he describes certitude as in “a God’s veil overexistence God,” and isthe nonetheless afterlife when a prerequisiteemployed in order for fullto discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety acquisition of Suficontemplate direct recognition God’s signs. (ma Well-knownrifa)(Shushtar figures such¯ı 2008 as ,al- pp.Ḥārith 88, al-Mu 89) evenḥāsibī (d. though 243/857), it isAbū a mereBakr of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. medication that must be taken with caution and only when necessary (idem, pp. 90, 91, 96, 126). Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowingIn addition toAsh hisʿarite affi rmationdoctrines and of Ashcreedsarism, within Shushtartheir own works¯ı insists (Ebstein that forthcoming). with regard Although to belief these in Sufi- God God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed and that “thecorrect religiosity,theologians the common expressed a believers certain skepticism must delegatetoward the authorityscience of theology (taql¯ıd vis-à-vis) to the direct Ash experiencearites in intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā matters of religiousand belief mystical even unveiling, without they evidence. affirmed the His utility concern and validity with proper of the Ash creedʿarite bears Sunni thecreed. mark Their of ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into 26 the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellectAlmohadism for the and is the subject of other treatises. He also holds that non-Sufi scholars, including purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following theQur Qurʾanā¯nic variant experts1 I am ( muqrigrateful ),to HSaad. ad Ansari,¯ıth experts Izzet Coban, (mu Frankh. addith Griffel,), and Mehmet jurists Emin (Gulecyuz,furu¯ ¯ı), mustOludamini subscribe Ogunnaike, to injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary23 I am grateful for my anonymous review for pointing out this possibility. 24 to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellectFor can Ghaz al¯ ¯ı’s discussion of divine knowledge in the Maqa¯s.id,(Ghazal¯ ¯ı 2000, pp. 113–21). Ibn Sab ¯ın’s criticism of Ghazal¯ ¯ı in increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in orderBudd to al- Arif¯ does not engage his views on the divine attributes (Ibn Sabs¯ın 1978, pp. 144, 145). I am grateful to Frank Griffel contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abūfor Bakr his help on this point, and to Hussein Abdulsater for his advice on the translation of this passage. al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī25 For (d. Ghaz al¯ ¯ı’s discussion of the divine attributes in Moderation in Belief, see (Ghazal¯ ¯ı 2017, pp. 129–55). 26 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporatedAccording to Ibn Luyun,¯ Shushtar¯ı wrote “The Holy Treatise Concerning the Assertion of Divine Unity by the Commoner Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although theseand Sufi the- Elite” (Al-Risala¯ al-qudsiyya f¯ı tawh. ¯ıd al- amma¯ wa l-kha¯s.s.a), as well as “What is Incumbent upon a Muslim to Know theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experienceand Believe until his Death” (Ma¯ yajibu ala¯ l-Muslim an ya lamahu wa-ya taqidahu ila¯ wafatihi¯ )(Shushtar¯ı 2004, pp. 42, 43). and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments.

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Religions 2020, Religions11, x FOR PEER2020 REVIEW, 11, 226 2 of 30 14 of 32 Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of 1. Introduction the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿ al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century Sufismthe began empirical to consolidate judgments as a self-conscious and rational school of argumentations Islamic mysticism by of the the beginning Ash arites. of They must assent, even with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the the second halfuncritically of the 3rd/9th if necessary, century.1 Practitioners since understanding of Sufism achieved theological recognition arguments as proponents is not a condition for sound belief. central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century He compares the belief of thesegreat uncritical theorists “conformists”of the renunciant (waymuqallid of lifeun¯ penned) who the affi classicalrm the manuals correct of articles Sufism, including of “The with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the faith without evidence to thatBook of the of Gleams” slave-girl (K. al-Luma who, afterʿ fī l-ta proclaimingṣawwuf) of Abū God’sNaṣr al-Sarrāj oneness (d. 378/988), by pointing “The Nourishment to of central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. great theoriststhe of heavens, the renunciant was way considered of life penned to bethe aclassical believer manuals by the of Sufism, Prophet. including Shushtar “The¯ı, therefore, not only presents al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the Book of Gleamsthe” Ash (K. alarite-Lumaʿ worldview fī l-taṣawwuf) of but Abū relegates Naṣr al-Sarr theāj (d. realm 378/988), of rational“The Nourishment argumentation of to the authority of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. theologians, and distances himselfexclusively, from Almohadin psychological scholars terms. who They questioned described a the progressive validity ascension and soundness of the soul through al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the of a conformist’s uncritical beliefvarious (muqall states¯ıd and). stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through pp. 18–35). various states4.4. and The stations Way (maqāmāt of the Sufi, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, While the Ash arite “seeshand God with after” the studyingacquisition creation,of heightened the powers Sufi “sees of perception nothing and except direct knowledge that he sees of God (maʿrifa) pp. 18–35). through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The The ideaGod that before the ethical it” ortransformation “with it” (paragraphsof the wayfarer #23–26). through ritual For Shushtarpractice goes¯ı, this hand perspectival in shift is the fruit of a employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive hand with therational acquisition system of heightened of belief powers ( aq¯ıda of) perception that is firmly and direct grounded knowledge in of the God soil (ma ofʿrifa Ash) arism. The theologian thus recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The cultivates a discursive form ofcenturies. knowledge Maʿrifa that appears the Sufi to take needs on a in distinct order technical to acquire significance direct, unmediated,in statements attributed to employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive fruitional experience of God (mafiguresrifa like). Although Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq the (d. Ash 148/765)arite’s as well rational as the surviving proofs do writings not in of themselvesDhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or centuries. Mainspireʿrifa appears direct to knowledge take on a distinct of God, technical they serve significance as a means in statements to it. Having attributed grasped to the basic Ash arite notion knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired figures like ofJaʿfar and al-Ṣ argumentsādiq (d. 148/765) for as God’s well as existence the surviving through writings formal of Dhū l- learning,Nūn al-Miṣ therī (d. Sufi ca. devotes himself to spiritual through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or practice and the acquisition ofcomplementary existential knowledge to various throughintellectual unveiling. sciences (al- Gradually,ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya he) overcomesthat are conditioned his by the knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired fixation on created things anddelimited begins torational move intellect in the (ʿ oppositeaql), including direction, logic, theology, seeking and “proofs philosophyfor (falsafa,[created] ḥikma). through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi complementarythings to various through intellectual their Creator.” sciences The(al-ʿulūm Sufi al “delves-ʿaqliyya) morethat are deeply conditioned into divine by the oneness [than the Ash arite] discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety delimited rationaland professes intellect (ʿaql that), includin thingsg logic, provide theology, no proofand philosophy for their (falsafa, Maker ḥikma whatsoever.). Rather, the proof of things of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi comes only from God” (paragraphSome were #23). strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety As it turns out, the supposedlydismissed self-evident theological speculation judgments as aof veil, the or, theologian at best, as an (e.g., adequate orderly rational creation attempt at knowing of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the Some were provesstrongly opposed the existence to actively of involving the Creator) the intellect based in on acquiring rational knowledge judgment of God and and scriptural support prove to be intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā dismissed theologicalless reliable speculation than previously as a veil, or, assumed.at best, as an The adequate Sufi, however,rational attempt does at not knowing reject these Ash arite proofs out of ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the doubt. He rejects them due tothe an speculative increase inrational his certainty teachings aboutof the theologians God. Ashis and fruitional favored the experience use of the intellect of for the intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā the divine reality intensifies, hepurpose loses certaintyof contemplating in the the rational signs and proofs traces forof God’s God’s attributes existence, in creation. for God Following is His the Qurʾānic ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating the speculativeown rational proof. teachings The Sufi of confirms the theologians that the andreality favored of the things use of issues the intellect from for the the “realm of the divine command” certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. purpose of contemplating( alam¯ al-amr the) into signs “the and traces created of God realm”’s attributes ( alam¯ in al-khalqcreation. ).Following Like the the Qur Qurʾanā¯nic itself, which repeatedly states Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating that God is the Witness over alltheology things and (e.g., were even Q 41:53), trained thein it. SufiSuch figures locates presented certainty the findings self-referentially of Sufism as complementary in certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. God’s own undeniability.27 to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to theology and wereBut even despite trained in this it. Such perspectival figures presented reversal, the findings the experiential of Sufism as complementary knowledge that is gained by the Sufi is contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr to theology.largely Like early in harmony Muʿtazilite with and Ash theʿarite doctrines theologians, of theology. they insisted For that Shushtar the intellect¯ı, Sufism can both reverses some tenets of al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to theology and adopts others. Like505/1111) the Ash werearite professionally theologian, trained the in mainlinethe discursive Sufi methods strikes of a theology balance (kalām between) and incorporated contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr theological extremes and avoidsAsh theʿarite heresies doctrines ofand those creeds who within claim their “unificationism”own works (Ebstein forthcoming). (ittihad¯ ) with Although God. these Sufi- al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. . theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience 505/1111) wereThis professionally doctrine entailstrained in the the interpenetrationdiscursive methods of of theology human (kalām essence) and incorporated and the divine Essence, and Shushtar¯ı and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their Ashʿarite doctrinesattributes and itcreeds to the within Christian their own doctrine works (Ebstein of incarnation. forthcoming). Moreover, Although the these Sufi Sufi accepts- the theological doctrine theologians ofexpressed the constant a certain renewal skepticism of toward all things the science at each of theology individual vis-à- moment.vis direct experience He also accepts that there is no causal and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility1 and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their connection between events, that I Godam grateful is in to charge Saad Ansari, at every Izzet Coban, moment, Frank Griffel, and that Mehmet His Emin predetermination Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. prevails. Finally, the genuine Sufi never forsakes proscription of the divine law on the grounds that all 1 I am gratefulthings to Saad are Ansari, predestined Izzet Coban, and Frank controlled Griffel, Mehmet by God.Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Thus, the Sufi experientially tastes the doctrines that the Ash arite arrives at discursively. Through ethical transformation and spiritual practice, the Sufi accesses a higher reach of the intellect. As Shushtar¯ı states in the Mi rajiyya¯ , this intellect does not pertain to the created realm ( alam¯ al-khalq) but to the

27 The most striking verse in this regard is the Qur anic¯ verse: We shall show them Our signs upon the horizons and within themselves till it become clear to them that it is the truth. Does it not suffice that thy Lord is Witness over all things? (Q Fus.s.ilat 54:53; see also cf. 4:33; 5:117; 22:17; 33:55; 34:47; 58:6; 85:9). God is His own greatest “proof” since He is His own witness through the forms of creation which act as loci or His self-seeing. For a lucid exposition of Avicenna’s philosophical discussion of Burhan¯ al-s.idd¯ıq¯ın, or “the demonstration of those who sincerely affirm the truth” see (Kalin 2014, p. 76). Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Religions 2020, 11, 226 15 of 32 Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents uncreatedand transmitters realm of of the an divine independent command science (ʿ alam¯ al-taṣawwuf al-amr) by). It the is middle moved of by the the 5th/11th Spirit century (ru¯h. ) and recognizes ṭ thatwith the rationalthe emergence proofs of Arabic are ontologically Sufi hagiographies and ( epistemologicallyabaqāt), as well as compilations preceded of Sufi by thelore in all-embracing the reality central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The of God.great theorists The Sufi of the thus renunciant relinquishes way of life the penned faculties the classical that the manuals theologian of Sufism, clings including to so “The dearly in order to accessBook a of higher Gleams” realm (K. al-Luma of inspiredʿ fī l-taṣawwuf knowledge.) of Abū Naṣ Inr al-Sarrāj Shushtar (d. 378/988),¯ı’s words, “The he Nourishment realizes thatof “the proof of thingsthe comesHearts,” only(Qūt al-Qulūb from God,) of Abū and Ṭālib it isal-Makkī He who (d. 386/996), alerts us and to the them, “Epistle for of they al-Qushayrī” have no (R. existence except insofaral-Qushayriyya as He pours) of Abū [existence] l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī upon them.” (d. 465/1074). After all, In divine chronicling existence the transformations cannot be inferred of the by the created soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not intellectexclusively, through in psychological rational proof, terms. because They described He transcends a progressive the Ashascensionarite’s of rationalthe soul through construct of God. The Sufivarious thus critiques states and thestations theologian (maqāmāt, a forḥwāl constraining) of ethical perfection the reality in tandem of with God’s a gradual existence unveiling in accordance with the conceptualof the heart as constructsit acquires direct of hisrecognition delimited of God rational (maʿrifa).faculty. (Casewit 2017, The pp. theologian, 1–90; Bowering for 1979, his part, insists that divinepp. existence18–35). must fit in his conceptual constructs, which is absurd because the latter’s conceptual The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in constructshand with are the none acquisition other of thanheightened a modality powers of of perception God’s being. and direct Through knowledge a typeof God of (ma internallyʿrifa) irrefutable empiricismthrough divine of the grace self whichseems to removes have been all shared rational by many doubts, Sufis the from Sufi the recognizesearliest period. that The the divine reality cannotemployment be contained of the term or ma constrainedʿrifa to mean direct, by conceptual unmediated, construction. non-discursive, experiential, God is the and proof unitive of things, not the reverse.recognition Rational of God proofs through and spiritual conceptions purification are can grossly be dated insu backffi cientto texts in of providing the 2nd, 3rd/8th, certainty. 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 4.5.245/859) The Way (Ogunnaike of the Realizer forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledgeShushtar ¯ofı presents the religious realization sciences that (ta hisq ¯ıqbased, paragraphs on the transmitted #27–32) tradition as the ( culminatingnaql) and acquired and transformative through formal training. These transmitted. religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being experiencecomplementary that the to various Sufi seeks intellectual to attain. sciences The (al- Sufiʿulūm considersal-ʿaqliyya) that material are conditioned things not by the as proofs for God, but asdelimited “mere rational apparitions.” intellect (ʿaql They), including are “essentially logic, theology, dead,” and philosophy or “raised (falsafa, up apparitions, ḥikma). tents of the divine commandWhile that the arecontrast pitched between by conceptual it.” From ʿilm the and perspective experiential ma ofʿrifa the was Realizer, largely adopted a Sufi in is Sufi one who begins to proclaimdiscourse, that its God epistemological is the sole implications Reality but were has yet not to fullybe fully realized worked out. that Sufis assertion. expressed He a variety still perceives created of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. existenceSome were as the strongly empty opposed space to of actively a tent involving and is aware the intellect of the in diacquiringfference knowledge between of God God andand the cosmos, the latterdismissed being the theological locus of speculation God’s manifestation. as a veil, or, at best, While as thean adequate Sufi sees rational the created attempt realmat knowing as a dim shadow, or a silhouette,God (Ebstein the forthcoming). Realizer experiences Early Sufis alike complete Nūrī (d. absorption295/907-8) famously in direct proclaimed and unitive that “the knowledge of God ʿ ʿ ʿ andintellect the separative is impotent realm and only of provides other-than-God proof for that is extinguished.which is impotent” The (al- Realizeraql ājiz lā yadullu is not illā a monistalā in the sense ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into of believingthe speculative that Godrational and teachings creation of the form theologians an ontological, and favored unitary the use whole of thewith intellect one for underlying the ultimate substance.purpose of Rather, contemplating the Realizer the signs verifies and traces the of God’s bold attributes assertion in creation. that creation Following does the notQurʾānic exist at all. It is not a separateinjunctions entity to contemplate from God. God’s The signs, Realizer they regarded affirms contemplation a non-dualist to be truth a means and of denies cultivating the very existence of thecertainty Sufi’s and empty aligning “tents” the believer’s of material will with creation. God’s command. God is not veiled by anything, and the category of Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward other-than-Godtheology and were is illusory even trained and in non-existent. it. Such figures presented The Realizer the findings (muh. ofaqqiq Sufism), therefore, as complementary neither discovers God throughto theology. creation Like like early the Mu Ashʿtazilitearite, andnor Ashʿ creationarite theologians, through they God insisted like that the the Sufi, intellect but rather can knows “God throughincrease God, the believer’s and sees certitude none alongside in God’s existence God but and God, the afterlife and considers when employed things in [otherorder to than God] to be Ḥ ḥ nonexistent.”contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al- ārith al-Mu āsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111)For Shushtar were professionally¯ı, the station trained of the in the Sufi discursive is located methods midway, of theology as it(kalām were,) and between incorporated the theologian and the Realizer.Ashʿarite doctrines Sufism and stands creeds in within relation their to own Ash worksarism (Ebstein just asforthcoming). the school Although of Realization these Sufi- stands in relation to Sufism.theologians Because expressed while a certain the skepticism Sufi recognizes toward the the science inadequacy of theology of vis-à-vis the rational direct experience constructs of Ash arism ʿ in provingand mystical God’s unveiling, existence, they theaffirmed Realizer the utility rejects and the validity Sufi of conception the Ash arite of Sunni a “journey creed. Their to God” altogether. For the Realizer, conceiving of the journey to God in terms of arrival at, separation from, union with, proximity1 I am to,grateful or distanceto Saad Ansari, from Izzet God Coban, isas Frank inadequate Griffel, Mehmet asthe Emin theologian’s Gulecyuz, Oludamini cosmological Ogunnaike, and teleological Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. arguments for God’s existence. The Realizer is both the perceived and the perceiver, the subject and object of awareness. He is unaware of his awareness and is no longer aware of himself since his awareness is none other than God’s. The Realizer attains actual realization after losing awareness of his awareness of God, in contrast to the Sufi, who is aware of his awareness. The Realizer loses his “traces” (sing. rasm), or the illusion of separative existence that he once ascribed to himself and to creation. He returns to where he began, thereby discovering his pre-eternal station in God, and completing the full circle of the journey “to” God. Upon completing the journey, the Realizer proclaims that there is no journey to God in the first place since He is beginningless and endless and cannot be “arrived at.” The Realizer professes sheer divine oneness (s.a¯h. ib al-wah. da al-mah. d. a) and is directly aware of divine unity (sha¯ ir biha¯) through God. In Shushtar¯ı’s treatise entitled “The Keys of Existence: Calling Attention to the Circle of Illusion” (al-Maqal¯ ¯ıd al-wujudiyya¯ f¯ı l-tanb¯ıh Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the 1. Introduction intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lāReligions yadullu illā2020 ʿal, ā11 , 226 16 of 32 ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figuresSufism tended began to discourage to consolidate their as followers a self-conscious from delving school into of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the speculative rational teachings of the the second theologians half of and the favored3rd/9th thecentury. use 1 of Practitioners the intellect of for Sufism the achieved recognition as proponents purpose of contemplating the signs andand traces transmitters of God’s attributes of an independent in creation. science Following (ʿ al al-ta thea¯ al-dṣ awwufQura¯ʾiraānic) by al-wahmiyya the middle of), hethe describes 5th/11th century a visionary experience that he had in Egypt which illustrates ṭ injunctions to contemplate God’s signs,with they the regarded emergence contemplation of Arabic Sufi to hagiographies be a meansthis of ( abaqātcultivating circle), as of well realization. as compilations He explainsof Sufi lore that in the the rationalist ( aqil¯ ) theologian completes one-third of the certainty and aligning the believer’s willcentral with and God eastern’s command. lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The circle, the Sufi knower of God ( arif¯ ) completes two thirds, and the Realizer completes the full circle, Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhgreat theoristsī (d. 255/869), of the renunciant held a mildly way of favorable life penned view the toward classical manuals of Sufism, including “The theology and were even trained in it. SuchBook figures of Gleams” presented (K. al-Luma the findingsʿ fī l-ta ofṣ awwufSufism) ofas Abūcomplementarythereby Naṣr returningal-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), where he “The started, Nourishment and immersing of himself back in society once more (Shushtar¯ı 2008, to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite andthe AshHearts,”ʿarite ( theologians,Qūt al-Qulūb )they of Abū insisted Ṭālib thatal-Makkī thepp. intellect (d. 110, 386/996), 111). can Theand the Realizer, “Epistle therefore,of al-Qushayrī” meets (R. the rationalist, the Sufi knower of God, and the monotheist increase the believer’s certitude in Godal-Qushayriyya’s existence) andof Abū the l-Qāsim afterlife al-Qushayrī when employed (d. 465/1074). in order In to chronicling the transformations of the (muwah. h. id) at their own levels, assenting to the knowledge and experience of each one while critiquing contemplate God’s signs. Well-knownsoul figures on its such journey as al -backḤārith to alGod,-Mu ḥtheseāsib īauthors (d. 243/857), conceived Abū Bakrof the spiritual path primarily, though not them at the same time. al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsimexclusively, al-Qushayr inī psychological(d. 465/1074), terms.and Abū They Ḥā middescribed al-Ghazālī a progressive (d. ascension of the soul through 505/1111) were professionally trained invarious the discursive states and methods stations of ( maqāmāttheology, a(kalāmḥwāl) )of and ethical incorporatedShushtar perfection ¯ı’sin tandem lengthiest with a andgradual most unveiling important discussion of realization (tah. q¯ıq) is found in the Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within oftheir the ownheart works as it acquires (Ebstein direct forthcoming). recognition Although of Godaforementioned (thesemaʿrifa Sufi). (Casewit- Maq 2017,al¯ ¯ıdpp.( Shushtar1–90; Bowering¯ı 2008 1979,, pp. 104–14). In this treatise, as in the Qus.ariyya¯ , he clearly theologians expressed a certain skepticismpp. 18–35). toward the science of theology vis-à-vis directself-identifies experience as a Realizer, not a Sufi. In the Maqal¯ ¯ıd, he explicitly proclaims himself to be a monist The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their 28 hand with the acquisition of heightened powersfollower of perception of Ibn and Sabdirect¯ın. knowledgeHe insists of God that (maʿ Realizationrifa) is inexpressible by definition and that all attempts through divine grace seems to have been sharedat defining by many it orSufis “giving from the a reportearliest aboutperiod. it”The ( ikhbar¯ ) are qualifications of the Realizer’s state, not actual 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban,employment Frank Griffel, of the Mehmet term ma Eminʿrifa Gulecyuz,to mean direct, Oludamini realization.unmediated, Ogunnaike, non-discursive, Playing on experiential, the language and unitive used in discussions about taql¯ıd, i.e., the uncritical acceptance Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck,recognition and the two anonymousof God through reviewers spiritual of this purification article for their can comments. be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th of transmitted reports (khabar), Shushtar¯ı describes the Realizer (muhaqqiq) as one who is unaffected centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to . figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well asby the the surviving “corporealized writings of Dhū fantasies” l-Nūn al-Mi ofṣ creation.rī (d. ca. For in relation to the Real (h. aqq), creation is falsehood 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these (bauthors,a¯.til). It ma isʿrifa just is a usually transmitted contrasted report. with However,ʿilm, or since there is no absolute falsehood, or else it would be knowledge of the religious sciences that is basedabsolute on the nonexistencetransmitted tradition ( adam (naql mu) and.tlaq acquired), the realm of other-than-the-Real, or the transmitted report, is through formal training. These transmitted religiousneither sciences, completely moreover, real were nor often completely seen as being unreal. As such, it is composed of names that signify essences, complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic,levels, theology, forms, and philosophy rulings, and (falsafa, numbers. ḥikma). These are all suppositional, or posited (mafru¯d. at¯ ) names. They are While the contrast between conceptual ʿilmnames and experiential that you have maʿrifa named—you was largely adopted and your in father—forSufi which God has sent down no authority (Q A raf¯ 7:71).29 discourse, its epistemological implications wereThe yet to Realizer be fully worked verifies out. the Sufis truth expressed that these a variety names are fantasies (wahm¯ı) with no essence (dhat¯ ). They are of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. means of arriving at one’s essence, or one’s entity in God ( ayn) yet when that arrival takes place, there Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or,is at no best, longer as an adequate any need rational for them. attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī For(d. 295/907-8) the Realizer, famously existence proclaimed is one, that yet “the it is qualified by the names that the children of Adam assign intellect is impotent and only provides proof forto that its which parts. is impotent” All things, (al-ʿaql both ʿājiz goodlā yadullu and illā evil,ʿalā come from God but are qualified by the act of naming. ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into God casts veils over His creatures by assigning names to things that have no agency. These illusory the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the purpose of contemplating the signs and traces ofseparative God’s attributes entities in creation. of creation Following are the a fulfillmentQurʾānic of God’s wisdom, and the Realizer observes courtesy injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regardedwith these contemplation veils through to be whicha means God of cultivating acts, but he is not affected or distracted by them. Shushtar¯ı’s most certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’sexplicit command. description of realization in the Maqal¯ ¯ıd is worth quoting in full, notwithstanding the obscurity Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward of his language and the poor quality of the available critical edition: theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can “Know that what is necessary is your entity ( ayn) and what is impossible is your report increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as(khabar al-Ḥārith). So al-Mu it isḥāsibī impossible (d. 243/857), to report Abū Bakr about other than yourself. If you report—whatever you al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrīmay (d. 465/1074), report—you and Abū are Ḥāmid reporting al-Ghazālī about (d. yourself, even by turning away from reporting. So 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursiveit methods [the report] of theology is itself (kalām an) and imagined incorporated fantasy (wahm) in view of its reporter, real in respect of Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- existence. So it reports about you, and it is from none other than you. [Just as] your head is theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience 30 and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility andyours, validity and of eventhe Ash ifʿ itarite is constantlySunni creed.in Their search for the resplendent archetype (al-mithal¯ al-jal¯ı) it is but a head that can be cut off. So whatever sort of life you live, you will not find a “not”

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel,nor Mehmet will youEmin understandGulecyuz, Oludamini “where” Ogunnaike, [with your delimited intellect]. Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. The Real is real, and all other than Him is a report (khabar), and there is none other than Him. Moreover, the report (khabar) consists of names, and names are composed of letters whose

28 The Maqal¯ ¯ıd is an important treatise that needs a full critical edition. It was penned after Shushtar¯ı’s move to Cairo, and after the year 652/1254 when he assumed leadership in, or of, Ibn Sab ¯ın’s order. He still refers to Ibn Sab ¯ın as “our master” and had yet to join the Shadhiliyya¯ (Shushtar¯ı 2008, pp. 108, 111). 29 Translations of Qur anic¯ verses are from (Nasr et al. 2015) with some modifications. 30 I have doubts about how to translate this sentence. The term al-mithal¯ al-jal¯ı seems to be a technical term. Assuming there is no editorial or scribal error in the 2008 edition of the text, it may correspond to al-mithal¯ al-wujud¯ ¯ı that Shushtar¯ı refers to later in the treatise. It is, therefore, the Alif from which all the letters of the names of the Real issue. In relation to other images, it is like the archetypal number one, which contains all numbers. It thus contains all forms and corresponds to the Tablet, the Pen, and the First Intellect (p. 108). Religions 2020, 11, 226 17 of 32

composition breaks down into dots supposed by the imagination. There is no report (khabar) in the Real, [because the Real is just the Real, no “other” can be “in” Him] and none can Religionsreport 2020, 11, xof FOR Him PEER REVIEW (mukhbir ), for He is other than the report (khubr) and the2 of reporter 30 (mukhbir). 1. IntroductionRather, He is He. Rather: He. Rather, through Him any verbal expression is supposed. The Sufismname began “existence” to consolidate is applied as a self-conscious only to theschool Essence of Islamic of mysticism the One, by the the Real,beginning the of Existent, and the the secondimagined half of the report 3rd/9th (wahm century. al-khabar1 Practitioners) suggests of Sufism that achieved nonexistence recognition hasas proponents an essence in existence. and transmittersHowever, of in anfact, independent nonexistence science (ʿ adam al-taṣawwuf) is not) by found. the middle It possesses of the 5th/11th nothing century in existence other ṭ with thethan emergence the supposed of Arabic Sufi/ D hagiographies/ M of adam (...abaqātThus,), as well imagined as compilations fantasy of (wahm Sufi lore) and in the existence pervade central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theoriststhe suppositions of the renunciant (mafr wayu¯d. ofat¯ ),life imagined penned the fantasiesclassical manuals (awham¯ of )Sufism, and the including one who “The reports of them Book of(mukhbirih Gleams” (K.a¯ ).al-Luma Thus,ʿ fī there l-taṣawwuf is nothing) of Abū withNaṣr al-Sarrāj God except (d. 378/988), God “The in each Nourishment thing, nor of is any part His. the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-QushayriyyaImagination) of Abū (l-Qāsimwahm) al-Qushayrī and nonexistence (d. 465/1074). ( adam In chronicling) are synonymous the transformations in a certain of the sense. Names soul onpossess its journey a secret.back to God, Whoever these authors understands conceived it of understands the spiritual path the primarily, letters, and though whoever not understands exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through variousthe states letters and stations finds that (maqāmāt they, haveaḥwāl) noof ethical reality. perfection And whoever in tandem finds with a no gradual reality unveiling therein is not deceived of the heartby the as it fantasy acquires ofdirect duality recognition (shaf ),of andGod ( whoevermaʿrifa). (Casewit is not 2017, deceived pp. 1–90; by Bowering the fantasy 1979, of duality is odd pp. 18–35).(witr , [a divine name]) ... Whoever is odd is real. And whoever understands the secret of Thethe idea names that the is ethical and there transformation is no thing of the with wayfarer him. through Thus, ritual you arepractice you goes if you hand do in not report, and hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) throughyou divine are grace other seems than to you have in been a certain shared respect by many if Sufis you from report. the Andearliest you period. report The only about you, employmentandReligions you of 20the20 find ,term 11, x none FORmaʿ rifaPEER other to REVIEW mean than direct, you, unmediated, and the non-discursive, line of your experiential, report extends and unitive infinitely 2 of 30 from you. recognitionTherefore, of God through you are spiritual the real purification and your can report be dated is back imagination. to texts of the You 2nd, are 3rd/8th, the encompassing9th and centuries.your1. IntroductionMa reportʿrifa appears is encompassed. to take on a distinct You aretechnical the oddsignificance by which in statements there is theattributed pair. to You are the fixed figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of 245/859)proposition (Ogunnaike andforthcoming). it is disappearing. For these authors, You ma areʿrifa the is usually spirit andcontrasted it is thewith body. ʿilm, or You are the lord the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents knowledgeand of it isthe the religious servant. sciences From that it is you based must on the withdraw transmitted ( takhalltradition¯ı), (naql and) and in order acquired not to report, you and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being mustwith the adorn emergence yourself of Arabic (tah. allSufi¯ı). hagiographies Your existence (ṭabaqā fort), as it well is theas compilations disclosure of (Sufitajall lore¯ı) ...in theGod alone complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the (Allcentralah¯ faqa andt eastern). Scattering lands of (Islam,tashattut especially) occurs around in existenceBaghdad, Ba onlysra and on the account region of of Kh supposingorasan. The essences, delimited rational intellect. (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Whilelevels, the contrast forms, between laws, numbers, conceptual and ʿilm thingsand experiential of that ma sortʿrifa that was arelargely too adopted many toin Sufi number. And all of Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of discourse,that its is epistemological through the implications existence ofwere names. yet to beThey fully are worked none out. other Sufis than expressed names a thatvariety you have named (Q the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Aalr-Qushayriyyaaf¯ 7:71). The) of Abū one l- whoQāsim taught al-Qushayrī [those (d. names]465/1074).is Incalled chronicling the the vicegerent, transformations Adam of the... and [the Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and names]soul on its are journey everything back to God, other-than-God, these authors conceived and everything of the spiritual is perishing path primarily, except though His Face not (Q Qasas dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing . . exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through God (Ebstein28:88) ...forthcoming).they have Early no essenceSufis like apart Nūrī from(d. 295/907-8) [their letters] famously... proclaimedThe names, that therefore, “the move from various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling intellectthe is impotent Essence, and the only Essence provides of proof the Real,for that the which One. is impotent” Their ascent (al-ʿaql to ʿājiz the lā Realyadullu is illā through ʿalā imagination, of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into forpp. they18–35). are other than the Real even though they realize the Real and give clarity to the the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the levels.The They idea that are, the therefore, ethical transformation the instrument of the that wayfarer enable through you toritual attain practice your goes essence, hand in but when purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) injunctionsyou to attain contemplate it, you God’s have signs, no need they forregarded them.” contemplation (Shushtar to¯ı 2008 be a ,means pp. 104–6). of cultivating through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive SomeShushtar Sufis, ¯ısuch explains as Ḥakīm that al-Tirmidhī the names (d. are 255/869), not disjoined held a mildly breaks favorable (infikak¯ )view in the toward chain of existence. Rather recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary they arecenturies images. Ma ofʿrifa the appears Real that to take enable on a youdistinct to technicalarrive at significance a particular in statements essence. He attributed compares to the essence to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can (dhat¯ )figures that the like Realizer Jaʿfar al-Ṣā arrivesdiq (d. 148/765) at to aas king, well as and the surviving the content writings of theof Dh reportū l-Nūn ( alkhabar-Miṣrī) (d. to ca. the doorkeeper increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to ¯ 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or contemplate(h. ajib) who God’s allows signs. the Well-known seeker to figures enter such into as the al-Ḥ king’sārith al-Mu court.ḥāsibī Upon (d. 243/857), entering, Abū there Bakr is no more need for knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired al-Kalābādhīthe doorkeeper (d. 380/990), who noAbū longer l-Qāsim alludes al-Qushayrī to, but (d. veils465/1074), from, and the Abū king. Ḥāmid Similarly, al-Ghazālī the (d. seeker comes to know through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated God throughcomplementary His names, to various which intellectual are veils sciences in themselves. (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya However,) that are the conditioned seeker’s essence by the (dhat¯ ) is the Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- king anddelimited the doorkeeper rational intellect (h ajib¯(ʿaql).), includin By positingg logic, a theology, division, and he philosophy generates (falsafa, his ownḥikma veil,). thus becoming the theologians expressed a certain skepticism. toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience While the contrast¯ between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi andveiled mystical doorkeeper unveiling,( hthey. ajib affirmed). the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their Shushtardiscourse,¯ı’s its epistemological understanding implications of the were “school yet to be of fully realization” worked out. (Sufismadhhab expressed al-ta a hvarietyq¯ıq) or “school of of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing. God. non-dualism” (madhhab al-laysiyya)31 in the Maqal¯ ¯ıd (and presumably the Qusariyya¯ ) is deeply influenced 1 I am Somegrateful were to Saad strongly Ansari, opposed Izzet Coban, to actively Frank Griffel, involving Mehmet the intellectEmin Gulecyuz, in acquiring Oludamini knowledge Ogunnaike,. of God and bySamantha Ibndismissed Sab Pellegrino,¯ın’s theological uncompromising Ian Grant-Funck, speculation and theas monism atwo veil, anonymous or, who at best, statesreviewers as an axiomatically:adequate of this article rational for their “Godattempt comments. alone” at knowing (All ah¯ faqa.t). Ibn Sab ¯ınGod is, moreover,(Ebstein forthcoming). considered Early to Sufis be the like first Nūrī Muslim (d. 295/907 thinker-8) famously to speak proclaimed of the that “oneness “the of being” intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the 31 Shushtarpurpose¯ı begins of contemplating one of his treatises the signs with and the traces statement: of God “God’s attributes alone, andin creation. none other” Following (Allah¯ the faqa Qur.t waʾlaysaānic illa¯, see Ih. a¯.ta, vol. 4, p.injunctions 212). Ghubr to¯ın contemplate¯ı describes Shushtar God’s signs,¯ı’s as “thethey pathregarded of realization” contemplation (.tar¯ıqat to al-tah be a. q means¯ıq, see al-Dirof cultivatingaya¯ , p. 239). certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments.

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and Religionsexperiential 2020, 11 ma, x ʿFORrifa PEERwas largelyREVIEW adopted in Sufi 2 of 30 discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety 1. Introduction of attitudes toward discursiveReligions theology2020, 11 ,and 226 the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. 18 of 32 Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellectSufism in began acquiring to consolidate knowledge as ofa self-conscious God and school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best,the assecond an adequate half of therational 3rd/9th attempt century. at knowing1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the (wah. dat al-wujud¯ ) as a majorand transmitters concept. of The an independent Cairo-based science Shafi¯ (ʿ ¯ı al-ta traditionistṣawwuf) by Qu the t. middleb al-D of¯ın the al-Qas 5th/11tht.all an¯ century¯ı intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ṭ (d. 686/1287), as well aswith heresiographers the emergence of ofArabic the Sufi Muslim hagiographies West including ( abaqāt), as Ibnwell al-Zubayras compilations (d. of 708 Sufi/1308), lore in the ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended centralto discourage and eastern their landsfollowers of Islam, from especially delving into around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The the speculative rationalIbn teachings al-Kha oft. ¯ıb the (d. theologians 776/1375),great and theorists and favored Ibn of the Khaldthe use renunciant ofun¯ the (d. intellect way 808 of/1406), life for penned the blacklisted the classical Shushtar manuals¯ı of along Sufism, with including other “The purpose of contemplatingmystics the signs of and the traces Muslim of God West,Book’s attributes of including Gleams” in creation. (K. Sh al-Lumaudh¯ Following¯ı,ʿ Ibnfī l-ta al-Martheṣawwuf Qur)ʾ a,āofnic Abū and Na Ibnṣr Sabal-Sarrāj¯ın as(d. “extremist 378/988), “The proponents Nourishment of injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating 32 of absolute oneness” (ahlthe waHearts,”h. da mu (Qūt.tlaqa al-Qulūb min) al-mutawaghghilof Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī¯ın). (d. 386/996),Ibn Khald and un,the¯ “Epistle moreover, of al-Qushayrī” offers a (R. certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. thoughtful summary ofal-Qushayriyya this perspective,) of Abū whichl-Qāsim mayal-Qushayrī be informed (d. 465/1074). by aIn reading chronicling of the Shushtar transformations¯ı’s prose of the Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869),soul on its held journey a mildly back favorable to God, these view authors toward conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not 33 theology and were eventreatises trained in it. (especially Such figures the presentedexclusively,Maqal¯ the¯ıd) findings given in psychological theof Sufism terminological as terms. complementary Theyand described doctrinal a progressive overlap. ascensionHe o ffofers the a soul similar through 34 to theology. Like earlyassessment Muʿtazilite and of the Ashʿ schoolarite theologians,various of tah. qstates¯ıq asthey and promulgators insisted stations that (maqāmāt the of intellect “absolute, aḥwāl) ofcan ethical oneness” perfection (wa h.inda tandem mu.tlaqa with). a gradualHe accuses unveiling increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to them of meddling with theof the Law, heart highlights as it acquires the direct importance recognition of of theGod term (maʿrifata).h. q(Casewit¯ıq in their 2017, works, pp. 1–90; importance Bowering 1979, contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr of the letters and their propertiespp. 18–35). and powers and numerical symbolism. Shudh¯ ¯ı, known as al-Halw¯ı, al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. The 465/1074), idea that and the Abū ethical Ḥāmid transformation al-Ghazālī (d. of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes. hand in 505/1111) were professionallydied trained in Tilims in thean¯ discursive in thehand early methods with 7th theof/ 13ththeology acquisition century, (kalām of heightened) and is considered incorporated powers of the perception “founder” and direct of this knowledge “school” of God which (maʿrifa) Ashʿarite doctrines andmaintains creeds within that their “God own works isthrough the (Ebstein sum divine forthcoming). total grace of whatseems Although manifeststo have these been Sufi and shared- what by doesmany notSufis manifest, from the earliest that there period. is The theologians expressed anothing certain skepticism other than toward that.” theemployment science35 of theology of the term vis -maà-visʿrifa direct to mean experience direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their In the Qusariyya¯ andrecognition in the Maqof Godal¯ ¯ıd through, Shushtar spiritual¯ı responds purification to can allegations be dated back of violatingto texts of the the 2nd, revealed 3rd/8th, 9th . centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to Law as a theological problemfigures like that Jaʿfar is al- raisedṢādiq (d. by 148/765) Realization. as well as the That surviving is, debates writings overof Dhū human l-Nūn al-Mi ethicalṣrī (d. ca. 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, accountability in light of245/859) divine (Ogunnaike omnipotence, forthcoming). not ontological For these debates authors,over maʿrifa the is onenessusually contrasted of being (withwah datʿilm, or Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. . al-wujud¯ ), were at the forefrontknowledgeof of thesethe religious early sciences debates. that He is based responds on the totransmitted the accusation tradition that(naql)monism and acquired invalidates prophetic lawsthrough and formal frees training. the Realizer These transmitted from all religious sciences, and moral moreover, accountability. were often seen This as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the accusation is leveled againstdelimited Shushtar rational intellect¯ı by Ibn (ʿaql al-Kha), includingt.¯ıb (logic,Knysh theology, 1999 ,and p 183).philosophy While (falsafa, later ḥikma scholars). such as Suyu¯ t.¯ı tended to criticizeWhile the monists contrast forbetween introducing conceptual Avicennan ʿilm and experiential philosophical maʿrifa was terminology largely adopted into in Sufi Sufism and rejected thediscourse, doctrine its of epistemological “absolute unity” implications (al-wa hwere. da al-mu yet to .tbelaqa fully), Shushtarworked out.¯ı is Sufis concerned expressed with a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. human accountability: How can we be judged for actions that are ascribed to us and are actually Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and from God? To this, he doesdismissed not theological resort to speculation the Ash arite as a veil, doctrine or, at best, of acquisition as an adequate (kasb rational). He attempt adopts at knowing the 36 strongly predestinarianGod “H. ad (Ebstein¯ıth of theforthcoming). two Handfuls.” Early SufisThis like predestinarianNūrī (d. 295/907-8) position famously aligns proclaimed more withthat “the Shushtar¯ı’s monist metaphysicsintellect is impotent and describes and only provides the felicitous proof for as that those which who is impotent” uphold (al- theʿaql truthʿājiz lā yadullu at every illā ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into level. The Realizer affirms that all things come from God. He does not ascribe an act to any agent the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the other than God, becausepurpose that would of contemplating be a form the ofsigns associating and traces of partners God’s attributes with Himin creation. (shirk Following). The Realizer the Qurʾānic observes courtesy withinjunctions all of God’s to contemplate disclosures, God’s and signs, one aspectthey regarded of observing contemplation courtesy to be witha means God of iscultivating not disclosing truths to thosecertainty who areand unqualified.aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward In conclusion, Shushtar¯ı’s thought is an appropriate topic for a comparative Special Issue on theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary mysticism and spiritualityto theology. in medieval Like early Spain Mu forʿtazilite several and reasons. Ashʿarite Itstheologians, author not they only insisted influenced that the figuresintellect can increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 32 (Ibn al-Khat.¯ıb 1970, vol. 2,505/1111) p. 604). were On al-Qas professionallyt.allan¯ ¯ı, see trained (Ohlander in the 2008 discursive, p. 319). methods For an examination of theology ( ofkalām Ibn) al-Khaand incorporatedt.¯ıb and Ibn Khaldun’s¯ receptionAsh of Ibnʿarite al- doctrinesArab¯ı, see and Knysh, creedsIbn withinArab ¯ıtheir in the own Later works Islamic (Ebstein Tradition forthcoming)., pp. 167–201. Although Following these Ibn Sufi- al-Khat.¯ıb, Ibn Khaldun,¯ intheologiansShifa¯ al-sa¯ ilexpressed, cites Shushtar a certain¯ı and skepticism Ibn Sab ¯ın toward as being the among science those of theology who believe vis-à-vis in Oneness direct ( waexperienceh. da); in contrast to those who believeand mystical in disclosures unveiling, (tajalliy theyat¯ affirmed), including the Ibnutility al-F andari¯ d. ,validity Ibn Barraj ofan, ¯the Ibn Ash Qasʿarite¯ı, B un¯Sunni¯ı, and creed. others. Their Ibn al-Khat.¯ıb (d. 1374), who had an established friendship with Ibn Khaldun¯ and shared the same teacher, al-Maqqar¯ı and Abu¯ Mahd¯ı Is¯ a¯ b. al-Zayyat¯ in mysticism, a commentator on Haraw¯ı’s Manazil¯ al-sa¯ ir¯ın. 33 Ibn Khaldun,¯ Shifa¯ al-sa¯ il1, p. I 111;am grateful Yumna to Özer, SaadRemedy Ansari, forIzzet the Coban, Questioner Frank, Eng. Griffel, trans. Mehmet pp. 62–69. Emin Gulecyuz, “The Creator Oludamini (al-Bar¯ ¯ıOgunnaike,) (may He be exalted and glorified)Samantha is the totality Pellegrino, of what Ian is Grant-Funck, visible and invisible:and the two there anonymous is nothing reviewers besides of this.this article The multiplicityfor their comments. of this Absolute Reality and the All-encompassing Existence (al-aniyya al-jami¯ a)—which is the source of every existence—and of the Essence (huwiyya)—which is the source of every essence—is only the consequence of illusions (awham¯ ), such as time, space, difference, occultation and manifestation, pain and pleasure, being and nothingness. This opinion affirms that all things, if delved into, are but illusions that refer back to the elements of information in the conscience and they do not exist outside it. If there were no such illusions, the whole world and all it contains would be the One, and that the One is the Truth.” 34 See Yumna Özer’s introduction to Remedy for the Questioner,(Ibn Khaldun¯ 2017, pp. XIX–XII). 35 For a summary of the doctrine of “absolute oneness” (wah. da mut.laqa) according to (Ibn al-Khat.¯ıb 1970, vol. 2, p. 605). 36 In this h. ad¯ıth, which experts generally consider to be authentic (s.a¯h. ¯ıh. ), God takes the two handfuls, the felicitous and the damned, casting one into paradise and the other into hell, saying, “this group to the Garden, and I do not care! And this group to the Fire, and I do not care!” It can be found in several versions in various collections (e.g., Malik,¯ Muwa.t.ta , Abu¯ Daw¯ ud,¯ Sunan, Nasa¯ ¯ı, Sunan, al-H. akim,¯ al-Mustadrak). It is often cited by Qur an¯ commentators in the context of the verse: And when thy Lord took from the Children of Adam, from their loins, their progeny and made them bear witness concerning themselves, “Am I not your Lord?” they said, “Yea, we bear witness”—lest you should say on the Day of Resurrection, “Truly of this we were heedless.” (Q A raf¯ 7:172). Religions 2020, 11, 226 Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 32 2 of 30

1. Introduction like the Catalan mystic Ramon Llull (d. 1316) but also spent timeSufism visiting began Christianto consolidate monasteries as a self-conscious in school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the Muslim East. His interest in comparative mysticism, moreover,the second half is of evidenced the 3rd/9th bycentury. the1 fact Practitioners that of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents he positions his Andalusian school of realization and the spiritualand transmitters lineage of of an his independent master Ibn science Sab (ʿ ¯ın al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century ṭ (sanad al-tar¯ıqa al-sab ¯ıniyya) as part of a larger trans-historicalwith and the trans-regional emergence of Arabic spiritual Sufi hagiographies lineage that ( abaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the . central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The includes a motley handful of Greek forerunners (Hermes, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW great theorists of the renunciant2 ofway 30 of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Great), Muslim Andalusian and non-Andalusian philosophersBook (Ibn of Gleams” S¯ına,¯ Ibn (K. Masarra, al-Lumaʿ fī Ibnl-taṣawwufT. ufayl,) of IbnAbū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of Rushd, Suhraward1. Introduction¯ı), Sufi monists (H. allaj,¯ Shudh¯ ¯ı, Ibn Qasthe¯ı, Ibn Hearts,” Masarra, (Qūt al-Qulūb Ibn Arab) of Abū¯ı, Ibn Ṭālib al-F al-Makkīari¯ d. , (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the Niffar¯ı) and earlySufism Muslim began to ascetics.consolidate37 asIn a aself sense,-conscious the hierarchyschool of Islamic of knowledge mysticism by that the beginning Shushtar of¯ı outlines in soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents the Qus.ariyya¯ and his discussion of “realization” (tah. q¯ıq) is aexclusively, specifically in psychological Islamic counterpart terms. They todescribed the a progressive ascension of the soul through and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century universal spiritual tradition of his master Ibn Sab ¯ın that he describesvarious states in and the stationsNuniyya¯ (maqāmāt. , aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The pp. 18–35). 5. Translationgreat theorists and Edition: of the renunciant On the way Limits of life [of penned Theology the classical and Sufism]manuals of Sufism, including “The The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) 5.1. Al-Ristheala¯ Hearts,” al-Qus. ariyya(¯Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the [1] Praise belongs to God who veiled creation by Him andemployment from Him, of the and term who maʿ renderedrifa to mean praisedirect, unmediated, of non-discursive, experiential, and unitive soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th Him by Him.exclusively, Greetings in psychological upon the terms. master They of described the successors a progressive and theascension predecessors, of the soul who through affi rmed the centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to various states and stations (maqāmāt¯ , aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling word of [the pre-Islamic poet Labıd] who said: “Indeed, everythingfigures like apart Jaʿfar from al-Ṣādiq God (d. is148/765) unreal.” as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, [2] To proceed: Lessons do not contain God’s mystery,245/859) nordo (Ogunnaike souls limit forthcoming). it, nordoes For these paper authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or pp. 18–35). announce it. That is God’s bounty, He gives it to whom He wills knowledge(Q 5:54). Discursiveof the religious knowledge sciences that is is a based veil on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being over Him,hand and with direct the acquisition recognition of heightened cannot reach powers Him. of perception Rather, and the direct furthest knowledge limit of of God these (ma twoʿrifa) is to make complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The the knower aware of his own incapacity, and that is the first breakdelimited in the rational seal ofintellect [the knower’s](ʿaql), including treasure, logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). employment of the term ma38ʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive and the undoing of his riddle. Therefore, the one who recognizesWhile God the contrast by following between conceptual the authority ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety [of Ash arites]centuries is. aMa commonʿrifa appears believer. to take The on a one distinct who technical recognizes significance Him in by statements theological attributed proofs, to and seeks of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. proofs offigures the Creator like Jaʿfar from al-Ṣā things,diq (d. 148/765) is an Ashas wellarite. as the Moreover, surviving writings the one of Dh whoū l-N seeksūn al-Mi proofsṣrī (d. ca.for things by Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or their Creator is a Sufi. And the one who recognizes God throughdismissed God, theological and sees speculation none alongside as a veil, or, God at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired but God, and considers things to be nonexistent, is a RealizerGod (muh (Ebstein. aqqiq). forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā [3] Thus,complementary the one who to various seeks intellectual proofs for sciences the Artisan (al-ʿulūm by the al-ʿaqliyya artisanry) that says:are conditioned “I see nothing by the except that ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into I see Goddelimited after it,” rational and this intellect is the (ʿaql way), includin of theg logic, theologians. theology, and The philosophy one who (falsafa, considers ḥikma) things. through God the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi says, “I see nothing except that I see God before it,” and thatpurpose is the of way contemplating of the Sufis. the signs So alsoand traces the one of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety who says: “I see nothing except that I see God with it” or “[Iinjunctions see] it from to contemplate Him,” or God’s “in Him”signs, they or “byregarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. Him” or “forSome Him” were strongly and things opposed of thatto actively sort. involving As for the the one intellect who in says acquiring “I see knowledge nothing,” of God he is and among those Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward who havedismissed become theological realized inspeculation one sense. as a Theveil, sciencesor, at best, ofas peoplean adequate are rational thus classified attempt at in knowing accordance with theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the these levels. to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into 5.1.1. [The Way of the Theologian] contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. [4] Aspurpose for how of contemplating they seek the to expositsigns and theirtraces of proofs: God’s attributes The common in creation. believer, Following the the Qur Qurʾanā¯nic expert, the 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating H. ad¯ıth expert, and the legal expert limit themselves to followingAshʿarite the doctrines authority and of creeds the theologian. within their own The works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. measure of their faith is like the faith of the slave-girl whomtheologians the Messenger expressed a ofcertain God—may skepticism God’stoward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their blessingstheology and peace and were be upon even trained him—asked in it. Such aboutfigures presented God and the she findings pointed of Sufism to the as complementary sky. So he said: “Free her, for sheto istheology a believer.”. Like early (Muslim Muʿtazilite 1955 and; K. Ash al-ʿS.aritealat,¯ theologians, #537) Despite they insisted her pointing that the to intellect a direction, can he was satisfied byincr herease a theffirmation believer’s of certitude [God’s] in existenceGod’s existence because and she the afterlife a1 ffi Irmed am whengrateful the employed existenceto Saad Ansari, in of order Izzet the to ArtisanCoban, Frank and Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-SamanthaMuḥāsib īPellegrino, (d. 243/857), Ian Grant-Funck, Abū Bakr and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. His exaltedness, and this too is a sort of existence and a declaration of incomparability. al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi-

37 theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience See Shushtar¯ı’s famous Nuniyya¯ , a poem in bah. r al-t.aw¯ıl meter which has received many commentaries. In the Nuniyya¯ , he and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their also expounds upon the goal of the philosopher as well as the limits of the intellect ( aql)(Shushtar¯ı 1960, pp. 72–76; Ibn al-T. awwa¯h. 1995, pp. 106–11; Ibn al-T. aww a¯h. 2008, pp. 123–29; Ibn al-Khat.¯ıb 1977, vol. 4, pp. 208–11; Faure 1998; Festugière s 1950, pp.1 390,I am 400; grateful Ibn Ajto ¯ıbaSaad 2013 Ansari,). Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, 38 The expressionSamantha “kasr Pellegrino, al-.talsam” Ian appears Grant- inFunck Shushtar, and the¯ı’s two poetry anonymous (Maqal¯ ¯ıd reviewers, p. 112) of and this the article expression for their “comments.fakk mi m ar¯ ramzihi” in Maqal¯ ¯ıd, p. 84. Religions 2020, 11, 226 20 of 32

Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30 [5] The theologian’s approach, in turn, yields the following doctrine: All things other than God are bodies,1. Introduction and bodies are combinations of atoms and accidents. The term “substance” (jawhar) comes from Persian,Sufism andbegan it to was consolidate appropriated as a self-conscious by the theologians school of Islamic to mean mysticism “indivisible by the beginning part,” of although the term alsothe has second many half other of the meanings 3rd/9th century. depending1 Practitioners on the of Sufism discipline. achieved According recognition toas theproponents theologians, a body is and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century defined as two or more atoms (sing. jawhar). Therefore, anything that is divisible is a body. Moreover, with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the an atomcentralmust and eastern have lands accidents of Islam, such especially as motion, around Baghda rest,d, color, Basra orand being. the region All of K qualitieshorasan. The are accidents, and an accidentgreat theorists cannot of the subsist renunciant by itself,way of norlife penned is it able the classical to do without manuals of an Sufism, atomic including locus wherein“The it manifests. Thus,Book it isof inGleams need” (K. of al [atoms],-Lumaʿ fī l- andtaṣawwuf anything) of Abū thatNaṣr isal- needfulSarrāj (d. 378/988), is originated “The Nourishment in time. Since of accidents are the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. originated in time, the atom is also originated in time, because it is qualified by something that is al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the originatedsoul on its in journey time. Moreover,back to God, anthese atom authors is never conceived devoid of the of spiritual accidents path norprimarily, does though it precede not accidents. And thatexclusively, which does in psychological not precede terms. the temporally They described originated a progressive is just ascension like it.of the And soul something through originated in timevarious that has states no and beginning stations (maqāmāt is absurd, aḥw byāl) of the ethical very perfection statement in tandem “originated with a gradual in time,” unveiling since the theologians of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, consider temporal origination (huduth¯ ) to be the negation of eternity (qidam). pp. 18–35). . [6]The Moreover, idea that theirthe ethical discipline transformation is centered of the around wayfarer five through axes: ritual (1) Apracticeffirming goes that hand accidents in exist, and (2) thathand they with the are acquisition temporally of heightened originated, powers (3) whateverof perception does and notdirect precede knowledge the of temporally God (maʿrifa) originated thing is a temporallythrough divine originated grace seems thing, to have (4) temporally been shared originated by many Sufis things from that the earliesthave no period. beginning The are impossible employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive by the very fact that they are temporally originated, and (5) that no atom is devoid of accidents. recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries[7] The. Ma evidenceʿrifa appears for atoffi takerming on a accidents distinct technical is that significance a body either in statements moves attributed by itself, to or by something addedfigures onto like it, Jaʿ orfar byal-Ṣ neitherādiq (d. 148/765) this nor as well that—which as the surviving is impossible, writings of Dh forū l- ifNū an body al-Miṣ wererī (d. ca. to move by itself, then245/859) it would (Ogunnaike continue forthcoming). to move as For long these it exists authors, [which maʿrifa neveris usually happens], contrasted and with therefore, ʿilm, or the only option knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired left is that it [moves] by something added onto it, which is the accident. through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary[8] Furthermore, to various an accident intellectual occurs sciences after (al it-ʿ hadulūm not al-ʿaqliyya been.) Itthat is replacedare conditioned by what by the is similar, opposite, otherdelimited than, orrational contrary intellect to it,(ʿaql and), includin this isg logic, an attribute theology, ofand the philosophy temporally (falsafa, originated. ḥikma). The whole cosmos is a combinationWhile the of contrast atoms between and accidents, conceptual ʿ therefore,ilm and experiential the cosmos maʿrifa was is temporally largely adopted originated. in Sufi Similarly, to discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety affirm the existence of the Artisan, you say that a body must necessarily have a combiner who joins of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. oneSome atom were to another.strongly opposed When to one actively sees involving a built wall, the intellect one knows in acquiring by self-evidence knowledge of God that and it has a builder, or thatdismissed a cut door theological has a carpenter. speculation as Doubtless, a veil, or, at whoever best, as an supposes adequate rational that a attempt wall stands at knowing on its own, or that a doorGod makes (Ebstein itself, forthcoming). is a wretched Early madman. Sufis like Nūrī Therefore, (d. 295/907 let-8) us famously not address proclaimed the obvious that “the and self-evident. intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā [9] When the existence of the Artisan and the eternity of the Essence become clear through this ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into approach,the speculative [the theologian] rational teachings turns of to the the theologians attributes. and He favored affirms the their use of existence the intellect while for the maintaining God’s incommensurability.purpose of contemplating The the attributes signs and aretraces seven, of God and’s attributes they are in creation. mentioned Following in the the Qur Qurʾan:ā¯nic Hearing, seeing, speech,injunctions desire, to power,contemplate knowledge, God’s signs, and they life. regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. [10] Incomparability is oneness and eternality. Negating the attributes of temporal origination is Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward the waytheology of [aandffi wererming] even eternality. trained in it. Moreover, Such figures wepresented have alreadythe findings established of Sufism as “existence”complementary and mentioned its logicalto theology demonstration.. Like early Mu It followsʿtazilite and that Ash theʿarite existence theologians, of thethey cosmos insisted that is as the possible intellect ascan its nonexistence. Neitherincrease possibility the believer is’s more certitude likely in God to occur’s existence than and the the other. afterlife Whether when employed [the cosmos] in order pertains to to existence contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr rather than nonexistence, requires a specifier, which is the Existenciator of “existence.” Put differently: al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. The505/1111) cosmos were consists professionally of bodies, trained and in the bodies discursive are combinations.methods of theology Since (kalām every) and incorporated combination must have a combiner,Ashʿarite the doctrines cosmos and must creeds have within a combiner.their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians[11] Now expressed that the a certain temporal skepticism origination toward the of science the cosmos of theology and vis its-à- needvis direct for experience an Originator to give it and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their existence is apparent, we say concerning the eternity of the Artisan: If He were temporally originated, then He would have a need for an originator. This case either leads to an infinite regression, or we 1 arrive I at am an grateful Originator, to Saad Ansari, not an Izzet originated Coban, Frank thing. Griffel, Since Mehmet infinite Emin Gulecyuz, regression Oludamini is impossible, Ogunnaike, nothing remains Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. but the existence of an eternal [Originator] who has no beginning. [12] Oneness: The approach [of the theologians] is to suppose that if there were two gods, then we might also suppose the possibility of them disagreeing, which is not impossible. This being the case, let us imagine that there is a body, and one god wants it to move, while the other wants it to be still. If their wishes are fulfilled, we obtain from that body something which is both moving and still, or both living and dead, and this is impossible. Alternatively, if the will of one god is fulfilled and the other’s is impotent, then the impotent is not a god, and if both are impotent then the god is neither of them, Religions 2020, 11, 226 21 of 32 and if one seeks help from another then both are impotent, and God is far above that. If we suppose that [the two gods] agree, then oneness would be unnecessary, duality would not be discernible, and both gods would be impotent. [13] Furthermore, this discussion is premised on the possibility of disagreement, which, according to them, is a proof of mutual hindering. God mentions this in His book: Were there gods other than God in them [i.e., in the night and day], they would surely have been corrupted (Q 21:22), He also says: And some [gods] would overcome others (Q 23:91). Thus, those who hold polytheistic beliefs, such as two [gods], are contradicted by a third, a tenth, or even a hundredth [god]—a corrupt contradiction to a corrupt [doctrine]. They cannot affirm their claim without another claim [contradicting theirs], and thus they fall back on the One [God] who is agreed upon. [14] Life: [This essential attribute] accounts for the fact that the cosmos has a single, eternal Artisan, and that divine artisanry is not produced by someone who is dead or by an inanimate object. Therefore, He is Living and Self-Sustaining. Moreover, life is an attribute of perfection, and it is, therefore, His attribute. [15] Knowledge: We observe that existent things are arranged according to a hierarchy, a harmonious arrangement, and a habitual course of nature that is wisely interconnected and meticulously perfected. We thus know that it necessarily issues from the knowledge of a Wise Knower. Does He who created not know? (Q 67:14). Knowledge is also an attribute of perfection, for were we to suppose that He is devoid of knowledge, then He would be qualified by its opposite, and He is exalted above that. [16] Power: We observe that existent things come forth from nonexistence and that they are created from naught. Likewise, living creatures are created from water, and plants from nutrients, [we observe] blood, to seminal fluid, to sperm-drop, to a blood clot, to the known developmental stages [of the fetus]. Thus, we know necessarily that all of that comes from a power that exerts influence and brings things forth from naught or another thing, and God is powerful over all things (Q 2:284). Were God not qualified by power, then He would be qualified by its opposite. Therefore, power is an attribute of perfection. [17] Will: We observe that existent things pertain specifically to existence over nonexistence. Since it would have been [logically] possible for existent things to remain in nonexistence, we know that [their existence] is through will of a willing God who chose their existence over their nonexistence, He acts fully on what He wills (11:107). Therefore, Will is an attribute of perfection. [18] Speech: This is an attribute of perfection which, were He not qualified by, would render Him thoughtless; exalted is He above that. God says: And God spoke to Moses directly (Q 4:164). Now, when Will is specified and Power is perfected, the [attribute of] Speech calls upon an existent thing to manifest and come to be, so it comes to be. God says: His command when He wills for a thing is only to say to it “Be!” and it is (Q 36:82)—thereafter, He gives it commands and prohibitions. [19] Hearing: This is an attribute of perfection which, were He not qualified by, would render Him deaf, and He is the hearing, the seeing (Q 42:11). After existent things become manifest, they speak, and He hears what they hide in secret and what they declare openly: He knows what is secret and what is more hidden still (Q 20:7). [20] Seeing: This is an attribute of perfection, and it presupposes that which is necessary in the others. Who sees thee when thou standest [to pray] (Q 26:218). That thou mightiest be formed under My eye (Q 20:43). Having originated existentReligions things, 2020, 11, x God FOR PEER sees REVIEW them, just as He hears, knows, wills, and 2 of 30 overpowers them in being hallowed beyond1. Introduction the attributes of creation in the realm of noneternity. [21] Among these [characteristics ofSufism creation began thatto consolidate are wrongly as a self-conscious ascribed school to the of Islamic attributes] mysticism is by the beginning of otherness and unificationism that is ascribedthe second to half the of exaltedthe 3rd/9th attributes. century.1 Practitioners As for the of philosophers, Sufism achieved theyrecognition as proponents deny the attributes, which is againstand the transmitters doctrine of of anthe independent Sunn¯ıs. The science Mu (ʿ tazilites, al-taṣawwuf39) byfor the their middle part, of the 5th/11th century ṭ interpret them figuratively as referringwith to God’sthe emergence knowledge, of Arabic in Sufi contrast hagiographies to the ( Ashabaqātarites.), as well In as so compilations doing, of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. 39 The manuscript has Ghazal¯ ¯ı, which I assume to be a misreading of I tizal¯ ¯ı (see discussion above). al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Religions 2020, 11, 226 22 of 32 Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters[the of philosophers an independent and science Mu (ʿ tazilites] al-taṣawwuf) flee by the from middle multiplicity of the 5th/11th [in the century Essence]. However, we have no ṭ with the emergenceneed forof Arabic the sects Sufi hagiographies such as Mu ( tazilites,abaqāt), as well the as Karr compilationsamites,¯ andof Sufi their lore fleeing!in the As for those who make the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theoristsattributes of the renunciant noneternal, way of thatlife penned is [heretical] the classical unbelief. manuals Some of Sufism, claim including that the “The attributes [are completely distinct Book of Gleams”from (K. the al-Luma Essence],ʿ fī l-taṣawwuf and this) of Abū doctrine Naṣr al-Sarrāj leads to(d. multiplicity378/988), “The [inNourishment the Essence]. of Others claim that they hark the Hearts,” (backQūt al-Qulūb to the) meaningof Abū Ṭālib of al-Makkī the Essence (d. 386/996), and that and therethe “Epistle is no of multiplicity, al-Qushayrī” ( andR. thus they are neither He nor al-Qushayriyyaother) of Abū than l-Qāsim He, andal-Qushayrī that is (d. the 465/1074). safest and In chronicling best approach, the transformations for the demonstration of the shows that multiplicity soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, inmust psychological be negated, terms. and They scripture described informs a progressive us of ascension the attributes. of the soul Thus through their [the Ash arites’] approach is to various statesreconcile and stations the (maqāmāt two approaches., aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires[22] Likewise,direct recognition one mustof God not (maʿ sayrifa). that(Casewit the 2017, God pp. of 1–90; the cosmosBowering is1979, “inside” the cosmos nor that He pp. 18–35). is “outside” of it. For that is an attribution of bodies, and He is exalted above that. For if He were The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the“inside” acquisition the of cosmos,heightened then powers the of cosmos perception would and direct encompass knowledge and of surround God (maʿrifa Him,) and He is exalted above the through divineattributes grace seems of bodies. to have Therefore,been shared whatby many remains, Sufis from as we the have earliest said, period. is an The approach between two [extreme] employment approaches,of the term maʿrifa for to it mean is impossible direct, unmediated, for Him non-discursive, to dwell in experiential, something and or unitive for something to dwell in Him—He recognition ofis God far through exalted spiritual above purification that. can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike5.1.2. [The forthcoming). Way of theFor Sufi]these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious[23] The sciences Sufis, forthat theiris based part, on professthe transmitted the doctrine tradition of (naql the) theologiansand acquired at the beginning [of their path]. through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementaryThen to various they delve intellectual more sciences deeply (al- intoʿulūm divine al-ʿaqliyya oneness) that andare conditioned profess that by the things provide no proof for their delimited rationalMaker intellect whatsoever. (ʿaql), including Rather, logic,the theology, proof and of philosophy things comes (falsafa, only ḥikma from). God, and it is He who alerts us to While thethem, contrast for between they have conceptual no existence ʿilm and experiential except insofar maʿrifa aswas He largely pours adopted [existence] in Sufi upon them. The proof comes discourse, its fromepistemological God, not implications from things: were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly Thouopposed Thyself to actively reveal, involving then the dost intellect Thou in conceal,acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming).Thou provest Early Sufis Thyself, like Nūrī the (d. proof, 295/907-8) andI. famously proclaimed that “the intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj [24]1914, Existentp. 40). Such things figures aretended essentially to discourage dead. their followers They are from raised delving up into apparitions, tents of the divine the speculativecommand, rational teachings pitched of by the it. theologians Good and and evil favored are spiritual the use of forms the intellect that descend for the upon them from the world of purpose of contemplatingthe divine the command signs and traces and byof God’s the command.attributes in creation. This is Following [what the the SufisQurʾānic call] the high command and the injunctions toholy contemplate spirit. TheGod’s cosmos signs, they conforms regarded to contemplation the eternal to will be anda means the of overpowering cultivating destiny. God says: And you certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. Some Sufis,threw such not as when Ḥakīm you al-Tirmidhī threw, but (d. God 255/869), threw held(Q a 8:17), mildly and favorable He says: viewFight toward them and God will punish them by theology and yourwere even hands trained(Q 9:14). in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early[25] Mu Furthermore,ʿtazilite and Ash theyʿarite consider theologians, bodies they toinsisted be [of] that the the world intellect of can creation whose accidents renew increase the atbeliever’s every certitude instant andin God’s with existence eachindividual and the afterlife moment. when employed The divine in order command to moves them as it wishes. contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī Moreover,(d. 380/990), aAbū group l-Qāsim among al-Qushayrī those who(d. 465/1074), have not and gained Abū Ḥāmid master al-Ghazālī in the (d. sciences may slip by committing 505/1111) wereacts professionally of disobedience trained in the that discursive were destined methods of fortheology them, (kalām and) and they incorporated claim that theirs is God’s speech, or Ashʿarite doctrinesthat God and creeds speaks within through their own us. works Some (Ebstein even proclaimforthcoming). [the Although doctrine these of] Sufi- unificationism, which is absurd. theologians expressedFor interpenetration a certain skepticism occurs toward between the science two of theology essences, vis-à-vis and direct that experience is an attribute of bodies. The proof [of and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their the absurdity of the doctrine of unificationism] is that there are either two existent things, or two non-existent things, or one is existent and the other nonexistent, and there is no unification in either of 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino,these possibilities. Ian Grant-Funck, This and the doctrine two anonymous is a horrendous reviewers of this heresy, article for a doctrinetheir comments. taken from Christian sects. [26] Know also that the intellect ( aql), according to the Sufis comes from the world of the command, whereas the lower soul (nafs) is the blameworthy creature. Nafs is also the word that the Arabs use to denote the very totality of a thing. The spirit (ru¯h. ) for them is the divine command that enters upon the realm of being so that it comes to be, and so that it moves or rests. The spirit is the pure meaning of the Kaf¯ and the Nun¯ [“Be!”], and it is God’s exalted word which they call the Universal Spirit. For it is any essence that is stripped from spirit, soul, or intellect. It possesses no act, unlike the body, except what reaches them from the secret of the Holy Spirit, which is the Pen of Differentiation, inscribes existent things without interruption eternally and without end. Religions 2020, 11, 226 23 of 32

5.1.3. [The Way of the Realizer] [27] As for the Realizers, they say that engendered things are veils over their essences, and the Real is not veiled by a veil. Rather, nothing exists within Him. Existence for them is one, and the [divine] names separate, divide into parts, and veil. God proves His own Essence and is Himself proven by Himself. The servant, for his part, is passing in his essence and exists by accident and illusion. For the Realizers, there is no arrival [at God], since arrival implies an in-betweenness prior to arrival, yet God is closer than arrival, separation, union, difference, proximity, farness, mental or spatial distance, all of which are attributes of bodies. [28] Furthermore, angels and devils, like humans, have no agency. Rather, God seeks to fulfill His wisdom by casting veils over His creatures, and by assigning names to things that have no power. He then teaches us to observe courtesy and to address [Him]. Hence, one way of observing courtesy is not to ascribe evil to Him. He appoints the quiddity of Satan as the locus of evil and ugliness. He has no power except for whatever descends upon him from the high command and the overpowering spirit. This [etiquette with God] is similar to the way rulers are to be addressed in this world. That is, when addressing kings and notables who commit evil deeds, the speaker ascribes them to himself and admits his lack of power and weakness. Do you not see what Abraham, God’s intimate friend, said of God in his whispered prayers: [The Lord of the worlds] who created me, and thus He guides me, and who gives me food and drink, and when I am sick, He cures me (26:78–80). He ascribes sickness, given its hardship, to himself. As for the rest, namely creation, guidance, food, and drink, he ascribes to God. Such is the proper etiquette of the law while believing that there is no actor but God. [29] Among the things that the Realizers, may God be pleased with them, say is: “Whatever the beautiful deed, it is enacted by God, and whatever the ugly deed, it comes from me and by me.” The angels of death, [the terrifying angels of the grave] Munkar and Nak¯ır, Satan, the ocean, snakes, scorpions, lions, sultans, poison, and every frightening form are all appearances created by their Creator from naught. They are given authority over whomever He wills among His servants by His command that is concealed within their bodily frames. For the human being only recognizes a bodily frame that is like him: A corporealized body. However, God is the absolute Agent who acts through those veils. Therefore, whoever realizes that all things are mere corporeal bodies, and understands the divine command within those bodies, and fears only God rather than corporealized fantasies, then these forms of the command have no authority over him. [30] If you say “since we have no agency, we should not be rebuked for what occurs through us, for it all comes from God” just as others have said before you, then know that God’s act is all good as we have already said. He made the good to be a sign for the People of the Right and Paradise, and evil a sign for the People of the Left and Hell, may God shelter us from it. Good and evil are signs of the two Handfuls, and what we take into account is the final moment of death. Whoever believes that there is no god but God, and that Muh. ammad is the messenger of God, and that there is absolutely no agent but God, and if God preserves him in matters addressed by the Law which are also God’s command, and he achieves conviction that all things come from Him—including the sword and the whip—and that the Fire is a decree that cannot be repelled and a command that prevails, and he persists upon the standard path of uprightness which God describes as upright on the tongues of His creatures—even though He is the actor through those corporeal tongues that He originates—then he is among the felicitous. Indeed, God expresses that world, and displays generosity toward the upright, and disdain toward the depraved in this abode, for axiomatically, nothing other than God’s command exercises control. [31] Furthermore, whoever is informed of a secret and pronounces it publicly will not be informed of secrets so long as he lives, [and] is to be executed [for breach of] courtesy, even if the Real were to call him a liar. May God make us among those who obey Him and His messenger by His favor and grace, there is no Lord but Him, and no object of worship but Him. [32] Moreover, know that to affirm an act to anyone other than God is to ascribe partners to Him. To those who claim this idea, recite to them: That is because when God alone is called upon, you Religions 2020, 11, 226 24 of 32 disbelieved, and when partners are ascribed to Him, you believe (Q 40:12). Tell them when they call upon you to abandon your proclamation of God’s oneness: Oh my people, how it is that I call you unto salvation while you call me unto the Fire? You call upon me to disbelieve in God and to ascribe as a partner to Him that whereof I have no knowledge, whereas I call you unto the Mighty, the Forgiving. There is no doubt that that unto which you call me has no call in this world or the Hereafter (Q 40:41–43). May God protect us from ascribing partners to Him, from hidden doubt, falsehood, and stupidity. He is the All-Bestower, the Exalted, the Forbearing, the Generous. God bless our master Muh. ammad, his family, and his companions, and may He greet them with abundant greetings of peace until the Day of Requital. Religions 2020, 11, 226 25 of 32

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     Ì  Ì k Ì éÒÊ¿ †Y’Ó ,ÉK@ðB@ð Qk@ðB@Y Jƒ úΫ é<Ë@ úΓð , éJÓ éË YÒm '@ ɪk. ð , éJ« éK. ‡Êm '@ I. m. ø YË@ é<Ë YÒm '@ [1]    .  É£AK. é<Ë@ Cg AÓ Zú æ É¿ B@  :ÉKA®Ë@        41     á Ó é JK ñ K é<Ë@ ɒ¯ ½Ë X ,€ðQ¢Ë@ èYJ ®K Bð €ñ®JË@ èY J®K Bð €ðPYË@ éJ ’J®K B é<Ë@ Qå àA ¯ :YªK. AÓ@ [2]      Q儻 Èð@ ½ËXð , èQj . ªK. AÒîE. ­’JÖÏ@ PAªƒ@ AÒîDK A« ÉK. , éJ Ë@ ɓñKB é¯QªÖÏ@ð , éJ Ê« H. Am.k ÕΪË@ .(45 :5) ZA‚        ¯  Q úΫ ZAJ ƒBAK. ÈYJƒA¯ YJ kñJË@ ÉKBYK. é¯Q« áÓð ,ú ×A« ñê¯ YJ Ê®JËAK. é<Ë@ ¬Q« áÔ , èQÓP PAÒªÓ ½¯ð è » Õæ„Ê£      , é<Ë@ B@ é<Ë@ ©Ó QK ÕËð é<ËAK. é<Ë@ ¬Q« áÓð ,ú ¯ñ“ ñê¯ AëYg. ñÖß. ZAJ ƒB@ úΫ ÈYJƒ@ áÓð ,ø Qªƒ@ ñê¯ AëYg. ñÓ   .‡®m× ñê¯ , èYJ« éÓðYªÓ ZAJ ƒB@ð á             Q£AJË@ð . ÒʾJÖÏ@ é®K Q£ èYëð ,  èYªK. é<Ë@ IK @P B@ AJ ƒ IK @P AÓ  Èñ®K ©KA’Ë@ úΫ éªJ’ËAK. ÈY J‚ÖÏA¯ [3]               AJ ƒ IK @P AÓ  ÉKA®Ë@ ½ËY»ð , é J¯ñ’Ë@ ‡K Q£ ñëð  éÊJ.¯ é<Ë@ IK @P B@ AJ ƒ IK @P AÓ  Èñ®K é<ËAK. ZAJ ƒCË     ÈA¯ áÓð .½ËX éJ.ƒ@ AÓ ð@  éË  ð@,  éK.  ð@,  éJ ¯  ð@,  éJ« ñë  ð@,  éªÓ é<Ë@ IK @P B@          .‡ÊmÌ'@ ¬PAªÖÏ èQå•AmÌ'@ I. KQË@ èYëð ,AÓ ék. ñK. ‡®m' áÜØ ñê¯  AJ ƒ IK @P AÓ            ɓAgð ,ÕξJÒÊË YJ Ê®JË@ Ñë@PA’¯ ú«ðQ®Ë@ð H YjÖÏ@ð øQ ®ÖÏ@ð ú×AªË@ à @ ñê¯ ÑêËBYJƒ@ àAJ K. é J®J »AÓ@ð [4]       ƒ   Ì AîEA ¯ Aê®J«@  ÈA®¯ ,ZA҂Ë@ úÍ@ HPAƒA¯ , é<Ë@ á« ÕÎ ð éJ Ê« é<Ë@ úΓ é<Ë@ ÈñƒP AêËAƒ ú æË@ ÐXAm '@ àAÖß A¿ ÑîEAÖß @          Ì   42  Xñk. ð ñëð , éJª¯Pð ©KA’Ë@ Xñk. ñK. HQ¯@ AîEB ½ËXð ,Xñk. ñËAK. P@Q¯B AK. AîDÓ ©J¯ éêm. '@ úÍ@ AîEPAƒ@ ©Ó  éJÓñÓ  .AÓ éK QKð         Qëñm.Ì'@ð - @Q«@ð Që@ñk. áÓ é®ËñÓ ÐA‚k. B@ð ,ÐA‚k. @ é<Ë@ øñƒ AÓ à@ :Èñ®K éK@ é®K Q£ ɓAg ÕξJÖÏ@ð [5] ' Q  Q          - ©KAJ’Ë@ I. ‚m . è J» àAªÓ úΫ ¼@ ƒAK. ‡Ê¢ ð ,Õ愮JK B ø YË@ ZQj. ÊË àñÒʾJÖÏ@ AêÊ®Kð I¯Q« é JƒPA¯ é¢®Ë        é»QmÌ'A¿ Q« á« ñÊm' B Qëñm.Ì'@ð ,Õæ„k. ñê¯ Õ愮K@ AÓ É¾¯ ,@Y«A’¯ áK Qëñk. úΫ ‡Ê¢  á ÒʾJÖ Ï@YJ« Õæ„m.Ì'@ð   ×     , éJ ¯ Qê¢ ø Qëñk. Ém á« ú æªJ‚ Bð 邮JK. Ðñ®K B QªË@ð ,@Q«@ AêÊ¿ HA®’Ë@ð ,àñºË@ð àñÊË@ð àñº‚Ë@ð     Q« á« øQªK B Qëñm.Ì'@ð ,HXAm '. é¯A’B HXAg Qëñm.Ì'A¯ ,HXAg QªË@ð ,HXAg Q®J®Ó É¿ð , éË Q®J®Ó ñê¯           HðYmÌ'@ àA ¯ ,HXAg AJËñ¯ ®K áÓ ÈAm× éË Èð@B HXAgð , éÊJÓ ñê¯ HXAmÌ'@ ‡J.‚ B AÓð ,QªË@ ‡J.‚ Bð  .ÐY®Ë@ ù ®K ñë ÑëYJ«         Èð@B HX@ñkð ,HXAg HXAm Ì'@ ‡J.‚ B AÓð ,AîEðYgð @Q«B@ HñJ .K:H. A¢¯@ é‚Ôg úΫ ÑîD«AJ“ PðYKð [6]  .Q« á« øQªK B Qëñm.Ì'@ð ,HXAg AJËñ ¯ ®K áÓ ÈAm× AêË      ,ÈAm× @Yëð ,@YêË Bð @YêË B ð@ éJ Ê« YK@P úæªÖÏ ð@ 邮JË ¼Qj JK à@AÓ@ Õæ„m.Ì'@ à@ @Q«B@ HñJ .K úΫ ÉJ ËYË@ð [7]    ¯     Ì ' .QªË@ ñëð YK@QË@ úæªÖÏ@ B@ ‡J. K ÕÎ , éKA®K. Èñ£ A¿QjJÓ ù ®J.Ë é‚®JË Õæ„m. '@ ¼Qm ñËð

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     ÕËAªË@ éÊÔg. ð .HXAm Ì'@ ­“ð @Yëð ,¬CmÌ'@ð Q ªË@ð Y’Ë@ð ÉJÖÏ@ éJ.®ªK ð ,áºK ÕË à@ YªK. @Q¢ QªË@ A’ @ð [8]     ,Qëñj. ÊË Qëñm.Ì'@ Õæ• ­ËñÓ éË èPðQå”ËAJ .¯ Õæ„m.Ì'@ Èñ®K à @ ©KA’Ë@ HñJ .Kð ,HXAg ÕËAªËA¯ ,@Q« @ð Që@ñk. áÓ ­ËñÓ               ÐA¯ ¡AmÌ'@ à@ á £ á Óð ,@PA m.' éË à@@Pñj . JÓ AK.AK. ð@,ZAJK. éË à@A JJ.ÓA¢Ag IK @P @X@ éK@ èPðQå”ËAK. ÕΪK à@ð   '    g    .ø PðQå• ú æîE YK. I. £Am C¯ , éKðA®ƒð é®Ô ú ¯ ½‚  C¯ éK@X áÓ ÉÒªK@H. AJ.Ë@ ð@ èYgð    < >           éK QJÊËð ,AîDJ.K ð HA®’ÊË ©k. QK , éÖß Y®Ë@ H@YË@ I J.Kð , é®K Q¢Ë@ èYë úΫ ©KA’Ë@ Xñk. ð éË á J.K@XA ¯ [9]    < >   43      < > ÕΪË@ð èPY®Ë@ð èX@PB @ð ÐC¾Ë@ð Qå”J.Ë@ð ©Ò‚Ë@ ùëð AîE. à@Q®Ë@ ‡¢ éªJ.ƒ HA®’Ë@ð , é®K Q£ á J. K ¬  . èAJ mÌ'@ð       Ì    Q  ,Q»X AÒ» éKAëQK.ð ,Xñk. ñË@ I.KY¯ @X@ ð ,ÐY®Ë@ ‡K Q£ ñë HYm '@ HñªK ù ®Kð ,ÐY®Ë@ð èYgñË@ : éK JË@ð [10]   44   A’JkA ¯ ,¨ñ¯ñËAK. Qk B@ áÓ úÍð@ á JºÒÖ Ï@ Yg@  Ëð , éÓY« áºÜ Øð èXñk. ð áºÜ Ø ÕËAªË@ à @ ñë 鮂ð

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á   ¯           Pñ« JKB A¿ YK@QËAK. ÈA¯ áÔ ,(91 :23) ‘ ªK. úΫ ÑîD”ªK. CªËð úÍAªKÈA¯ð ,(22 :21) AKY‚®Ë é<Ë@ B @ éêË @        Yg@ñÊË ©k. Q ¯ , èQ « øñ«X àðX è@ñ«X HAJ .K@ úΫPY®K C¯ , èYƒA®K. èYƒA¯ é“PAªÓ éKAÖÏ@ð Qå AªË@ð ,IËA JËAK.

. éJ Ê« ©Òj. Ü Ï@    g       á    Ì ,Ðñ J¯ ú k @X@ ñê¯ ,XAÔ . á« Bð I JÓ á« PY’ B éªJ’Ë@ð ,Yg@ð Õç' Y¯ ©KA“ éË ÕËAªË@ à@ J.K: èAJ m '@ [14]      Ì  .úÍAªKð Ég. éJ®“ ú æê¯ ,ÈAÒ» 鮓 èAJ m '@ A’ @ð      à @ èPðQå• AJÒÊ« ,á ®JÓ ɪ¯ð éÒºmÌ'AK. é£ñK.QÓ YK@ñ«ð Õºm× ÐA¢ ð I KQ K úΫ H@Xñk . ñÖÏ@AJK @P AÜÏð :ÕΪË@ [15] .        ÕΪË@ á« èñÊg AKPY¯ ñË ,ÈAÒ» 鮓 A’ @ ñëð ,(14 :67) ‡Êg á Ó ÕΪ K B@ Õæ ºk ÕËA« ÕΫ á« PXA“ ½ËX   .½ËX á« úÍAªK èY’ . ­’B  Ì         ÐYË Z@YªË HAJ.JË@ ZAÓ áÓ à@ñJ m 'A¿ ð@ ,Zú æ B áÓ àñºJKð ÐY« YªK. PY’ H@Xñk. ñÖÏ@AJK @P AÜÏð : èPY®Ë@ [16]           áÓ ð@ Zúæ B áÓ Zúæ„Ë@ h. Qm' èQKñÓ èPY¯ á« ½ËX à@ èPðQå• AJÒÊ« , éÓñʪÖÏ@ P@ñ£B@ úÍ@ é®ÊªË 鮢JË úæÖÏ               鮓 ù ëð ,½ËX á« úÍAªK AëY’. ­’B èPY®ËAK. ­’JK ÕË ñËð ,(284 :2) QK Y ¯ Zú æ É¿ úΫ é<Ë@ð ,Zú æ .ÈAÒ»

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       ½ËX à@AJÒÊ« ,QKAg. ÐYªË@ ú ¯ AëðA®K. àA¿ð ,ÐYªË@ úΫ Xñk. ñËAK. I’’k H@Xñk. ñÖÏ@AJK @P AÜÏð : èX@PB @ [17]      .ÈAÒ» 鮓 ù ëð ,(107 :11) YK Q K AÜ Ï ÈAª¯ ,ÐYªË@ úΫ Xñk. ñË@ PAJk@ YK QÓ èX@PA K.           :4) AÒJ Ê ¾K úæ ñÓ é<Ë@ Õοð úÍAªK é<Ë@ ÈA¯ ,½ËX á« úÍAªKA¯ñÓ àA¾Ë ½ËYK. ­’JK ÕË ñË ÈAÒ» 鮓 :ÐC¾Ë@ [18]

     úÍAªK é<Ë@ ÈA¯ ,I KA¾ ¯ áK ñºJË@ð Pñê¢ÊË Xñk. ñÖÏ@ ÐC¾Ë@ ú«YJƒ@ èPY®Ë@ I«YK .@ð èX@PB@ I’ ’k AÜÏð ,(164

         .AëAîEð AëQÓ@ Õç' ,(82 :36) àñº J¯ á» éË Èñ® K à@AJ ƒ X@P@@X@ èQÓ@AÜß @      H@Xñk . ñÖÏ@ HQê £ AÜÏð ,(11 :42) Q ’ J.Ë@ ©J Ò ‚Ë@ ñëð ,A¯ñÓ àA¾Ë éK. é¯A’@ BñË ÈAÒ» 鮓 :©Ò‚Ë@ [19]    .(7 :20) ù® k @ð Qå „Ë@ ÕΪ K ,I JÊ« @ð H Qå  @ AêªÒ‚¯ IÒ ʾK       úΫ ©J’JË ð (218 :26) Ðñ®K á g ¼@Q K øY Ë@,HA ®’Ë@ áÓ è@ñƒ ú¯ ÐQË AÓ éJ ¯ ÐQÊK ÈAÒ» 鮓 :Qå”J.Ë@ [20]   Ì  Q   Þ  Ï Ï  ‡Êm '@ HñªK á« éK JË@ AîD Ê« PY¯ð AëX@P@ð AêÒÊ«ð AêªÖ AÒ» Aë@P H@Xñk. ñÖ @ é<Ë@ ¨YK.@AÜð ,(39 :20) ú æ J« .HðYm Ì'@ ZAÖÞ áÓ      Éë@I. ëYÓ ¬Cg @Yëð ,AîEñJ.ʂ ¯ 鮃C®Ë@ AÓ@ ,XAm'B@ð QK Aª JË@ áÓ úΪË@ HA ®’Ë@ ‡jÊK AÓ ½ËX áÔ ¯ [21]    Q    Q   ªË    é JÓ@QºË@ð éË ªÖÏA¿ †Q® ÊË AJK. ék. Ag Bð , è ºË@ áÓ ñë ÑîE.ðQëð , é KQªƒCË A¯Cg ÕÎ @ úæªÖß. AêËðAK ú Í@QªË@ð , éJ‚Ë@      <  >    ÉKA¯ áÓð , èQºË@ úÍ@ øXñK Èñ®Ë@ @Yëð é KQ « HA ®’Ë@ à@ ÉKA¯ áÔ ¯ ,Q®» ñê¯ éKXAg Aêʪk. áÓð ,ÑîE.ðQëð

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.ÑîDÓ èXñ k AÓ øPA’JË@ †Q ¯ áÓ éËñ¯ð

   Ì    « úΫH. QªË@ Aê®Ê¢ ð ,ÑëYJ« éÓñÓYÖÏ@ ‡Êm '@ ù ë ®JË@ð ,QÓB@ ÕËA« áÓ ñë é J¯ñ’Ë@ YJ« É®ªË@ à@ ÕÎ @ð [26]      úæªÓ ñëð ,á º‚ËAK. ð@ ½K QjJËAK. Õç',áK ñºJËAK. àñºË@ úΫ XP@ñË@ é<Ë@ QÓ@ ñë ÑëYJ« hðQË@ð ,Zúæ„Ë@ éÊÔg.   ð@ ® K ð@ hðP áÓ èX Qm× èPY ¯ H@ X ø@ éKA ¯ ,  ¾Ë@ hðQË@ éKñ ҂ < ð > éJʪË@ é<Ë@ éÒÊ¿ ùëð ,àñ JË@ð ¬A¾Ë@ . ú Î        ¨A¢®K@B H@Xñk . ñÒÊË Õ¯@QË@ ÉJ ’®JË@ Õί ñëð ,úæ Y®Ë@ hðQË@ Qå  áÓ éJ Ê« XQK AÓ B@ Õæ„m.Ì'A¿ ÑêË Éª¯ C¯ ,É®«  .áK YK.B@ YK.@ AêË         éªÓ Yg. ñK B ÉK. ,H. Am.k éJ.j. m' B úÍAªK ‡mÌ'@ð ,AîE@ðX úΫI. m.k éKñºÖÏ@ ZAJ ƒB@ à@ àñËñ®K àñ®®jÖÏ@ð [27]    k      YJ.ªË@ð , éJ Ê« ÈñËYÖÏ@ ñëð éK@X úΫ È@YË@ ñë é<Ë@ð ,IJ.m. ð I’ªK.ð I¯Q¯ ZAÖÞ B@ð ,Yg@ð ÑëYJ« Xñk. ñË@ð ,Zú æ   á     úÍAªK é<Ë@ð ,½ËX ÉJ.¯ K. á« úæ.JK Èñ“ñË@ àA ¯ ,Èñ“ð ÑëYJ«  ʯ ,ÑëñË@ð QªËAK. Xñk. ñÓ H@YËAK. I. ë@X       HA ®“ áÓ ½ËX É¿ , é J‚m Ì'@ð é JJëYË@ é¯A‚ÖÏ@ð YªJ.Ë@ð H. Q®Ë@ð ɒ®Ë@ð ɓñË@ð ÈA’®KB@ð Èñ“ñË@ áÓ H. Q¯@

.ÐA‚k. B@       èYîE. é®Êg úΫI. j. mÌ'@ H. Qå”. éJÒºk ÐAÖß @ é<Ë@ X@P@ AÖß @ð àA‚B @ÉJÓ AÒêË Éª¯ B àA¢J ‚Ë@ð ½ÊÖÏ@ð [28]     éJ ëAÓ Éªk. ÉK. , éJ Ë@ Qå „Ë@ I. ‚ K B à@H. XB@ áÔ ¯ ,H. A¢mÌ'@ð H. XB@AJÒÊ«ð , èPñê®ÖÏ@ H@ð YË@ èYë úΫ ZAÖÞ B@   éJ £AjÖ Ï@ ½ËY»ð ,øQê®Ë@ hðQË@ð  ªË@ QÓB@ áÓ éJÊ« XQK AÓ B@ éË éÊJ k B ,l' AJ®Ë@ð PðQå„ÊË Cm× àA¢J ‚Ë@ . ú Î .      邮JË ÑêË I. £ AjÖÏ@ éJ.‚K @Qå  @ñʪ¯ à@ á Ò¢ªÖÏ@ð ¼ñÊÖÏ@ éJ.£Am× úæ«@,ÈAJÓ ùë úæË@ AJ KYË@ P@YË@ èYë ú¯ ZAƒðQÊË

    Ì   Ì  Q ñê¯ úæ®Êg ø Y Ë@ éKAg. AJÓ ú¯ éJ« ÈA¯ ­J » ÐC‚Ë@ éJ Ê« ÉJ Êm '@ Õæ ë@QK. @ øQKB@,­ª’Ë@ð éÊJ m '@ éÊ®K. é¯@ «@ ©Ó      Ï Ï Ï á    á     é®‚Ö @ áÓ éJ ¯ AÖ QÖ @I. ‚¯ ,(87 - 80 :26) ® ‚  ñê¯ I“Q Ó@X@ ð ® ‚ ð ú æ Òª ¢  ñë ø Y Ë@ð á KY îE        . é<Ë@ B@ É«A¯ B à@XA®J«B@ ©Ó é J«Qå„Ë@ H. @XB@ èYëð ,úÍAªK é<Ë ZA®‚Ë@ð éÒª¢Ë@ð øYêË@ð é®ÊmÌ'@ áÓ èQ «ð 邮JË   < > 48   úæÓ úæƒ áÓ àA¿ AÓ ð , éʪ¯ øYË@ ñê¯ á‚k áÓ àA¿ AÓ  ,ÑîD« é<Ë@ úæ•P ÑîD”ªK. ÈA¯ AÜØð [29]  Pñ“ ¨Q ®Ó É¿ð Õæ„Ë@ð àA¢Ê‚Ë@ð YƒB@ð HQ®ªË@ð éJmÌ'@ð QjJË@ð àA¢J ‚Ë@ð QºKð QºJÓð HñÖ Ï@ ½ÊÔ¯ J ¯ áÓð . .  ú Î.          B@ àA‚B @É®ªK Bð X@ ,AêÊ¿AJ îE. PñJ‚ÖÏ@ èQÓAK. èXAJ.« áÓ ZAƒ áÓ úΫ Aê¢Êƒð Zú æ B áÓ Aê®ËAg Aê«YK.@ é Jj.ƒ       ' ¯ '    ×    QÓ@ ©Ó ­¯ðð Y‚k. ñë AÖß @ Zú æ É¿ à@ ‡®m áÔ ,AîD.j. m . †C£B @ úΫ É«A®Ë@ ñëð ,@Y‚m. @Y‚k. éÊJÓ C¾J ë        .QÓBAK. èPñ’Ë@ ½ÊK éJ Ê« ¡Ê‚ ÕË ,Y‚m.× Ñëð éKA ¯ , é<Ë@ Q « áÓ ­m' ÕËð , èYJ« é<Ë@

  46 XYm.' : ñ¢jÖÏ@ ú¯   47 É®K Èñ®K : ñ¢jÖÏ@ ú¯ 48 @ñʪ¯ : ñ¢jÖÏ@ ú ¯ Religions 2020, 11, 226 29 of 32

 ,½ÊJ¯ ¼Q«ÈA ¯ Y®¯ , é<Ë ½ËXð < à > X@ AJÓ ©¯ð AÒJ¯ AJJ Ê« IJ« C¯ AJË Éª¯ Bð < à > XA ¯ IÊ ¯ àA ¯ [30] Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW . 2 of 30 . 50  49   @Qå  ð @Qg èAÖÞ ð éÒÊ« ‡¯ð « éKA ’ ¯ áÓ ‡J ƒ AÓ « éÓC« éʪkð AKQ» X AÒ» éÊ¿ Qg é<Ë@ ɪ¯ à @ ÕΫA¯ 1. Introduction úÎ . úÎ .         Sufism began to consolidate as a self-consciousQå„Ë@ð Q schoolmÌ'A¯ ,Aî ofDÓ Islamic é<Ë@ A KmysticismXA«@PAJË@ð by ÈAÒ the‚Ë@ beginning Éë@ úÎ of« éÓC« Qå„Ë@ ɪk. ð , éJm.Ì'@ð á ÒJ Ë@ Éë@ úΫ éÓC« Q mÌ'@ ɪm.¯ the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition  as× proponents   ¯   Ì Q  á    and transmitters of an independent science (é<Ë@ʿilm B@al -taÉ«Aṣawwuf¯ B) byà @ðthe ,middle é<Ë@ ÈñƒP of the @Y 5th/11thÒm à@ð century é<Ë@ B@ éË@ B à@Y®J«@ áÔ , éÖßAm '@ .JªÖÏ@ð , J’J.®Ë@ úΫ àAJÓC«      with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographiesA’ @ (ṭ­Jabaq ‚ËAāt)¯, as , well éJÓ Zúas æcompilations É¿ à @ á of®J SufiKð ,A lore’ @in é<Ë@the QÓ@ ùë úæË@ éJ«Qå„Ë@ PñÓB@ ú¯ é<Ë@ é¢ ®kð ,†C£B @ úΫ central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghda d, Basra and the region of Khorasa n. The          great theorists of the renunciant way of life pennedéÓA®Jƒ@ the é<Ë@ classical AëAÖÞ manualsúæË@ é J¯Q ofªË@ Sufism,éÓA®JƒB@ including‡K Q£ “TheúÎ « ÉÔgð ,Qê£ Y¯ QÓ@ð XQ K B Õºk PAJË@ ½ËY»ð , éJÓ ñ‚Ë@ð Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of 51 the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makk ī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al- Qushayrī” (R.      ½ËYK. é<Ë@ ‡¢@Y¯ ZAJ ®ƒB@ áÓ ñê¯ - é<Ë@ Aê«YK.@ ú æË@ XA‚k. B@ éJ‚ËB@ ½ÊJË É«A®Ë@ ñëð - é®Êg éJ‚Ë@ úΫ al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling Q the transformations   of the  Q    soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived. èPðQå of •the é<Ë@spiritual QÓ@ path« AîD primarily, ¯ ¬Qå”JK thoughB X@ not,P@YË@ èYë ú ¯ Õæ ®J‚ÖÏ@ ªË éKAëB @ð Õæ ®J‚ÒÊË éÓ@QºË@ Qê£@ð ÕËAªË@ exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a  progressive Ì  ascension  of the  soul52 through   various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethicaléË úÍAª perfectionK ‡m '@ in ÈA ¯tandemà@ ð , with éË AK. Xa @ÉgradualJ¯ unveiling€A« AÓP@Qå B@ úΫ èñªÊ¢ ÕË éK. hAJ.¯ Qå úΫ èñªÊ£@ áÓA’ @ð [31] of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017,  pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979,    pp. 18–35). . èA K @ B@ XñJ.ªÓ Bð è@ñƒ H. P B éÓQ»ð éJÖß. éËñƒP ©J ¢ ð éªJ ¢ áÜØ é<Ë@ AJʪk. .  IK.Y»

The idea that the ethical transformation  of the< wayfarer  through>  ritual practice  goes hand in    Q    Õç'Q®» èYgð é<Ë@ ú«X@X@ éKAK. ½Ë X ÑîD ʿÊ« ÉK@ ½ËYK. àñÊKA®ËA¯ ,¼Qå é<Ë@ ªË ɪ¯ HAJ.K@ à@ ÕΫ@ð [32] hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (ma rifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The     úæ Kñ « YKð èAj JË@ úÍ@ Ñ»ñ« X@ úÍ AÓÐ ñ¯ AK ð ¼YJkñK ¼QË ¼ñ«X @X@ ÑêË É¯ð ,(12 :40) @ñJÓ ñ K éK ¼Qå „ à@ ð employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, . non-discursive, experiential , and unitive . recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts  of the 2nd , 3rd/8th , 9th     ß    «      centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinctú æ Kñ « technicalYKAÜ @ significanceÐQk. B P A® inªË@ statementsQ KQ ªË@ ú Í@ attributed Ñ»ñ«X@A toK @ð ÕÎ éK . ú Í  ËAÓ éK . ¼Q å @ð é<ËAK . Q®»B ú æ Kñ«YKP AJË@ úÍ@ figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca.     éËAêm Ì'@ð éËA¢J Ë@ð ù® m Ì'@ ½‚Ë@ð ¼Qå„Ë@ áÓ é<Ë@ AK XA« @ ,(43 - 41 :40) èQ k B@ ú¯ Bð AJ K YË@ ú¯ èñ « X éË  Ë éJË@ 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors,. m.aʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired    .Õç' Q» Õæ Êg QK Q« H. Aëð éK@ éJÔgQK. through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being          complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditionedáK YË@ ÐñK by úÍ@ the @Q J» AÒJ ʂ Õ΃ð éJ.m•ð éË@ úΫð YÒm× AKY Jƒ úΫ é<Ë@ úΓð delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications wereFunding: yet to beThis fully research worked receivedout. Sufis expressed no external a variety funding. of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no2 of conflict 30 of interest. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and 1. Introductiondismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis likeReferences Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the intellectSufism is began impotent to consolidate and only provides as a self-conscious proof for that school which of isIslamic impotent” mysticism (al-ʿaql by ʿā jizthe l ābeginning yadullu illā of ʿ alā 1 theʿ ajizsecond mithili half) (Sarrāj of the 1914,3rd/9th p. 40).century. Such figuresPractitionersAdamson, tended of to Sufism discourage Peter, achieved and their Peter recognition followers E. Pormann. from as proponents delving 2012. The into Philosophical Works of al-Kind¯ı. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ʿ ṣ andthe transmitters speculative of rational an independent teachings science of the theologians ( Adl al-taun¯awwuf¯ı, Muh and) by. ammad, favored the middle the al-. use 2005.of the of theAb 5th/11th u¯ intellect l-H. asan century for al-Shushtar the ¯ı wa-falsafatuhu l-s.ufiyya¯ . Casablanca: Dar¯ al-thaqafa.¯ ṭ withpurpose the emergence of contemplating of Arabic the Sufi signs hagiographies and tracesAdl of ( abaqātGodun¯ ¯ı,’s Mu), attributes ash wellammad, as in compilations creation. al-. 2014. Following of al-Ma Sufi lorerifathe Qurin wa theʾl-ānic hubb al-ilah¯ ¯ı f¯ı tasawwuf al-gharb al-islam¯ ¯ı: Namudhaj¯ al-imam¯ central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad,. Basra and the region of Khorasan. The . . injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regardedal-Shushtar contemplation¯ı. Majallat to be kulliyyat a means al- ofad¯ cultivatingab¯ wa l- ul um¯ al-insaniyya¯ 34: 51–75. greatcertainty theorists and of aligning the renunciant the believer way’ sof will life withpenned God the’s command. classical manuals of Sufism, including “The ʿ ṣ Akasoy,ṣ Anna. 2006. Philosophie und Mystik in der späten Almohadenziet: Die Sizilianischen Fragen des Ibn Sab ¯ın. Book ofSome Gleams” Sufis, (K. suchal-Luma as Ḥ fīak l-taīmawwuf al-Tirmidh) of Abūī (d. Na 255/869),r al-Sarrāj held (d. 378/988), a mildly “The favorable Nourishment view toward of Ṭ thetheology Hearts,” and (Qūt were al-Qulūb even )trained of Abū in it.ālib Such al-Makkī figures (d. presentedLeiden: 386/996), E.the and J. findings Brill. the “Epistle of Sufism of al-Qushayrī” as complementary (R. al-Qushayriyyato theology). of Like Abū early l-Qāsim Muʿtazilite al-Qushayrī and Ash(d.Alvarez, ʿ465/1074).arite theologians, Lourdes In chronicling Maria.they insisted the 2005. transformations Thethat Mystical the intellect of Language the can of Daily Life: Vernacular Sufi poetry and the Songs of Abu¯ soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existenceal-H and. asan the al-Shushtar afterlife when¯ı. Exemplaria employed 17:in order 1–32. to [CrossRef ] exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857),¯ Abū Bakr ¯ ḥ Alvarez, Lourdes Maria. 2009. Abu al-H. asan al-Shushtarı: Songs of Love and Devotion. New York: Paulist Press. variousal-Kal statesābādh andī (d. stations 380/990), (maqāmāt Abū l-,Q aāsimwāl) alof- Qushayrethical perfectionī (d. 465/1074), in tandem and with Abū aḤ gradualāmid al unveiling-Ghazālī (d. Bab¯ a,¯ Aʿ hmad b. Ahmad al-Tunbukt¯ı. 2000. Nayl al-ibtihaj¯ bi-tatr¯ız al-D¯ıbaj¯ . Edited by Abd al-Ham¯ıd Abd of the505/1111) heart as were it acquires professionally direct recognition trained in the of Goddiscursive (ma rifa. methods). (Casewit of theology .2017, pp. ( kalām1–90; )Bowering and incorporated 1979, . . pp.Ash 18–35).ʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own worksAllah¯ (Ebstein al-Harr forthcoming).ama.¯ Tripoli: Although Dar¯ al-k theseatib.¯ Sufi- theologiansThe idea thatexpressed the ethical a certain transformation skepticism towardofBen the Arfa, wayfarerthe scienceAbd through of al-Il theologyah.¯ ritual 2015. vis practice-à Ab-visu ¯direct goes l-H. asan experiencehand al-Shushtar in ¯ı. In al-Tas.awwuf al-Maghrib¯ı: Mas.dar ish a¯ wa-tawa¯s.ul, hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility a andmal¯ validity muhdat¯ of li-l-ust the Ashadha¯ ʿarite Naf ¯ısa Sunni al-Dhahab creed. ¯ı T.heir Edited by Muh. ammad al-Gharayib,¯ Mus.t.afa¯ al-Bu¯ nan¯ ¯ı and Abd through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The al- Az¯ız Bel al-Fayida.¯ Kenitra: Kulliyyat al-Ad¯ ab¯ wa-l- Ulum¯ al-Insaniyya,¯ Jami¯ at Ibn Tufayl, pp. 135–58. employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive . recognition1 I am grateful of God to through Saad Ansari, spiritual Izzet purificationCoban, Frank can Griffel, be dated Mehmet back Emin to textsGulecyuz, of the Oludamini 2nd, 3rd/8th, Ogunnaike, 9th centuries.Samantha Maʿrifa Pellegrino, appears Ian to Grant take- Funckon a , distinctand the two technical anonymous significance reviewers in of thisstatements article for attributed their comments. to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca.  49 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or AÒÊ¿ : ñ¢jÖÏ@ ú¯ 50 knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired AÖÞ ð : ñ¢jÖ Ï@ ú¯  51 through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being Z@Yª‚Ë@ éʪËð , ñ¢jÖ Ï@ ú¯ @Y» complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the   AƒA« : ñ¢jÖ Ï@ ú¯ð 52 delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experiential maʿrifa was largely adopted in Sufi discourse,Religions 2020its epistemological, 11, 226 implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety 30 of 32 of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and dismissedBen-Nas, theological Abdelkrim. speculation 2012. Al-Šuštar as a veil,¯ı yor, su at Risbest,ala:¯ as Laan vidaadequate cotidiana rational de attempt los suf íates knowing a través de al-Risala¯ Šuštariyya. God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907-8) famously proclaimed that “the Ph.D. dissertation, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. intellect is impotent and only provides proof forReligions that 2020 which, 11, isx FOR impotent” PEER REVIEW (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā 2 of 30 ʿajizBen-Nas, mithili) (Sarrāj Abdelkrim. 1914, p. 2016. 40). Such Aná figureslisis y tended traducci toó discouragen de al-Ris theirala¯ al-ba followersgd˙ adiyya¯ fromde delving al-Šuštar into¯ı. eHumanista/IVITRA 9: the speculative267–81. rational teachings of the theologians1. Introduction and favored the use of the intellect for the purposeBowering, of contemplating Gerhard. 1979. the signsThe and Mystical traces Visionof GodSufism’s of attributes Existence began to in consolidate in creation. Classical Following as Islam: a self-conscious The the QurQurʾanicā¯ nicschool Hermeneutics of Islamic mysticism of the Sufi by the beginning of injunctionsSahl to at-Tustar contemplate¯ı (d. 283God/896)’s signs,. Berlin theythe and regarded second Boston: contemplationhalf De of Gruyter.the 3rd/9th to be century. a means1 Practitioners of cultivating of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. ʿ ṣ Burmun¯ ¯ı, Kar¯ım al-D¯ın, al-. 2009. Rawd.andat al-azh transmittersar¯ wa-munyat of an al-sindependentad¯ at¯ al-abr sciencear¯ f¯ı jam ( al-taal-baawwufd. min) manby theaqim¯ middles.a¯h. ib al-of .t thear¯ . 5th/11th century Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view towardṭ Edited by Abd al-Ham¯ıd Abd Allwithah¯ the al-Har emergenceama.¯ Cairo: of Arabic Ma Sufihad hagiographies al-makhtut¯ at¯ ( al-abaqātarabiyya.), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the theology and were even trained. in it. Such figurescentral presented and eastern the findings lands of ofIslam, Sufism especially as complementary around. . Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The The Mystics of al-Andalus: Ibn Barrajan¯ and Islamic Thought in the Twelfth Century toCasewit, theology Yousef.. Like early 2017. Muʿtazilite and Ashgreatʿarite theorists theologians, of the they renunciant insisted way that of the life intellect penned canthe classical manuals. Cambridge: of Sufism, including “The increaseCambridge the believer University’s certitude Press.in God’s existenceBook of Gleams” and the ( afterlifeK. al-Luma whenʿ fī l-taemployedṣawwuf) ofin Abū order Na toṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of Ḥ ḥ contemplateCasewit, Faris. God’s 2019. signs. Harmonizing Well-known figures Discursivethe such Hearts,” Worlds:as al- (Qūtārith The al-Qulūb al Life-Mu and) āofsib Abū Timesī (d. Ṭ243/857),ālib of Abal-Makkīu¯ Ab al-ūH. Bakrasan(d. 386/996), al-H. arr andal¯ ¯ı (d.the 638“Epistle/1241). of al-Qushayrī” (R. Ḥ al-KalābPh.D.ādhī (d. dissertation, 380/990), Abū Harvard l-Qāsim University, al-Qushayral-Qushayriyya Cambridge,ī (d. 465/1074),) of Abū MA, l-Qāsimand USA. Abū al-Qushayrī āmid al-Ghazālī (d. 465/1074). (d. In chronicling the transformations of the 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Casewit, Yousef. 2020. The Treatise on thesoul Ascension on its journey (al-Ris backala¯ to al-mi God,r theseajiyya):¯ authors Cosmology conceived and of Timethe spiritual in the Writingspath primarily, though not Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their ownexclusively, works (Ebstein in psychological forthcoming). terms. Although They described these Sufi a- progressive ascension of the soul through of Abu¯ l-Hasan al-Shushtar¯ı (d. 668/1269). In Light upon Light: Essays in Islamic Thought and History in Honor theologians expressed. a certain skepticism towardvarious the states science and of stations theology (maqāmāt vis-à-vis, a ḥdirectwāl) of experience ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling and mysticalof Gerhard unveiling, Bowering they. affirmed Edited by the Jamal utilityof the Elias andheart and validity as it Bilal acquires of Orfali. the directAsh Leidenʿarite recognition Sunni and Boston: creedof God. T (heir Brill,maʿrifa pp.). (Casewit 182–238. 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, The Way of Abu¯ Madyan: The Works of Abu¯ Madyan Shu ayb Cornell, Vincent. 1996. pp. 18–35). . Cambridge: Islamic Texts The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in 1 I am Society.grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, ʿ Cornell,Samantha Vincent. Pellegrino, 1997.Ian Grant The-Funck Way, and of the thehand two Axial anonymouswith Intellect,the acquisition reviewers the Islamic ofof this heightened article Hermeticism for powerstheir comments. of of perception Ibn Sab and¯ın. directJournal knowledge of The of God (ma rifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Society 22: 41–79. employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive Cornell, Vincent. 2007. The All-Comprehensiverecognition of Circle God through (al-Ih. a¯.ta spiritual): Soul, purification Intellect, and can thebe dated Oneness back ofto Existencetexts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th in the Doctrine of Ibn Sab ¯ın. Incenturies.Sufism and Ma Theologyʿrifa appears. Edited to take by on Ayman a distinct Shihadeh. technical Edinburg: significance Edinburg in statements attributed to University Press. figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or Corriente, Federico. 1988. Poesia estrófica: Céjeles y/o muwaššah. at¯ . Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired Científicas, Instituto de Filología, Departamento de Estudios Arabes. through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being Ebstein, Michael. 2014. Mysticism and Philosophycomplementary in al-Andalus: to various Ibn intellectual Masarra, sciences Ibn al- Arab (al-ʿ¯ulūmı, and al- theʿaqliyya Isma¯ )¯ıl ¯ıthat Tradition are conditioned. by the Leiden and Boston: Brill. delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). Ebstein, Michael. Forthcoming. The HumanWhile Intellect: the contrast Liberation between or Limitation?conceptual ʿilm Some and experiential Notes on Aql maʿrifa in Classicalwas largely adopted in Sufi Islamic Mysticism. Journal of Sufidiscourse, Studies. its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. El-Rouayheb, Khaled. 2015. Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and Empire and the Maghreb. Cambridge:dismissed Cambridge theological University speculation Press. as a veil, or, at best, as an adequate rational attempt at knowing Estos, Janis. 2019. The Image of QalandarGod (Ebsteinin the D forthcoming).¯ıvan-i¯ Shams .Early In Light Sufis upon like Light:Nūrī (d. Essays 295/907-8) in Islamic famously Thought proclaimed that “the and History in Honor of Gerhard Boweringintellect .is Edited impotent by and Jamal only Elias provides and proof Bilal for Orfali. that which Leiden is impotent” and Boston: (al-ʿaql Brill, ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā pp. 239–55. ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discourage their followers from delving into the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the Farhan,¯ Jinan¯ Qahtan.¯ 2013. MaZahir¯ al-sard f¯ı shi r Ab¯ı l-Hasan al-Shushtar¯ı wa-azjaluh¯ (610/1212-668/1269). . . . . purpose of contemplating. the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic Majallat kulliyyat al-tarbiya li l-banatinjunctions¯ 3: 614–35. to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating Fars¯ ¯ı, Khat.¯ıb. 1983. Qalandarnama-i¯ Khacertainty.t¯ıb Fars¯ ¯ı yanda¯ s¯ ırat-ialigning Jam theal¯ al-D believer’s¯ın Sawuj¯ will¯ı. with Edited God’s by command.H. am¯ıd Zarr ¯ınkub.¯ Tehran: Intishar¯ at-i¯ T. us.¯ Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward Faure, Adolphe. 1998. Ibn Sab ¯ın. In Encycloptheologyédie and de were l’Islam even, 2nd trained ed. in Leiden: it. Such Brill,figures vol. presented 3, pp. the 945–46. findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can Festugière, André Marie Jean. 1950. La Révélation d’Hermès Trismégiste. Paris: Gabalda. increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to Fierro, Maribel. 1998. al-Shushtar¯ı, Abucontemplatel-H. asan God’sAl¯ı b. signs.Abd Well-known Allah¯ al-Numayr figures such¯ı. In asEncyclopaedia al-Ḥārith al-Mu of Islamḥāsibī, (d. 2nd 243/857), Abū Bakr ed. 11 vols. Edited by Peri Bearman,al-Kalābādhī Thiery Bianquis,(d. 380/990), Cli Abūfford l-Qāsim Edmund al-Qushayrī Bosworth, (d. Emeri465/1074), van and Donze Abūand Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. Wolfhart Heinrichs. Leiden: Brill,505/1111) vol. 9, p. were 972. professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Frank, Richard. 1989. Knowledge and TaqlAsh¯ıd:ʿarite The doctrines Foundation and creeds of Religious within their Belief own in Classicalworks (Ebstein Ash arism.forthcoming).Journal Although of these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience the American Oriental Society 109: 37–62. [CrossRef] and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their Geoffroy, Eric. 2013. Spiritual Realization (al-tah. q¯ıq) through Daily Awakening. Journal of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Society 53: 37–47. 1 Ghazal¯ ¯ı, Abu¯ Hamid,¯ al-. 1971. al-Maqs ad I al-asnam gratefula¯ f¯ı shar to Saadh ma Ansari,an¯ ¯ı asm Izzeta¯ AllCoban,ah¯ al- Frankhusn Griffel,a¯. Edited Mehmet by Emin Fadlou Gulecyuz, Shehadi. Oludamini Ogunnaike, . . Samantha Pellegrino,. Ian Grant-Funck, and the. two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Beirut: Dar¯ al-mashriq. Ghazal¯ ¯ı, Abu¯ H. amid,¯ al-. 2000. Maqas¯.id al-falasifa¯ . Edited by Mah. mud¯ B¯ıju.¯ Damascus: Mat.ba at al-S. abah¯ . . Ghazal¯ ¯ı, Abu¯ H. amid,¯ al-. 2017. Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı’s Moderation in Belief. Translated by Aladdin Yaqub. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Ghubr¯ın¯ı, Abu¯ l- Abbas,¯ al-. 1979. Unwan¯ al-diraya¯ f¯ıma¯ urifa min al- ulama¯ fi l-mi a l-sabi¯ a bi-Bijaya¯ . Edited by Adil¯ Nuwayhid. . Beirut: Manshur¯ at¯ Dar¯ al-af¯ aq¯ al-jad¯ıda. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the central and eastern lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (Qūt al-Qulūb) of Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not exclusively, in psychological terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through various states and stations (maqāmāt, aḥwāl) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling of the heart as it acquires direct recognition of God (maʿrifa). (Casewit 2017, pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, pp. 18–35). The idea that the ethical transformation of the wayfarer through ritual practice goes hand in hand with the acquisition of heightened powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) through divine grace seems to have been shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The employment of the term maʿrifa to mean direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired through formal training. These transmitted religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being complementary to various intellectual sciences (al-ʿulūm al-ʿaqliyya) that are conditioned by the delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). While the contrast between conceptual ʿilm and experientialReligions 2020 ma, ʿ11rifa, x wasFOR PEERlargely REVIEW adopted in Sufi 2 of 30 discourse, its epistemological implications wereReligions yet to be2020 fully, 11 worked, 226 out. Sufis expressed a variety 31 of 32 of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the1. Introduction rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Some were strongly opposed to actively involving the intellectSufism in acquiring began to knowledge consolidate of as God a self-conscious and school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of dismissed theological speculation as a veil, or,Gutas, at best, Dimitri. asthe an second adequate 1988. halfAvicenna rational of the 3rd/9thattempt and the century. at Aristotelian knowing1 Practitioners Tradition of. Leiden:Sufism achieved Brill. recognition as proponents God (Ebstein forthcoming). Early Sufis like Nūrī (d. 295/907and transmitters-8) famously of an proclaimed independent that science “the (ʿ al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century Halff, Bruno. 1971. Le Mah. asin¯ al-ma˘galis¯ d’Ibn al- Ar¯ıf et l’oeuvre du soufi hanbalite alAns.ar¯ ¯ı. Revue des Études intellect is impotent and only provides proof for that which is impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā ṭ Islamiqueswith the39: emergence 321–35. of Arabic Sufi hagiographies ( abaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrāj 1914, p. 40). Such figures tended to discouragecentral and their eastern followers lands offrom Islam, delving especially into around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ the speculative rational teachings of the theologiansH. ammada, andgreat H favored. amza. theorists the 2015. of use the Bunyat ofrenunciant the intellectal-khi wayt.ab for of al- thelifes.uf pennedı fı dıw thean Abclassicalı l-H. asanmanuals al-Shushtar of Sufism,ı. including Ph.D. dissertation, “The Jami at ¯ purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of Godal-H’s attributes.Bookajj¯ Lakhd of Gleams”in. ar,creation. Kulliyyat (K. Following al-Luma al-Adʿ fī the abl-ta¯ Qur waṣawwufʾl-Lughānic) of Abūat,¯ Qism Naṣr al-Sarrāj al-Lugha (d. al- 378/988),Arabiyya, “The Batna, Nourishment Algeria. of injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating Ibn Aj¯ıba,the A hHearts,”. mad. 1985. (Qūt al-QulūbIq¯ a¯Z. al-himam) of Abū f¯ı Ṭ sharālibh. al-Makkīal-h. ikam .(d. Edited 386/996), by Muandh .theammad “Epistle Ah .ofmad al-Qushayrī”H. asab All (R.ah.¯ Beirut: Dar¯ certainty and aligning the believer’s will with God’s command. al-maal-Qushayriyyaarif.¯ ) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869),soul heldon its a journey mildly back favorable to God, view these toward authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not Ibn Aj¯ıba, Ah. mad. 2013. Sharh. Nuniyyat¯ al-Shushtar¯ı li-Ibn Aj¯ıba al-H. asan¯ı. Edited by Muh. ammad al- Adlun¯ ¯ı. theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presentedexclusively, the findings in ofpsychological Sufism as complementary terms. They described a progressive ascension of the soul through Casablanca: Dar¯ al-thaqafah.¯ to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians,various theystates insisted and stations that the(maqāmāt intellect, aḥ wālcan) of ethical perfection in tandem with a gradual unveiling increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existenceIbn al-Kha andof thet. ¯ıb,the afterlife Lisheartan¯ as al-D whenit acquires¯ın. employed 1970. directRaw recognitionin d. orderat al-ta to ofr¯ıf God bi l- (h.maubbʿrifa al-shar). (Casewit¯ıf. Edited 2017, pp. by 1–90; Muh. Boweringammad al-Katt1979, an¯ ¯ı. 2 vols. contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such asBeirut: alpp.-Ḥā rith18–35). Dar¯ al al-Thaq-Mu ḥāsibafa.¯ ī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr Ḥ al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-QushayrIbn al-Khaī (d. 465/1074),t¯ıb,The Lis ideaan¯ andal-D that Abū¯ın. the 1977.ethicalāmid al al-Itransformation-Ghazālīha¯ta f¯ı (d. akhb ar¯of Gharnthe wayfarera¯ta. Edited through by ritual Muh practiceammad goes Ghin handan.¯ in 4 vols. Cairo: 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods. of theology (kalām) and incorporated. . . . Maktabathand with al-Kh theanij¯ acquisition¯ı, vol. 4, of pp. heightened 1973–78. powers of perception and direct knowledge of God (maʿrifa) Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebsteinthrough forthcoming).divine grace Althoughseems to thesehave Sufibeen- shared by many Sufis from the earliest period. The Ibn al-Tawwa¯h, Abd al-Wa¯hid b. Muhammad. 1995. Sabk al-maqal¯ li-fakk al- iqal¯ . Edited by Muhammad theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the .scienceemployment of. theology of the vis term-à-.vis ma directʿrifa to experience mean. direct, unmediated, non-discursive, experiential, and unitive . and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility andMas validityrecognitionud¯ Jibr ofan.¯ the ofBeirut: AshGodʿ aritethrough Dar ¯ Sunni al-gharb spiritual creed al-isl. purification Theiram¯ ¯ı. can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th ¯ ʿ ¯ Sabk al-maqal¯ li-fakk al- iqal¯ Ibn al-T. awwcenturies.ah. , AbdMa rifa al-W appearsah. id to Mu takeh. ammad. on a distinct 2008. technical significance in statements. attributed Edited by to Muh. ammad figures like Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (d. 148/765) as well as the surviving writings of Dhū l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel,Mas Mehmetud¯ Jibr Eminan.¯ Gulecyuz, Tripoli: JamOludaminiiyyat Ogunnaike, al-da wa al-islamiyya¯ al- alamiyya.¯ 245/859) (Ogunnaike forthcoming). For these authors, maʿrifa is usually contrasted with ʿilm, or Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the twoIbn anonymous al-Uql¯ısh reviewers¯ı, Abu¯ l- ofAbb this articleas.¯ Al-. for their 2017. comments.Al-Inb a¯ f¯ı sharh. h. aqa¯ iq al-s.ifat¯ wa l-asma¯ . Edited by Ah. mad Rajab knowledge of the religious sciences that is based on the transmitted tradition (naql) and acquired Abu¯ Salim.¯ 2 vols. Kuwait: Dar¯ al-diya¯ . through formal training. These transmitted. religious sciences, moreover, were often seen as being Ibn Khaldcomplementaryun,¯ Abd al-Ra toh. mvariousan.¯ 2017. intellectualRemedy sciences for the Questioner(al-ʿulūm al- inʿaqliyya Search) that of Answers are conditioned. Translated by bythe Yumna Özer. Cambridge:delimited Therational Islamic intellect Texts (ʿaql Society.), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). Ibn Sab ¯ın, AbdWhile al- theH. aqq. contrast 1965. betweenRasa¯ conceptualil Ibn Sab ¯ınʿilm li-Ab and¯ı experiential Muh. ammad maAbdʿrifa was al-H. largelyaqq b. adopted Sab ¯ın al-Murs in Sufi ¯ı al-Andalus¯ı. discourse, its epistemological implications were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety Cairo: al-Mu assasa al-mis.riyya al-amma.¯ of attitudes toward discursive theology and the role of the rational intellect (ʿaql) in knowing God. Ibn Sab ¯ın, Abd al-Haqq. 1978. Budd al- arif¯ . Beirut: Dar¯ al-Andalus. Some were strongly. opposed to actively involving the intellect in acquiring knowledge of God and Ibn S¯ına,¯ Abdismissedu¯ Al¯ı. theological 2002. al-Ish speculationar¯ at¯ wa l-tanb as a¯ıh veil,at¯ . Editedor, at best, by Mujtabas an adequatea¯ al-Zari¯ rational¯ı. Qum: attempt Bust¯ an-i¯at knowing kitab.¯ Kadkan¯ı,God Muh .(Ebsteinammad forthcoming). RiZ. a¯ Shaf¯ı ¯ı. Early 2007. SufisQalandariyya like Nūrī dar (d. ta 295/907-8)r¯ıkh: Digardisih famouslya-yi¯ proclaimed yak aydiuluzh ¯that¯ı. Tehran:“the Sukhan. Kalin, Ibrahim.intellect 2014. is impotentMulla¯ and S. adr onlya¯. Karachi: provides Oxfordproof for University that which is Press. impotent” (al-ʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā Karamustafa,ʿajiz mithili Ahmet.) (Sarrāj 2006. 1914,God’s p. 40). Unruly Such figures Friends: tended Dervish to discourage Groups in their the Islamicfollowers Later from Middle delving Period, into 1200–1550. the speculative rational teachings of the theologians and favored the use of the intellect for the Oxford: Oneworld. purpose of contemplating the signs and traces of God’s attributes in creation. Following the Qurʾānic Karamustafa,injunctions Ahmet. to contemplate 2015. Antinomian God’s signs, Sufis. they In Theregarded Cambridge contemplation Companion to be to a Sufism means. Editedof cultivating by Lloyd Ridgeon. Cambridge:certainty and Cambridge aligning the University believer’sPress, will with pp. God’s 101–25. command. Knysh, AlexanderSomeD. Sufis, 1999. suchIbn asArab Ḥakīm¯ı in theal-Tirmidhī Later Islamic (d. 255/869), Tradition: held The a Making mildly of favorable a Polemical view Image toward in Medieval Islam. Albany:theology State and University were even oftrained New in York it. Such Press. figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can Mahmud,¯ Abd al-Hal¯ım. 1973. Shaykh al-shuyukh¯ Abu¯ Madyan al-Ghawth hayatuhu¯ wa-mi rajuhu¯ ila¯ Llah¯ . Cairo: . increase the. believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when. employed in order to Dar¯ contemplate al-sha b. God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr Makhluf,¯ al-Kalābādhī Muh. ammad (d. b. 380/990), Muh. ammad. Abū l-Qāsim 2003. Shajarat al-Qushayrī al-n ur¯(d.al-zakiyya 465/1074), f¯ıand.tabaq Abūat¯ al-mḤāmidalikiyya¯ al-Ghazālī. Beirut: (d. Dar¯ al-kutub al- ilmiyya.505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- Maqqar¯ı, Ah. mad b. Muh. ammadal-. 1968. Nafh. al-.t¯ıb min gus.n al-Andalus al-ra.t¯ıb. Edited by Ih. san¯ Abbas.¯ 8 vols. theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience Beirut: Dar¯ sadir,¯ vol. 2, p. 185. and mystical. unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their Massignon, Louis. 1949. Investigaciones sobre Šuštar¯ı, poeta andalus, enterrado en Damieta. Translated by Emilio García Gómez. Al-Andalus 14: 29–57. 1 Massignon, Louis. I am grateful 1950. to Recherches Saad Ansari, surIzzet Shushtari, Coban, Frank po Griffel,ète andalou Mehmet enterr Emin Gulecyuz,é à Damiette. Oludamini In M Ogunnaike,élanges off erts à William Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. Marçais. Paris: Maisonneuve. McGregor, Richard. 2004. Sanctity and Mysticism in Medieval Egypt: The Wafa¯ Sufi Order and the Legacy of Ibn Arab¯ı. Albany: State University of New York Press. Munaw¯ ¯ı, Abd al-Ra uf¯ b. Taj¯ al- Arif¯ ¯ın, al-. 1999. al-Kawakib¯ al-durr¯ıyah f¯ı tarajim¯ al-sada¯ al-s.uf¯ ¯ıyah. Edited by Muh. ammad Ad¯ıb al-Jadir.¯ Beirut: Dar¯ s.adir.¯ Muslim, Ibn al-H. ajjaj.¯ 1955. S. ah. ¯ıh. . Edited by Muh. ammad Fu ad¯ Abd al-Baq¯ ¯ı. 7 vols. Cairo: Dar¯ ih. ya¯ al-kutub al- arabiyya. Nabulus¯ ¯ı, Abd al-Ghan¯ı, al-. 1986. Al-H. aq¯ıqa wa l-majaz¯ f¯ı al-rih. la ila¯ bilad¯ al-Sham¯ wa-Mis.r wa l-H. ijaz¯ . Cairo: al-Hay a al-mis.riyya al- amma¯ li l-kitab.¯ Nashshar,¯ Al¯ı Sam¯ ¯ı. 1953. Abul H. asan al-Šuštar˘ ¯ı: Místico andaluz y autor de zéjeles y su influencia en el mundo musulman. Revista del Instituto Egipcio de Estudio Islámicos 1: 122–55. Religions 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

1. Introduction Sufism began to consolidate as a self-conscious school of Islamic mysticism by the beginning of the second half of the 3rd/9th century.1 Practitioners of Sufism achieved recognition as proponents and transmitters of an independent science (ʿilm al-taṣawwuf) by the middle of the 5th/11th century with the emergence of Arabic Sufi hagiographies (ṭabaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the Religionscentral2020 and, 11 eastern, 226 lands of Islam, especially around Baghdad, Basra and the region of Khorasan. The 32 of 32 great theorists of the renunciant way of life penned the classical manuals of Sufism, including “The Book of Gleams” (K. al-Lumaʿ fī l-taṣawwuf) of Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. 378/988), “The Nourishment of the Hearts,” (QūtReligions al-Qu lūb2020) ,of 11 ,Abū x FOR Ṭ PEERālib alREVIEW-Makk ī (d. 386/996), and the “Epistle of al-Qushayrī” (R. 2 of 30 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Joseph E. B. Lumbard, Caner K. Dagli, Mohammed Rustom, and Maria Massi Dakake, eds. al-Qushayriyya) of Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074). In chronicling the transformations of the soul2015. on itsThe journey Study1. Introductionback Quran: to God, A New these Translation authors conceived and Commentary of the spiritual. New path York: primarily, HarperOne. though not Ogunnaike,exclusively, Oludamini. in psychologicalSufism Forthcoming. began terms. to TheyconsolidateDeep described Knowledge: as a aself-conscious progressive Ways ofschool ascension Knowing of Islamic of in the Sufism mysticism soul through and by Ifá the, Two beginning West African of variousIntellectual states and Traditionsthe stations second. University( maqāmāthalf of the, aḥ Park:3rd/9thwāl) of Penn ethicalcentury. State perfection1 Practitioners University in tandem of Press. Sufism with aachieved gradual recognitionunveiling as proponents Ohlander,of the heart Erik. as it 2008. acquiresand transmittersSufism direct inrecognition an of anAge independent of of Transformation: God (ma scienceʿrifa). (Casewit (ʿ Umar al-taṣ awwuf2017, al-Suhraward pp.) by 1 – the90; Bowering middle¯ı and the of 1979, Risethe 5th/11th of Islamic century Mystical pp. 18–35). ṭ Brotherhoods.with Leiden: the emergence Brill. of Arabic Sufi hagiographies ( abaqāt), as well as compilations of Sufi lore in the The idea thatcentral the ethical and eastern transformation lands of Islam, of the especially wayfarer around through Baghdad, ritual practice Basra and goes the hand region in of Khorasan. The Omaima,hand with Abou-Bakr. the acquisitiongreat 1987.theorists of Aheightened Studyof the renunciant of powers the Poetry of way perception ofof al-Shushtari.life penned and direct the Ph.D.classicalknowledge dissertation, manuals of God of (ma Sufism, Universityʿrifa) including of California, “The throughOakland, divine CA, Book grace USA. of seems Gleams” to have(K. al-Luma been sharedʿ fī l-taṣ awwuf by many) of Abū Sufis Na fromṣr al-Sarrāj the earliest (d. 378/988), period. “The The Nourishment of Pérez,employment René. 2000. of thethe Leterm Hearts,” d émapouillementʿrifa (Qūt to meanal-Qulūb direct, (tajrîd) of unmediated,)Abū dans Ṭālib le cheminemental-Makkī non-discursive, (d. 386/996), spiritual experiential and d’Abthe, and“Epistleu“ l’ unitiveH. assan of al-Qushayrī” al-Shushtar (R.¯ı. In recognition of God through spiritual purification can be dated back to texts of the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th al-Tawa¯s.ul al-¸sal-Qushayriyyauf¯ ¯ı bayna mi) s.ofr waAbū al-maghrib l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī. Edited by (d. Abd465/1074). al-Jaw Inad ¯chronicling al-Saqq a¯thet.. Rabat:transformations Jami¯ at of al- theH. asan centuries. Maʿrifa appears to take on a distinct technical significance in statements attributed to al-Than¯ ¯ı, pp.soul 1–11. on its journey back to God, these authors conceived of the spiritual path primarily, though not figures like Jaʿfarexclusively, al-Ṣādiq (d. in148/765) psychological as well asterms. the surviving They described writings a of progressive Dhū l-Nūn ascensional-Miṣrī (d. of ca. the soul through Qunaw¯ ¯ı, Abu¯ l-Fadl Muhammad b. Abd Allah.¯ 2002. al-Sufiyya¯ al-Qalandariyya: Tar¯ ¯ıkhuha¯ wa-fatwa¯ shaykh al-Islam¯ 245/859) (Ogunnaike.various forthcoming).. states and stations For these (maqāmāt authors,, aḥ wālma.)ʿ rifaof ethical is usually perfection contrast in edtandem with withʿilm, aor gradual unveiling knowledgeIbn Taymiyya of theof f¯ıh religiousthea¯. Beirut:heart sciencesas Maktabatit acquires that directis al-N basedur.¯ recognition on the transmitted of God (ma traditionʿrifa). (Casewit (naql) 2017,and acquired pp. 1–90; Bowering 1979, Sarrthroughaj,¯ Abu¯ formal Nas.r. 1914.training.pp. 18–35).K. T al-Lumahese transmittedf¯ı l-tas.awwuf religious. Edited sciences by, Reynold moreover, A. were Nicholson. often seen Leiden: as being Brill. complementary to variousThe idea intellectual that the ethical sciences transformation (al-ʿulūm al-ʿ aqliyyaof the )wayfarer that are through conditioned ritual by ¯practice the goes hand in Shakir,¯ Nizar¯ Shakur.¯ 2012. TawZ. ¯ıf al-is.t.ila¯h. at¯ al-s.ufiyya¯ f¯ı shi r al-Shushtar¯ı (d. 668h). Adab¯ al-rafid¯ ¯ın 64: 97–132. delimited rational intellect (ʿaql), including logic, theology, and philosophy (falsafa, ḥikma). Shihadeh, Ayman,hand ed. 2012.with theSufism acquisition and Theology of heightened. Edinburgh: powers of Edinburgh perception University and direct knowledge Press. of God (maʿrifa) While the contrastthrough between divine conceptualgrace seems ʿilm to and have experiential been shared maʿ rifaby wasmany largely Sufis adopted from the in Sufiearliest period. The Shushtar¯ı, Abu¯ l-Hasan. 1960. D¯ıwan¯ Ab¯ı l-Hasan al-Shushtar¯ı. Edited by Al¯ı Sam¯ ¯ı al-Nashshar.¯ Alexandria: Dar¯ discourse, its epistemological.employment ofimplications the term ma wereʿrifa. toyet mean to be direct, fully worked unmediated, out. Sufis non-discursive, expressed a experiential, variety and unitive of al-maattitudesarif.¯ towardrecognition discursive of theologyGod through and spiritualthe role ofpurification the rational can intellect be dated (ʿaql back) in toknowing texts of God. the 2nd, 3rd/8th, 9th ShushtarSome were¯ı, Ab ustrongly¯ l-H.centuries.asan opposedAl ¯ı,Ma al-. toʿrifa actively 1977. appears La involving Risto alatake¯ Ba theongd˙ intellectaad ¯distinct¯ıya dein technicalacquiring Šuštar¯ı. significance InknowledgeBulletin d’ofinÉ Godstatementstudes and Orientales attributed. Edited to by dismissedMarie-Th theologicalérèsefigures Urvoy. speculation like Damascus:Jaʿfar al-as Ṣaādiq veil, Institut (d. or, 148/765) at Françaisbest, asas well an de adequate as Damas, the surviving rational vol. 28, writings attempt pp. 259–66. ofat Dhūknowing l-Nūn al-Miṣrī (d. ca. God (Ebstein forthcoming).245/859) (Ogunnaike Early Sufis forthcoming). like Nūrī (d.For 295/907 these -authors,8) famously maʿrifa proclaimed is usually that contrasted “the with ʿilm, or Shushtar¯ı, Abu¯ l-H. asan Al¯ı, al-. 2004. Al-Risala¯ al- ilmiyya f¯ı l-tas.awwuf: Aw al-Risala¯ al-shushtariyya (compiled and intellect is impotentknowledge and only of provides the religious proof forsciences that which that is is basedimpotent” on the (al -transmittedʿaql ʿājiz lā yadullu tradition illā ʿ(alnaqlā ) and acquired summarized by Shushtar¯ı’s student Ibn Luyun¯ as al-Inala¯ al- ilmiyya f¯ı l-Risala¯ al- Ilmiyya f¯ı tar¯ıq al-mutajarrid¯ın ʿajiz mithili) (Sarrājthrough 1914, p.formal 40). Such training. figures These tended transmitted to discourage religious their sciences, followers moreover, from delving were into often. seen as being theal-s speculative.uf¯ ¯ıyya). Edited rationalcomplementary by teachings Muh. ammad to ofvarious the al- theologians intellectualAdlun¯ ¯ı. Casablanca: and sciences favored (al- the Dʿulūmar¯ use al-thaq al- ofʿ aqliyya theafa.¯ intellect) that are for conditioned the by the Shushtarpurpose¯ı, of Ab contemplatingu¯ l-Hdelimited. asan Al therational¯ı, signs al-. intellectand 2006. traces (Dʿaql¯ıw of),an ¯God including Ab’s ¯ıattributes l-H. logic,asan in al-Shushtartheology, creation. and Following¯ı: philosophy Am¯ır shuthe Qur ar(falsafa,a¯ʾāal-nic s.ḥ ufiyya¯ikma). bi l-Maghrib injunctions to contemplate God’s signs, they regarded contemplation to be a means of cultivating wa l-Andalus. EditedWhile by the Muh contrast. ammad between al- Adl conceptualun¯ ¯ı and ʿ Sailm ¯ıdand Ab experientialu¯ l-Fuyud¯ . ma. Casablanca:ʿrifa was largely Dar¯ adopted al-thaq inafa.¯ Sufi certainty and aligningdiscourse, the believer its epistemological’s will with Godimplications’s command. were yet to be fully worked out. Sufis expressed a variety Shushtar¯ı, Abu¯ l-H. asan Al¯ı, al-. 2008. Al-Maqal¯ ¯ıd al-wujudiyya¯ f¯ı l-da¯ ira l-wahmiyya li-Ab¯ı l-H. asan al-Shushtar¯ı. Some Sufis,of such attitudes as Ḥ aktowardīm al -discursiveTirmidhī (d.theology 255/869), and heldthe role a mildly of the favorablerational intellect view toward (ʿaql) in knowing God. Edited by Muhammad al- Adlun¯ ¯ı. Casablanca: Dar¯ al-thaqafa.¯ theology and wereSome. even were trained strongly in it. Such opposed figures to activelypresented involving the findings the intellectof Sufism in as acquiring complementary knowledge of God and Urvoy,to theology Dominique.. Likedismissed 1976.early Mu La theologicalʿ structurationtazilite and speculation Ash duʿarite monde as theologians, a desveil, Ulemasor, atthey best, a insisted Bougie as an adequatethat au VIIe the / intellectrationalXIIIe si èattemptcancle. Studia at knowing Islamica 43: incr87–107.ease the [ CrossRef believerGod ’s(Ebstein] certitude forthcoming). in God’s existence Early Sufis and thelike afterlifeNūrī (d. when 295/907-8) employed famously in order proclaimed to that “the contemplate Godintellect’s signs. is Well impotent-known and figures only provides such as alproof-Ḥārith for althat-Mu whichḥāsib isī (d. impotent” 243/857), (al- Abʿaqlū Bakrʿājiz lā yadullu illā ʿalā al-Kalābādhī (d. ʿajiz 380/990), mithili© 2020 Abū) (Sarrāj by l-Q the ā1914,sim author. alp.- Qushayr40).Licensee Suchī figures(d. 465/1074), MDPI, tended Basel, and to discourage AbūSwitzerland. Ḥāmid their al- Ghazālīfollowers This article (d. from is delving an open into access 505/1111) were professionallythe speculativearticle trained distributed rational in the teachings underdiscursive the of methods termsthe theologians and of theology conditions and ( kalāmfavored of)the and the Creative incorporated use of Commonsthe intellect Attributionfor the Ashʿarite doctrinespurpose and(CC creeds of BY)contemplating within license their (http: the own signs//creativecommons.org works and (Ebsteintraces of forthcoming).God’s attributes/licenses Although /inby creation./4.0 /these). Following Sufi- the Qurʾānic theologians expressedinjunctions a certain to contemplateskepticism toward God’s thesigns, science they ofregarded theology contemplation vis-à-vis direct to experience be a means of cultivating and mystical unveiling,certainty they and affirmedaligning the the believer’s utility and will validity with God’s of the command. Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their Some Sufis, such as Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī (d. 255/869), held a mildly favorable view toward

theology and were even trained in it. Such figures presented the findings of Sufism as complementary 1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, to theology. Like early Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite theologians, they insisted that the intellect can Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments. increase the believer’s certitude in God’s existence and the afterlife when employed in order to contemplate God’s signs. Well-known figures such as al-Ḥārith al-Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. 380/990), Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī (d. 465/1074), and Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) were professionally trained in the discursive methods of theology (kalām) and incorporated Ashʿarite doctrines and creeds within their own works (Ebstein forthcoming). Although these Sufi- theologians expressed a certain skepticism toward the science of theology vis-à-vis direct experience and mystical unveiling, they affirmed the utility and validity of the Ashʿarite Sunni creed. Their

1 I am grateful to Saad Ansari, Izzet Coban, Frank Griffel, Mehmet Emin Gulecyuz, Oludamini Ogunnaike, Samantha Pellegrino, Ian Grant-Funck, and the two anonymous reviewers of this article for their comments.