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Jean-Martin Charcot's Contributions to the Interface Between Neurology and Psychiatry

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Jean-Martin Charcot's Contributions to the Interface Between Neurology and Psychiatry HISTORICAL NEUROLOGY Jean-Martin Charcot's Contributions to the Interface Between Neurology and Psychiatry Michel B.White ABSTRACT: Although much has been written about Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) as a neurol­ ogist and his commitment to the hysterics of the Salpetriere, his influence on modern psychiatric thought has been misunderstood. His contributions range from the diagnosis and understanding of cer­ tain aspects of hysteria, which influenced psychoanalysis, to insights into the psychopathology of trauma that foreshadow modern concepts of post-traumatic stress disorder and somatoform disorders. This article reviews these aspects in the context of his contributions as a founder of modern neurology, neuropathology and proponent of the anatomo-clinical approach. RESUME: Les contributions de Jean-Martin Charcot a l'interface entre la neurologie et la psychiatrie. II existe une abondante litterature ayant trait aux contributions de Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) en tant que neu- rologue et son implication aupres des hyst6riques de la Salpetriere. Cependant, son influence sur la pensee psychia- trique moderne reste meconnue. Ses contributions portent tant sur le diagnostic et la comprehension de certaines facettes de I'hysterie, qui sont a l'origine de la psychanalyse, que sur la psychopathologie du traumatisme. Elles laissaient deja entrevoir certaines conceptions modernes sur l'etat de stress post-traumatique et les troubles somato- formes. Cet article etudie ces notions dans le contexte des contributions de Charcot en tant que fondateur de la neu­ rologie moderne, de la neuropathologie et promoteur de la m6thode anatomo-clinique. Can. J. Neurol. Sci. 1997; 24: 254-260 5 Jean-Martin Charcot's prodigious output and insights are scholarship by Gilman, King, Porter, Rousseau and Showalter, 6,7 more than ever relevant in our "decade of the brain" where neu­ along with works by Shorter, have widened our understanding rology, neuropsychiatry and psychiatry continue to discover new of the socio-historical aspects of hysteria. However, Micale,8 in grounds for exchange. Neuropsychiatry deals with the neurobio- his attempt to articulate a non-dogmatic sociosomatic model of logical components, assessment and optimal treatment of behav­ hysteria, deplored the lack of retrospective rediagnosis of ioral disorders associated with illnesses of the nervous system. It Charcot's patients and called for more interdisciplinary inquiry also studies the neurobiology of psychiatric disorders.1 Although between scientists and humanists. it has a very long history in Europe, it is now enjoying a world­ This article explores certain parallels between Charcot's wide renaissance. With limited means and essentially an organi- thinking and later diagnoses such as conversion disorder. cist working independently from the alienists (psychiatrists) of Furthermore, his notions concerning the neurological impact of his time, Charcot contributed to this interface more than a cen­ trauma antedate some of our current ideas behind the biological tury ago through his application of the anatomo-clinical method aspects of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and psychoso­ to various neurological diseases and subsequently to hysteria. matic medicine. Therefore, his perspective seems particularly Unfortunately, his historical attempt to apply the method to the interesting in retrospect as we now witness the renaissance of hysterics of the Salpetriere was not successful. This unjustly neuropsychiatry and evidence of biological correlates for many discredited much of his insights, and the subsequent influence of psychiatric entities. psychoanalysis on psychiatric thought contributed further to separate neurology and psychiatry. The Salpetriere and the anatomo-clinical method In 1982, an exhibition on Charcot's work with hysteria was Charcot took charge of the Salpetriere medical service in held at the Salpetriere and was the starting point of much subse­ 1862. This hospital already had an illustrious past. Used as an quent scholarship. More recently, to commemorate Charcot's centenary, some conferences have been published in the Revue 2 3 Neurologique. A recent contribution by Jacques Gasser and a From the Behavioral Neurology Unit, Neurology Service, Hotel-Dieu de Montreal 4 definitive biography by Goetz, Bonduelle and Gelfand in 1995 Hospital, Montreal. have greatly added to our understanding of Charcot's life and RECEIVED APRIL 24, 1996. ACCEPTED IN FINAL FORM FEBRUARY 27, 1997. Reprint requests to: Michel B. White, M.D., Department of Neurology, Hopital Hotel- his contributions as a creator of modern neurology. Exciting Dieu de Montreal, 3840 St-Urbain, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H2W 1T8 254 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.35.229, on 24 Sep 2021 at 06:13:21, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0317167100021909 LE JOURNAL CANADIEN DES SCIENCES NEUROLOGIQUES arsenal during the 13th century, it was transformed during the possible neuroanatomical etiology of psychiatric disorders. 17th century into a women's hospice. It then housed criminals, These schools can be seen as the ancestors of modern biological the mentally retarded, maniacs and neurosyphylitics who lived psychiatry. in abysmal conditions. In 1795, the famous psychiatrist Philippe Pinel, who had taken charge of the hospice a year earlier, partic­ Charcot as behavioral neurologist ipated in the liberation of the insane. Upon his arrival, Charcot Soon after his arrival at the Salpetriere Hospice, Charcot described the Salpetriere as a "... large asylum with a population began writing, along with Charles Bouchard, his first papers on 22,23 of about 5000 people, including a large number of incurables aphasia. Although their importance was acknowledged by 24 25 and women of all ages with every kind of chronic disease, par­ Pierre Janet and recently by F. Lhermitte and J.L. Signoret, ticularly those of the nervous system ... in other words, we are in this work has been mostly ignored by his biographers. Charcot possession of a kind of living pathological museum of consider­ defined psychology as the physiological operations of certain able resources".910 brain regions.4 Much of his thought on the subject was inspired Under Charcot's supervision, older buildings were trans­ by Theodule Ribot's 1881 monograph "Les maladies de la 26 formed into a research center for diseases of the nervous system. memoire". Ribot's modular approach to language taught that It is here that he brought the anatomo-clinical method to its language is a multi-faceted faculty. Charcot, by integrating clini­ most brilliant and elegant expression. This approach, which is cal, psychological and neuropathological data, was one of the the basis of Charcot's scientific orientation and work, is an first to attempt a unification of the psychological and physiolog­ attempt to identify and understand illnesses by correlating signs ical aspects of language, a concept that was popularly known at and symptoms with a postmortem search for organic lesions. that time as la psychologie physiologique. Through various Although known before Charcot and rooted in ideologies such aspects of aphasia, Charcot studied the auditory, visual, phonetic as Experimentalism, Determinism and Positivism, the anatomo- and motor elements of language and correlated them with differ­ clinical method was applied for the first time by Charcot to the ent brain locations. He had previously described 4 cases of systematic study of the nervous system and represents his scien­ "aphemia", and Paul Broca later incorporated Charcot's findings tific legacy." It highlights his genius at approaching and under­ into his evidence of left frontal lobe lesions implicated in speech standing polymorphous entities such as Graves-Basedow's deficits.427 He further introduced the works of "diagram mak­ disease, hereditary amyloidosis (Charcot-Marie's disease), mul­ ers" to the French scientific community. In 1885, with Ribot and tiple sclerosis (which he discovered) and amyotrophic lateral Paul Janet, Charcot created the Societe de Psychologie sclerosis, among others. Before his neuropathological work, Physiologique. Although short-lived, this society further which he carried out from 1870 to 1878, Charcot had already reflected his desire to integrate aspects of psychology and published papers on intermittent claudication,12 diabetic gan­ pathology.15 His interest in aphasia culminated in a series of 14 13 14 grene and geriatrics. The anatomo-clinical method eventually lectures given at the Salpetriere in 1883 and 1884. led to his greatest success, the localization of cortical motor As expressed well by Brais,28 although the principles of la 1516 functions in 1875. psychologie physiologique had been elaborated since 1873 by Charcot also studied les trembleuses de la Salpetriere Wundt,29 Charcot's efforts were to distinguish this new area (tremor in female patients). His work with Vulpian led to the from classical introspective and experimental types of psychol­ distinction between resting tremor associated with paralysis agi- ogy by emphasizing clinical and pathological data and refrain­ tans (Parkinson's disease) and intention tremor seen in multiple ing from animal experimentation. Although he has received sclerosis.17,18 However, it is his contributions to the creation of little recognition for these efforts, Charcot's contributions clinical neurology which were recognized
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