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Different Effects of Aging and Gender on the Temporal Resolution In Journal of Vision (2017) 17(11):1, 1–16 1 Different effects of aging and gender on the temporal resolution in attentional tracking Ecole´ d’optometrie,´ Universite´ de Montreal,´ Eugenie Roudaia Montreal, QC, Canada $ ´ Ecole d’optometrie,´ Universite´ de Montreal,´ # Jocelyn Faubert Montreal, QC, Canada $ The current study examined the role of temporal that tracking performance strongly depends on the resolution of attention in the decline in multiple object number of targets and their speed: Observers can track tracking abilities with healthy aging. The temporal up to eight targets at very slow speeds or only one resolution of attention is known to limit attentional target at very fast speeds (Alvarez & Franconeri, 2007; tracking of one and multiple targets (Holcombe & Chen, Cavanagh & Alvarez, 2005; Holcombe & Chen, 2012). 2013). Here, we examined whether aging is associated Other factors that influence performance include the with a lower temporal resolution of attention when number and spatial proximity of distracters (Drew, tracking one target, the efficiency of splitting attention Horowitz, & Vogel, 2013; Pylyshyn, Haladjian, King, across multiple targets, or both. Stimuli comprised three & Reilly, 2008; Scholl, 2009) and the spatial distribu- concentric rings containing five or 10 equally spaced tion of targets across the visual field (Alvarez & dots. While maintaining central fixation, younger and Cavanagh, 2005, 2015; Carlson, Alvarez, & Cavanagh, older participants tracked a target dot on one, two, or 2007). MOT ability shows large variability across three rings while the rings rotated around fixation in individuals, with higher capacity in athletes (Faubert, random directions for 5 s. Rotational speed was varied to estimate speed or temporal frequency thresholds in six 2013; Trick, Hollinsworth, & Brodeur, 2008) and conditions. Results showed that younger and older action video game players (Boot, Blakely, & Simons, participants had similar temporal frequency thresholds 2011; Green & Bavelier, 2006; Sekuler, McLaughlin, & for tracking one target, but the addition of one and two Yotsumoto, 2008; Trick et al., 2008). more targets reduced thresholds more in the older group Tracking capacity also varies across the lifespan, compared to the younger group. Gender also affected gradually increasing from childhood to adolescence performance, with men having higher temporal (Trick et al., 2008) and steadily declining with age frequency thresholds than women, independently of the starting in the third decade (Kennedy, Tripathy, & number of targets. These findings indicate that the Barrett, 2009; Sekuler et al., 2008; Trick, Perl, & Sethi, temporal resolution of attention for a single target 2005). The causes of age-related decline in tracking depends on gender but is not affected by aging, whereas capacity are unknown. Given the complexity of the aging specifically affects the efficiency of dividing MOT task, differences in performance may be due to attention across multiple targets. changes in one or several processes, from object motion processing, attentional modulation of targets and distracters, or higher order functions such as visuo- spatial working memory, sustained attention, and eye Introduction movement strategies. Here we briefly summarize what factors have been shown to influence age differences in Many situations in everyday life require us to attend MOT. Trick et al. (2005) tested tracking of one to four to multiple locations or objects at the same time, such targets among 10 objects moving at one speed level for as when we are watching team sports or crossing a busy 10 s. They found worse performance in the older group street. The ability to track several moving items with three and four targets only, although performance simultaneously has been studied using the multiple with one and two targets was near ceiling for both object tracking (MOT) task, in which participants track groups. Sekuler et al. (2008) tested tracking of one to a subset of identical moving objects over a period of five targets among 10 objects moving at two speed time (Pylyshyn & Storm, 1988). Studies have shown levels for 5 and 10 s. They found that increases in target Citation: Roudaia, E., & Faubert, J. (2017). Different effects of aging and gender on the temporal resolution in attentional tracking. Journal of Vision, 17(11):1, 1–16, doi:10.1167/17.11.1. doi: 10.1167/17.11.1 Received January 16, 2017; published September 1, 2017 ISSN 1534-7362 Copyright 2017 The Authors Downloaded from jov.arvojournals.orgThis work ison licensed 09/29/2021 under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. Journal of Vision (2017) 17(11):1, 1–16 Roudaia & Faubert 2 number, speed, and tracking duration all had a greater on the same trajectory, tracking fails at much lower detrimental effect on performance in the older group speeds as the temporal frequency of the stimulus compared to the younger group. Consistent with those reaches the temporal resolution of attention, which findings, Legault, Allard, and Faubert (2013) found determines the maximum rate at which attention can that older participants had lower maximum tracking individuate objects in time. Verstraten et al. (2000) speeds than younger participants for tracking three or found that the maximum rotational speed for tracking four spheres among eight moving in a virtual three- one object among multiple equally spaced objects dimensional (3-D) cube. Aging did not affect memory sharing the same trajectory asymptoted at speeds for locations of stationary targets, ruling out the corresponding to temporal frequency rates between possibility that declines in visual short-term memory four to seven objects per second. Holcombe and Chen can account for aging effects in MOT (Sekuler et al., (2013) also found a temporal frequency rate limit of 2008; Trick et al., 2005). Sto¨rmer, Li, Heekeren, and approximately seven objects/second when a single Lindenberger (2011) examined whether tracking per- target moved on the same trajectory as six to 12 formance was affected by irrelevant objects that were of distracters. Interestingly, when participants had to the same or a different color than the targets and that track two or three targets moving on separate were moving in an unattended region of the visual field. trajectories, the temporal frequency limit dropped to They found that same-color distracters affected youn- ;4 and ;2.6 Hz, respectively (Holcombe & Chen, ger and high-performing older adults more than 2013). These results indicated that temporal frequency different-color distracters, while low-performing older thresholds for tracking one target reflected the tempo- adults had equally poor performance for both types of ral resolution of attention, while the change in the distracters. Using an electroencephalogram study, temporal frequency thresholds with the addition of the Sto¨rmer, Li, Heekeren, and Lindenberger (2013) second and third target reflected the efficiency of showed that the time point at which neural response dividing attention across multiple targets. amplitudes differed between targets and nontargets was As mentioned previously, there were no age group delayed in older adults, indicating that aging may differences in MOT performance for tracking one or specifically affect the early visual processing of targets two targets, and the age effect increased with increasing during MOT. The above studies showed that aging target number (Sekuler et al., 2008; Trick et al., 2005). impairs tracking of multiple targets at higher speeds This pattern of results is consistent with the possibility and that this impairment may be due to attentional or that aging leads to small reductions in the temporal perceptual processing delays. resolution of attention that are insufficient to affect Given that changes in target number and speed in tracking performance for one or two targets or at low the classical MOT task are confounded with the speeds. Alternatively, it is also consistent with the number of collisions, changes of direction of the possibility that aging does not affect the temporal targets, and proximity of nontarget objects, it is unclear resolution of attention, but that older adults are less whether performance in the older group suffers due to efficient at dividing their attention across targets, difficulty with dealing with collisions, greater spatial explaining the increasing age difference in performance interference between objects, or whether it is due to with increasing target number. Thus, the goal of the poorer efficiency in dividing attention across multiple current study was to examine whether aging affects the targets. It is also not known whether aging affects temporal resolution of attention when tracking one attentional tracking capacity for a single item, as target, the efficiency of dividing attention across studies that assessed performance with one target did targets, or both. To do this, we adopted the paradigm not measure the limits of performance. Previous studies of Holcombe and Chen (2013) and measured rotational that examined the limits of tracking performance in speed thresholds for tracking one, two, and three displays where the spatial proximity of targets and targets rotating around fixation on a trajectory distracters was kept constant have demonstrated that containing five or 10 objects per ring. Examining attentional tracking fails when the target speed performance at two distracter density levels allowed us increases beyond a certain
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