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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-40416-8 - International Biological Programme 19: Grasslands, Systems Analysis and Man Edited by A. I. Breymeyer and G.M. Van Dyne Index More information

Index

Large herbivores are generally indexed by common name rather than Latin name. Table 4.3, pp. 288-93, gives Latin and common names for selected large herbivores.

aardvark, 293 age-weight curves, for large herbivores, abiotic subsystem 348-54 .energy flows in, 18-22 (crested wheat grass), models of: examples, 27-44; key variables Agropyron132 cristatum and processes, 26, 45-7, 49; matrices, carbohydrates in, 141, 144, 146, 147 24-6 (thick spike wheat• photosynthesis with respect to variables Agropyrongrass), dasystachyum68, 87, 88, 94, 96 of, 48, 49 (beardless wheatgrass), in regulation of population density of Agropyron146 inerme invertebrates, 252 (intermediate wheat• transfers between biotic components and, Agropyrongrass), intermedium 147 23 (couch grass), 142, 148 water flows in, 12-18 Agropyron repens (Siberian wheatgrass), Acarina, 202, 545 Agropyron146 sibericum biomass of: cultivation and, 554; in (western wheatgrass) different habitats, 565, 617, 619; in Agropyroncarbohydrates smithii in, 147 tundra, 213 dark respiration of, 94, 95 grazing level: and abundance of, 831 ; and in food of cattle, 294-5, and sheep, aggregation of, 832; and respiration of, 297 839 grassland dominated by metabolism of, in different habitats, 618 and, 134, 135-6, 626, Koeleria,627; Stipa, mowing, and percentage of predatory, prairie, mid-grass see also 551 growth of, 80, 85 Acrididae (grasshoppers) photosynthesis in, 78-80, 88, 89; models assimilation, respiration, and production for, 98, 122 of, 242 resistance to carbon dioxide diffusion in, assimilation efficiency of, 247; higher in 79,83-4 larvae, 248, 250 (bluebunch wheat• damage to plants by, 227, 230 Agropyrongrass), 138,spicatum 146 effects of diet on, 237 grassland dominated by, 626, 627; efficiency values for, 247 prairie, bunchgrass see food intake of, 227; and plant produc- phosphorusalso content of, 686, 687, 688 tion,241 sp. (northwest bunchgrass), 160, grazing, and production of (model), 786 Agropyron172 mowing, and numbers of, 219 spp., model for photosynthesis numbers and biomass of, in different Agropyronin, 97 grasslands, 211 spp., in food of sheep, 295, 825-6 season, and numbers of, 207, 215 Agrostis actinomycetes, in soil of burnt and un burnt Alchemilla monticosa, 73,623 75, 78, 84 savanna, 613 Alopecurusdecomposition pratensis, of, 623, 624 addax, 291, 334 alpaca, guanaco, llama, vicuna, 277, 279, (antelope), 242, 247 289, 364 adiposeAdenota tissue:kob thomasi metabolism, of, in cow, 398 aluminium, in litter, 721 advection (removal of water by wind), 17, 19 anomalous C3 plant, 64, spp., anomalous C. plants, 64 Amaranthus68 edulis, Aegilops 923

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-40416-8 - International Biological Programme 19: Grasslands, Systems Analysis and Man Edited by A. I. Breymeyer and G.M. Van Dyne Index More information

Index amino acids, in translocated assimilate, 125, components of, with highest resolution, 126, 131, 138 872 ammonia {false oat• atmospheric, absorption of, 662, 663 Arrhenatheretumgrass), 231 medioeuropaeum percentage of soil nitrogen as, 906 grassland dominated by, 546, 566-9, 612, quickly built into amino acids by plants, 622, 627, 636; vertical distribution of 671 predator biomass in, 548, 559 volatilization of, 663, 664 desert grassland dominated by, amphibians, daily and seasonal quiescence Artemisia,722,727-8 of, 592 exchange processes in, 740, 741-6 amylase activity in soil, 640, 641, 642 (fringed sagewort), 64 communities, 154,155,156,635 Artemisiagrassland frigida dominated by Andropogon (big bluestem), 147,297 and, 626, 627; Boutelouaprairie, gracilis short• Andropogongrassland gerardidominated by and, grass see also 626, 627; prairie,A. scoparius tall grass (sagebush), nitrogen- shrubbysee also savanna, burnt and Artemisiafixing ludoviciananodules on roots of, 661 . Andropogonunburnt, 546 (big sagebush), 141 (little bluestem), 85, arthropodsArtemisia tridentata Andropogon89,137,297 scoparius biomass of, above and below ground, grassland dominated by and, 903, 904 626, 627; prairie,A. tallgerardi grass relation between biomass of, and plant sp.see (sandhill also bluestem), 295 production, 544-5 Andropogon old (water vole), 227 Andropogonfield dominated ternarius, by, A.627 virginicus, ArvicolaAsilidae (hawkflies),terrestris 555 animals asparaginase activity in soil, 640, 641, 642 biomass of, on different grasslands, 804, assimilate (photosynthate) 903 concentration of, in leaf, and rate of heat transfer between environment and, photosynthesis, 93, 94 23 distribution of, 119, 128, 133-7 measurement of, by biomass, overesti• translocation of, translocation of mates importance of large; by numbers, assimilate see of small, 598, 599 assimilation, by herbivores annual grasslands, 46, 47 less than by predators, 806 dominant plants on (California), 902 linear relation of consumption and, 241, Mediterranean-type, 824, 829, 874 242 anoa (wild ox of Celebes), 291 assimilation efficiency (ratio to consump• antelopes, 291, 292 tion) in different groups of herbivores, 240, antssee also individual species of antelope 246-8 cultivation and, 554 during life cycle, 250 damage to plants by, 209, 215, 230 and metabolic rate, 598-9 fertilizers and, (mineral) 555, 556, in invertebrate predators, 569-70 (organic) 552, 553 in saprophages, herbivores, and preda• grazing level, and numbers of, 549 tors, 812 metabolism of, 571, 573, 574, 806 varies widely, 813 omnivorous species of, 808 atmosphere pesticides and, 561 as both source and sink for water flow, predation by, 540, 558-9, 560 18,23 in savanna, 620 excluded in low-resolution models for aphids, 228, 230 energy flow, 18 (yellow-necked field• influences of, on energy flow (convection, Apodemusmouse), /favicollis 242, 247 advection, evaporation), 19, 22 Apterygota, 565 ATP arable land, respiratory ratio of predators formed in photosynthesis, 61, 64, 65, and to saprophages in, 565 used in carbon dioxide fixation, 62 Armidale model of grazing on involved in translocation of assimilate, pasture, 857, 859, 860,Phalaris• 865-9 126 Trifolium 924

Index (fourwing saltbush), 147 plant biomass in, above and below AuchenorrhynchaAtrip/ex canescens (hoppers) ground,802 biomass of, in successive seasons, 207 (silk moth), larvae of, 227, 228 correlation between numbers of, and bongo,Bombyx 290 mori number of species, 213, 214 grassland dominated effects on numbers of: of fertilizers and Boute/ouaby, 626, eriopoda, 627 mowing, 220; of irrigation and burning, desert grassland 223-4; of mowing, 219; of season, see a/so (blue grama grass) 215 Boute/ouaassimilate gracilis distribution in, 133, 134, 135 predation of spiders and ants on, 558-9, carbohydrates in, 137, 147 560 decomposition of, 623, 675 Australia efficiency of energy capture by, 161 lack of coprophages in pastures in, 805 as food of cattle, 286, 295, and sheep, 297 model of ecosystem in, 793 grassland dominated by autotrophs, 23, 60, 800-1 and, 626, 627; Artemisiaprairie, frigidashort• grass see a/so Azotobacter, 661 light saturation level for, 116 bacteria nitrogen cycle in, 664-7, 677 numbers of, correlated with phosphatase phosphorus content of different parts of, activity of soil, 694 686, 687, 688 numbers of, in soil of burnt and un burnt photosynthesis in, 68, 74, 75, 76, 78-80, savanna, 614 88, 89; at different growth stages, 93; theoretical yield of, in different grass• models for, 98, 122, 124, 158-9 lands, 611-13 production by, model for, 123 microbial populations root turnover in, 156 bantengsee a/so cattle 276, 278, 291 soil water: and dark respiration in, 94, bat, vampire, 600(Bos banteng), 95; and growth of, 85; and root death, beaver, 600 156 sulphur content of, 699 Betabirds vulgaris, 132 temperature: and growth of, 80; and carnivorous, 593 resistance to carbon dioxide diffusion numbers and biomass of, in different in, 79, 83-4 climatic zones, 211, 212 community, 624 without significant effects on ecosystem of broad-leafedBrachypodium forests, 722, 728 N. American prairies? 806-7 exchange processes in, 740, 741-6 birth rate, of large herbivores: food supply (mountain bromegrass), and, 346 Bromus137 carinatus bison, 282, 291 age-weight relations in, 351, 354 Bromus erectus, 887(smooth bromegrass), 138, computer simulation of biomass produc• Bromus140, inermis 143, 148 tion by, 789-90 grassland dominated by, food of: chemical composition, 502-3; Bromus mollis, annual grassland grasses, forbs, and shrubs, 294, 295, 627; see a/so grassland dominated by 301, 303, 313, 314, 458, (seasons and) Bromus riparius, and, 627; meadow• 315-16; intake per unit body weight, steppeStipapinnata see a/so 515 spp. standing crop and annual production of, Bromusin Mediterranean-type annual pastures, 367 829 bison, European, 291, 459 in pastures sown with and blackbuck, 292 828 Pha/aris blesbock, 361-2, 363 Trifolium, (buffalograss), 80, 143, blue-green algae, nitrogen fixation by, 661 Buch/oe297 dacty/oides bog buffalo, African or Cape decomposition in, 807 food of, 283, 310, 490 (Syncerus), 291 herbivore biomass in, 212; ratio of, to buffalo, water 277, 291 plant biomass, 205 food of, 300,(Bubalus), 303, 312, 490; digestibility, invertebrate biomass in, 209 534-5 925

Index buffalo, water cycle of, 724; in ELM model, 113-14; in grazing by, 285(Buba/us) (cont.) forest and desert ecosystems, 728; water turnover in, 334 information on, 912; in mown meadow burning of grasslands, and biomass of and grazed pasture, 802-4 plants and herbivores, 217, 222-3, 224 ratio of, to nitrogen: and decomposition bushbuck, 290, 312, 365 rate, 564-5, 566; in different grass• lands, 718, 719-20; in soils, 698 cacti, 116 ratio of, to sulphur, in soils, 698 caesium-137: calculation of food intake uptake of, in different ecosystems, 757-8 from concentration of, in forage and in carbon dioxide animal body, 323, 330 animal production of, as measure of meadow, 622 energy expended, 344 calciumCa/amagrostis concentration of: and inhibitory effect of content of: in different forages, 698, oxygen on photosynthesis, 84; in leaf, 705-6; in food of cattle, 318; in roots, and stomatal control of photosynthesis, 721 175; in models for photosynthesis, 102, model for amounts of, in lichen-caribou• 110, 117, 118; and rate of photo• Eskimo food chain, 372-3 synthesis, 81-4 legume, 106 fixation of, in photosynthesis by Ca and calorificCa/opogonium value permucumoides, gram body substance, for C. plants, 62 invertebrate herbivores, saprophages, flux of, in model and observed, 177 and predators, 574-5 gradient of, in C. plants, 88 camels, 276, 278, 282, 289, 459 measurement of photosynthesis by up- food of, 459 take of, 66-7, 79 grazing by, 283, 343 from photorespiration, reassimilated in water requirement of, 334-5 C. plants, 64 Canada, models of ecosystems in, 764-6, soil output of: abiotic factors in, 636-9; 766-8 in grasslands with different tempera• Canidae, top carnivores of grassland ture and rainfall, 626-7; as indicator of systems, 593 decomposition processes, 632-3; in canopy models for shortgrass prairie, 911; in air turbulence within, 82 temperate grassland, 635-6; in tropical carbon dioxide concentrations in, 83 savanna, 633-5 multi-species, 153 carbon dioxide compensation point photosynthesis in, 74; models for, 109-12, in Ca and C. plants, 64, 65 116, 151-2 in model for leaf metabolism, 107 resistance to water vapour flow in, 174 carbon dioxide diffusion, resistance to, 83 shading of lower leaves in, 159 in Ca and C. plants, 106 capillary action, in models of water flow, 33 in model for carbon dioxide reduction in capybara, 277, 279, 293 C. plants, 122 Carabidae in models for photosynthesis, 101, 102, factors affecting numbers of, 549, 551, 103-4, 106, 110, 119, 153 554, 555, 556 pretreatment temperatures and, 83-4 metabolism of, 571, 572, 573, 574 soil water and, 85, 122, 123 as predators on moth larvae, 561 carbonates: release of carbon dioxide from, carbohydrates included in measurements of soil carbon balance of, over growth stages, 146 dioxide output, 638 formed in photosynthesis, 60, 64 grasslands, 624 reserves of, in plants, 138-9, 140, 141, Carex-dominated meadow, Devon Island, 148; defoliation and, 145-7; high, Carex-EriophorumCanada, 886 associated with resistance to cold, 143 spp., 297 carbon caribou,Carex 277, 279, 282 amounts of, in different parts of plants, food of: chemical composition, 502-3; in different ecosystems, 750-6 digestibility, 536-7; grasses, forbs, and content of, and ratio to nitrogen, in shrubs, 302,303,314,481-2; intake of, different parts of plants, 665, per unit body weight, 515 677 Boute/oua models: of calcium in food chain in- 926

Index caribou cellulose eluding,(cont.) 372-3; for grazing of pasture rate of decomposition of, in different by, 385-6 grasslands, 624-6, 628-31 population dynamics of, 346, 359, 364; symbiotic micro-organisms digesting, in models for, 368-9, 380-1 large herbivores, 271, 284, 321, 337 carnivore-herbivore biomass ratio, in differ• (C. grass), 106 ent grasslands, 594 Cenchrusgrazing ciliarislands of, West India, 888 carotenoids, in photosystem II, 61 chamois, 292 cattle, 276, 278, 282, 291 Chartier model, for photosynthesis, 100, age-weight relations in, 348-9, 350, 353, 104-6 354 chevrotain, 289 dressing percentage and fat percentage Chilopoda, 554, 555, 573 for carcasses of, and percentage of chloride, in plants of different grasslands, 'best quality' meat, 362 721 fasting, energy requirement of, 344 (Rhodes grass), models for food of: chemical composition, 318-19, Chlorisphotosynthesis gayana in, 97, 111-12 320, 340, 341, 516-23; digestibility, chlorophyll, iron required for production 338, 340, 341, 516-23; grasses, forbs of,88 and shrubs, 294, 295, 299, 301, 303, chlorophyll in photosystems I and II, 61 310, 311, 313, 314, 402, 435-45, chlorophyllsa, b, d, in photosystem II, 61 (seasons and) 304, 305, 306-7, 315-16; chlorophylls P700c, and P690 (or P680), 61 literature on, 282; preferences for, ratio of P700 to total, higher in C. plants, 286 70 food intake of, 206, 227; adjusted to chloroplasts constant amount of digested energy, carbon dioxide gradient between atmos• 326-7; body fat content and, 327; phere and, 83 percentage of, converted to growth, dimorphism of, in bundle sheaths of C. 355; rumen capacity and, 325, 337, plants, 62-3 340; temperature and, 328; per unit spp. (Orthoptera), 242, 247,251 body weight, 330, 331, 332-3, 504-10 chromicChorthippus oxide, administered to animals for grazing by: and plant biomass, 218; calculation of food intake from concen• and small herbivore biomass, 220, tration of, in faeces, 322 221 (little rabbit- meadow can support larger biomass of Chrysothamnusbrush),147 vicidi/lorus invertebrates than of, 253 219, 242, 247 models: for biomass production of, on Cicadelladamage viridis, to plants by, 229, 230 shortgrass prairie, 189-90; for glucose sap intake of, 226, 227 kinetics in, 372-3; for metabolism of, community, 624 387-8, (lactating) 368-9 Cladium spp., 227, 242, 247 numbers of, increasing, 271 Clethrionomysbiomass of, per unit area, 212; in succes- numbers of per unit area, on different sive seasons, 207 types of grassland, 271 climax ecosystems, 714, 734 percentage of consumption in excreta of, nitrogen-fixing, 661 253 coldClostridium, percentage of plant production consumed increases food intake by animals, 328, by, 253 331, and depresses digestibility, 337 production of, per unit area: compared and rate of photosynthesis in CD and C, with wild ungulates, 359; grazing level plants, 76 and (model), 786 resistance to, associated with high carbo• recyeling of nitrogen in, 347 hydrate reserves, 143 water requirement for different breeds of, Coleoptera, 207, 211, 212, 213 334,335 efficiency values for, 248 weight gains of, on different grasslands, grazing level and numbers of, 831, 839 354-6 larvae of, in tropical grassland, 619 cellulolytic organisms, aerobic and anaero• mowing: and numbers of, 219; and per- bic, in soils of two savanna sites in wet centage of predator species, 551 and dry seasons, 615 rate in cold climates, 216 927

Index Collembola, 616, 617, 618 numbers of sheep, and amount of, 834 effect of exclusion of predators on num• sulphur content of, 699 bers of, 567-8 transformation of, to litter, 737, 740; in grazing level: and abundance of, 831, models, 784 839,840,846; and aggregation of, 832; transformation of green shoots to, 154 and species diversity of, 832, 833 death rate Colorado: programming of 40 ranches in, of different parts of plant, 742, 865-6; in for optimal production, 876 model, 862, 863 competition, predation and, 597 of young deer, male and female, 347 computer languages, and structure and decomposers complexity of models, 857 biomass of, in different grasslands, 804, concentration gradient 805 in movement of assimilate in phloem, evolution of, 808 129, 131 respiration of, as percentage of total translocation against, in transfer of invertebrate respiration, at different assimilate from mesophyll to phloem, grazing levels, 839-40, 841 126, and from phloem to receiving decomposition, 610--11, 909 cells, 130 abiotic (photochemical), 623, 814 amounts of dead plants and excreta consumersConocephalus fasciatus, 570 involved in, at different grazing levels, immobilization of nutrients in, 815 837 ratio of biomass of, to producer biomass, carbon dioxide evolution as indicator of, 810, 812, 813 632-3; abiotic factors in, 633, 636-9; in regulatory role of, 815 temperate grassland, 635-6; in savanna consumption, 909 633-5 of cattle and sheep, percentage excreted, computer simulation of effect of grazing 253 on, 786 efficiency of (ratio to production): in geophagesin,619-21 different groups of herbivores, 239, 240, microbial population in: temperate grass• 241, 243, 245, 246-51; in invertebrate lands, 611, 613; tropical grasslands, predators, 562-3 613-15 coprophages, 253, 804 models of, 644-8 lacking in some Australian pastures, 805 phosphorus requirement for, 695, 696 organic manuring and numbers of, 552 rate of: carbon/nitrogen ratio and, (crown vetch), 144 564-5; in different grasslands, 742, Coronilla variacommunity, 624 807; and population of soil predators, Corynephorus (grass grub), 831 576; with predators excluded, 567-9 creosoteCostelytra bush, zealandica unpalatable, 311 rate of, in litter, determined by different cultivation (ploughing) of grassland, and methods: on cellulose materials, 624-6, numbers of invertebrate predators, 628-31; on labelled straw, 631-2; with 554-6 litter mesh bags, 622-4; in paired cushion-like plants, 804, 813 plots, 621-2 cyclosis: rate of movement in, less than in saprophagesin,615-19 translocation, 128 soil enzymes in, 639-44 (Bermuda grass), 68, 141, deer (various species), 271, 278, 282, 289-90 Cynodon142 dactylon birth rate of, on good and poor grassland, cytochromes, in photosynthesis, 61 346 cytoplasm: continuum of, in phloem, 129 food of, 297, 402-3; digestibility, 543-5 model for grazing of pasture by, 385-6; (cocksfoot or orchard model for management of herd of, and Dactylisgrass), glomerata 68, 141, 142, 148 simultaneous timber management, 371 day length, and food intake, 328 seasonal fluctuations in weight of, 362 dead plant material, standing sex ratio of, at birth, 347 accumulation of, in different grasslands, deer, black-tailed, 467-8 154-5, 718 food of, 302, 303, 313; digestibility, carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements in, 534-7; season and, 308-9 716-17,750--6 deer, mule, 282, 289 928

Index deer, mule (cont.) below ground, and nitrogen and age-weight relations in, 351 mineral uptake, 726, 727-9; and food of, 297; chemical composition, efficiency of energy capture, 160; ratio 502-3; digestibility, 339, 534-5, 536-7; of, to biomass, 801 grasses, forbs and shrubs, 302, 303, saprophages.in soil of, 617, 618 313, 314, 469-74, (seasons and) 305, translocation of ass:milate to roots in, 134 308-9, 310; intake of, per unit body desert shrub rangeland, 329, 888 weight, 515 dew, 14 population dynamics of, 358, 364, 366 community, 75, 157 deer, red, 282, 289 dicotyledons:Dichanthium biomass of, decreases under food of, 303, 479-80, (seasons and) 308-9 grazing, 232, 233 percentage of carcass as • first quality' (Greenland col• meat, 362 Dicrostonyxlared lemming), groenlandicus 207 deer, white-tailed, 282, 289 diffusion, activated: theory of movement of efficiency values for, 247 assimilate in phloem by, 128-9 food of: digestibility, 536-7; grasses, digestibility of food, 338-41, 396 forbs, and shrubs, 302, 303, 313, 314, age of plant and, 867 (season and) 305, 308-9, 310; intake of, effects of increase in, 326 per unit body weight, 600; percentage equations used in calculating, 433-4 of, converted to growth, 355 factors affecting, 336-7, 340,403 maintenance requirements of, 363 and food intake per unit body weight, 332 population dynamics of, 358, 364, 367 methods of measuring, 335-6 defence systems of plants digestion, in large herbivores chemical (alkaloids, phenols), 235, 238 cellulolytic microbes in, 271, 284, 321, 337 morphological (thorns, tough epidermal rate of, and time of retention in gut, tissues), 238 325-6 defoliation dik-dik, 283, 291 and carbohydrate reserves, 145-7; carbo• food of, 300, 487 hydrate reserves, and growth after, Diplopoda, 565, 616 148-9 biomass of, in different habitats, 617, 619 by insect larvae, may cause death of grazing level and abundance of, 831, 839 trees, 232 Diplura, 619 and production, 96 Diptera, 207, 211, 213 grazing, mowing larvae of, 616 dehydrogenasesee also activity in soil, 640-1, 643 predation of ants and spiders on, 558-9, denitrification, loss of nitrogen by, 663 560 grassland dominated by diseases Deschampsia,(Poland), 211, 546 of insects, crowding and, 219 desert grasslands, 47, 887 of plants: and photosynthesis, 92-3; animal biomass in: different groups of transmitted by herbivores, 225 rodents, 595; structure, 804 diversity measures, for large herbivores in decomposers in, 807 different habitats, 597-8 dominant plants in (New Mexico), 902 dog, food intake per unit body weight of, efficiency of water use in, 169 600 exchange processes in, 739, 740, 741-6 domestication of animals, few species herbivore biomass in, in relation to plant involved, 347 biomass, 205 donkey (burro), 276, 278, 282 invertebrate biomass in, 904; feeding on food of, 303, 311, 459 plant material above and below water requirement of, 335 ground, 209; grazing level and, 550 dragonflies: predatory larvae of, feed on invertebrate predators in, above ground, own kind, 807 541, 542, and below, 546 driving variables, 882, 894 models for, 393 (tundra shrub), two plant biomass in, 901, 902; standing dead Dryasmodels integrifolia describing growth of, 873 material, 154 duiker, 291, 337 producer/consumer biomass ratio in, 813 dunes (Egypt), 888 production in, 172, 626; above and (Arctic species), 97 Dupontia /ischeri 929

Index eagle, golden, 595 concept of, 847, 885 ecological studies interrelations of water flow and, 22-3 approach to synthesis in, 889-90 in large herbivore system, 274-5 component-oriented, 883-5 in lightly grazed pasture, observed and models in, 890-915 predicted, 645-7 organization and design of long-term, models for, 729-31; in grassy swamp, 915-16 734,735; in meadow-steppe, 731-4; in systems-oriented, 885-9 mesohalophytic meadow, 733, 734-5 ecosystems, 883, 885 in models for grassland systems, 41-4, education, from making of models, 773-4, 228 778, 781 in shortgrass prairie, 905-6 eland, 277, 279, 283, 290-1 enzyme activity in soil, 639-40 food of, 300, 312,489 in decomposition processes, 643-4 maintenance requirements of, 363 in different types of soil, 641-3 possibility of domesticating, 360 methods of determining, 640-1 rumen capacity of, 337 equilibrium between prey and predators, water requirement of, 334 more stable with polyphagous than with Elateridae, 553 prey-specific predators, 561 ELCROS model for photosynthesis, 97, (weeping lovegrass), 149 108, 120-1 Eragrostis curvula electron transfer, in photosynthesis, 61, 64 evaporationEragrostis setifolia, 310 elephants, 277, 279, 283, 293, 396 computed and potential, over the year, age-weight relations in, 353 47,49 consumption, assimilation, and produc• from plants, 23, and from soil, 17 tion figures for, 242, 245, 246, 247 rate of, 22 food of: chemical composition, 319; in water flow, 15 grasses, forbs, and shrubs, 300, 303, evapotranspiration 311, 312,491; intake of, per unit body as both energy flow and water flow, 20 weight, 331 dependent on soil moisture, 865, 866 grazing by, 283-4 transpiration and, in models of grassland microbial digestion of cellulose in, 284 systems, 34-40 population dynamics of, 365, 367 in water flow, 12, 174 water requirement of, 334 excretions of herbivores elk, 382 calculation of food intake from, 322, 324 age-weight relations in, 351 of cattle and sheep, 253 food of, 303, 313, 314, 477-9; lack of organisms to decompose, in some seasons and, 308 Australian pastures, 236 population dynamics of, 346-7, 358, and nutrient recycling, 235, 804-5, 806 364, 366, 367 potassium in (urine), 705 ELM model for photosynthesis, 97, 112-17, relation of amount of, to amount con• 152, 158, 709, 769, 770, 782, 783-4 sumed (lepidopteran larvae), 228, 236 (Russian wild rye), 141, 144 experiments on grazing systems Enchytraeidae,Elymus juncus 565, 616, 617, 618 interrelations of models and, 897-900 as geophages, 619 models must be combined with, 856-7, grazing level, and abundance of, 831, 839 874, 894 energy division of metabolizable, between main• tenance and growth, 345 fatFagopyrum, 623 efficiency of capture of, and production, content of: in animals, and food intake, in different grasslands, 159-61 327, 330; in carcasses of domestic and metabolizable, in different types of food, wild animals, 362; in plants, and 296 palatability for large herbivores, 286 energy flow, in ecosystems, 11, 12,49,611 percentage gain of weight in, in cattle and abiotic, 18-22; models for, 18-22 sheep, 345 between trophic levels, difficult to calcu• Felidae, top carnivores in woodland late, 814 systems, 593 carnivory and, 598-601 ferredoxin, in photosynthesis, 61 930

Index fertilizers forest steppe and biomass of invertebrate predators, mineral elements in soils of, 721 551-4, 575 saprophages in, 617, 618 effects of, on production, root growth, forests and species diversity of plants, 217, carnivores in, 593 222, 843 decomposition in, 564-5 model for effects of, on animal growth exchange processes in, 741-6; model for, and economic benefit, 875 739 nitrogenous, 74, 142, 671-2 grazing on leaves of, 562 and rate of decomposition of cellulose in insect damage to, 232 soil,630 production in: above and below ground, in streams, 842 170, 726, 727-9; ratio to biomass, 801, (tall fescue), 148 802 Festucaphotosynthesis arundinacea in, 68, 76, 78, 121; model soil in: carbon, nitrogen, and mineral for, 98 elements in, 721-2, 741; enzyme community, 155, 156 activity in, 641; respiration and water Festuca seeded grassland (Bel• content of (tropical riverbank), 635 Festuca-Filipendulagium),888 trophic pyramid for, 808, 809 broad-leafed forests, rain forests, Festucagrassland idahoensis dominated by, 627; seespruce also forests mountain grassland see also France, model of Canadian ecosystems phosphorus content of different parts developed in, 766-8 of, 686,687 frost, may make poisonous or unpalatable grassland dominated by plants into preferred species, 296 Festuca kryloviana,and, 627 fructosans, reserve carbohydrates, 137, 138 Ptilagrostis(red fescue), 98, 121, 825-6 fungi Festucain food rubra of sheep on 8t Kilda, 295 in diet of reindeer, 204, 311 meadow dominated by and, 886 numbers of, in soils of burnt and un burnt sp. (rough fescue),Trisetum 172 savanna, 614 Festuca 73, 75, 78, 84 pathogenic to plants, entering at sites of Festuca sulcata, 160, 801 damage by herbivores, 236, 237 fibre,Festuca in thurberi,diet of cattle and sheep, 317, 318 relation between protein and, 319 gazelles, 283, 292, 396 fire dressing percentages of carcasses of, 362 and microbial population of soil, 613-14 food of, 300, 303, 311, 312, 337,487-8 for retaining savanna rather than allow• population dynamics of, 361, 365 ing growth of forest, 360 water requirement of, 334 fistulated animals (oesophagus or rumen) gemsbok, 283 method of calculating food intake, using food of, 300, 303, 489-90 samples from, 324 gerenuk, 292, 334 in studies of food eaten, 281,317,435-58 giraffe, 277, 279, 283, 290, 396 age-weight relations in, 352 food passimchain: prolongation of, increases food of, 300, 312,491 nutrient storage in bodies of con• herd structure of, 365 sumers, 816 glucose: model for kinetics of, in lactating food web, in hydric grasslands of S. Florida, cow, 373 595, 596 73, 75, 78, 84 forbs Glyceriagrassland maxima, dominated by, 612, 613, 624 contribution of, to production on N. American sites, 901, 904 Glycine hispida,(soybean), 87 125, 132-3 in food of large herbivores, 294, 295, glycolate,Glycine max substrate of photorespiration, 64, 296-310, 402-3, 435-91 65 more drought-tolerant than legumes, 829 goat, mountain, 314, 485 in pastures sown with and goats, 276, 278, 282, 292 and grazed Phalarisat different food of: chemical composition, 500-3; levels,Trifolium, 827, 828 digestibility, 339, 532-3; grasses, forbs, seed production by, 828, 829 and shrubs, 290, 301, 303, 313, 314, 931

Index goats and plant production, 217, 218, 232-5, 456-8;(cont.) intake of, per unit body weight, 599-600 330, 575 and rate of photosynthesis, 92 grazing by, 283, 284, 402 recovery of herbage from, 102, 164 numbers of, decreasing, 271 research and information needs on, production per unit area, compared with 847-8 wild ungulates, 359, 360 responses of semi-arid grassland to, 910 gopher, pocket, 600 and root growth, 96, and turnover, 157 and soil carbon dioxide output, 637 grassesGossypium hirsutum, 107 and species diversity, 221 annual, in pastures sown with grazing efficiency, in Noy-Meir model, and Phalaris 871 chlorenchymaTrifolium, in 827-8C. and C. groups of, 62 Grillidae (crickets), 211, 215 contribution of, to production on N. growing season American sites, 901, 904 calculated potential, 45, 47 dominance of, favoured by light stocking, water during, 161 826 growth evolution of, 271 apical at expense of stored materials, in food of large herbivores, 294, 295, cambial from current assimilate? 139 296-316, 402-3, 435-91 and carbohydrate reserves, 141, 144, high preference of domesticated animals 148-9 for, compared with wild animals, 363 model for distribution of assimilate in, low percentage of, in E. African savanna, 151 favours wild animals, 363 growth rate of plants, 69 mineral nutrients in, 686, 704, 705-6 estimated maximum possible, 70; maxi- more drought-tolerant than legumes, 829 mum observed, 72 production of, in shortgrass prairie as function of biomass, 861 (computer simulation), 789 grazing and, 232-3 reserve carbohydrates in, 138 in models, 120, 862-3, 870 grasslands, definition of, 883 nitrogen supply and, 89 Grasslands-Tundra International Work• soil temperature and, 865, 866 shop, model developed at, 770-3 growth stages of animals meadow, 612, 622, 627, 636 and digestive efficiency (sheep), 336 Gratiola-Carexgrazing and food intake (large herbivores), 330-1 and biomass: of herbivores, 220, 221, 404; growth stages of plants of invertebrate predators, 548-51 and carbohydrate reserves, 137, 143-5, and carbon flow and retention, compared 145-6 with mowing, 802-4 and distribution of assimilate, 133, 136, and carbohydrate reserves in plants, 139 145-9 and effect of grazing, 229, 233 consumption in, as percentage of pro• in models of ecosystems, 782-3 duction, 562 and photosynthesis, 93 and distribution of assimilate in plants, and potassium content, 704, 705 136-7 and water use, 169 energetic cost of, to animals, 342-4, 403 guard cells of stomata, 85, 175 as factor maintaining grasslands, 804 and leaf area index, 74 hair level of: and animal production, 357, 404, storage of nitrogen in, 322 823, 845-6, 848; and botanical compo• yields of, from large herbivores, 276, 277 sition, 824-9, (model) 829-30; and desert com• growth rate of pasture (model), Haloxylon-Ammondendronmunity 863-6; and structure of invertebrate carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements population, 830-4, 845 in, 722, 741 in models: of ecosystem, 784, 785, 786; exchange processes in, 740, 741-6 of stability of pasture, 870-2 production in, and nitrogen and mineral and nutrient cycling, 841-5 uptake, 727-8 percentage of plant biomass left after, 204 hare, fluctuations in numbers of, 207 932

Index hartebeest, 283, 291, 396 models of energy flow between environ• food of, 310,488 ment and, 272-5 rumen capacity of, 337, 340 models for management of wild, 372-3, hay, 804, 847 378-9, 380-1 heat transfer, 908 no great changes in numbers of natural between animals and the environment, 23 popUlations of, 208 in models: for energy flow, 19-22; for population dynamics of, 346-7 grassland plant growth, 117; and production by, 347-67 observed, 177 herbivores, invertebrate heather: calculation of intake of, by sheep, biomass of; in different grasslands, 805; from quinol and orcinol excreted, 322 feeding on aboveground, and below• (sunflower), anomalous ground plant material, 209 Helianthus annuus Ca plant, 64, 87 consumption by, and net aboveground plant production, 241 Hemiptera,Helipperum 207,fioribundum, 211, 212 310 consumption efficiency of, 563 herbivores plant parts selected by, 206, 210 assimilation efficiency of, 812 respiration of, as percentage of total for biomass of: in different grasslands, 804; invertebrates, at different grazing levels, and of invertebrate predators, 544 839-40,841 herbivores, large, 270-2, 402-5 herbivores, small, 201-2, 252-6 comparisons among, 275-80 as agents transmitting plant pathogens, compensatory gain of weight in, after 237 food deprivation, 345-6 alteration of habitat by, 236-9 delaying effects of, on nutrient cycling, biomass and numbers of, 206-13; ratio of 806,815 biomass to available plant biomass, diversity measures for, in different 203,205 habitats, 597-8 in conditions of utilization of grasslands, efficiency of maintenance and gain in, 217-25 344-5 consumption by, 239 energy cost of grazing by, 242-4 diversity of, 213-16 favoured by grassland ecosystems, 804 effects of: on plant physiology, 235-6; on food of: chemical composition, 317-20, plant production, 225-35 492-503; digestion of, 335-41, (equa• effects of plants on, 237-8 tions for) 280, 433-4; grasses, forbs, efficiency values for, 246-51 and shrubs, 298-316, 402-3, 435-91; energy flow in populations of, 238-9, grazing methods and, 282-5; litera• 239-46 ture on, 280, 282; methods of deter• food selection by, 203-4, 206 mining, 281, 317, 320-4; palatability model for population dynamics of, of, 286-7; preferences for, 285-6, 372-3 297-8, 396, 402; preference ratios sensitivity analysis of models for, 251-2 for, 287, 294-5, 402; seasons and, herds, of wild ungulates: age-sex compo- 296-7 sition of, 364-6 food intake of: factors affecting, 324-9; community, 157 as percentage of body weight, the same Heteroptera,Heteropogon 211, 219, 250 for carnivores and herbivores, 599, heterotrophs, 23, 802-8 600; percentage of, converted to hexoses: diurnal variations in concentra• growth, 355; rate of, 329-33, 504-15, tions of, in different parts of plant, 140 (equations used in calculating) 433-4, hibernation, of mammals, 593 (in models) 382, 392, 397 mountain grassland information available and needed on, Hieracium-Nardus,dominated by (Carpathians), 886 280, 282, 398-401 98, 123 models of, 382-92, (large scale) 392-4, hippopotamuses,Hilaria mutica (Tabosa 277, 279, hi/aria), 283, 288-9, 340 (general consider~tions) 384-7, (limita• food of, 300, 303, 490 tions on complexity) 397-8 water requirement of, 334 models of biomass and population Histeridae, 555, 573 dynamics of, 867-9 in food of sheep on St Kilda, models of ecosystems including, 784 Holcus,295 933

Index homoiotherms, invertebrate soil water content, and carbon dioxide efficiency values for, 248-9 evolution in, 635 interrelations of assimilation, consump• hypotheses: about structure, function, and tion, and respiration in, 243, 244, 245, utilization of grasslands, 906-12 246 Homoptera, 242, 247, 249 impala, 277, 279, 283, 292, 396 (barley), 71 age-weight relations in, 352 Hordeum spp.vulgare food of, 300, 310, 487 Hordeumin Mediterranean-type annual pasture, population dynamics of, 361, 365 829 inositol phosphates, resistant to decay, 693 in pastures sown with and insecticides: severely reduce predators, with 828 Phalaris Tri• less effect on herbivores, 559-60 horses,folium, 276, 278, 282, 293 insects food of: chemical composition, 502-3; and behaviour of grazing animals, 284 grasses, forbs, and shrubs, 299, 301, biomass of: in different climatic zones, 303, 313, 314,402,466-7 211, 212; ratio of, to available plant grazing by, 204, 283 biomass, in fertilized and unfertilized maximum salt concentration in water for, meadows, 205; variations in, 209 334 damage to plants by, 230 . microbial digestion of cellulose in, 321 effects on, of grazing, 830, and mowing, wild, herd structure of, 364 219 humidity efficiency values of larvae of, 249, 251 of atmosphere: and rate of photosynthe• food intake of, 227 sis, 76, 77; and water use efficiency, invertebrate predators and, 576 107, 175-6 migration of, 220 of habitat: and biomass of invertebrate nature of plant population, and numbers predators above ground, 541, 543; and of,210 percentage of plant biomass below sap-feeding, 226, 227, 328; effect of, on ground, 802; and size of saprophages, plants, 229, 235; efficiency values for, 616-17 compared with grazers, 249 of soil: and rates of carbon cycle, 723, of International Biological Programme cellulose decomposition, 624, and of reflections on international cooperation root renewal, 725 in, 916-17 humus syntheses of ecosystem studies under, conversion of litter and dead roots to, 886-9 737, 740, 743 invertase (saccharase) activity in soil, 640, nitrogen flows to and from, 678-9, 641, 642, 643 681 invertebrates sulphur-containing amino acids in, 697 abiotic factors in regulation of popula• Hurley ewe-lamb management model, 858, tion of, 252 860, 869-70 biomass of: below ground, as percentage components with highest resolution in, of total, 620; compared with verte• 872,873 brates, 210; in different climatic zones, hydric grasslands, S. Florida 211-12; in different grasslands, 804; carnivore-herbivore biomass ratio in, 594 on N. American grasslands, 904; ratio food web in, 595, 596 of, to available plant biomass, 208, 209 hyena, 600 calorie content per unit weight of body Hymenoptera substance, herbivore, saprophage, and in different climatic zones, 211, 213 predator, 574-5 parasitic, 541, 556; larvae of, 571, 574 efficiency values for, during one-year life predatory, effect of grazing on numbers cycle, 249, 250 of,549 grazing level and abundance of different savanna groups of, 830, 831, 845, 848 Hyparrheniacircadian rhythm of temperature and respiration of, calculated for different carbon dioxide evolution in, 633-5 grazing levels, 838-41, 845-{) groups of microbes in soil of, in wet and herbivores, invertebrate, dry seasons, 614, 615 seepredators, also invertebrate and 934

Index iodine metabolism: model for, in lactating leaf water potential cattle and sheep, 368-9 and photosynthesis, 87, 88; in models for iron photosynthesis, 103, 107, 110, 119 in litter, 721 transpiration and, 153, 174-5 required for chlorophyll production, leather: yield of, from different large herbi• 88 vores, 276, 277 irrigation leaves and biomass: of plants and herbivores, anatomy of, in Ca and C, plants, 63, 65 217, 223-4; of soil macro-arthropods, arrangement of, in models for photo• 555 synthesis, III and leaf area index of shortgrass prairie, boundary layer resistance of: to carbon 74 dioxide diffusion, 83, 101, 119; to and rate of decomposition of cellulose in water vapour movement, 174, 177 soil, 630 models for photosynthesis in, 100-7 Isopoda, 565 optimum area of, for community photo• synthesis, 109 Japan, models of ecosystem in, 762, 763 respiration of, while growing, and mature, community, 622 94 Juncus-Carex translocation of nitrogen away from, kangaroos, 277, 279, 283, 288 before abscission, 673 food of: digestibility, 536-7; grasses, legumes forbs, and shrubs, 303, 310-11,486-7 biomass of, decreases under grazing, 233 grazing by, 204, 283 less drought-tolerant than grasses, 829 model for metabolism of, 18l-8 mineral contents of, 688, 698, 704 klipspringer, 291 nitrogen fixation by bacteria symbiotic kongoni, 276, 278 with,661 dressing percentage of carcasses of, 362 lemmings, 212, 230 kudu,277,279,283,29O fluctuations in numbers of, 207, 210 age-weight relations in, 352 Lepidoptera, 211, 212, 213, 215 food of, 303, 312,488 calculation of respiration of larvae of, at herd structure of, 365 different grazing levels, 839 efficiency values for, 247-8, 249 lactation models involving, in cattle and sheep, Leptopterna,LEYFARM 252model of annual clover 368, 372-3, 389, 390, 391 grazing, 857, 858, 859, 860-4, 876 and water requirement, 334 components of, with highest resolution, latitude 872-3 and plant biomass, 884 lichens, winter food of reindeer, 204, 297, and ratio of plant material above and 311,358 below ground, 884 model of calcium in food chain based on, leaching, of inorganic nutrients, 662-3, 674, 372-3 697,703 time required for regrowth of, 358 in rain forest, 727-8 light leaf angle computer simulation of effect of grazing in model for photosynthesis, 124 on interception of, 786 and rate of photosynthesis, 71 efficiency of utilization of, 159-61 leaf area index (ratio of leaf area to ground and evapotranspiration, 174 area),71 intensity of, and rate of photosynthesis, and assimilation rate, 69 69-76 effects on, of irrigation and nitrogen interaction of intensity of, in photo• fertilization (shortgrass prairie), 74 synthesis, with soil water, 89-90, 91, in models, 111, 112, 116, 124, 174 and with temperature, 89, 90 and rate of photosynthesis (wheat), 72 in models: for energy flow, 18, 19; for values for, maximum, 72, and optimum, carbon dioxide reduction in C, grass, 72,74 122; for growth of grass-legume sward, variations in, over the year, 71, 75 121; for photosynthesis, 102, 103, 104, leaf area reduction factor, 865 106, 110, Ill, 112, 114, 115-16, 117, 935

Index light (tomato), 132 120,(cont.) 121, 122; for sheep grazing on Lycopersicum'esculentumLycosidae (wolf spiders), feed largely on legume pasture, 861; for water flow, 175 their own kind, 807 photosynthetically active, 61, 69; in a canopy, 109-10 magnesium, in different forages, 698, 705-6 and rate of translocation, 132 maintenance energy light compensation point, 104 figures used for, in models, 397 lignified parts of plants, perennial: in forest higher requirements for, in wild animals and desert ecosystems, 721, 722, 727-9 than in domestic, 363 lignin required for cattle and sheep, grazing and content of, and palatability of plants, 287 indoors, 342-3 in food of large herbivores, 317, 318; and malate, in photosynthesis in C. plants, 62, digestibility, 340, 341; and food intake 65 per unit body weight, 322 mammals, carnivorous in faeces, calculation of digestibility of more important at high latitudes and forage from, 335-6, 340 high altitudes, 593 lion, 600 tend to become omnivorous under stress, litter (dead plant material above ground) 593 amount of: and biomass of invertebrate management decisions predators below ground, 545, 546, impacts of, on structure and function of 547,565; and biomass of saprophages, grasslands, 823-4, 847 545,547; in different grasslands, 155-6, models and optimization of, 874-5, 877; 718 for individual farm, 875-7 carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements nature of models required for, 912-15 in, 716-17, 722, 750-6; potassium in, marsh, marshy meadow, wetland 705; sulphur in, 699 decomposers in, 807 in ELM model, 113 invertebrate predators in, 542, 546, 563 in fertilized meadows, 222 producer-consumer biomass ratio in, 813 invertebrate predators at interface of soil mass flow between regions of different and, 548, 575 turgor pressure, as hypothesis for move• nitrogen flows from, 673-5, 679, 680 ment of assimilate in phloem, 127-8 rate of loss of weight from: measured by Matador model for photosynthesis, 97, litter mesh bags, 622-4, and in paired 117-19 plots, 621-2 energy balance, water balance, micro• respiration of, 67 climate, and heat flow sections of, transformation of dead standing material 176-8 to, and humification of, 119, 737, 740 meadow, cultivated in water flow, 14, 15, 16, 17 fertilized and unfertilized: invertebrate locomotion, percentage of food of inverte• biomass on, 209; ratio of herbivore to brate predators used in, 571 available plant biomass in, 205 locusts, 230 influence of herbivores on production in: fluctuations in numbers of, 207, 209 hay-harvested, 231, 232, 253, 255; and mountain grassland pasture, 232, 233 Loliumdominated Cynosurus, by (Carpathians), 546, 886 meadow, mountain, different types of (Tien Shan) Lolium multi/forum,(ryegrass), 133 122, 133, 148 biomass of invertebrate predators in, Loliumovergrazing perenne causes replacement of, by above ground, 542, 543, and below other species, 825 ground, 546 (poison ryegrass), 132, consumption efficiency of predators in, Lotium133 temulentum 563 Lommen model of, for photosynthe• herbivore biomass ratio to available plant sis, 100,et al.: 102-4 biomass in, 205 savanna producer-consumer biomass ratio in, Loudetiacircadian rhythm of temperature and 813 carbon dioxide evolution in, 633-5 reserves of live roots in, 716 groups of microbes in soil of, in wet and saprophages in, 617, 618 dry seasons, 614, 615 wet: biomass of different invertebrates in, 936

Index meadow, mountain metabolic inhibitors (cyanide, iodoacetate), 211; structure (cont.)of animal biomass in prevent unloading of phloem, 130 (Norway), 212 metabolic rate mountain grassland higher in young animals, 344 meadow-steppesee also of invertebrate predators, 571-4 as climax ecosystem, 746 resting and average, 570-1 exchange processes in, 738-9, 743-6; temperature and, 598 model for, 731-4, 736, 737 metabolic weight, of small and large carni• invertebrate biomass in, 209 vores,600 models for, 762 methane, lost from large herbivores, producer-consumer biomass ratio in, 813 275 rate of production in: and soil respira- microbial populations, in temperate grass• tion, 627; and uptake of nitrogen and lands, 611-13, and tropical grasslands, mineral elements, 757 613-14 reserves of carbon, nitrogen, and mineral different groups of, in soils of two elements in, 750-1, 752 savanna sites in wet and dry seasons, reserves of live roots in, 716; roots as 614-15 percentage of biomass in, 802 mineralization of phosphorus by, 694, structure of animal biomass in, 804 695 meadow, temperate (Vistula valley) nitrogen of, included in that associated invertebrate biomass in, 805, 806 with root litter, 677-8, 681 plant biomass in, above and below relations between saprophages and, 615, ground, 802 616 producer-consumer biomass ratio in, research needed on mineralization by, 813 847 meadow, type I (mesophytic, mesohalo• sensltlve to moisture, aeration, and phytic, hygrophytic), and type II (halo• temperature, 807, 814 phytic, hygrohalophytic) sulphur in, 699 exchange processes in, 733, 734-5, 736, migration 737, 738-9, 746 of carnivorous birds, 593 production in: above and below ground, of herbivores, 220, 222, 224 723-4, 726; and uptake of nitrogen and milk mineral elements, 722-3, 758 consumption of, by young animals (in reserves of carbon, nitrogen, and mineral models), 397 elements in, 716-17, 719-20, 721, 752-6 fat content of, 278, 279 meadow, unexploited yields of, from different domestic animals, producer-consumer biomass ratio in, 813 276,277 production and utilization of plants in, mineral nutrients 253-4,256 and carbohydrate reserves, 142-3 meat cycling of, 659-60, 885, 908; grazing dressing percentage of, from domestic level and, 826, 841-5; research needed and wild animals, 361, 362, 404 on, 847, 848 yields of, from different domestic animals, in different parts of plant on different 276 grasslands, 715-17, 750-60 (lucerne), 140, 142, 147, and photosynthesis, 88-9, 122 Medicago236 sativa rate of uptake of, 757-8 (Orthoptera), 242, ratio of carbon to, in different grasslands, Melanoplus244-5, 246,sanguinipes 570 718, 719-20 mineralization, of dead organic matter, 732, mesophyllMertensia arizonica, 144 737, 740, 743 in Ca and C. plants, 63 of humus, 733 resistance to carbon dioxide diffusion in, of nitrogen in humus and dead roots, 679 83, 88; in models for photosynthesis, of organic phosphorus, 693-6 101, 105, 106, 119 transfer of assimilate into phloem from, Miscanthusgrassland sacchari/lorusdominated by (Japan), 887 as active process, often against a model for grazed and ungrazed eco• concentration gradient, 126-7 systems of, 762, 763 937

Index mitochondria of plants, dark respiration in, {carpet weed), has char• 101 Mol/ugoacteristics verticil/ata of both C. and C. plants, 63 (Opiliones), 569, 570, 572 molluscs, 616 models,Mitopus 883,morio 890, 891 rare in cold climates, 216 of abiotic processes, 24-44 monocotyledons: biomass of, increases documentation, review, and analysis of, under grazing, 232 891-2, 914 moors, mountain grasslands (Britain), 889 dynamic and static, 882, 885 moose, 277, 278, 282 ecosystem insights from, 782-90 food of: chemical composition, 502-3; of exchange processes; grassland, 729-39; grasses, forbs, and shrubs, 302, 303, forest and desert, 739-41 313, 314, 480-1, (seasons and) 308-9 experiments must be combined with, population dynamics of, 364, 367 856-7, 874, 894; interrelation of mountain grassland experiments and, 897-900 accumulation of litter on, 156 of grazing systems, 802-4, 829-30, 855-7; decomposition in, 807 management of, 857-72; optimization dominant plants in (Montana), 902 of decisions on, 874-5, 877-8, (for invertebrate biomass in, components of, individual farm) 875-7 805 of growth of percentages of different groups of rodents of large herbivoreDryas systems, integri/olia, 367-98 873 in, 595 leader of team constructing, 893 plant biomass in, 901, 902, 904 lessons learned from, 790-4 production in: above and below ground, management of: key problems, 892; top• 172, 801; and efficiency of energy down or bottom-up approaches to, capture, 160; and soil respiration, 627 892-3 ratios of different trophic levels in, 812 management-oriented, 912-15 respiration ratio of predators to sapro• needs for construction of, 873-6, and for phytes in (untreated and manured), 565 more comprehensive, 848 sheep penning on, and invertebrate of photosynthesis, photo• predators, 551-2 synthesis see under meadow, mountain of plant growth, 176-8 mowingsee also of grassland problems in: general classes of flow and carbon flow and retention, compared description, 781-2; levels of mech• with grazing, 802-4 anism, 780-1; process studies state and herbivore population, 219-20, 221 variable measurements, 779-80;v. speci• and plant biomass, 217, 218 fying flows variables, 778-9 musk ox, 277, 279, 282, 292 for productivity,v. 834-41 food of, 303, 482-3 resolution of components of, 872-4; high, population density of, 359 13-14, 20-1; low, 12-13, 18-19 mycorrhizas, 691-2, 814 of shoot and root mortality and turnover, and establishment of land flora, 646, 648 158-72 research needed on, 847 simulation-optimization, 896, 913 (ant), 808 of total ecosystems, 760-1, 853-5; Myrmica laennodes Canada, 764-6; France, 766-7; inter• NADPH2, formed in photosynthesis, 61, 64, national, 770-3; Japan, 762, 763; USA, and used in carbon dioxide fixation, 62 768-70; USSR, 701-2 National Bison Range, USA, 597, 598 of translocation and distribution of NEGEV model, of grassland grazing, 772, assimilate, 149-57 858 uses of, 775, 896-7; education, 773-4, nematodes, 202, 616 778, 781; prediction and management, absent from long-cultivated areas, 554 777, 792; research direction, 774-5; among belowground invertebrate preda• synthesis, 775-6 tors, 545, 546 of water flow in soil-plant-atmosphere biomass of: indifferent habitats, 617, 620; continuum, 172-6 in N. American grasslands, 903, 904 pest of sugar-cane, 561 dominant in semi-deserts, 618 Mogannia iwasakii, energy flow through, in different habitats, Molinia community,caerulea, 825-6 624 618 Molinia 938

Index

nematodes dominant plants of, 902 grazing level(eollt.) and abundance of, 831, 839 phosphatase activity and contents of percentage loss of plant material caused organic and inorganic phosphorus in by, 229 soils of, 694; total, organic, and percentage of predatory, affected by extractable phosphorus in soils of, 685 organic manuring, 552, 553, and Noy-Meir model, of grassland grazing, ploughing, 554 858, 859, 860, 870-2 (pest), 558 resolution of components in, 873 Neodiprion serti/er Neophilemus Iineatus, 227 (deer), 247 nilgai,Nephotettix 291 cinetieeps, 560 oligochaetes,Odocoileus virginiana 565, 617, 618, 620, 628 nitrate as geophages, 619; soil turnover by, flows from roots to leaves, 671 620-1 percentage of soil nitrogen as, 906 grazing level, and abundance of, 831, 839, nitrate reductase, in leaves, 671 840 nitrifying organisms, in soil of two savanna organic manuring, and abundance of, 553 sites in wet and dry seasons, 615 nitrogen OniscoideaOligolophus (sowbugs),tridens, 572 616 calculation of food intake: from balance (sainfoin), 147 of, 322; from content of, in faeces, 336, Onobrychis viciae/olia 337,340 Operonia autumnata, 232(winter moth), 232, content of: in different forages, 698; in Operophtera561 brumata different parts of plant in different sp. (prickly pear), 144 ecosystems, 750-6; in different soils, Opuntianitrogen-fixing root nodules on, 661 683; in plants, and phosphorus uptake, Oribatei, 616 691;.in shoots, in ELM model, 114, oribi, 291 115; in soil, and mineralization of Orthoptera, 211, 215, 216 phosphorus, 693 efficiency values for, 247 cycling of: in ruminants, 334, 347; in grazing, and numbers of, 839 short grass prairie, 664-7, 681, 906 oryx, 277, 279, 291 distribution and utilization of, 141, 142 water requirement of, 334 flow of, 660-1, 680-1; to and from green (rice), 68, 88, 94 herbage, 671-3; to and from humus, ostrich,Oryza sativa 312 678-9; information on, 912; inputs of, owl, great horned, 600 661-2; through large herbivore system, oxygen 274; under light grazing in shortgrass concentration of, and photosynthesis in prairie, 787; to and from litter, above Ca and C. plants, 65, 84 ground, 673-5, and below ground, evolved in photosynthesis, 61, 64 675-8; losses of, 662-4; between roots required for translocation, 130, 133 and available pool, 667-71 models for metabolism of, 374-5, 398 palatability of plants, 286-7, 327 rate of plant uptake of, in different (spreading panic), ecosystems, 757-8 Panicum85 dichotomi/lorum ratio of: to carbon in different grasslands, (guinea grass panic), 106 718,719-20; to carbon and sulphur, in Panieum maximum(mesquite panic), 98, 123 soils, 698 Panicum obtusum (switchgrass), 140 supply of: and growth, 121; and photo• Panicumphosphorus virgatum content of, 686, 687 synthesis, 88-9 parasites: densities of, and biomass of small water stress, and distribution of, in plants, herbivores, 210 141, 142 spp. (spiders), 570, 571, 573, 574 nitrogen-fixing organisms PardosaPASTOR model of semi-arid pasture input of nitrogen from (free-living and grazed by sheep, 857 symbiotic),661-2 pasture (grazed) in soil of two savanna sites in wet and dry fertile limestone, biomass of invertebrate seasons, 615 predators in, below ground, 546 North American grassland sites, 684 grazing, and botanical composition of, comparisons of, 900-5 829 939

lnde:x pasture (grazed) solubilization and diffusion of, in soils, on land that (cant.)would naturally support 688-90 forest, 270 translocation of, in plant, 692-3 Mediterranean annual, 824, 829; model phosphorylation of sugars, in translocation for effects on, of deferring grazing at to phloem, 127, and out of phloem, 130 beginning of growing season, 874 photochemical oxidation, in decomposition production and utilization of plant of litter, 623, 814 biomass in, 253, 254 photorespiration, 64, 109 Pauropida, in soil of tropical grassland, 619 in C3 and C. plants, 62, 65, 67, 105 peatJand, biomass of different herbivores in model of photosynthesis, 119 in, 212 photosynthesis, 60-5, 737 peccaries, 288, 358 efficiency of energy capture in, 159, (elephant grass), 106 906 Pennisetum purpureum pentose phosphate cy.~le, in photosynthesis, models for, 96-100; abiotic variables in, 65 - 48, 49; canopy and stand models, (deermice) spp., 242, 247 109-12; effect of grazing in, 786; Peromyscusperoxisomes of plants, photorespiration in, ELM model, 112-17; leaf models, 101, 104 100-7; Matador model, 117-19; mis• pH of soil, and potassium content of plants, cellaneous models, 120-1; semimech• 705 anistic and statistical models, 121--4 (canary grass), 73, 84, rate of: abiotic factors and, 48, 49; assi• Pha/aris arundinacea 148 milate concentration and, 93--4; in C3 grassland dominated by, 624 and C. plants, 62, 65, 68; carbon (bulb canary grass), 132 dioxide concentration and, 81--4; Pha/ariseffect oftuberosa grazing level on botanical com• growth stage and, 93; light and, 69-76; position of pastures sown with maximum, 159; measurement of, 66-7; and, 826-8; production Tri•in, nutrients and, 88-9; temperature and, foliumcompared with native pasture, 843 76-81; variation in, between and sap intake of, 226, 227 within species, 67-8 Phi/aenus spumarius, (timothy grass), 133, 137, photosystem J, 61, 65 Phleum pratense 139, 148, 230 photo system II, 61 phloem, translocation in, 124-5 (Lepidoptera), hypotheses on mechanism of, 127-30 Phragmataecia242, 243, 244 castaneae phosphatase activity in soil, 640, 641, 642 phycobilins, in photosystem II, 61 at different N. American sites, 692 phytophages, herbivores roots and bacteria as sources of, 694 phytoplankton:see predation on, by zoo- phosphate fertilizer, advisory programme on plankton, 562 application of, in W. Australia, 876 pigs, 288, 312, 350 phosphoenolpyruvate: carbon dioxide (European pine vole), bound by, in C. pathway of photo• Pitymys242 subterraneus synthesis, 62 plant communities, changes in structure of 3-phosphoglyceric acid, in photosynthesis, caused by intensive grazing, 824-5; in 61 Mediterranean annual grassland, 829; phosphorus models for, 829-30; in temperate accumulation of, in plants, 688 perennial grassland, 825-8 closed cycle of, 682, 695; model for, not yet predictable, 98 695-6 meadow, 622 content of: in different forages, 698; and Plantaginiplants palatability of plants, 287; in plants and average calorie values of green parts of, soil, 686-8; in shoots, in ELM model, 226 114, 115; in soil, total, organic, and carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements in extractable, 682-3, 685-6 different parts of, in different grass• levels and flow of, in short grass prairie lands, 716, 750-6, and in forests and under light grazing, 788 deserts, 722; predominant mineral mineralization of organic, 683, 693-5 elements in different grasslands, 721 responses to fertilization with, 89 models: for growth of, as function of soil root uptake of, 690-2 moisture and temperature, 376-7; for 940

Index plants content of: in different forages, 698; in (cont.) production of, under grazing, 835, food of cattle and sheep, 318; in plants, 837-8 705,706, 721 (and palatability), 287 in models for water flow, 14, 15, 16, 18 leaching of, 703, 706 nitrogen flows to and from, 669, 671-3, soil-plant cycling of, 703-5 680 stomata in deficiency of, 88 prostrate habit in, 825, 826 prairie ratio of aboveground, to belowground components of invertebrate biomass in, biomass of, 718, 884, and of biomass of, 805 to invertebrate biomass, 208, 209, 813 plant biomass in, above and below water potential of, in model and obser- ground, 802 ved, 177, 178 production/biomass ratio in, 800 plants, C3 and C. prairie, bunchgrass, 627 advantages of C.: at low carbon dioxide biomasses of different trophic levels in, concentration, 82; in tropical condi• 812 tions, 63 carbon/nitrogen and carbon/mineral evolution of C. from C3 , 63 ratios in, 718 intermediates between, 63, 64 production and soil carbon dioxide out• in models for photosynthesis, 115, 116, put in, 626 122-3 temperature, and soil water effects on palatability of, 238 soil carbon dioxide from, 637 photosynthesis in, 65, 76; oxygen concentration and, 65, 84 prairie,see also mid-grass, Agropyron 626, spicatum 627, 637 production by, 170 trophic pyramid in, 811 quantum efficiency of, 116 structure of C., 62-3, 88 prairie,see also mixed-grass, Agropyron 47,smithii 886 water requirement of C., 87-8 accumulation of litter in, 156 plastocyanin, in photosynthesis, 61 biomasses of different trophic levels in, plastoquinone, in photosynthesis, 61 812 dark respiration in, in relation to air Poa compressa,(Kentucky 160 bluegrass), 89 temperature, 95 Poa prarensisspp. dominant plants in (Kansas, Dakotas), Poain food of sheep on St Kilda, 295 902 in Mediterranean-type annual pasture, efficiency of energy capture in, 160 629 herbivore biomass, ratio to available in pastures sown with and plant biomass in, 205 628 Phalaris Tri• invertebrate biomass in, 211, 904; folium, (ant), 549, 808, grazing and, 650; predators, 542, 546 Pogonomyrmex830 occidentalis leaf area index in (green and dead), 71 poikilotherms (invertebrate) movement of assimilate to roots in, 133-4 efficiency values for, 248 movement of labelled carbon dioxide in, interrelations of assimilation, consump• 154 tion, and respiration in, 243, 244, 245, photosynthesis in, 75, 76, 77, 88, 89, 90; 246 model for, 97 144 plant biomass in, 901, 902, 904 Polygonumpopulations bistortoides, production in, 160, 172; after nitrogen of polyphagous and prey-specific preda• fertilization, 89; ratio of, to biomass, tors, in managed grasslands, 575-6 801 of predators and prey: co-evolved as soil respiration in, 83; water potential integrated community, 602; relations and, 96 between, 557-61 temperature profiles in, above and below of prey, predators' exploitation of, surface, 80-1, 82 561-4, 876 prairie, shortgrass, 46, 270, 627 of small herbivores, mechanisms of accumulation of litter in, 156 change in, 208 calcium and magnesium in live and dead potassium herbage of, 706 and carbohydrate reserves, 137, 142 carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements in 941

Index prairie, shortgrass element uptake, 757; ratio of biomass different parts (cont.)of plants in, 716, 750-1, and, 801 755 rodents in, percentages of different carnivore-herbivore biomass ratio in, groups, 595 594 soil respiration in, 637 dominant plants in (Texas, Colorado), trophic pyramid in, 811; biomasses of 902 different trophic levels, 812 efficiency of energy capture in, 160 energy flow in, 905-6; through fauna of, precipitationsee a/so Andropogon (rainfall) gerardi, A. scoparius 618-19 areas with different patterns of, 46 grazing behaviour of large herbivores on, and botanical composition of pastures 284 sown with and herbivore biomass ratio to available plant 826-8 Pha/aris Trifolium, biomass in, 205 chemical elements in, 736; nitrogen in, insect biomass in, grazing and, 220 662 invertebrate predator biomass in, 541, and efficiency of water use, 172 542; consumption efficiency of, 563; hypotheses on response of semi-arid grazing and, 550 grassland to, 910 leaf area index in, 74 interaction of, with soil and plant water models: for biomasses of plants and statuses, 119 herbivores in, under light grazing, as key abiotic driving variable, 45, 46, 789-90; for dynamics of, over six 47 years, 911; for production in, 368-9, in models for grassland systems, 27-30 378-9, 392-3; for translocation to and plant biomass, 884; ratio of above• roots in, 152-3 ground to belowground, 884 nitrogen flow in, 906, 907; under light and production, 626-7, 904 grazing, 787 in water flow, 12, 15, 26; caught on phosphorus flow in, under light grazing, plants, 16 788 predators plant biomass in, 901, 902 biomass of, on different grasslands, 804 production in, 172; and carbon dioxide co-evolved with prey as integrated output, 626; and nitrogen and mineral community, 602; relations between element uptake, 757; and potential populations of prey and, 537-61, bacterial biomass, 612, 613; ratio of 601-4 biomass and, 801; temperature and, densities of, and biomass of small 123-4 herbivores, 210 rodents in, percentages of different efficiency values for, (assimilation) 812, groups, 595 (consumption) 562 soil respiration in, 637 estimated percentage of insects consumed trophic pyramid in, 811; biomasses of by (meadow), 251 different trophic levels, 812 on hoppers, in two differently-treated meadows, 220 see a/so Artemisia frigida, Boute/oua predators, invertebrate, 539-41, 575-6 prairie,gracilis tallgrass, 46, 627 assimilation efficiency of, 569-70 accumulation of litter in, 156 biomass of: above ground, 541-5; in carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements in soil, 545-8 different parts of plants in, 755 in different grasslands, 805 carnivore-herbivore biomass ratio in, effects on biomass of, of cultivation, 594 554-6, of fertilizers, 551-4, 555, 556, dominant plants in (Oklahoma), 902 and of grazing, 548-51 efficiency of energy capture in, 160 energy content of, 574--6 invertebrate biomass in, 904 exploitation of prey population by, 561-4 leaf area index for, 74--5 metabolic rates of, 570-4 plant biomass in, 172, 901, 902; above methods of sampling, 585-9 and below ground, 802 percentage of food energy incorporated production in: and carbon dioxide out• into bodies of, 806 put, 626; and nitrogen and mineral as percentage of invertebrate biomass, 942

Index predators, invertebrate 722-3, 801, above ground, 723-4, and 542; at different grazing(cant.) levels, 840, below ground, 724-5; and efficiency of 841, 846 energy capture, 159-61; fertilizers and, role of, in an ecosystem, 557-61; in soil, 843; grazing level and, 845, 848; 564-9 nutrient uptake for, 725-7; tempera• predators, vertebrate: carnivory in, 591-2 ture and rainfall and, 626--7; water and, and community structure, 597-8 161-9 ecological displacement in, 593-7 primary, by photosynthesis, photo• and energy flow, 598-601 synthesis see and systems function, 602-4 rate of: in grasslands, 757-8; in forests, time and space patterns of, 592-3 grasslands, and deserts, 742 preference ratios for food (ratio of weight production efficiency in diet to weight in available herbage), production/assimilation, 246-8; of herbi• 287,294-5 vores, 228; of invertebrate predators, pregnancy, in large herbivores, 327, 345, 397 571 producers, ratio of consumer biomass to production/consumption, 240, 241, 246-- biomass of, 810, 812, 813 8,250 production, animal productivity, 885 age-weight relations in, 348-54 ratio of production to biomass as index of cattle, 354-6 of, 800-1 comparative data for, 366--7 sp. (Homoptera), 240, 242 efficiency of (ratio to assimilation), Proklesiapronghorn antelope 247-51 282, 286, 288,(Antilocapra 290 ameri• grazing level and, 357,404 age-weightcana) relations in, 351, 354 of invertebrates, relation to respiration, computer simulation of biomass produc• 243,244 tion by, on shortgrass prairie, 789-90 of large herbivores, per unit area, 271, food of: chemical composition, 502-3; 404; wild compared with domestic, digestibility, 534-5; grasses, forbs, and 362-3, 404; wild in temperate and shrubs, 294, 295, 301, 302-3, 313, 314, arctic grasslands, 357-9, and in tropi• 403, 459-66, (seasons and) 304, 305, cal grasslands, 359-62 306--7; intake of, per unit body weight, measurement of, 348 600; selection index for, 315-16 of offspring, by large herbivores, 278, 279 maintenance requirements of, 363 seasonal influences on, 363-5 population dynamics of, 346, 358, 366 of sheep, 356--7 (mesquite), 149 of small herbivores, 242 Prosopisprotein glandulosa production, plant, 908-9 body size, and requirement for, 321 above ground and below ground, 164, in food of cattle and sheep, 317, 318; 165; grazing and, 162, 165, 166, 217, relation to fibre, 319 218, 232-3, 235; relations between, percentage of gain of weight in, cattle and 166, 168, 169, 170-2; water-use sheep, 345 efficiency and, 161-9 plant content of: and digestibility, 326, and average standing crop, N. American 340, 341, 403; and food intake, 333; grasslands, 901, 902, 904 and palatability, 286; water stress and, efl'ects on: of arthropod biomass, 544-5; 141 of herbivore biomass, 543, 575; of ruminant requirement for, 334 invertebrate consumption, 239, 240, protoplasmic streaming, hypothesis for 241; of invertebrate predator biomass, movement of assimilate in phloem by, 542, 543, 575; of nematodes, 229; of 128 predators, 563-4; of various herbi• protozoans, 618, 644 vores, 230 Protura, 619 in grazed pastures, at shoot, whole plant, and community levels, 835-8 Pteronemobius !asciatus, 570grassland domi• of green and dead herbage at two grazing Ptilagrostisnated bysubsessiflora, and, 627; levels, predicted and observed, 868 steppe,Festuca dry kryloviana net primary (gross, less loss in respira• see alsomeadow, 622 tion), 65; in different grasslands, Puccinelliapudu,29O 943

Index puku, 334 amount of assimilate needed for, 70, 111, (bitterbrush), 144 lSI, 906 Purshiapyramids, tridentata trophic, 808-10, 8Il, 812 dark, 67, 122 (fungus), plant dark and photo-, 94-6; in models, 101, Pyrenophorapathogen, 93tritici-repentis 102, 103, 104, 106, IlO, Il9 for growth and for maintenance, in rabbit models, 108-9, 120, 150 damage to plants by, 230, 232, 233, 234 increased by wounding, 92 exclusion of, and botanical composition models for, 107-9, and for effect of of chalk grassland, 825 grazing on, 786 faecal nitrogen of, 340 of roots, 134, 136, 153; in model, 113-14 food intake by, per unit body weight, 600 of shoots, in model, 116-17 model for metabolism of, 387-8 of vascular bundles, 129 radiation in winter or dormancy, at expense of long-wave, emitted by earth-atmosphere carbohydrate reserves, 143-4, 145 system, short-wave emitted by sun, 21 respiratory quotient, of soil cores from long-wave, in models of energy flow, 21-2 shortgrass prairie, 637 short-wave, as key abiotic driving respiratory ratio, of predators to sapro• variable, 26, 45 phages in different soil habitats, 564-5 transfer of energy by, 19 (rhubarb), 126 light rhinoceroses,Rheum rhaponticum 277, 279, 283, 293 radiationsee also factor, in LEYFARM model, food of, 300, 312,490 841, 842 grazing by, 283 rain forests, tropical ribulose-l ,5-diphosphate: carbon dioxide carbon cycle in, 728 bound by, in C. pathway of photo• carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements synthesis, 62 in, 722 rodents exchange processes in, 740, 741-6 high assimilation efficiency of, 599 production in, above ground (green and percentages of different groups of, on perennial), and below ground, and different grasslands, 595 nitrogen and mineral uptake, 728 root: shoot ratio, 135; in model, 152 rate processes, definition, 882 roots reedbucks, 291, 312, 334, 365 carbohydrate reserves in, 139, 144, 148 reflectivity, of surfaces, 21, 70 carbon flow through, 670 reindeer, 277, 279, 282, 290 carbon and nitrogen contents of live, biomass of, per unit area, 212; changes of, senescent, and detrital, 665, 677 in successive seasons, 207 carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements food of, 302, 303, 482 in: in different grasslands, 715-17, population dynamics of, 359, 364 750--6; in forests and deserts, 722 reproduction chemical elements predominating in, in of plants, high metabolic cost of, 93 different grasslands, 721 rate of, in large herbivores, 278, 279 contribution of, to soil carbon dioxide reptiles, daily and seasonal quiescence of, output, 633, 637 592 dead, amount of, and ratio to live, 718 research death of, in models, 784, 865 large-scale and long-term, 915-16 decomposition of, 743 use of models in direction of, 774-5, and defoliation, and growth of, 96 in synthesis of, 775-6 depth distribution of, live and dead, 901, resources, use of models in management of, 904 777, 893, 896, 913-14 grazing level, and amount of, 834 respiration, of animals invertebrates feeding on, 205, 210 calculated, for sheep and for soil inverte• juvenile and non-suberized, 669-70; brates, at different grazing levels, 838- responsible for most of nutrient up• 41, 845-6, 848 take, 692 of invertebrates, relative to production, nitrogen flows: away from, during growth, 240,243 138; between live, and the available respiration, of plants, 60, 65 pool, 667-9; to and from dead, 676-8 944

Index roots efficiency values for: assimilation, 812; nitrogen(cant.) from fertilizer in live and dead, consumption, 563 during four years after application, fertilizers and numbers of, 552, 554 671-2,680 geophages among, 619-21 percentage of plant in, increases with material transferred from herbivores to, stress, 716 253 phosphorus uptake by, 690-2, 696; percentage of soil carbon dioxide output export of phosphorus from, 692 from, 637 production of: in different grasslands, relations between micro-organisms and, 722-3,724-5; and nitrogen and mineral 615-16 uptake for, 723, 724, 726 in unexploited meadow, 253 ratio of aboveground biomass to, 717, savanna 746; humidity and, 802 carbon dioxide evolution from soil of, resistance to water flow in, 127 633-5 respiration of, 134, 136, 153; in model, carnivore-herbivore biomass ratio in, 594 113-14; soil water and, 96 herbivore biomass ratio to available plant sulphur in, 699 biomass in, 205 transfers to shoots from, 136; from shoots invertebrate biomass in, 209, 805; preda• to, 152 tors, 542, 543, 546; ratio to plant translocation of assimilate to, 133, 134, biomass, 813 135-6; model for, 152-3 microbes in soil of: of different groups, turnover and death of, 156-7; model for, in wet and dry seasons, 614-15; 158-9; turnover rate, 669-70, 725 numbers of (burnt and unburnt water uptake by, 14, 17 savanna), 613-14 rumen plant biomass in, above and below capacity of: and food intake, 324-5; and ground, 802 nature of food, 337, 340 production-biomass ratio for, 800, 801 cold, and digestion in, 328 saprophages and geophages in soil of colon and large intestine, in elephant and 619-21 horse, serve same purpose, 284, 321 trophic pyramid in, 812 estimates of digestion from inserting scale insects, 619 food in nylon bag into, 336, 338, 339 Scarabaeidae calculated respiration of, at different 68, 70, 132, 230 grazing levels, 839, 840 sagewort,Saccharum fringed, officinarum, 147 coprophagous species of, introduced into saiga (antelope), 282, 367 Australia, 805 food of, 303, 485-6 grazing level and abundance of larvae of, salinization of soil, 735, 741 830, 831 acts as moisture deficit, 715, 716 community, 75, 157 (Russian thistle), 287 Schima community, 624 saltSalsola kali seasonsScirpus herbivore craving for, 297 and digestibility of forage, 338, 339, 340 maximum content of, in water for horses and digestive efficiency, 336 and cattle, 334 and distribution of phosphorus in live salt-desert spp., 144, 145 and dead plants, 687, .688 salt marsh (Netherlands), 886 and food intake of cattle and sheep, 331, sap of plants 333 amounts consumed by sucking insects, and food of large herbivores, 294, 295, 226, 227; amounts utilized, 228, 229 296-7, 304-10 average calorie value of, 226 and gain of weight in wild ruminants, 363 effects of removal of, 235 seeds mineral fertilizer and amount of, 555 consumption of, by sheep in LEYFARM saprophages model, 864 biomass of: and amount of litter, 545, of forbs, 828 547; and biomass of invertebrate effects of grazing on production and predators, 547, 548, 564-9 dispersal of, 825 in decomposition, 615-19 predation on, 562 945

Index selection pressure, by carnivores, 593 shoots of plants sensitivity analysis, of models for herbivore death of, 154-6,865; models for, 158-9 energetics, 251-2, 397 in models, 152,805,836-7,911 stand of, 562, 563 root: shoot ratio Sericea lespedeza, dry meadow, 612, 622 shrew,see also 600 sexSerratula-Festuca ratio at birth, in deer, 347 shrubs sheep, 276, 278, 292-3 computer simulation of production of, in age and digestive efficiency in, 336 short grass prairie under light grazing, age-weight relations in, 349, 350, 353, 789 354; weight gain of, on different contribution of, to production on N. grasslands, 356-7 American sites, 901, 904 birth rate of, in semi-desert, 346 in food of large herbivores, 294, 295, fasting energy requirement of, 344 296-310, 402-3, 435-91 food of: chemical composition, 318-19, silage, 845, 869, 870 320, 496-501; digestibility, 522-33, silicon (lignin content and) 340, 341; grasses, in faeces, calculation of digestibility of forbs, and shrubs, 294, 295, 297-8, forage from, 336 299, 301, 303, 445-56, (seasons and) in live and dead plants on different grass• 304,305,306-7,402; literature on, 282; lands, 721 preferences in, 204; selection index for, SIMPLE model for photosynthesis in plant 315-16; supplement of peas in, and community, 112 herbage intake, 326 sinks food intake of, 206, 227; adjusted to atmosphere as, in energy flow, 18 constant amount of digested energy, cells without chloroplasts as, for assimi• 326; age and, 330; availability of food late, 133 and, 328-9; fat content of body and, space and soil as, in energy flow, 20 327; per unit body weight, 330, 331, source-sink systems 332, 333, 403, 510-15; shearing and, snowsee also 328; temperature and, 330, 331, 337 and palatability of plants, 287, 297-8 grazing behaviour of, 204, 283, 284, 285 in water flow, 17 invertebrate herbivore biomass in pasture sodium, in plants of different grasslands, 721 grazed by, 218 soil models: for biomass production by, on animal biomass in, in different grass• shortgrass prairie, 789-90; for ewe• lands, 804; predators as percentage of, lamb management, 869-70; for grazing 545, 546, 575 of pasture by, 370-1, 372-3, 383-7; for burrowing herbivores in, 236 iodine metabolism of lactating, 369; carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements for metabolism of, 387-91; for pasture in, 750-6; carbon and nitrogen con• availability to, simulated and measured, tents of, at different depths, 665; 864; for production of lambs by, 370-1, carbon/nitrogen ratio, pH, and enzyme 372-3, 374-5 activity in different types of, 642 numbers of, decreasing, 271 carbon dioxide output from, 67, 83, 639 percentage of 'first quality' meat in, 362 compaction of, by trampling of domestic plant biomass in pasture grazed by, 218 animals, 833, 834 production per unit area by, compared decomposition of cellulose at different with wild ungulates, 359, 360 depths in, 624, 629 rate of passage of food through digestive energy flow in, 20; as source and sink in tract of, 325; in pregnancy, 327 energy flow, 20-1, 23 respiration of, calculated for different erosion of, 233, 234, 237 grazing lands, 838, 839, 840 fertilizers: mineral, and fauna of, 555, rumen capacity of, 307, 312-13, 314 556; organic, and biomasses of animals water turnover rate for, 334 and invertebrate predators in, 552 sheep, Barbary, 292, 483 invertebrate biomass in, 211, 212, 805; sheep, bighorn, 276, 282, 293 effect on, of irrigation with or without food of, 303, 314, 483-4 fertilizer, 555 population dynamics of, 358, 364 invertebrate predators at interface of sheep, Dall's, 483 litter and, 548, 575 946

Index soil respiration/assimilation ratio for, 571, nature(cont.) of, and grazing behaviour of large 574 herbivores, 284 springbok, 292, 488 nitrogen in, 683 spruce forests, 722 phosphorus in, 682-3, 685-6; solubiliza• carbon cycle in, 728 tion and diffusion of, 688-90 exchange processes in, 740, 741-6 predominant elements in, in different production in, above and below ground, grasslands, 721 and nitrogen and mineral uptake, 728 water flow in, 13, 14, 15, 17; water Staphylinidae, 549, 551, 561 storage capacity of, 161 starch, reserve carbohydrate, 137, 138 soil water diurnal variations in concentration of, in and carbon dioxide evolution, 636-7 different parts of plant, 140 and earthworm activity, 619, and num- steenbok, 291, 312 bers,620 grassland dominated and evapotranspiration, 26, 174, 865, 866 Stellaria-Desehampsia,by, 627, 636, 886 as key abiotic driving variable, 45, 46, 47 steppe in model, 862 carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements, and phosphorus uptake by plants, 689 in different parts of plants in, 716, and photosynthesis, 84-5, 90, 121, 122; 750-1,755 in models, 114, 124 production in, and uptake of nitrogen and respiration, 94 and mineral elements, 723, 724, 726 and size of saprophages, 618 rate of production, and uptake of nitro• and stomatal resistance to carbon dioxide gen and mineral elements in, 757 diffusion, 85, 122, 123 saprophages in: biomass, 617; energy solar energy: percentage of, falling on flow, 618 prairie, harvested by man as meat, steppe, arid 906 animal biomass in, structure, 804 (woundwort goldenrod), herbivore biomass in, relative to avail• Solidago76 virgaurea able plant biomass, 205 (wild sorghs), 85 invertebrate biomass in, 209; predators, Sorghumsource-sink bieolor systems, 128-9, 137 541, 542,546, 563 sources plant biomass in, 801; roots as percent• atmosphere as, in water flow, 18 age of, 802 sun and soil as, in energy flow, 20 producer--consumer biomass ratio in, 813 sparrowhawk, 600 rate of production in, and uptake of species diversity nitrogen and mineral elements, 757 of animals: number of individuals and, saprophages in: biomass, 617; energy 213-14; utilization of grassland and, flow, 618 221,222,223,225 steppe, chernozem, 801, 802 of plants: and food intake by sheep, 329; steppe, forest, forest steppe voles and, 236 steppe, meadow,see meadow steppe spiders steppe, shrub, 46,see 47 calculation of respiration of, at different dominant plants in (Washington), 902 grazing levels, 839 invertebrate biomass in, 904 carbon dioxide output of, resting and plant biomass in, 901, 902 active, 571 grassland dominated by effect on number of: of fertilizers, 552, Stipa pennata, and, 627; 553, 555; of grazing or mowing, 549, Bromusmeadow-steppe riparius see also 551, 552; of ploughing, 554 spp., 624, 887 numbers of, correlated with number of Stipa (green needlegrass), 143 species, 213 Stipastomata viridula oxygen uptake of: and body weight, 573; cell turgor and closing of, 84, 174-5 resting, 571, 572 models for control of transpiration by, percentage of weight of prey eaten by, 175-6 569 in potassium deficiency, 88 predation by, 558-9; on resistance of, to diffusion of carbon (pest of rice), 560 Nephotettix dioxide and water vapour, 83, 85, 123, 947

Index stomata and dark respiration rate, 94, 96 174, (cont.)177; in models, 101, 103, 117, 118, and death of shoots and roots, 159 119 and enzyme activity in soil, 643 tend to close in high carbon dioxide and food intake of animals, 328, 331, 593 concentrations, 82 of leaf, in model and observed, 177 storage of reserve nutrients in plants, 139, mean annual: and live plant biomass, 140 884; and production and carbon straw (wheat), labelled with 14C: rate of dioxide output, 626-7; and ratio of decomposition of, 631-2 aboveground to belowground plant sublimation of snow, in model for grass• biomass, 884 land systems, 30 mean monthly, in different climatic sucrose, principal substance translocated in zones, 216 plants, 125 and metabolic rate of animals, 598 diurnal variations in concentration of, in in models for photosynthesis, 103, 104, different parts of plant, 140 110, 112, 114, 115, 116--17, 124, 153, interconversion of, with starch and and for plant respiration, 107 fructosans, 137-8 optimum, for photosynthesis: affected by water stress, and distribution of, 141, 142 water supply, 89; in C3 and C4 plants, sugars: content of, and palatability of 65,76 plants for cattle and deer, 286 and rate of mineralization of phosphorus, sulphate, in soil, 697, 698, 699 682 sulphur and rate of translocation, 132 content of, in grassland soils and vegeta• and resistances to transfer of carbon tion,697-9 dioxide and water vapour, 83-4 cycling of, 697, 699-703; grazing level of soil: and carbon dioxide output, and, 843-5 636--7; and growth rate of herbage, surface migration, movement of assimilate 865, 866; hysteresis in, 21 in phloem as a process of, 129 and transpiration, 79 swamps, grassy termites, 619, 620, 644 carbon, nitrogen, and mineral elements, community, 622 in different parts of plants in, 716, 753, TherevidaeThalictrum-Salvia (flies), 555 755 Tipulidae, 209, 890 exchange processes in, 736, 737, 738-9, biomass of larvae of, may exceed that of 741-6; model for, 734, 735 reindeer in tundra, 210, 211, 212, 213 production in, and nitrogen and mineral topi, 283, 334, 362 uptake, 723, 724, 726 food of, 303, 311, 312, 490 (snowberry), tortoise, 312 Symphoricarpos147 vaccinoides toxins, introduced into plants by sap• Symphyta, 619 feeders, 235 68, 70 translocation of assimilate in plants, 60 SyricumSyrphidae, vulgare, 573 bidirectional, in phloem, 131 system state variables, definition, 882 compounds involved in, 125-7 systems approach, in ecological studies, 883, factors affecting, 131-3 916 in phloem, 127-30; from phloem into receiving tissues, 130-1 taiga tissues involved in, 124-5 biomass of saprophages in soil of, 617 transpiration carbon, nitrogen and mineral elements in, in and at different 731-2 temperatures,Agropyron 79 Bouteloua tannins: content of, and palatability of in C3 and C4 plants, 65 plants, 287 in models, 34-40, 153, 175-6, 178 tapirs, 293 potential rates of, 174 temperature soil water and, 84-5 of air, and evapotranspiration, 174 evapotranspiration of air and soil, as key abiotic driving transport,see also active: respiratory cost of, 109 variable, 45-6 (white clover) and carbohydrate reserves, 141 Trifoliumeffect of repens grazing level on pasture sown 948

Index voles Tri/oliumwith repens (cant.)and, 826-8; production annual production, assimilation, and of pasturePhalaris compared with native respiration of, 242 pasture, 843 damage to plants by, 230 rate of respiration in, 108 effects of grazing by, 229, 236 reduced in numbers by overgrazing, and efficiency values for, 247 replaced by other species, 825 fluctuations in numbers of, 207, 208 food intake of, per unit body weight, Trifolium community,subterraneum, 624 829 600 Trisetum diploid species of, as anomalous numbers and biomass of, in different Triticum, Ca plants, 64 climatic zones, 211, 212 (wheat), 132, 229 828, 829 Triticumdistribution aestivum of assimilate in, 132, Vulpia, 133 Waggoner simulator model for photo• photosynthesis in, 68, 72, 75 synthesis, 100--2 trophic levels warthog, 283, 340, 352, 365 energy flows between, 814, 838 food of, 300, 310, 312,487 relations between, 799-800, 810, 812-14 water, in animals tropical grasslands body content and turnover rate of, 334 accumulation of litter in, 156 calculation of food intake: involving efficiency of energy capture in, 161 dosage with tritiated, 323; involving invertebrates in, 210 intake of, 323 root turnover in, 157 intake of, species and breed differences in, standing dead material in, 154-5 334-5 savanna percentage of gain of weight in, cattle and tundra,see also 887 sheep, 345 herbivore biomass in soil of, 212 requirements of different large herbivores invertebrate biomass in, 209 for, 278, 279, 403 production/biomass ratio in, 801 water, in plants model for photosynthesis in, 112, 159 dehydrogenation of, in photosynthesis, saprophage biomass in soil of, 617 61,64 turgor pressure, 127-8, 175 efficiency of use of, and production, 164, (common cattail), anoma• 166 Typha lati/olia lous Ca plant, 64, 68 supply of: and aboveground production, (cinnabar moth), 549 and ratio of above- to below6l'ound Tyria jacobaeae production, 169; and carbohydrate ungulates, wild: production of, per unit reserves, 141-2; during growing season, area, compared with domestic animals, and production, 161-9; and photo• 359-60 synthesis, 84-8; and translocation, USA, IBP Grassland Biome sites in 131-2; on USA Grassland Biome sites, climate at, 162 163 efficiency of energy capture at, 160 water-buck, 277, 279, 283, 291, 352, 365 models of ecosystems in, 768-70 age-weight relations in, 352 production at, 164, 165; relation of food of, 300, 310, 312,490 aboveground, to total, 168 herd structure in, 365 water at, 163; water use efficiency at, 164, water flow, 11, 12, 908 166 atmosphere as both source and sink for, urease activity in soil, 640, 641, 642 18,23 USSR, models of ecosystems in, 761-2 condensation and distillation in, 14 hierarchy of, 15 vertebrates, biomass of high-resolution view of, 13-18, and low• compared with invertebrates, 210 resolution view of, 12-13 in different climatic zones, 211-12 inflow and outflow of chemical elements in N. American grasslands, 903, 904 with, 736, 740 predators, vertebrate interrelations of energy flow and, 22-3 viruses,see also herbivores as agents for trans• models for, 24, 25, 172-6; in models, mission of, 237 27-41, 117, 176-8 949

Index water flow and temperature, calculation of wind resistance(cant.) to, in soil, and between root chill index for cattle from, 331 surface and leaf cells, 173, 174, 175 wolf, 600 water vapour, resistances to diffusion of, 83, wool 174 food requirements for growth of, 344 weight of animal models for production of, 368-9, 378-9 age and, 348-54, 404 passage of labelled sulphur from soil into, calculation of food intake from balance 701-2 of (including losses in excretions), 324 storage of nitrogen in, 322 compensatory gain of, in lambs after yields of, 276, 277; grazing level and, 837 periods on poor pasture, 345-6, 403 composition of gain of, at different xylem, rapid translocation of small amounts stages, 345 of assimilate in, 125 food intake and (large herbivores), 330-1; food intake as percentage of, 333, 403 yak 277, 279, 291 gain in, per unit of digestible intake, 327 (Bas grunniens), wildebeest (gnu), 277, 279, 283, 291 (corn, maize) age-weight relations in, 350 Zeamodel mays simulating growth of, 120 dressing percentage of carcass of, 362 photosynthesis in, 68, 81-2, 85, 87; food of, 300, 303, 310, 311, 312 computed and observed, 111; light grazing by, 285 saturation for, 70; model for, 97 maintenance requirements of, 363 water lack and yield of, 87 population dynamics of, 361, 365, 367 zebra, 277, 279, 283, 293, 396 rumen capacity of, 337 age-weight relations in, 352 water requirement of, 334 food of, 300, 303, 311,312,488 wind speed herd structure of, 365 and carbon dioxide diffusion within a water requirement of, 334 canopy, 82-3 zebu cattle 276, 278, 282, 291 and evapotranspiration, 174 grassland(Bas indicus),(Japan), 887 Zoysia

950