Oct 2019 Vol 43 No 4

The World Evangelical Alliance’s Journal The World Evangelical Alliance’s Journal of Theology and Contemporary Application of Theology and Contemporary Application EVANGELICAL REVIEW OF THEOLOGY Volume OF THEOLOGY EVANGELICAL REVIEW No.4, 43, 2019 Oct EVANGELICAL Table of Contents Editor’s Introduction Influence of the Bible on Care for Creation: REVIEW OF page 291 Insight from the Indian Context Samuel Richmond Saxena Making Evangelicals Great Again? page 345 American Evangelicals in the Age of Trump THEOLOGY Brantley W. Gasaway page 293 How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups Doing Practical, Public Theology in the Context Thomas Schirrmacher of South Africa’s Decolonization Discourse page 359 Vhumani Magezi

page 312 Peter’s Second Pentecost Thomas Schirrmacher Resistance to Japanese Nationalism: Christian page 372 Responses to Proposed Constitutional Amendments in Japan Surya Harefa Book Reviews page 330 page 377

Volume 43 No. 4 October 2019 ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. Box 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. Box 4, Cedarville, OH 45314, USA. It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Library Association, 300 S. Wacker Dr., Suite 2100, Chicago, IL 60606 USA, E-mail: [email protected], Web: www.atla.com/ MICROFORM This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 Subscriptions 2019 *Sterling rates do not apply to USA and Canada subscriptions. Please see below for further information. Institutions and Libraries Individuals Period UK Elsewhere UK Elsewhere Overseas* Overseas*

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Volume 43 • Number 4 • October 2019

See back cover for Table of Contents

General Editor Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Germany

Executive Editor Dr Bruce Barron, USA

Assistant Editor Dr Thomas K. Johnson, Czech Republic

Book Review Editor Dr Peirong Lin, Singapore

Committee Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Rosalee V. Ewell, Brazil, Executive Director Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Germany, Executive Chair Dr James O. Nkansah, Kenya, Vice-Chair

Editorial Policy The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology (ERT) of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the reflect the opinions Editors or the Publisher.

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Printed and bound in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals by AlphaGraphics, 8-9 Vanguard Court, Preston Farm, Stockton-on-Tees, TS18 3TR ERT (2019) 43:4, 291 Editor’s Introduction: Public Engagement As I was preparing to write this in- reality by portraying various forms troduction, I received an e-mail from of evangelical public involvement a friend who is active in the U.S. Re- on four continents. First, Brant- publican party. It ended with a link to ley Gasaway examines a thoughtful ‘Ten Reasons Christians Can Support group whose very existence is often the Trump Administration’. overlooked: the US evangelical left, Not everyone agrees with that per- or ‘progressive evangelicals’. In addi- spective. One respondent described tion to describing their priorities and those who claim to support both their struggle to gain traction, he also Christ and Trump as ‘Herodians’. But discusses the ‘evangelical middle’, or for the last three years, worldwide the many US Christian leaders reluc- attention has focused on white US tant to embrace Trump, and he ex- evangelicals’ overwhelming support plains how progressives have reached of Donald Trump’s presidency, de- a point where coalition building even spite his crudeness, obvious policy ignorance, and a raft of controversial them. Gasaway shows that white US stances. withevangelicals centrists are isnot now politically difficult mono for- The strong evangelical support lithic and that their political decision for Trump has left other Christians making is not simplistic. scratching their heads. Some have Note the reference to white US actively dissociated themselves from evangelicals. Black evangelicals, what they consider a grave mistake though still socially conservative in by the majority of politically active US important ways, have a different set evangelicals. Others have considered of priority concerns, which usually dropping the use of the word ‘evan- lead them to different political pref- gelical’ to avoid being involuntarily erences. From a perspective similar linked to that mistake in public per- to that of US blacks, Vhumani Magezi ception. presents a public agenda for South Africa, where ‘decolonization’ is es- Trump and anti-Trump evangelicals underscoresThe stark a conflictkey truth between in Christian pro- citizens in that post-apartheid cul- public involvement. Since the Bible sentialture. He to then affirming probes the its dignityimplications of all emphasizes a great number of prin- for doing public theology, especially ciples applicable to public life—more in the higher-education setting. than we can defend all at the same Whereas US Christians often en- time—and since it does not give a dorse some form of nationalism, the set of modern policy prescriptions, small Christian minority in Japan is Christians who seek to engage in the deeply concerned about incipient nationalism. Surya Harefa superbly on opposite sides of the fence. explains the situation in Japan and politicalThis issue realm focus may on find ‘Engagement themselves describes how four respected evan- in the Public Space’ highlights that gelicals have sought to address it. Es- 292 Editorial

important public debates or political - campaigns, how can we know what peciallylated a public significantly, philosophy, he showsakin to howthat to do? I have contemplated this issue theof the last great of these Dutch figures leader has Abraham articu for nearly thirty years as both an ob- Kuyper, that has attracted support server and practitioner of evangelical from non-Christian groups. political engagement in the US. In India, Hindu nationalism cur- First, just as ethical dilemmas en- rently poses a more overt challenge tail a choice between two good things to Christianity, questioning whether (do I obey the law or do I steal from Christians have ever made positive the drug store to save my uncle’s contributions to that country’s de- life?), so politics sometimes forces us velopment. Samuel Richmond Saxena to weigh legitimate biblical priorities pursues one line of response to that against each other. In the US, con- challenge, demonstrating in extensive servative evangelicals prize the sanc- detail how Christians in India, dating tity of human (especially unborn) life back to mission pioneer William Car- and traditional morality; progressives ey, have lived out love for neighbour emphasize Amos’ call for social jus- by caring for God’s creation. tice, the common good and combat- Thomas Schirrmacher, the World ting poverty. Evangelical Alliance’s Deputy Sec- retary General for Theological Con- by very different views of the role of cerns, is equally adept in politics as in government.Their differences Progressives are intensifiedsee gov- theology—so much so that a commit- ernment as a friend and the most tee of the German parliament invited powerful tool to address poverty and him to be the main speaker last year injustice. Conservatives see greater at a hearing on displaced and threat- risks in expanding government, such ened people groups. Here we present as higher taxes and constraints on an English translation of portions of individual liberty. Conservative evan- his testimony, which offers another gelicals are not indifferent to the poor, pathway for Christians to serve ef- but they consider private charity of- fectively in political life: do better re- ten a better response than a govern- search than anyone else, undergirded ment program. by a deep concern for the basic rights The US political system tends toof all human beings. wards uncomfortable choices because Finally, Schirrmacher’s message for over 150 years it has had only two to last year’s meeting of the Global viable parties, unlike the many parties Christian Forum addresses another area that can too often become con- no political leader is perfect and very tentious and highly political: the mu- thatfew flourishare blatantly under evil. other So systems. we should But tual relations between various groups not hesitate to apply our beliefs to the of Christians. public arena—always with honesty, The wide array of evangelical approaches to the public space—some and openness to learning from those of which seem to contradict each oth- integrity,(especially selfless fellow Christians) concern for who others, see er—could induce paralysis. If Chris- things differently. tians are taking opposite sides in —Bruce Barron, Editor ERT (2019) 43:4, 293-311 Making Evangelicals Great Again? American Evangelicals in the Age of Trump

Brantley W. Gasaway

In contemporary American political As a result, conservative evangeli- culture, many people regard evan- cals and Religious Right leaders have gelicals as essential constituents of dominated the attention of the me- the Religious Right and assume that dia, politicians, and general public. religious conservatism necessitates In turn, ‘there’s a lot of perceptions political conservatism. These stereo- that the term evangelicals means types are understandable. In recent “Christians who vote Republican”’, decades, a growing and now over- reported David Kinnaman, president whelming majority of white evangelicals have aligned themselves with the Group.2 Republican Party and conservative of the evangelical polling firm Barna political ideology. According to exit the nuance and diversity of American polls, 70 to 81 percent of white evan- evangelicals’Yet such impressions political failengagement. to capture gelicals have voted for Republican Not only do they virtually ignore candidates in presidential and mid- non-white evangelicals, but they also term elections since 2004. 1 overlook the small but vigorous faction of politically progressive evangelicals—an evangelical left, so to 1 - speak—who have both challenged National Public Ra- the conservative majority of white dio Danielle, December Kurtzleben, 19, 2015, ‘Are https://www.npr. You an Evan evangelicals and tried to change the org/2015/12/19/458058251/are-you-an-gelical? Are You Sure?’ popular perception of evangelicals. evangelical-are-you-sure; Jessica Martinez When they have felt unable to ignore and Gregory A. Smith, ‘How the Faith Voted: this progressive evangelical minor- A Preliminary 2016 Analysis’, Pew Research Center, 9 November 2016, https://www. ity, Religious Right leaders have used pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/11/09/ various strategies to dismiss or dis- how-the-faithful-voted-a-preliminary- 2016-analysis/; Elizabeth Podrebarac Sciupac and Gregory A. Smith, ‘How Reli- tank/2018/11/07/how-religious-groups- gious Groups Voted in the Midterm Elec- voted-in-the-midterm-elections/. tions’, Pew Research Center, 7 November 2 2018, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact- Kurtzleben, ‘Are You an Evangelical? Are Brantley W. Gasaway (PhD, University of North CarolinaYou Sure?’at Chapel Hill) is Chair and Associate Profes- sor in the Department of Religious Studies at Bucknell University. He is author of Progressive Evan- gelicals and the Pursuit of Social Justice (University of North Carolina Press, 2014), which examined the political theology and historical activism of the contemporary progressive evangelical movement. 294 Brantley W. Gasaway credit their positions. But an incident $2,500.3 Although Claiborne insisted that time that the threat of arrest became his request was sincere, he should ain tactic. April 2018 was probably the first not have been surprised that Falwell Shane Claiborne, a prominent pro- treated it as disingenuous. Claiborne gressive evangelical activist and co- and his fellow progressive evangeli- founder of a group called Red Letter - Christians, had sent a letter to Jerry burg as their site to protest the sup- Falwell Jr., the president of Liberty portcals for had Trump specifically expressed chosen by Falwell Lynch and other Religious Right leaders. University in Lynchburg, Virginia. Claiborne had labelled this type of Founded by the late Jerry Falwell Christianity as ‘toxic evangelicalism’, Sr., a televangelist who galvanized and the Red Letter Christians adver- the rise of the Religious Right in the tised their Lynchburg revival as an 1970s, Liberty University has always alternative to ‘the distorted Christian presented itself as a bastion of reli- nationalism that many white evan- gious and political conservatism. In gelical leaders have become known recent years, Falwell Jr. has become for’. Thus Falwell had good reason one of President Trump’s most ardent to regard the Lynchburg revival as a evangelical supporters. He was the thinly veiled attack on the theology and politics of conservative evangeli- Trump during the Republican prima- cals like him.4 ries,first Religiousand he regularly Right leader appears to endorse in the The organizers of the two-day Re- media to defend the president against vival of Jesus and Justice succeeded in critics. capturing the media’s attention, giv- Claiborne wrote to Falwell as he ing them an opportunity to highlight was planning to come to Lynchburg progressive evangelicals’ distinc- tive political theology and agenda. in early April 2018 for an event that Speakers and workshops addressed organizers were calling ‘A Revival of poverty, racial injustice, immigration Jesus and Justice’. In his letter, Clai- reform, mass incarceration, Ameri- borne asked Falwell if they could can militarism and LGBTQ justice. meet to pray together. He also asked Journalists from the New York Times, for permission to bring people from the revival onto Liberty’s campus to join students in a prayer vigil. 3 - Instead of a direct reply from Fal- ity and Trumpism are Synonymous. These Evangelicals Tara Isabella are Burton, Pushing ‘For Many,Back’, ChristianVox, 12 April 2018, https://www.vox.com/identi- notice from the Liberty University Po- ties/2018/4/12/17216258/lynchburg-ral- licewell, Department, Claiborne receiveddeclaring an that official Clai- ly-red-letter-revival-shane-claiborne-jerry- borne was restricted from all Liberty falwell-jr-liberty-university. University properties and events. If 4 - he violated this restriction, the notice vival” to Protest “Toxic Evangelicalism”’, Reli- gion Jack News Jenkins, Service ‘Christian, 8 February Group 2018, Plans https:// “Re warned, Claiborne would be arrested religionnews.com/2018/02/08/christian- for trespassing and punished by up to group-plans-revival-to-protest-liberty-u- and-toxic-evangelicalism/.

12 months in jail and a fine of up to Making Evangelicals Great Again? 295

National Public Radio, Vox and other the new administration. This article media outlets attended the Lynch- summarizes the proposals, protests, burg revival and portrayed it as the and petitions of progressive evangeli- ‘site of a battleground over the fu- cals with respect to four broad issues: ture of American evangelicalism’. racial justice, immigration, healthcare For progressive evangelicals, one re- and economic policies. On the whole, porter summarized, ‘the evangelical the current political context has ex- establishment’s embrace of Trump- acerbated a long-simmering iden- ism—unbridled capitalism, xeno- tity crisis among progressive evan- phobic nativism, and a willingness to gelicals, as they measure the costs of engage with white supremacy—goes identifying with a religious tradition against everything Jesus stands for.’ and label that has become popularly Thus the Lynchburg revival was part associated with white Christian sup- of progressive evangelical leaders’ porters of Donald Trump. persistent efforts to counter the par- Progressive evangelicals have not tisan politics of the Religious Right been the only ones troubled by Trump and, during the current presidential and the ways in which most white administration, to debunk popular evangelicals have embraced him. This perceptions of evangelicals as faithful article highlights how a small but vo- followers of Donald Trump.5 cal number of more moderate and This article describes the ways in conservative evangelical leaders have which the politically progressive mi- taken various political positions that nority of US evangelicals have reacted align with the goals of progressive both to President Trump’s adminis- evangelicals. Not least, a fair number tration and to most white evangeli- of these other anti-Trump evangelicals’ remarkable support of Trump cals have also questioned the value of himself. Not surprisingly, progressive continuing to identify as ‘evangelical’ evangelicals vociferously opposed in the current climate of American Trump’s candidacy and tried to dis- politics. suade other evangelicals from voting This mutual disillusionment and from him. In the wake of his election, the presence of partially overlap- leaders of the evangelical left mobi- ping political concerns could serve lized to protect the people and poli- as a common ground enabling pro- cies that seemed most threatened by gressive and other anti-Trump evangelicals to co-operate in countering pro-Trump evangelical conservatives. 5 - - ism are Synonymous’; Laurie Goodstein, ing approaches to abortion and same- ‘Anti-Trump Burton, ‘For Evangelicals Many, Christianity Confront and Trump Their However,sex marriage, the persistenceas well as their of conflict partici- Brethren’, New York Times, 23 May 2018, htt- pation in different religious networks, ps://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/23/us/ diminishes the likelihood of such a anti-trump-evangelicals-lynchburg.html; Sa- partnership. I conclude this article rah McCammon, ‘“Lynchburg Revival” Activ- ists Warn of Rising “Christian Nationalism”’, National Public Radio, 7 April 2018, https:// evangelicals’ perennial efforts to ‘re- www.npr.org/2018/04/07/600565196/ withclaim’ reflectionsthe evangelical upon tradition progressive in the lynchburg-revival-activists-warn-of-rising- US from its association with political christian-nationalism. conservatism. 296 Brantley W. Gasaway

I. The Contemporary movement and established it as a rec- ognizable minority within evangelical Progressive Evangelical circles.6 Movement At the end of the 1970s, however, Contemporary progressive evangeli- the newly emergent Religious Right calism emerged as a reform move- captured the public’s attention and ment within the larger network of pushed most evangelicals to support modern evangelicalism in the United conservative political causes and States. In the late 1960s, a small group candidates. Leaders of the Religious of disgruntled leaders began calling Right built their movement around on evangelicals to abandon narrow campaigns to oppose perceived as- religious preoccupations and apoliti- saults on America’s Christian heritage cal conservatism. Outside of strident and traditional standards of family anti-communism, most American - evangelicals in the mid-twentieth gelicals maintain that the Bible calls century had come to regard social and Christiansand sexuality. to care Yet as progressive much about evancom- political action as distractions from batting poverty, ending racism, work- their primary task of evangelism. ing for peace, defending human rights They associated progressive politics and protecting the environment as with theological liberalism and the they do about abortion and same- Social Gospel, believing that only an sex marriage. As a result, progressive aggregate of spiritual and moral re- evangelicals have argued, Christians forms of individuals would alleviate should prioritize reforming injustices social problems. and inequality in their public engage- In addition, because many evan- ment.7 gelicals had embraced dispensational The evangelical left has remained premillennialism, they also believed a minority faction within evangelical that social and political activism could do little to stem the cultural its most visible and vocal representa- decline that they expected to occur circles over the past four decades. Yet before Jesus’ imminent second com- an alternative to the Religious Right ing. In contrast, pioneering progres- andtives developing have served biblical as gadflies, arguments offering to sive evangelical leaders insisted that persuade American evangelicals to the Bible calls people to care not only for people’s spiritual welfare but also for their physical and material needs. 6 Progressive Evangel- Inspired by the civil rights movement icals and the Pursuit of Social Justice (Chapel and opposition to the Vietnam War, Hill: Brantley University W. Gasaway, of North Carolina Press, they urged fellow evangelicals to take 2014); David R. Swartz, Moral Minority: The political and social action to redress Evangelical Left in an Age of Conservatism injustices and inequalities. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania In 1973, a group of these progres- Press, 2012); George M. Marsden, Under- standing Fundamentalism and Evangelical- sive evangelical leaders signed the ism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991). ‘Chicago Declaration of Evangeli- 7 God’s Own Party: The cal Social Concern’. This manifesto Making of the Christian Right - marked the marked the public coales- ford Daniel University K. Williams, Press, 2012); Gasaway, Pro- cence of the progressive evangelical gressive Evangelicals. (New York: Ox Making Evangelicals Great Again? 297 support progressive public policies.8 why they supported Trump.9 This analysis of the progressive Many prominent conservative evangelical movement focuses on a evangelicals such as Franklin Graham, network of prominent representa- Focus on the Family founder James tives such as Sojourners and its presi- Dobson, author and radio host Eric dent Jim Wallis; Red Letter Christians, Metaxas, Family Research Council co-founded by Shane Claiborne and president Tony Perkins, and theolo- well-known progressive evangelical gian Wayne Grudem urged Christians Tony Campolo; activists such as Lisa to overlook Trump’s history of per- Sharon Harper; and the organization sonal immorality since he pledged to Evangelicals for Social Action (ESA), appoint pro-life Supreme Court jus- led for many decades by Ron Sider tices who would also protect their re- and currently by its executive director ligious liberty in an increasingly secu- Nikki Toyama-Szeto. Collectively, the larizing culture. For evangelical laity, writings and activities of these rep- polls indicated that improving the economy and national security were resentatives serve as a lens through the most important issues determin- which to view and to interpret the ing their vote, and Trump’s campaign evangelical left’s contemporary pub- promises of economic populism, com- lic engagement. batting Islamic terrorism, immigration restrictions and border control targeted these concerns.10 II. Evangelicals and the Many white evangelicals’ insensi- Election of Donald Trump tivity to racial bigotry and expressed When Donald Trump won the US fears for growing racial diversity presidency in 2016, he received more within the United States made them than 80 percent of the votes cast by tolerant (and perhaps, in some white evangelicals. A complex combi- cases, supportive) of Trump’s appeals nation of factors motivated this overwhelming support for Trump. Dedi- cation to the Republican party made 9 for Hillary Clinton That Drives So Many it likely that most white evangelicals Evangelicals Sarah Pulliam to Support Bailey, ‘TheTrump’, Deep Washing Disgust- would vote for its nominee over any ton Post, 9 October 2016, https://www. Democratic candidate. Hillary Clinton washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/ in particular seemed an especially un- wp/2016/10/09/the-deep-disgust-for- tenable option. Due to the distaste for hillary-clinton-that-drives-so-many-evan- her politics and personality that be- gelicals-to-support-trump/. gan during her years as First Lady in 10 Religious Right Leaders Who Support the midst of the 1990s culture wars, Trump Alan Don’t Noble, Speak ‘I’m for an Me’, Evangelical. Vox, 24 TheOc- three-quarters of evangelicals cited dislike of Clinton as a primary reason person/2016/10/24/13361582/trump- religious-right;tober 2016, https://www.vox.com/first-Myriam Renaud, ‘Myths Debunked: Why Did White Evangelical Chris- 8 Progressive Evangelicals; Joel A. tians Vote for Trump?’ Sightings, 19 January Carpenter, ‘Compassionate Evangelicalism’, 2017, https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sight- Christianity Gasaway, Today 47, no. 12 (December ings/myths-debunked-why-did-white-evan- 2003): 40–42. gelical-christians-vote-trump. 298 Brantley W. Gasaway to white identity politics. Finally, and the health of our democracy’, Trump’s slogan ‘Make America Great they declared. ‘Donald Trump directly Again’ resonated deeply with white promotes racial and religious bigotry, evangelicals’ own nostalgic view of disrespects the dignity of women, America as a Christian nation.11 harms civil public discourse, offends Progressive evangelicals worked moral decency, and seeks to manipu- in vain to prevent Donald Trump’s late religion.’12 election. In the early months of 2016, In response to media reports as it became apparent that he would showing high levels of evangelical win the Republican nomination for support for Trump, a wide range of president, the evangelical left began progressive and moderate evangeli- to denounce Trump’s candidacy. So- cal leaders issued another statement journers’ Jim Wallis and Lisa Sharon and petition on Change.org a month Harper, ESA’s Ron Sider, ethicist David before the election. In it, they argued Gushee, Shane Claiborne, and many that evangelicals could not vote for other progressive evangelicals joined Trump in good conscience, and they ecumenical leaders in April 2016 decried ‘the media’s continued iden- to issue ‘Called to Resist Bigotry— A Statement of Faithful Obedience’. white, politically conservative, older While recognizing legitimate politi- men’.tification The of “evangelical”signers concluded, with mostly ‘We cal disagreements among Christians, must respond when evangelicalism signers of this statement argued that Trump’s campaign had created one particular candidate whose state- ‘a moral and theological crisis’ that ments,becomes practice, dangerously personal identified morality, with faithful Christians from across the po- and ideology risk damaging our wit- litical spectrum should unanimously ness to the gospel before a watching condemn. ‘The ascendancy of a dema- world.’13 gogic candidate and his message, with the angry constituency he is fueling, is evangelicals, Ron Sider wrote an ar- a threat to both the values of our faith ticleIn ina finalChristianity effort to Today persuade—the othermost prominent US evangelical magazine—in which he publicly endorsed 11 Clinton. This is ‘the most important the Great Trump Hope’, New York Times, 11 RobertJuly P.2016, Jones, ‘Thehttps://www.nytimes. Evangelicals and presidential election in my lifetime’, com/2016/07/11/opinion/campaign- the 76-year-old Sider wrote, and he stops/the-evangelicals-and-the-great- trump-hope.html; Nancy D. Wadsworth, ‘The Racial Demons That Help Explain 12 - Evangelical Support for Trump’, Vox, 20 ers Declare Trump “Racist, Bigoted, and April 2018, https://www.vox.com/the-big- Hateful”’, Jack Think Jenkins, Progress ‘Major, 29 FaithApril 2016, Lead idea/2018/4/30/17301282/race-evangeli- https://thinkprogress.org/major-faith-lead- cals-trump-support-gerson-atlantic-sexism- ers-declare-trump-racist-bigoted-and-hate- segregation-south; Andrew L. Whitehead, ful-548e21a8173f/. Samuel L. Perry, and Joseph O. Baker, ‘Make 13 America Christian Again: Christian National- Concerning Donald Trump’, Change.org, 6 ism and Voting for Donald Trump in the 2016 October ‘A Declaration 2016, https://www.change.org/p/ by American Evangelicals Presidential Election’, Sociology of Religion donald-trump-a-declaration-by-american- 79, no. 2 (Summer 2018): 147–71. evangelicals-concerning-donald-trump. Making Evangelicals Great Again? 299 painted Trump as a uniquely unquali- Immediately after the 2016 elec- - tion, progressive evangelicals de- tive candidate. As election results clared their intention to join the revealed,fied, unjust however, and potentially nearly all destruc white resistance against Trump’s admin- evangelicals disagreed with him.14 istration. In Sojourners, Jim Wallis Since the 2016 election, Trump called Trump ‘the most dangerous has maintained strong support from man’ elected ‘to the White House Christian conservatives. In poll after that we have seen in our lifetimes’. poll, white evangelicals have been He urged progressive evangelicals the demographic group giving him and other anti-Trump Christians to the highest job approval ratings, with actively protect those likely to be well over 70 percent still viewing his targeted by the new administration: administration positively through undocumented immigrants, people of summer 2019. Conservative evangeli- colour, Muslims, women of all races, cals have described President Trump and LGBTQ folks. ‘One of the saddest as their protector and advocate. They aspects of the election for me’, Wallis have felt vindicated as Trump has - evangelicals voted for a man whose point pro-life Supreme Court justices lifereflected, has embodied ‘is the fact the that most most sinful white and andfulfilled lower-court campaign judges, promises endorsed to ap shameful worship of money, sex, and policies to safeguard their religious power and who represents the very liberties, passed tax cuts and sus- worst of what American culture has tained a strong economy, and low- become’.16 ered immigration rates. Falwell called Evangelicals for Social Action Trump evangelicals’ ‘dream presi- expressed similar concerns. While dent’, while David Brody of the Chris- tian Broadcasting Network labelled him the ‘most evangelical-friendly wp/2017/05/04/their-dream-president- United States president ever’. In re- trump-just-gave-white-evangelicals-a-big- cent months, Religious Right leaders boost/; David Brody, ‘In Donald Trump, Evangelicals Have Found Their President’, and organizations have begun pre- New York Times, 24 February 2018, https:// paring to campaign vigorously for www.nytimes.com/2018/02/24/opin- Trump’s re-election in 2020.15 ion/sunday/donald-trump-evangelicals- president.html; Tom McCarthy, ‘Faith and Freedoms: Why Evangelicals Profess Un- 14 wavering Love for Trump’, The Guardian, 7 Clinton’, Christianity Today 60, no. 8 (October July 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/ 2016): Ron 55–56. Sider, ‘Why I’m Voting for Hillary us-news/2019/jul/07/donald-trump- 15 evangelical-supporters; Julie Zauzmer, ‘“He of White Evangelicals Approve of Donald Gets It”: Evangelicals Aren’t Turned Off by Trump’, Christina Newsweek Zhao,, 22 ‘Nearly July Three-Quarters2019, https:// Trump’s First Term’, Washington Post, 13 www.newsweek.com/nearly-three-quar- August 2019, https://www.washingtonpost. ters-white-evangelicals-approve-donald- com/politics/evangelicals-arent-turned- trump-1450610; Sarah Pulliam Bailey, ‘“Their Dream President”: Trump Just Gave by-it/2019/08/11/3911bc88-a990-11e9- White Evangelicals a Big Boost’, Wash- a3a6-ab670962db05_story.htmloff-by-trumps-first-term--theyre-delighted-. ington Post, 4 May 2017, https://www. 16 So- washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/ journers 46, no. 1 (January 2017): 14–17. Jim Wallis, ‘Resistance and Healing’, 300 Brantley W. Gasaway pledging to pray for Trump, Ron Sider In May 2017, Wallis responded wrote, ESA planned to challenge the directly to Falwell’s statement that unjust policies it anticipated from Trump represented evangelicals’ his administration. Not least, Sider dream president. ‘Falwell means worried that the election results a president like Trump is a dream would damage evangelicals’ reputa- for white evangelicals like him, not tion and thus their public witness. evangelicals of all races, not the Evangelicalism ‘is now publicly and wonderfully multiracial global body of Christ’ who feel astonished and campaign that denied the science of betrayed ‘that 81 percent of white globalintimately warming, identified tolerated with aand political even American evangelicals voted for Don- appealed to racism, promoted lies ald Trump’, Wallis declared. He chal- (e.g. denying that President Obama lenged all other evangelicals to con- is a US citizen), demonstrated des- demn ‘the moral hypocrisy and racial picable treatment of women and em- idolatry of the white evangelicals of braced economic policies that will America’s Religious Right who fail to overwhelmingly help the very rich’, he see racism, poverty, hunger, health, lamented. ‘Increasingly, that is what the treatment of refugees and immi- “evangelical” means to large numbers grants, and a biblical commitment to of Americans. That agenda contra- social justice as gospel issues.’ While dicts biblical teaching and leads many not comprehensive, this list of issues millennials to turn away from the named by Wallis—racism, immigra- evangelical church and even to reject tion, health care and economic jus- Jesus.’17 After Trump’s inauguration, many of progressive evangelical leaders 19 prominent progressive evangelicals tice—reflectssince Trump’s inauguration. the primary concerns signed a public letter to the President issued by the group Faith in Public Life. Over 800 ecumenical Christian III. Opposition to the Trump leaders promised to pray for Trump Administration but also warned him that, if he contin- As long-time advocates for racial jus- ued to promote division, fear and pol- tice, contemporary progressive evan- icies damaging to the vulnerable and gelical leaders have consistently con- marginalized, they would not hesitate demned the overt and covert forms to oppose him.18 of racism that they believe Trump’s

17 but/; Jack Jenkins, ‘Trump’s National Prayer Response from ESA’, Evangelicals for Social Breakfast Begins with Religious Protests’, Action Ron, 9 Sider,November ‘President-Elect 2016, https://www. Trump: a Think Progress, 2 February 2017, https:// evangelicalsforsocialaction.org/faith-and- thinkprogress.org/trumps-national-prayer- public-life/president-elect-trump-a-re- breakfast-begins-with-religious-protesters- sponse-from-esa/. 58142ecfe6ea/. 18 19 Reli- Jr. and Donald Trump’, Sojourners, accessed gion Kimberly News Service Winston,, 1 February ‘Christian 2017, Leaders https:// to 15 ‘JimAugust Wallis 2019, Speaks https://sojo.net/about-us/ Out on Jerry Falwell, religionnews.com/2017/02/01/christian-Trump: We’re Praying for You, But … ’, news/jim-wallis-speaks-out-jerry-falwell-jr- leaders-to-trump-were-praying-for-you- and-donald-trump. Making Evangelicals Great Again? 301 administration has encouraged. Just In 2018, progressive evangelicals after Trump’s inauguration, Jim Wal- predictably denounced President lis declared that Trump’s election Trump’s racist remarks describing ‘provides both a great danger and a several African nations, Haiti, and El Salvador. But beyond Trump’s rheto- race in America’, and that ‘racial rec- ric, leaders have also criticized the onciliationreal opportunity will be to an finally act of deal repent with- racialized inequalities exacerbated by ance and resistance in the Trump era’. the Trump administration’s policies. The racialized protests and violence ‘The historical sin of racism lingers in Charlottesville in August 2017 on in America today, continuing and - evolving in our social systems of eco- ance. As white nationalists gathered nomics and education, policing and forbecame their a‘Unite flashpoint the Right’ for such rally, resist sev- - eral progressive evangelical leaders cation, voting rights and suppression, such as Lisa Sharon Harper joined criminalin our racial justice, geography housing and and, gentrifi pain- ecumenical clergy in Charlottesville fully, in the continued segregation of to conduct counter-protests. In the our churches, which adds to our own aftermath, President Trump equivo- complicity’, declared a statement ti- cated in his response, claiming there tled ‘Unity Declaration on Racism and Poverty’ that many progressive evan- 21 Charlottesville protests. In response, gelicals endorsed. progressivewere ‘fine people evangelicals on both sides’issued of theex- These responses by the evangeli- plicit condemnations. ‘Because this cal left to rising racism and white is not the time for ambiguity, we re- nationalism have been connected ject the idol of white supremacy, of to their opposition to the Trump neo-nazism, and of a nationalism administration’s immigration and that places country before God’, ESA refugee policies. Much of their initial activism focused on defending the proclaimed. Leaders from Sojourn- Deferred Action for Childhood Arriv- ers and Red Letter Christians issued als (DACA) programme, which pro- a similar ‘Theological Declaration’ tected from deportation hundreds that renounced ‘white nationalism, of thousands of young adults, often white separatism, white supremacy called ‘Dreamers’, who were brought to the United States illegally as chil- abide by the logics of domination and 20 dren. When President Trump pledged colonization’.… and any and all movements that to end DACA, progressive evangelicals mobilized. ‘Jesus says welcome the stranger. Donald Trump has just 20 of Repentance and Resistance in the Trump said “no” to this clear call from Christ Era’, Jim Sojourners Wallis, , ‘Studying16 February Racism 2017, as https:// an Act in his decision to turn away 800,000 sojo.net/articles/studying-racism-act-repentance-and-resistance-trump-era; ‘ESA Statement in Response to Charlottesville’, 22 declaration-on-christian-faith-white-su- August 2017, https://www.evangelicalsfor- premacy/. socialaction.org/esa-statement/; ‘Theologi- 21 - cal Declaration on Christian Faith & White ty’, October 2018, http://circleofprotection. Supremacy’, 6 September 2017, https:// us/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/unity- ‘Unity Declaration on Racism and Pover www.redletterchristians.org/theological- statement-racism-and-poverty-2018.pdf. 302 Brantley W. Gasaway young Dreamers who were brought non-violent civil disobedience at ap- to this country by their parents when propriate places in the days ahead’. they were children—and who have Wallis, Shane Claiborne, and others no other home’, Jim Wallis declared. associated with Sojourners and Red Sojourners partnered with the Inter- Letter Christians were themselves faith Immigration Coalition to lobby arrested on June 26 for civil disobe- Congress and to organize campaigns dience outside the White House as on behalf of immigrant rights. In De- they protested the family separation cember 2017, an array of progres- policy. Evangelical progressives have sive evangelical leaders from ESA, tried to demonstrate that Trump’s Red Letter Christians, Sojourners, immigration policies are, in Wallis’ and other socially concerned Chris- words, ‘anti-family, anti-American, tian organizations organized a public and anti-Christ’.23 demonstration in Washington, D.C. in Universal access to affordable support of Dreamers and other immi- health care has long been a prior- 22 grants. ity for progressive evangelicals, and The family separation policy en- leaders had championed passage acted by the Trump administration in 2010 of the Affordable Care Act, in April 2018 especially outraged also known as Obamacare. During progressive evangelicals, particularly Trump’s campaign, he promised that as Attorney General Jeff Sessions and he would ensure health coverage White House Press Secretary Sarah for everybody and not enact cuts to Huckabee Sanders invoked biblical Medicaid and Medicare. But in early - 2017, the non-partisan Congressional ing with ecumenical partners, lead- ersjustifications such as Wallis, in defending Tony Campolo, it. Join care bill proposed by Republicans Ron Sider and long-time evangeli- andBudget supported Office judged by Trump that thewould health re- cal community activist John Perkins sult in over 24 million people losing condemned the ‘misuse and viola- health coverage over the next decade. tion of the Word of God to defend a Denouncing Trump as a liar, progres- morally indefensible policy’. They sive evangelicals called for petitions also called on churches ‘to teach and preach about this moral crisis, organ- and protests against final passage of of Immigration and Customs Enforce- 23 - mentize candlelight (ICE) and prayersat local atCongression the offices- ration of Immigrant Children from Their Parents ‘“Suffer Is theNot LittleBiblical’, Children”: https://sojo.net/ The Sepa about-us/news/separation-immigrant-chil- al offices, and prayerfully consider dren-their-parents-not-biblical-reclaiming- 22 - jesus-elders; Adam Taylor, ‘At What Cost to sion’, 5 September 2017, https://sojo.net/ Our Soul?’ Sojourners, 26 June 2018, https:// about-us/news/statement-jim-wallis-daca- ‘Statement by Jim Wallis on DACA Deci sojo.net/articles/what-cost-our-soul; Jim decision; John Seel, ‘A Prayerful Embrace: Wallis, ‘Trump’s Immigration Policies Are ESA Joins in a National DACA Action’, 7 De- Anti-Family, Anti-American, and Anti-Christ’, cember 2017, https://www.evangelicalsfor- Sojourners, 15 February 2018, https://sojo. socialaction.org/compassion-and-justice/ net/articles/trump-s-immigration-policies- prayerful-embrace-esa-joins-national-daca- are-anti-family-anti-american-and-anti- action/. christ. Making Evangelicals Great Again? 303 the bill. Sojourners urged Christians Defending inexpensive access to contact their congressional rep- to health care has represented just resentatives while praying ‘that God one part of progressive evangelicals’ would move the hearts of our elected broad commitment to economic justice for the poor. Throughout 2017, hearing the stories of those affected leaders opposed the budget priorities byofficials their soharmful that they policies’. would24 be open to and tax cuts supported by President In a series of direct-action protests Trump and Republicans. Working in July, Lisa Sharon Harper, Red Let- alongside ecumenical allies as part ter Christians executive director Don of an anti-poverty coalition called Golden, and other evangelical pro- Circle of Protection, representatives gressives were arrested as they dis- from Sojourners, ESA, and Red Let- rupted Congress and blockaded the ter Christians campaigned against the combination of increased mili- Senators Lindsey Graham and Bill tary spending, reductions in social Cassidyoffices of proposed Republicans. a bill In to September, repeal the service programs and lower taxes on Affordable Care Act. The bill never the wealthy. ‘The poor and vulnerable - and Jim Wallis claimed that the oppo- ald Trump’s proposed budget’, pro- sitionreached of thefaith floor leaders for aplayed vote, however,a pivotal …claimed are at Jimgreat Wallis risk inat Presidenta March newsDon conference and prayer vigil organized role in this process. ‘Jesus tells us that 26 how we treat the most vulnerable in by Circle of Protection at the Capitol. society, including the poor and the Though progressive evangelicals sick, is how we treat Christ himself’, continued to lobby and to protest over the following months, Republi- Wallis wrote. ‘The moral test and the cans passed Trump’s budget in Octo- biblical test of any system is how it ber and prepared to pass massive tax treats the poorest and most vulnera- cuts. Outraged, evangelical progres- ble—how a health care system treats sives joined ecumenical and inter- those who are sick.’ Throughout 2018, faith allies to oppose the tax reform progressive evangelicals continued to bill. During a protest in the Capitol work against legislation and policies in late November, Wallis quoted pro- designed to undermine or to disman- 25 phetic biblical passages about the tle the Affordable Care Act. oppression of the poor before he was arrested. ‘The treatment of the poor and vulnerable is lifted up in the Bible 24 About the Senate Health Care Bill’, 23 June more than 2,000 times. And it is these 2017, ‘Here’s Sojourners What, https://sojo.net/articles/ You Can Do Right Now people, the ones our Scriptures call us here-s-what-you-can-do-right-now-about- to protect and serve, who will be most senate-health-care-bill. 25 Being One with the Vulnerable’, Red Letter could-still-lose-heath-care-here-s-how-you- Christians Don ,Golden, 26 July ‘#Faith4Healthcare:2017, https://www.red On- can-stop-it. letterchristians.org/faith4healthcare-on- 26 being-one-with-the-vulnerable/; Jim Wallis, A Budget Is a Moral Document’, Sojourners, ‘Millions Could Still Lose Health Care. Here’s 30 JimMarch Wallis, 2017 ‘Truth, https://sojo.net/articles/ That Bears Repeating: Sojourners, 25 Septem- truth-bears-repeating-budget-moral-docu- ber 2017, https://sojo.net/articles/millions- ment. How You Can Stop It’, 304 Brantley W. Gasaway hurt by the results of this disastrous authors recounted their condemna- tax bill’, Wallis proclaimed. ‘The bill tion of a wide range of injustices, suffers from deeply immoral logic: including ‘the resurgence of white nationalism and racism in our nation huge tax cuts to the rich and corpo- on many fronts, including the high- torations, blow athat hole will in theultimately deficit by be giving paid est levels of political leadership’; ‘the growing attacks on immigrants and hypocrisy, callous calculation, and refugees, who are being made into forimmoral by the act.’ poor. For … evangelical This is a shameful progres- political targets’; unjust ‘attempts to sives, the enactment of this bill in late deny health care to those who most 2017 represented yet another moral need it’; and ‘the growing national sin failure of the current presidential ad- of putting the rich over the poor’. 27 ministration. Although this statement served as a rebuke of President Trump, progressive evangelicals also hoped to IV. ‘Reclaiming Jesus’—but challenge Christians who supported Retaining ‘Evangelical’? Trump to re-evaluate their ‘theology In their efforts to persuade both other of public discipleship and witness’. ‘It Christians and politicians, progres- is time to be followers of Jesus before sive evangelical leaders regularly is- anything else—nationality, politi- sue statements that convey their vi- cal party, race, ethnicity, gender, [or] sion of faithful political engagement. geography’, they declared. While this In May 2018, Jim Wallis, Tony Campo- statement did not say so explicitly, lo, Ron Sider, African-American com- progressive evangelicals clearly be- munity activist John Perkins and sev- lieved that, because no one can serve eral other progressive evangelicals two masters, Christians cannot follow joined a small group of mainline Prot- both Jesus and Donald Trump.28 estant leaders to release a statement - entitled ‘Reclaiming Jesus: A Confes- gelicals have disagreed—a fact that sion of Faith in a Time of Crisis’. The hasYet not the only majority galled of whiteprogressive evan document communicated both their evangelicals but also caused some to exasperation and their hopes in this considering no longer identifying as age of Trump. ‘We are living through ‘evangelical’ Christians. The shocking perilous and polarizing times as a na- percentage of white evangelicals who tion, with a dangerous crisis of moral voted for Trump tempted Sojourn- and political leadership at the highest ers’ Lisa Sharon Harper to take that levels of our government and in our step the day after the election; ‘I felt churches’, the statement began. The betrayed. I felt like that’s just not who I am anymore. This group who voted 27 for Trump is just not who I am’, she Action’, Sojourners, 28 November 2017, htt- said. Shane Claiborne and Tony Cam- ps://sojo.net/articles/great-injustice-calls- Jim Wallis, ‘Great Injustice Calls for Great polo wrote an op-ed for the New York great-action; ‘Circle of Protection Leaders Speak Out Regarding Passage of Tax Bill’, Sojourners, 20 December 2017, https://sojo. 28 net/about-us/news/circle-protection-lead- in a Time of Crisis’, http://www.reclaim- ers-speak-out-regarding-passage-tax-bill. ingjesus.org/. ‘Reclaiming Jesus: A Confession of Faith Making Evangelicals Great Again? 305

Times in which they sought to disas- tive director Nikki Toyama-Szeto de- sociate themselves from the evangeli- clared. ‘A lot of folks are saying that cal label. The reputation of evangeli- “If this is what evangelical means, calism has been ruined by its close then I’m not that”.’ As scholar Mela- association with Trump’s successful nie McAlister has summarized, ‘For campaign, they argued, and younger, many evangelicals of color, the poli- non-white voices seem unwelcome or tics of white supremacy is now the ignored within American evangelical dominant reality associated with a circles.29 multiracial faith identity that they Thus, in the words of Claiborne once comfortably (if not always en- and Campolo, ‘Jesus-centered faith thusiastically) claimed.’ Though pro- needs a new name.’ They proposed gressive evangelicals have long occu- the label ‘Red Letter Christians’ to in- pied a marginal place within modern dicate their faithfulness to the teach- American evangelicalism, most white ings of Jesus (which many Bibles evangelicals’ enthusiasm for Trump print in red). ‘We are committed to has caused some to explore or to cre- living out the words of Jesus, even if ate different religious and discursive that sets us at odds with those evan- communities.31 gelicals who have tended toward a In opposing and criticizing cultural religion that has embraced Trump’s candidacy and his admin- Donald Trump with little or “no” pro- istration, progressive evangelicals phetic judgment’, Campolo wrote sev- have been joined by some prominent 30 eral months later. conservative and moderate evangeli- Numerous progressive evangelicals. Russell Moore, president of the cals of colour, often active in progres- Southern Baptist Convention’s Ethics sive evangelical networks, have de- and Religious Liberty Commission, scribed not only discomfort but also fervently opposed Trump prior to the a sense of betrayal within broader election. Moore called him ‘an arro- evangelical circles. ‘If you voted for gant huckster’ and compared Trump’s Trump, then his racism was just not campaign to ‘reality television moral a deal-breaker for you’, ESA execu- sewage’. He also described evangelical defences of Trump ‘a scandal and disgrace’ after the release of the Ac- 29 Unite after the 2016 Election?’ Religion News cess Hollywood video that contained Service Emily, 16 McFarlan November Miller, 2019; ‘Can Tony Evangelicals Campolo Trump’s sexually predatory com- and Shane Claiborne, ‘The Evangelicalism ments.32 of Old White Men Is Dead’, New York Times, 29 November 2016, https://www.nytimes. com/2016/11/29/opinion/the-evangelical- 31 - ism-of-old-white-men-is-dead.html. ness: Evangelicals of Color in the Trump Era’, 30 - Religion Melani and McAlister, Politics, 7 ‘AAugust Kind 201 of Homeless8, https:// gelicalism of Old White Men Is Dead’; Tony religionandpolitics.org/2018/08/07/a- Campolo, Campolo ‘Why and Evangelicals Claiborne, Voted ‘The for EvanDon- kind-of-homelessness-evangelicals-of- color-in-the-trump-era/. Red Letter Christians, 24 July 2017, https:// 32 www.redletterchristians.org/why-evangelald Trump … and Continue to Support Him’,- Clinton Both Represent “Reality TV Moral icals-voted-for-donald-trump-continue-to- Sewage”’, Mark Woods,Christian ‘Russell Today , Moore:9 May Trump,2016, support-him/. https://www.christiantoday.com/article/ 306 Brantley W. Gasaway

African-American pastor Thabiti servative and moderate evangelical Anyabwile, a prominent member of leaders have joined evangelical pro- the Gospel Coalition network popular with Reformed evangelicals, rebuked aspects of Trump’s administration. Trump as a racist and his potential Withgressives respect in vocally to immigration, opposing specificfor ex- presidency as ‘intolerable’. Conserva- ample, World Relief—the humanitar- Washington ian arm of the centrist National Asso- Post columnist Michael Gerson and ciation of Evangelicals (NAE)—issued tiveNational media Review figures writer such as David French an open letter in the Washington denounced Trump despite viewing Post challenging Trump’s immigra- support for Hillary Clinton as unten- tion and refugee policies. The letter able, while popular evangelical au- was endorsed by a wide coalition of evangelical leaders such as Christian- expressed incredulity and dismay ity Today president Harold Smith, Bill thorsthat fellowPhilip YanceyChristians and Maxconsidered Lucado and Lynne Hybels of the Willow Creek - Association, Southern Baptist Bible ative evangelical magazine World, un- teacher Beth Moore, Latino evangeli- Trumpder the fit editorship for office. ofEven Marvin the conserv Olasky, cal leader Samuel Rodriguez, author Ann Voskamp and Wheaton College argued that he should step aside for 33 president Philip Ryken. Evangelicals calledanother Trump candidate. ‘unfit for power’ and across the political spectrum also ex- An even broader range of con- pressed horror at the Trump administration’s family separation policy and russell-moore-trump-clinton-both-repre- lobbied for its reversal. Regarding sent-reality-tv-moral-sewage/85670.htm; healthcare, the NAE joined progres- Russell Moore, ‘If Donald Trump Has Done sive evangelicals in opposing Repub- Anything, He Has Snuffed Out the Religious lican efforts to repeal Obamacare. Right’, Washington Post, 9 October 2016, ‘Despite its impressive achievements, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/ our health care system often fails to acts-of-faith/wp/2016/10/09/if-donald- deliver affordable, life-saving help to trump-has-done-anything-he-has-snuffed- many of our citizens’, president Leith out-the-religious-right/. Anderson said. ‘Any policy and fund- 33 Why I Think a Trump Presidency Is Intoler- ing changes should be evaluated by Thabiti Anyabwile, ‘Can We Talk? The Or, how they treat the most vulnerable Gospel Coalition, 6 June 2016, https://www. among us.’34 thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/thabiti-anyabable Even Though You Might Not Agree’, - wile/can-we-talk-or-why-i-think-a-trump- presidency-is-intolerable-even-though-you- 34 might-not-agree/; Harry Farley, ‘Christian and Hundreds of Evangelicals Call for Immi- Kate Shellnutt, ‘Max Lucado,Christianity Beth Moore,Today, Everything Christianity Believes"’, Christian 7 February 2018, https://www.christianity- TodayAuthor, Philip26 September Yancey: Trump 2016, “Stands https://www. against today.com/news/2018/february/max-lucagration Reform … Again’, - christiantoday.com/article/christian-au- do-beth-moore-evangelicals-immigration- thor-philip-yancey-trump-stands-against- dreamers-ref.html; Harry Bruinius, ‘Family everything-christianity-believes/96353. Separation: Evangelicals Add Their Voices htm to Opposition’, Christian Science Monitor, 18 World, 11 October 2016, https://world.wng. June 2018, https://www.csmonitor.com/ ; Marvin Olasky, ‘Unfit. for Power’, USA/Justice/2018/0618/Family-separa- org/2016/10/unfit_for_power Making Evangelicals Great Again? 307

The widest consensus between questioned the value of continuing to more conservative and progressive identify as an evangelical in the cur- evangelicals has been in their re- rent political climate. Early in 2016, bukes of Trump’s apparent tolerance Russell Moore wrote an opinion piece for and enabling of racism, especially for the Washington Post titled ‘Why after the white supremacist rally in This Election Makes Me Hate the Word Charlottesville. ‘I condemn the forces “Evangelical”’. He lamented the popu- of white nationalism, white supremacy and antisemitism that divide our election-year voting bloc readily lin- country today, and I also condemn laring conflationup behind ofTrump. ‘evangelicals’ While not with ready an those who seek to politicize it all for to fully abandon the term evangelical their political gain’, declared Samuel as a religious identity focused on the Rodriguez of the National Hispanic good news that Jesus saves, Moore Leadership Conference, a member of concluded, ‘At least until this crazy Trump’s Evangelical Advisory Board. campaign is over, I choose to just say Many others criticized Trump’s un- that I’m a gospel Christian.’36 willingness to explicitly denounce At the end of President Trump’s racism. ‘The so-called Alt-Right white supremacist ideologies are anti- a senior fellow at the conservative Christ and satanic to the core’ and ‘We firstEthics year and Public in office, Policy Peter Center, Wehner, pub- should say so’, Russell Moore wrote. lished a similar argument in the New In response to the visible rise of rac- York Times. Wehner described how ism during Trump’s presidency, the white evangelicals’ support not only Southern Baptist Ethics and Religious for Trump but also for disgraced Re- Liberty Commission and the Gospel publican senatorial candidate Roy Coalition held a joint conference in Moore in Alabama had led him and April 2018 focused on the urgent others he knew to no longer identify need for racial justice and unity.35 as an evangelical.37 Like some progressive evangeli- In early 2018, InterVarsity Press cals, several conservatives have also published a book titled Still Evan- gelical? that contained essays by progressive, moderate, and conservative tion-Evangelicals-add-their-voices-to-oppo- evangelicals questioning the value of sition; Jack Jenkins, ‘National Association of the label in the aftermath of the 2016 Evangelicals Blasts GOP Effort to Repeal Oba- election. Even international observ- macare’, Think Progress, 25 September 2017, https://thinkprogress.org/this-time-even- ers recognized how white evangeli- evangelicals-are-blasting-the-gop-health- cal support for Trump had produced care-bill-1b3336946c06/. an identity crisis for American evan- 35 - tian Leaders Condemn White Supremacism’, Christian ‘“This BroadcastingIs NOT the Way Network of the Cross”:, 13 August Chris 36 2017, https://www1.cbn.com/cbnnews/ Me Hate the World “Evangelical”’, Washing- us/2017/august/this-is-not-the-way-of-the- ton Russell Post, 29 Moore,February ‘Why 2016. This Election Makes cross-christian-leaders-condemn-white- 37 supremacism Myself an Evangelical Republican’, New York from the Mountaintop’, The Gospel Coalition, Times Peter, 9 DecemberWehner, ‘Why 2017, I Can https://www.ny No Longer Call- https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/confer-; ‘MLK50: Gospel Reflections times.com/2017/12/09/opinion/sunday/ ence/mlk50/. wehner-evangelical-republicans.html. 308 Brantley W. Gasaway gelicals. Filipino Bishop Efraim Ten- engagement. Progressive evangeli- dero, Secretary General of the World Evangelical Alliance, commented that as protecting the sanctity of human the label ‘evangelical’ needed to be callife against leaders all define forms ‘pro-life’ of violence broadly and ‘reclaimed’ in the United States since injustice. They also argue that pro-life advocates should support practical political advocacy’ rather than ‘the policies and programs that reduce itdemonstration had become and ‘identified proclamation more forof the need for abortion, such as better the Gospel’.38 access to contraceptives, health care, and economic support for pregnant women.39 V. Persistent Evangelical Rarely do progressive evangelicals Divisions especially champion the protection One may wonder whether these of unborn life or endorse efforts to shared concerns between progressive restrict abortion—a fact not lost on evangelicals and anti-Trump moder- conservative evangelicals. In a 2018 ates and conservatives could lead to article, for example, Billy Graham new forms of collaboration between Center director Ed Stetzer criticized these different factions of American progressive evangelicals for their evangelicals. Might Donald Trump in- relative silence in debates about directly inspire progressive and more abortion. The differing approaches conservative evangelicals to create to abortion politics also put progres- new alliances or even a common vi- sive and conservative evangelicals on sion for political engagement? Three - factors—one political, one theologi- mation of Brett Kavanaugh to the Su- cal, and one sociological—make such oppositepreme Court. sides While concerning conservative the confir and potential partnerships unlikely. moderate evangelical critics of Trump With respect to political priorities, still celebrated the nomination of a - pro-life judge, progressive evangeli- cantly less emphasis on abortion than cals such as Lisa Sharon Harper and progressivemore conservative evangelicals evangelicals. place signifi The activist Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove argued, based on Kavanaugh’s record, as pro-life but, unlike conservatives, that his constitutional interpretations evangelicalhas refused left to has treat typically opposition identified to and rulings would be devastating for abortion as the primary issue guiding minorities and poor people. The poli- their electoral decisions and political tics of abortion continue to place progressive evangelicals at odds with the majority of evangelical Christians.40 38 Still Evangeli- cal? Insiders Reconsider Political, Social and Theological Mark A. Meaning Labberton, (Downers ed., Grove, IL: 39 Progressive Evangelicals, 128– InterVarsity Press, 2018); Samuel Smith, 62. ‘“Evangelical” Has Become Too Political and 40 Gasaway, - Needs to be “Reclaimed”, says WEA Head,' Christian Today, 9 October 2018, https:// and Ed the Stetzer, Unborn?’ ‘Dear Christianity “Whole-Life” Today Progres, 30 www.christiantoday.com/article/evangeli- Januarysive Evangelicals, 2018, https://www.christianityto- Did You Forget “Pro-Life” cal-has-become-too-political-and-needs-today.com/edstetzer/2018/january/all-life- be-reclaimed-says-wea-head/130645.htm. progressive-evangelical-pro-life.html; Lisa Making Evangelicals Great Again? 309

Second, progressive evangelicals’ Finally, despite their ostensibly shared evangelical commitment, of LGBTQ Christians also alienates longstanding disagreements between themincreasing from most theological other evangelicals. affirmation progressive and more conservative Although they had long criticized evangelicals have led them to partici- the anti-gay politics of the Religious pate in different religious and social Right, in recent years more and more networks. As progressives became evangelical progressives such as Jim marginalized in the broader evangeli- Wallis, Tony Campolo, David Gushee, cal movement, they developed part- and others have taken a much bigger nerships over the past three decades step to the left, accepting theological with politically liberal Protestants arguments in support of same-sex and Catholics. Conservative evan- marriage and for full LGBTQ inclu- gelicals, on the other hand, gravitated sion and equality within churches. toward cooperation with conserva- - tive Catholics and Mormons. During ing, such as Shane Claiborne and the Trump’s presidency, the statements leadersEven those of ESA, who readilyare not partner fully affirm with issued and endorsed by progressive evangelicals have usually been made contrast, conservative evangelicals in cooperation with mainline Protes- remainLGBTQ andstaunchly affirming opposed Christians. to both In tants, and they have often protested theological and political recognition alongside ecumenical allies in ac- of gay rights and equality. Since the tivities associated with the so-called legalization of same-sex marriages Religious Left. Just after progressive in 2015, they have championed ‘reli- evangelicals participated in the 2018 gious liberty’ rights in an effort to ex- ‘Revival of Jesus and Justice’ rally in empt themselves from any perceived Lynchburg, a separate gathering occurred at Wheaton College, involv- marriages. Moreover, many conserva- ing moderate leaders concerned tiveparticipation evangelicals in or regardaffirmation LGBTQ-af of gay- about ‘the challenges of distortions to evangelicalism that have permeated position severely dampens prospects both the media and culture since the forfirming partnerships Christians with as heretics. progressive This 2016 election’. Most participants in evangelicals who are committed to this consultation shared progressive LGBTQ justice and equality.41 evangelicals’ concerns about public perceptions of American evangelicals.

Sharon Harper, ‘Evangelical Women and Men consensus to issue a planned state- Call for a Pause on Culture War’, Red Let- Yet they could not reach enough of a ter Christians, 21 July 2018, https://www. redletterchristians.org/evangelical-wom- can Religious Liberty Is in Peril’, Wall Street en-men-call-for-a-pause-on-culture-war/; Journal, 26 July 2019, https://www.wsj. Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove, ‘The Evangeli- com/articles/yes-american-religious-liber- cal Case Against Judge Kavanaugh’, New York ty-is-in-peril-11564152873; ‘Thousands of Times, 3 September 2018, https://www.ny- Christians Respond to Nashville Statement times.com/2018/09/03/opinion/evangeli- With Emphatic “No”’, Sojourners, 31 August cal-brett-kavanaugh-civil-rights.html. 2017, https://sojo.net/articles/thousands- 41 Progressive Evangelicals, christians-respond-nashville-statement- - emphatic-no. Gasaway, 163–99, 272–73; David French, ‘Yes, Ameri 310 Brantley W. Gasaway ment on evangelicalism in the age of Imitating the 1973 declaration, the Trump, nor would most join the meet- new statement declared its signers’ ings and declarations of the evangeli- commitment to ‘biblical justice’ and cal left. Shared disillusionment with active resistance to racism, patriar- most white evangelicals’ support for chal sexism, homophobia, economic President Trump could not easily injustice and all forms of dehumaniz- unite distinct factions of the evangeli- ing oppression.43 cal movement.42 The Chicago Invitation illustrates how much the Trump administration and its white evangelical supporters VI. Conclusion have put progressive evangelicals on In late 2018, the most prominent pro- the defensive. In a political sense, they gressive evangelical leaders issued yet have been forced anew to defend those another statement. Called ‘The Chi- who seem most exploited and endan- cago Invitation: Diverse Evangelicals gered by Trump’s policies. But in a Continue the Journey’, the document religious sense, they feel compelled to intentionally built upon the 1973 Chi- defend the integrity of the evangelical cago Declaration of Evangelical Social tradition. In an article accompanying Concern that helped to launch the the statement, Sojourners’ Jim Wallis contemporary progressive evangelical and Adam Taylor wrote: movement. Older white male leaders such as Jim Wallis, Tony Campolo and We hope and pray that this invita- Ron Sider were joined by younger and tion can foster desperately needed non-white ones, such as Shane Clai- dialogue about the present-day borne, Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove, diversity within the evangelical Lisa Sharon Harper, Nikki Tomaya- movement and can serve as a pow- Szeto and Soong-Chan Rah of North erful antidote and corrective to a Park University. false narrative that has dominated The Chicago Invitation argues that - ‘the story that became nationally and cals as white, Republican, and ar- our politics that defines evangeli globally dominant after the 2016 elec- dently pro-Trump. Evangelicalism tion was that 81 percent of “evangeli- is a much more diverse movement cals” voted for Donald Trump, when, than the current media narrative in fact, this group only represented the votes of white evangelicals. When public narrative to include diverse represents. … By correcting the evangelicals of color and younger evangelicals, we can help rehabili- tate the perception of evangelicals evangelicals are accurately accounted and enable our nation and the church to better cross the bridge for, the picture changes significantly’. into a more inclusive, multi-racial 42 Progressive Evangelicals, 18– future that mirrors God’s kingdom 20; Katelyn Beaty, ‘At a Private Meeting in Il- come. linois, Gasaway, a Group of Evangelicals Tried to Save Their Movement from Trumpism’, New Yor- ker, 26 April 2018, https://www.newyorker. 43 - com/news/on-religion/at-a-private-meet- icals Continue the Journey’, https://sojo.net/ ing-in-illinois-a-group-of-evangelicals-tried- ‘The Chicago Invitation: Diverse Evangel- to-save-their-movement-from-trumpism. . sites/default/files/chicagoinvitationformat ted_final.pdf Making Evangelicals Great Again? 311

Thus the Chicago Invitation was as tion and label from those who they much a public-relations effort as a believe have hijacked it for right-wing religious and theological statement. political agendas. They have tried to Progressive evangelical leaders want- persuade conservative evangelicals— ed to correct distorted perceptions as well as the media and larger pub- and reclaim American evangelicalism lic—that authentic evangelical Chris- as a more variegated and a more jus- tianity should bring good news to the tice-oriented religious tradition. They poor and freedom to the oppressed. were trying, from their perspective, to Like the prophets of old whom they make the reputation of evangelicals love to quote, progressive evangeli- great again.44 cals believe they are standing on the For the past four decades, progres- margins, calling the wayward back to sive evangelicals have consistently faithfulness to God. The dominance tried to reclaim the evangelical tradi- of the Religious Right and evangelical conservatism has always made their - 44 expected appeal of Donald Trump to a More Authentic Evangelicalism’, Sojourners, appealsso many difficult white evangelicals to hear. Now, has the made un October Jim Wallis3, 2018, and https://sojo.net/articles/Adam R. Taylor, ‘Toward toward-more-authentic-evangelicalism. their task even more difficult. ERT (2019) 43:4, 312-329 Doing Practical, Public Theology in the Context of South Africa’s Decolonization Discourse

Vhumani Magezi

I. Background general moral decay.2 The African continent faces challeng- A concerted effort by various play- es that range across social, political, ers is required to provide multifac- economic and religious issues. They eted responses. The players include - politicians, community leaders, aca- sion, migration, social injustice, weak demic institutions, churches and oth- includerule of law,corruption, HIV and conflicts, AIDS, and oppres many er societal players. Our interest in this other challenges. On Transparency discussion is churches. Rowan Wil- International’s Corruption Percep- liams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, tion Index, which measures the per- rightly maintained that churches as ceived level of public-sector corrup- Christian communities should partic- tion from zero to 100, every African ipate in activities that assist humanity country scores below 50 except Bot- - swana; the global average is 43, but munity has to learn civic virtues that for sub-Saharan Africa it is 33.1 to flourish. He stated, ‘Christian com Churches are also experiencing learn how to exercise those tasks of - willdecision-making create civic within flourishing community and to ing the Dutch Reformed Churches in and maintaining and sustaining a hu- 3 specificSouth Africa challenges (DRCSA) in this as ancontext. example, Us man environment.’ Sekhaulelo observed that they are confronting such issues as the rise of South Africa as a secular state, re- 2 the Dutch Reformed Churches in the South ligious pluralism, marginalization of African M. Sekhaulelo, Liberal Democracy’, ‘The Challenges HTS FacingTeolo- minorities, decline in membership giese Studies/Theological Studies 72, no. 1 commitment, a legitimacy crisis and (2016), a3031, https://doi.org/10.4102/ hts.v72i1.3031. 3 Church and State Today: What Is the Role of 1 Transparency International the Rowan Christian Williams, Citizen?’ ‘Relations (2015), address between given the Corruption Perceptions Index (2014), viewed at Manchester University, http://rowanwil- 1 ErnstApril 2015 & Young, at www.transparency.org, 9. liams.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.

Vhumani Magezi (PhD, Stellenbosch University, South Africa) is an Associate Professor in Practical The- ology at North-West University, South Africa. This article is edited from a slightly longer version that appeared as ‘Public Pastoral Care as Nexus and Opportunity for a Transformed Practical Theology within Decolonisation Discourse in South African Higher Education’, In die Skriflig 52, no. 1 (2018), a2327. https://doi. org/10.4102/ids.v52i1.2327 Doing Practical, Public Theology 313

Williams argues that Christian The days are long gone when the communities cannot opt out of pub- practices of the church and clergy lic and social issues or existing chal- were the main or the only focus of lenges, but should live out a different practical theology. The vision has identity and vision in the world. This broadened to include the context of means that churches should attend to everyday life on a local, national and issues that directly affect the life and global level. Osmer and Schweitzer progress of people, and participate in usefully explained that the task of addressing public issues such as cor- public practical theology is discerned ruption, governance and oppression. The challenge for churches to republic is one of the audiences of prac- spond to public issues is a concern for ticalin three theology; ways: first,second, ensuring ensuring that that the theological disciplines such as practi- practical theology includes everyday cal theology, public theology and pastoral care. and third, facilitating a dialogue be- It is useful to describe and distin- tweenconcerns theology and issues and in contemporary its reflection; guish these three disciplines. Practi- culture.6 In linking public theology cal theology focuses on ensuring that and pastoral care, Koppel maintained: theology is useful and relevant to Practicing public theology asks everyday concerns. Public theology that pastoral care practitioners focuses on interaction with public is- and theologians take seriously sues in contemporary society. Pasto- and engage mindfully with issues ral care is concerned with providing that concern groups of people and support to people in pain and anxiety, whole populations, rather than in- including any situation. dividual persons in isolation. Fram- Practical theology is interconnect- ing pastoral care ministries, educa- ed with public theology, as it includes 4 tion, and institutions through this a public dimension in its work. How- larger social lens helps theorists ever, as Dreyer indicates, ‘Not all prac- - tical theology is public theology, in ods and purposes for our common other words aimed at a non-ecclesial work.and practitioners7 to refine meth general audience. Practical theology is also theology for the church, that is Thus, public theology acts as a larg- for a Christian audience, and is theol- er social lens that, in the process, ogy for an academic audience.’5 should lead to framing pastoral care ministries. In practicing public pastoral care, the pastor should be ‘in- php/2009/relations-between-the-church- volved with people in and for the and-state-today-what-is-the-role-of-the- christian-citizen, 2. 4 Religious Edu- cal Studies 60, no. 3 (2014), 919. cation between Modernization and Globaliza- 6 Religious Educa- tion: R. OsmerNew Perspectives and F. Schweitzer, on the United States tion, 218. and Germany (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 7 Osmer and Schweitzer, 2003), 215. Theologies in Contexts of Difference’, Jour- 5 nal M. of S.Pastoral Koppel, Theology ‘Practicing 25, Public no. 3 Pastoral(2015), Theory for Religious Education of Secular- https://doi.org/10.1080/10649867.2015.1 Y. Dreyer,HTS ‘A PublicTeologiese Practical Studies/Theologi Theological- 123923, 151. ised Youth’, 314 Vhumani Magezi community’.8 sible public pastoral practice requires Gathogo’s argument for African negotiating complex tensions in com- Reconstruction Theology provides a munities. Thus, strategic public pas- useful connection between practical toral theology aims to foster both theology and public theology as well as between public theology and pas- global or even cosmic citizenry. toral care in Africa.9 Gathogo advised deepThe self-reflectionchallenge posed and by expansivethe shift that a theology of reconstruction in to public pastoral care is, for theol- Africa is a wakeup call to theological ogy, to effectively engage with social practitioners (theologians and church issues to participate in creating civic leaders) in Africa to pursue an agenda - that is pastorally holistic in society. sues. Therefore, Vanhoozer and Stra- The theme of shifting theology, and chanflourishing advised in additionthat the topastor spiritual should is particularly pastoral care, from pri- be a theologian by saying ‘what God vate spiritual nourishment to public is saying in Christ’. At the same time, space is gaining currency.10 Koppel reported that the 2015 Society for which means that he or she should Pastoral Theology Annual Study Con- ‘publiclyhe or she be should involved be ain public and for figure, the ference, titled ‘Practicing Public Pas- community’.13 toral Theologies in Contexts of Differ- Miller-McLemore described devel- ence’, explored scholarly and practical opments regarding the movement of dimensions for the exercise of public pastoral care to public theology as, pastoral theology.11 Lartey and Sharp added that this theme was intended mainstream Christianity on key social to encourage multiple public conver- issues,first, a and concern second, about awareness the silence of the of sation partners to whom pastoral the- limitations of pastoral focus on the ology is accountable and implicated individual alone. These factors force to engage each other in thoughtful pastoral care to focus on the whole dialogues.12 They added that respon- person and on public issues. From the developments mentioned above, the call for theology, 8 The especially pastoral care, to engage in Pastor as Public Theologian (Grand Rapids: public issues is evident. The gap in Baker Kevin Academic, J. Vanhoozer 2015), and 17. O. Strachan, pastoral care of silence on these is- 9 - sues and focusing on individuals in a struction as a Practical Theology for All’, context where challenges and needs J. Gathogo, ‘African Theology of Recon Practical Theology in South Africa 24, no. 2 exist within the public spaces is de- (2007), 99–121. plorable. As Juma states, public the- 10 - ology and Public Theology’, in E. Graham ology is about interpreting and living and See A. B.Rowlands J. Miller-McLemore, (eds.), Pathways ‘Pastoral to The the theological beliefs and values in the Public Square (London: Transaction, 2005), public realm and not only within the 95–106. church. This includes making the role, 11 12 - ing Koppel, Public Pastoral ‘Practicing’, Theologies 151. in Contexts of 9867.2015.1123504, 134. Difference’, E. Y. Lartey Journal and ofM. Pastoral A. M. Sharp, Theology ‘Practic 25, 13 Pastor as Public no. 3 (2015), https://doi.org/10.1080/1064 Theologian, 16–17. Vanhoover and Strachan, Doing Practical, Public Theology 315 function and contribution of churches struction Theology ‘is pastoral in that visible in the public sphere.14 In this it seeks to restore and address the sense, public theology is not a private challenges experienced in many Afri- theological study, but a visible evi- can communities’.17 dence of what God is doing in commu- Evident from the above discussion nities through human agents belonging to churches. Jesus highlighted the need for a theological approach that public visibility of Christian ministry advancesare the following the good challenges: of life; second, first, the by saying that no one lights a lamp need to engage and reconstruct struc- and put it under a table (Mt 5:15). tures so that people may enjoy a bet- Viewed through a public theology ter life; and third, the need for pasto- lens, pastoral care extends beyond ral care as human care that should be spiritual nourishment and narrow performed in the public space as ideal diakonia care to engaging diverse practical theology. issues affecting humanity: politics, In highlighting the contributions of leadership, corruption, injustice, etc. practical theology, Miller-McLemore It should be highlighted, as Miller- rightly stated that it has disrupted the McLemore noted, that pastoral care space occupied by academic theol- as usually understood, particularly ogy. It is about taking theology out to in the USA, narrowly focuses on hu- the streets and using what is learned man ‘angst and its appropriation of from the streets to assess the adequa- psychology, persons and pain’.15 This cy of biblical, historical and doctrinal pastoral perspective is different from claims.18 Indeed, as Gathogo states, the meaning of pastoral care in Afri- such an approach in Africa is about can Reconstruction Theology, which engaging holistically with issues to refers to the theological exercise of develop and reconstruct Africa and holistically engaging life issues such address its issues head-on. This effort as tribalism, oppression, HIV, gender calls for theology to be relevant to the and global warming. Louw advances African continent. the same notion of pastoral care as To ensure such relevance, practical holistic life care.16 African Recon- theology should be disentangled from imported agendas and approaches that mimic Western theological pro- 14 jects. This calls for a decolonization Pain and Suffering: A Proletarian Perspec- of practical theology to ensure that tive’, F. ConsensusJuma, ‘Public 36, Theologyno. 2 (2015), in the Facehttp:// of it engages with pressing public chal- scholars.wlu.ca/consensus/vol36/iss2/6, lenges for both African Christianity 13. and social development. - 15 But what is decolonization and standings about Practical Theology’, Interna- tional B. Journal J. Miller-McLemore, of Practical Theology ‘Five Misunder 16, no. 1 what are the discernible elements (2012), https://doi.org/10.1515/ijpt-2012- that require decolonization? What 0002, 17. 16 Cura Vitae: Illness and the Healing of Life in Pastoral Care and Coun- Healing (Vienna: LIT, 2014). selling D. , J.(Cape Louw, Town, Lux Verbi, 2008); D. J. 17 Louw, Wholeness in Hope Care: On Nurtur- 18 - ing the Beauty of the Human Soul in Spiritual ings’, Gathogo, 26. ‘African Theology’, 101. Miller-McLemore, ‘Five Misunderstand 316 Vhumani Magezi steps can be taken as an effort to- Wits Universities, as the students wards decolonizing theology, particu- called for a decolonization of univer- larly practical theology? sities and the curricula. The argument advanced here is Decolonization is an effort to undo that pastoral care, as a practical the- colonization. The proponents of de- ology discipline, should shift from colonization in universities argue that private care and narrow diakonia fo- universities are dominated by coloni- cus to the public domain as part of its al Eurocentric ideas, theories and ap- public function. To that end, within proaches to knowledge. Heleta argues higher education conversation on that these Eurocentric colonial ideas decolonization, practical theology should use the public pastoral care lived experiences of black students, nexus as a contextual launch pad. norand do approaches they present do African not reflect stories the in Practical theology should be critical the classrooms. Rather, they express - colonial knowledge systems designed ute to addressing Africa’s challenges. to denigrate and subjugate black peo- Weand will self-reflective look at a concrete so as toexample contrib of ple. This curriculum confronts black such efforts in South Africa. students with theories that negate their own lived experiences, dreams and aspirations.20 II. Decolonization Discussion In focusing on Eurocentric ap- at South African Universities proaches, Nyathi maintained that education is used as an instrument which started in early 2015 at the and vehicle of perpetuating coloni- UniversityThe #RhodesMustFall of Cape Town, triggered movement, a zation and colonial hegemonies.21 debate about decolonizing the aca- Maldonado-Torres added that ‘Educa- demic space and curriculum. In re- tion, including academic scholarship, sponse, the university created a task national culture, and the media are force to examine ‘all the artwork and three areas where this modern/co- photographs in public spaces across lonial attitude tends to take hold and the campus to consider and consult reproduce itself.’22 The persistence on what the university community as a whole would want to see celebrated, venerated and commemorated.19 20 One month after the beginning of Must Change What They Teach, and How (2016), S. Heleta,https://theconversation.com/de ‘Decolonisation: Academics- the movement, the statue of colonial colonisation-academics-must-change-what- they-teach-and-how-68080, 1. movement also inspired similar ef- 21 fortsfigure at Cecil the RhodesStellenbosch, was removed. Rhodes Theand The Only Way through the Process Is Togeth- er’ N.(2016), Nyathi, https://theconversation.com/‘Decolonising the Curriculum: decolonising-the-curriculum-the-only-way- 19 through-the-process-is-together-69995. Decolonisation: UCT’s Transformation Jour- 22 ney’ M. (2016), Price http://www.politicsweb.co.za/ and R. Ally, ‘The Challenge of Theses of Coloniality and Decoloniality (n.d., news-and-analysis/the-challenge-of-decolo- accessed N. Maldonado-Torres, 11 March 2017), ‘Outline http://frantz of Ten- nisation-ucts-transformation, 2. fanonfoundation-fondationfrantzfanon. com/IMG/pdf/maldonado-torres_outline_ Doing Practical, Public Theology 317 and sustaining hegemonic forces of The vividness of colonial entan- colonial tendencies and practices is glement of universities is outlined termed coloniality.23 Coloniality and by Mbembe, who explained that the decoloniality refer to the logic, meta- presence of colonial symbols that tell physics, ontology and matrix of pow- a history of black oppression suggests er created by the massive processes a celebration of that history.27 The of colonization and decolonization.24 maintenance of Eurocentric theories Hence, what is referred to as decolo- and models that hardly relate to Af- nization in this article is decoloniality. rican students’ experience is nothing In responses to the call for decolo- other than perpetuating foreignness nization of universities, some of the as well as perpetuating propagation of colonialism. Universities have be- inquiry to explore ways of address- come systems of authoritative control ingquestions colonial posed shackles reflected in the a curricula genuine through programmes, grading sys- while others masked an attitude of tems, methods of credits, acceptable resistance to change by academics. and unacceptable standards and the Heleta reported that some academics complicity of professional bodies that asked, ‘What do they [black students] accentuate modes of colonial educa- mean by decolonization? Going back tion. Mbembe therefore concluded to the Stone Age? Teaching only about that this Eurocentric tradition has become hegemonic. It also represses South Africa and Africa? Isolation anything that is articulated, thought from the rest of the world?’25 Modiri and envisioned outside those frames. maintained that these cynical queries Hence, higher education institutions by mostly white academics, demand- must undergo a process of decoloni- ing that students explain to them zation of knowledge and of the uni- what decolonization means, suggest versity institution itself. their own illiteracy about the history However, the scepticism towards and intellectual debates in their disci- 26 decolonization expressed by some plines. academics, whether black or white, should be acknowledged. Fanon is of_ten_theses-10.23.16_.pdf, 8. critical of decolonization when taken as Africanization, because it will re- 23 - ing legacy of colonialism as ‘coloniality’ to sult in merely the transferring of re- distinguish Decolonial it from scholars the actual refer rule to theof colonial endur sources from white people to black administrations (Grosfoguel 2007). middle-class people who then main- 24 - tain the unfair advantages of the colo- ity’, in Oxford Bibliographies (2011), http:// nial past. Mbembe used an example of www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/ W. Mignolo, ‘Modernity and Decolonial document/obo-9780199766581/obo- 9780199766581-0017.xml. - 25 Fh28U. 26 27academic-project-in-south-africa/#.WIcfJb and Heleta,the Rejuvenation ‘Decolonisation’, of 1.the Academic and the Question of the Archive’ (2015), Project J. Modiri, in South ‘In theAfrica’, Fall: Daily Decolonisation Maverick A. Mbembe, ‘Decolonizing Knowledge- (2016), https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/ le%20Mbembe%20-%20Decolonizing%20 opinionista/2016-10-16-in-the-fall-de- Knowledge%20and%20the%20Queshttp://wiser.wits.ac.za/system/files/Achil- colonisation-and-the-rejuvenation-of-the- tion%20of%20the%20Archive.pdf. 318 Vhumani Magezi

Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) ourselves and to other people in the in South Africa and how it has been world. He adds that decolonization used as an instrument of looting by is not an event that happens once, those in power. Therefore, using this but an ongoing process of seeing example, it would be pointless if the ourselves clearly. Ngugi Wa Thiong’o decolonization of universities focused also adds that decolonization is about on increasing the number of black re-centring ourselves intellectually academics who serve to maintain the same colonial system. Prinsloo rightly centre is which is Africa. He views de- warned that decolonizing universi- andcolonization culturally as by rejecting redefining the Westwhat asthe a ties is more than removing colonial centre of consciousness and cultural and apartheid-era symbols, increas- heritage and replacing it with Africa. ing the number of black academics However, this does not imply closing and including African texts in the cur- the doors to Europe or other tradi- riculum.28 - Fanon advised that true decoloni- tre.29 zation is about self-ownership, which tions,In butassessing rather the redefining decolonization the cen is the creation of new forms of life. discourse, at least from the perspec- This entails reshaping people and tives of Fanon and Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, turning human beings into crafts- we seem to perceive a subtle contra- men and craftswomen in reshaping diction. Ngugi Wa Thiong’o suggests matters and form. The reshaping is not closing the doors to Europe and not about mimicking or imitating yet advocating for changing the cen- the Eurocentric models, but gener- tre. Surely there cannot be two cen- ating new ones that are relevant to tres. Africa, in this case, replaces the people. It’s about ending Eurocentric West. Fanon’s notion of the creation models and starting human history of new life conjures up the notion of anew. For Fanon, decolonization is a replacing another. In light of our dis- violent phenomenon whose goal is cussion context, without experience replacing certain species of humans and lacking certainty as to how a de- by another species of humans. Vio- colonized university curriculum looks lence here does not refer to physical like, scepticism and cynicism persist. violence, but expending effort in pur- They persist partly because of resist- suing the replacement process with ant white academics, but more so as vigour. ‘New species’ refers to a new a psychological response to cope with category of men and women who cre- the fear and threat of the unknown. ate new forms of life that govern and For instance, when one considers determine new futures. Africa’s history and developments in Ngugi Wa Thiong’o views de- practical theology discussions, how colonization as a process of seeing could the notion of ‘telling African ourselves clearly in relationship to stories that are not told’ be a replacement of the historically established

28 - maniities in Decolonising the Acad- 29 Decolonising the emy’, E. H.Arts Prinsloo, and Humanities ‘The Role ofin theHigher Hu Mind: The Politics of Language in African Education 15, no. 1 (2016), https://doi. Literature Ngugi Wa(Harare: Thiong’o, Zimbabwe Publishing org/10.1177/1474022215613608, 165. House, 1981). Doing Practical, Public Theology 319 theories in practical theology? Thus, of self-reliance in the pursuit of confusion and darkness arise when self-determination. For example, one tries to imagine a decolonized if the future society were to de- practical theology in the South Afri- cide to weigh up whether to na- can academy. To complicate the issue tionalise access and production of further, how can physics and mathe- its resources, would engineering matics be decolonized? Is translating schools be prepared to foster grad- content into IsiXhosa or IsiZulu suf- or are our existing curricula and of the complexity of other disciplines educationaluates who couldsystems fulfil built this on task, the ficientthat Prinsloo decolonization? suggested Itthat is becausethe hu- assumption that reliance on exter- manities are better placed to lead the nal expertise will be provided, thus discussion. However, Kamanzi reject- rendering, to some extent, self- ed the notion that some disciplines determination a perpetually risky are more suited for decolonization decision?30 than others. He provided an argument from the natural sciences, his Kamanzi’s argument dispels blockage own discipline, which is worth citing of imagination, uncritical thinking at length: and biased ways of exploring decolonization of the current universities’ The discipline of Electrical Engi- systems. It discourages lazy academ- neering itself comes into being ics who do not want to renew, reform through a professionalisation of or engage with fresh contextual reali- branches of applied physics and ties. mathematics as means to further Modiri rightly argued that the develop technology harnessing cynicism towards decolonization of the phenomena of energy, electric- universities partly arises from ‘self- ity and electromagnetic waves. In induced blockage of mind’ by some the early South African context, academics who have limited exposure the major economic drivers in the to the history and intellectual debates early stages of these departments in their discipline. And if an academic would have been the generation and distribution of electrical en- is characterized by such illiteracy and ergy, mining technology and mili- ignorance, we dare ask: Is that indi- tary applications. All of these ele- vidual worth a university tenure or ments that shaped this emerging appointment? The answer is no in- discipline are evidently not apo- sofar as universities are considered a litical and formed as a response, to some extent, to the social, political development of new modes of think- and economic projects of the time. ingplace and of knowledge.critical discussion, reflection, The pursuit then of a decolonized The argument thus far has high- curriculum in this context must respond to the constraints of the - existing economy and state pres- 30 lum: The Silent War for Tomorrow’, Daily sures and answer fundamental Maverick B. Kamanzi, (2016), ‘Decolonising https://www.dailymaver the Curricu- questions around the ‘role of the ick.co.za/opinionista/2016-04-28-decolo- engineer’ in the existing and future nising-the-curriculum-the-silent-war-for- society in relation to the project

tomorrow/#.WHjKWo0aKUk. 320 Vhumani Magezi lighted four issues: (1) the existence and Africa, there is a risk of academ- of colonial hegemonic shackles in South African universities, (2) the counterproductive. For instance, how proposed ways of doing decoloniza- iccan reflection a white academic paralysis thatteach could the sci be- tion according to Fanon and Ngugi Wa ence of tokoloshi or witchcraft, which Thiong’o, (3) the cynicism encoun- is a totally different worldview? tered in pursuing decolonization, and It is because of the reality of this (4) the possibility of decolonization threat to a productive university in all disciplines. The vexing question decolonization process that many in decolonization, however, is: How scholars advise that decolonization can it be done? of curricula is more than increasing While this question cannot be black lecturers, assigning more black simplistically answered, some sug- African authors or even having more gestions can be made. Nyathi main- dialogues about African stuff. It is also tained that the decolonization project not about creating universities that should not focus on what needs to be are disengaged globally, but being taken away. He added that decoloni- global producers of knowledge. The zation should strive for the best of knowledge should be relevant locally both worlds, not an either-or situa- (in South Africa), continentally (Af- tion. He stated that ‘if there is use- rica) and globally (the entire world). ful African knowledge then I want it, Some lessons (both positive and and if Western scientists have a cure negative) to avoid devastating failures for cancer I also want it’.31 This pro- can be learnt from Kenya and East Af- posal by Nyathi seems simplistic and rica, where decolonization started in yet lays down an important principle, the 1960s. For instance, Tanzania has namely that decolonization should made considerable progress in using move to a common ground on which Swahili as the language of instruction ideas and knowledge can be built. at the university level. Thus, decoloni- Nyathi’s proposal, however, pre- zation in an academic environment is sumes that academics are open, willing and comfortable about seam- and a new mind-set. lessly embracing the two epistemo- in theAs afirst way place forward, a paradigmatic in view of issue the logical sources, whereas experience indicates the contrary. Heleta noted academics, the following propos- that university curricula are largely staffingals have situationbeen suggested: with many (1) review white steeped in Eurocentric modes that and revamp content that is currently are dominated by white people. being taught by questioning its rel- Therefore, from a position of genuine evance to African contextual realities; innocence, how could such academ- (2) challenge academics’ negative at- ics effectively and meaningfully par- titude towards Africa and encourage ticipate in decolonization? With some self-introspection (soul searching) re- white academics’ limitations as to garding their allegiance, commitment their understanding of black people and attitude to African knowledge; (3) include substantially useful and relevant readings about Africa; (4) 31 encourage academics to be informed 1–2. on African issues and challenge them Nyathi, ‘Decolonising the Curriculum’, Doing Practical, Public Theology 321 to develop relevant theories.32 These ducing subjects. This recognition of starting points for decolonizing uni- the present academic model and its versities are not a one-time event, but shortcomings should lead to concrete an ongoing process of engagement steps that contribute to the desired that challenges African academics improvements. These two steps will and students to engage consciously inform the next two sections, which with contextual realities. This should focus on practical theology in light of result in producing truly African aca- the decolonization discussion and the demics and scholars in African ‘pots’. proposed shifts towards the attain- In view of the preceding discus- ment of decolonized practical theol- sion, how is decolonization relevant ogy. Thus, the next two sections avoid

Dreyer, citing other scholars such decolonization as a metaphor when it toas Miller-McLemore, practical theological noted reflection? that, al- iswhat a practical Tuck and reality. Yang Hence, called practical treating though practical theology has spread steps should be encouraged in practi- to many other parts of the world from cal theology for renewal and refocus- its origins in Europe and USA, it is still ing.34 very much tied to its European past. He added that a quick glance at the Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Practi- III. Reflections on Practical cal Theology or at the membership list of the International Academy of Prac- Theology within the Decolonization Discussion this domination.33 The epistemolo- What are some of the issues to con- gies,tical Theologyontologies (IAPT)and methodologies will confirm sider in decolonization of practical of practical theologians in the South- theology? Miller-McLemore usefully ern contexts are mostly absent from describes practical theology as refer- ‘international’ practical theological ring to four distinct enterprises with books such as Wiley-Blackwell. different audiences or objectives. She In response to the question on states that practical theology is practical theology and decolonization, [a] discipline among scholars and Mbembe proposed two steps in what an activity of faith among believ- he called decolonization in the future ers. And it has two other common uses: it is a method for studying the current situation with a critique theology in practice and it is a cur- tense.of dominant The first Eurocentric step is to approachacademic ricular area of subdisciplines in the models that do not fully acknowledge seminary. Practical theology refers other thinking and knowledge-pro- to an activity of believers seeking

32 - the everyday life, a method or way colonising Knowledge’, 1–4. ofto sustainanalyzing a life theology of reflective in practice faith in 33 Heleta, ‘Decolonisation’, 1; Mbembe, ‘De used by religious leaders and by Call for the Decolonisation of Higher Edu- J. S. Dreyer, ‘Practical Theology and the- posals’, HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological 34 Studiescation in 73, South no. 4 Africa: (2017), Reflections a4805, https://doi. and Pro Not a Metaphor’, Decolonisation: Indigeneity, org/10.4102/hts.v73i4.4805, 3. Education E. Tuck & and Society K. W. 1, Yang, no. 1 ‘Decolonisation (2012), 1–40. Is 322 Vhumani Magezi

teachers and students across the addressing issues of ‘the good of the theological curriculum, a curricu- human race’.36 lar area in theological education To that end, Berinyuu argued that focused on ministerial practice the current theologies in Africa are inadequate to address African chal- academic discipline pursued by a lenges such as dictators, political and andsmaller subspecialties, subset of scholars and, finally, to sup an- 37 This gap in engaging contemporary chal- enterprises.35 ethniclenges in conflicts African and public violence. theology has Miller-McLemoreport and sustain notes these that first threeeach resulted in the birth of African Re- of the aspects of practical theology construction Theology. Gathogo en- points to different locations—that is, capsulates the mission of pursuing from daily life to the library, and from what is good in Africa as developing a theology of reconstruction to rebuild and community, academic guild and (address) the various challenges. The fieldworkglobal context. to classroom, These aspects congregation are con- agenda of reconstruction is a shift nected and interdependent. from the agenda of liberation theolo- Although Miller-McLemore’s over- view as quoted above is insightful, Nehemiah with his agenda of rebuild- her further comments about practical inggy, withJerusalem Moses inas ruins.its central In Nehemiah figure, to theology are central to our decolo- 2, Nehemiah assessed the situation nization discussion. She adds that of Jerusalem’s ruins and developed a plan to address the situation. Gathogo constitutes theological knowledge or and Mugambi therefore argued that practicalwisdom and theology seeks theology redefines for what the masses. It explores the dissonance holistic engagement with various Af- between professed beliefs and lived ricanthe Nehemiah issues such figure as bad should governance, inspire realities in a critical manner. corruption and destructive spiritual- Congruence on the goal of practi- ties that are dubbed ‘Sanballats’ and cal theology and decolonization of - universities’ discourse can be clearly ing.38 discerned. Decolonization of univer- ‘Tobiahs’However, that Africanhinder humanReconstruction flourish sities is about creating schools that Theology as driven by Nehemiah’s are relevant to African people’s needs hermeneutic prism has its weak- and aspirations in order to respond to nesses. It tends to simplistically draw national and continental needs (within a global context). This is about producing academic products that serve 36 and State Today’, 2–4. the masses. Converging with this goal 37 Williams, ‘Relations between the Church is practical theology seen as theologi- in Africa: Trends and Challenges’, in E. Gra- cal knowledge and wisdom for the ham A. and A. A. Berinyuu, Rowlands ‘Doing (eds.), Public Pathways Theology to the - Public Square (London: Transaction, 2005), ology that engages and contributes to 155–56. masses also. It is reflecting about the 38 - struction’; J. N. K. Mugambi, From Liberation 35 - to Reconstruction: Gathogo, ‘African African Theology Christian of Theology Recon ings’, 20. after the Cold War (Nairobi: EAEP, 1995). Miller-McLemore, ‘Five Misunderstand Doing Practical, Public Theology 323 on one paradigm, namely Nehemiah’s should address? leadership and the rebuilding of Je- Practical theology in South Africa rusalem, as a paradigm for an overall is evidently enmeshed in Eurocentric solution to complex problems.39 The paradigms and transformation has strength of this theological approach been slow. It is unlikely that one will is, nonetheless, its focus on not blam- attempt to write a practical theology ing colonialism for every African thesis or dissertation without being problem and focusing on solutions. It - emphasises the task of ‘constructing mer, Ricoeur, Fowler, Gerkin, Heitink, new ways of doing things’ as a motif. Browning,influenced Van by scholarsder Ven, such Schweiter, as Os Reconstruction theology seems to Kumlehn, Gadamer, Poling, Bass or provide a perspective for engaging Anderson. Transformation in practi- in a decolonized practical theology. cal theology has been led by students Therefore, practical theology, as a thewho have been questioning Eurocen- ology of action, should ‘imagine and tric epistemological foundations.41 explore ways’ of doing responsible re- The irony is that theological students construction theology that addresses and academics are comfortable with public issues in a relevant manner, writing dissertations in practical the- which entails a decolonized practical ology or a discipline such as pastoral theology.40 care in Africa without engaging with How can practical theology in African scholars such as Mugam- South African universities contrib- bi, Njiroge, Kinoti, Gathogo, Getui, ute to this decolonization mission? Maluleke and Bediako. What are the colonial shackles that it How many practical theology academics at our South African universities strive to forge partnerships with 39 colleagues in the USA, Canada, Ger- discussion which is not the focus of this arti- many, the UK and the Netherlands, cle. This Here, point I will warrantssimply note a separate that many detailed other just to mention a few countries? And perspectives in biblical literature could be employed to address different situations, as colleague from the West to collabo- an alternative to presenting Nehemiah as a ratewhen with, academics they succeedtreasure in it finding greatly. a ‘silver bullet paradigm’. My point is that, if practical theology 40 Opening the Field of Practical Theology: An Introduction K. A. Cahalan and G. S. Mikoski (eds.),- - Cura Vitae, 17; V. Ma- nialreflection hegemonic is not framework self-reflective tends and to (New York: Rowman & Little bereflexive, the natural operating norm. within Dreyer a main colo- Towardsfield, 2014), Discerning 3; Louw, Emerging Pragmatic tained that it is critical for academics Pastoralgezi, ‘Reflection Ministerial on Responses’, Pastoral Care In die in Skriflig Africa: 50, no. 1 (2016), https://doi.org/10.4102/ ids.v50i1.2130, 6; P. Bowers, ‘Christian In- aboutto be reflexiveourselves in their(who research.we are) Thisand tellectual Responsibilities in Modern Africa’, Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 28 ourreflexivity positionalities entails within being the conscious process (2009): 96–100; C. L. Bruyns, ‘The Rebirth of conducting research, academic and of Kairos Theology and Its Implications for knowledge production. Public Theology and Citizenship in South Africa’, Missionalia 43, no. 3 (2015): 460, https://doi.org/10.7832/43-3-131. 41

Dreyer, ‘Practical Theology’, 4–6. 324 Vhumani Magezi

The above point can be extrapo- The low collaboration of South lated to probe the extent to which African practical theologians in re- South African academics are disposed search or publications with other to develop links and networks as a African countries is not unique to proxy for fostering a strong and deep the theology discipline. The Centre African appreciation through collabo- for Higher Education Transformation rating with other African universi- (CHET) observed that ‘while univer- ties, e.g. in the humanities disciplines. sity networks have emerged in most How many practical theologians in continents around the world, until South African universities have se- now no special network of research riously explored partnerships with (intensive) universities has been es- theological scholars in neighbouring tablished in Africa.'43 The main rea- African countries such as Botswana, son cited for non-participation is the Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Kenya or Ni- highly uneven development of scien- geria? The response is likely to be ‘not many’, although some initiatives have Africa, with a strong concentration of been forged. These include collabora- academictific research output conducted in three throughout countries: tive initiatives such as the Network South Africa, Nigeria and Egypt. Evi- for African Congregational Theology dently, there seems to be little effort (NetACT) at Stellenbosch University, in enforcing African epistemologi- Circle of Concerned African Women cal foundations that are pertinent in Theologians, Pan African Network developing a decolonized African HIV and AIDS (PACANET), African knowledge. Network for Higher Education and This state of poor engagement with Research HIV and AIDS (ANHERTHA) other African scholars, while focus- and many others being forged by ing on partnering with Western col- South African academics with institu- leagues, suggests an unconsciousness tions such as Tumaini University Ma- by academics regarding their deeply kumira (in Tanzania), Uganda Chris- rooted Western inclination. This in- tian University, and the Ethiopian dicates a self-sustaining system of Graduate School of Theology. colonial hegemonic knowledge sys- Another notable collaboration is tems, including practical theology, by the establishment of a pastoral care academics. This hegemonic situation journal, The Pastoral Journal for Life is self-perpetuating unless there is re- Care and Spiritual Healing, to publish 44 research from Africa and South Amer- of their positionality of power. Not- ica.42 These initiatives indicate efforts flexivity and academics are conscious to forge collaborations, but they still 43 - need to develop and be more popu- mation, ‘African League of Research Univer- larized, which will happen with time. sities’, Centre 2013, for Higher Education Transfor While these efforts are commendable, Cloete%20and%20Maassen%202013%20 they are in early stages. League%20of%2.https://www.chet.org.za/…/ 44 on Researcher Identity and Power: The 42 Impact M. Muhammadof Positionality et al.,on Community ‘Reflections are not meant to be exhaustive but illustra- Based Participatory Research (CBPR) tive. The indicated collaborative initiatives Processes and Outcomes’, Critical Soci- Doing Practical, Public Theology 325 ing the general superiority of South pastoral care agenda was followed African universities because they by publications dealing with broad produce the bulk of African research, African issues by scholars such as one can extrapolate that South Afri- Mugambi, Gathogo, Nwachuku46 and can academic colonial hegemonies others. This reconstruction agenda tend to be also sustained by universi- persists to this day among members ties through viewing people with re- from that era such as Mugambi, Tutu, search partners in Western countries Kinoti and Gathogo. as having important collaborations While the elements that require while being lukewarm to collabora- decolonization of practical theology tions with African partnerships. such as celebrating Western collabo- In a previous article, after survey- ration, prescribed books, analytical ing the terrain of pastoral care in Africa, I stated that African pastoral the challenge lies in outlining how a care is fragmented and by implica- decolonizedframeworks practical and staffing theology are looks clear, tion lacks a clear organizing centre. like. This takes us to our next section. Although this argument makes sense, there is indeed arguably an organizing centre on pastoral care in Africa, IV. Pointers for Decolonizing focusing on reconstruction in ad- Practical Theology dition to what Masamba ma Mpolo The question of a decolonized practi- called homo africanus principles— - that is, the sanctity of life, the relation cult to describe and outline its tenets. between illness, misfortune and sin, Whatcal theology does a is decolonized a vexing one. South It is diffiAfri- spirits and ancestors in the life of the can practical theology look like? Goto community, and life experienced as a - whole.45 ing theologies that bear geographical Holistic pastoral care was inaugu- connotationshighlighted the such difficulty as African in articulat practical rated in 1990 when Bishop Desmond theology, Asian practical theology and Tutu was the president of the All Af- others. He argues that such theologies rican Conference of Churches (AACC). This holistic, reconstruction-oriented are difficult to articulate, because the 46 - ology 41, no. 7–8 (2015), https://doi. nally authored in 1991 and 2000) can be org/10.1177/0896920513516025, 1045– found Daisy as Daisy Nwachuku’s N. Nwachuku, contributions ‘The Situation (origi 63. of Women in Africa in the Process of Adjust- 45 ment and Change’, in K. Federschmidt, K. 3–4; see Masamba ma Mpolo, ‘Spirituality Temme and H. Weiss (eds.), Voices from Af- and Magezi, Counselling ‘Reflection for Liberation: on Pastoral The Context Care’, rica on Pastoral Care: Contributions in Inter- and Praxis of African Pastoral Activities and national Seminars 1988–2008 (Dusseldorf, Psychology’, in K. Federschmidt, K. Temme & Germany: Society for Intercultural Pastoral H. Weiss (eds.), Voices from Africa on Pastoral Care and Counselling, 2008), 35–52, www1. Care: Contributions in International Seminars ekir.de/sipcc/downloads/IPCC-020-txt.pdf, 1988–2008 (Dusseldorf, Germany: Society and ‘Creating Communities through Pastoral for Intercultural Pastoral Care and Coun- Care and Counselling in the Fragmentations selling, 2008), 7–18, www1.ekir.de/sipcc/ of Urban African Life’, 97–106 in the same downloads/IPCC-020-txt.pdf. volume. 326 Vhumani Magezi geographical people are not homog- cal theology should include the fol- enous. For instance, one cannot speak lowing features: of homogenous Africa. Despite this 1. It should seriously engage its context, resulting in transfor- points worth adapting in guiding our mation. The opposite of trans- difficulty,discussion Gotoof a decolonized offered three practical useful formation is maintenance of theology.47 the colonial hegemonic status First, practical theology should quo. A decolonized practical theology should embrace a manner that results in transforma- engagetion. For in instance, theological in reflectionour South inAf a- and transformation of the rican context, an engaged practical missionvarious aspects of ongoing of humanity reflection theology should result in engaging and the discipline itself (self- the colonial structures and its remnants as well as oppressive systems. 2. Practical theology should en- Second, practical theology should reflective).gage with scholarship in South make use of scholars in their con- Africa and the African context. text. This means practical theology This includes critical engage- in South Africa should use South Afri- ment with both assigned read- can and other African scholars’ theo- ing materials and people’s ex- ries. The scholars do not need to be periences. 3. Practical theology should paradigmatic approach and mind-set draw its paradigms and mod- blackthat promote students, epistemologies but should reflect and re a- els from people’s wisdom and paradigms. This entails pursu- contemporary issues. For instance, ing a theological approach that flectionan academic approaches could juxtapose that engage the with ap- draws from African experienc- proaches of Paul Ricoeur or Jurgen es. This can be explored as a Habermas with African thoughts way of bringing together three and draw conclusions as to how one epistemological spheres: the- could do practical theology that in- ological traditions, historical tegrate their thoughts with African Western approaches, and Afri- frameworks. Third, practical theology can wisdom and experiences. knowledge and wisdom should be de- 4. Practical theology should be rived from the people’s wisdom and self-critical of its centre and experiences. epistemological sources. It should ask questions about articulating a decolonized practical its motivations, agenda and theology,In view the of following the fluidity pointers involved that in contributions (re-centring, build on Goto can be suggested as a - starting point. A decolonized practi- ity and academics’ conscious- newness life).of their This positionalityentails reflexiv of power, resulting in intentional 47 - ogies’, in K. A. Cahalan & G. S. Mikoski (eds.), pursuit of agendas based on Opening C. Goto, Up ‘Asianthe Field American of Practical Practical Theology Theol pressing challenges. 5. Practical theology should 34–37. view itself as in continuous (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), Doing Practical, Public Theology 327

reformation and transformation. It is a process, not an remain neither explored nor aca- event, which should enable it anddemically theoretical considered reflection in a systematic but which to engage with issues on an manner. Therefore, he hesitatingly ongoing basis. stated that this situation has caused To provide a complete picture of the - possibilities and constraints of de- 48 colonization of practical theology, the a deficiencyGifford’s concernin African was theological echoed reby above proposed elements should be oneflection. black African academic in a cas- viewed in light of the persisting chal- ual conversation at a conference. He lenges. These challenges are stumps quipped: in the pathway. If you try to publish on a subject or anything with foundations in West- ern thinking your work will hardly V. Stumps in the Path to the get published. The critique will be Decolonization of Practical harsh. Therefore, to overcome this Theology hurdle I publish on African issues only. For instance, white people I take the metaphor of a stump to don’t have experience in witchcraft refer to an obstruction on the path so they can’t reject my work. to reaching your destination. These stumps destruct and divert. They are This statement implies that publish- countering threats. The proposals ing is controlled and guarded by for a decolonized practical theology white people who could use their po- would be incomplete without high- sitions to exclude black people, and lighting these countering forces or hence one should bust the system. threats. Unfortunately, these coun- The above statement resonates with tering forces are the ‘elephant in the what Senokoane referred to as ‘insti- room’ for practical theology in the tutional racism, otherwise known as 49 South African academy—that is, the white ethics’, which positions itself problem or risk that no one wants to as a standard or norm in the institu- discuss. I suggest the following three tion and at the same time places itself forces for consideration. as the only good while other experiences and knowledge are bad and do focus on black African issues and the not meet the standard. The destruc- threatThe offirst compromised is the tension academic between rig a- tive effect of this situation, perceived our. Whether perceived or real, there or real, is, if not managed, that unpol- are observable elements of tension ished research gets published by a that exist between African scholars weakened review system. It should be noted that some black scholarship as evidenced by publi- academics tackle African contextual cations.and the fluidGifford unwritten observed standards that, in anin effort to achieve quick publications, 48 - some unpolished papers get pub- ogy: Observations of an Outsider’, Hekima lished by the mushrooming number Review P. Gifford, 38 (2008), ‘Africa’s 31–33. Inculturation Theol of publishers. This has resulted in 49 critical issues that require in-depth UNISA’, Scriptura 114, no. 1 (2015), 1. T. Senokoane, ‘A White Mist in the Black 328 Vhumani Magezi issues that have limited prior pub- a colonial hegemonic structure that lished research for benchmarking.50 requires decolonization or is it lead- This challenge tends to be coming to quality, focused scholarship? pounded by weak academic language The answer seems to lie somewhere - in the middle.52 Dreyer and Pandey tion, I suggest strong mentoring and and Pattnaik contended that the en- proficiency.coaching of young In view developing of this African situa tire research ecosystem should be scholars by senior black academics scrutinized, because it consists of and white academics. Surely univer- human capital (e.g. the researchers), sities should live up to their status of governance capital (e.g. the research generating knowledge, new theories policies), physical capital (e.g. the re- and robust scholarship. The practical search equipment or facilities), intel- theologians, regardless of their race, lectual capital (such as knowledge, who evade the quality control and - research output gatekeepers (pub- nancial capital (e.g. research grants lishers, reviewers and editors) seen informationand funding). and All these ideas) systems and lastly could fi - and who thus become gateways for tices (coloniality) and structures that asthe stifling production certain poor types practicalof knowledge the- easilyshould reflectbe changed. colonial53 residual prac ology research are deplorable and Third, there is a trend of targeting should be condemned.51 This stands international knowledge consumers against the spirit of genuine decolo- and downplaying African people’s nization and generation of knowledge issues. Academics are pressured to that can be exported globally. publish internationally, which means Second, there is pressure from focusing on global issues, and yet the South Africa’s National Research issues relate to a particular context. Foundation rating system to focus The idea that scholars are assessed one’s research and yet African chal- by the impact of their work suggests lenges are broad and holistic. Is NRF that they should situate themselves globally, and yet people based in, say, - 50 terested in studies of an African rural tapping on this practical knowledge of peo- Newcommunity. York or This Berlin means will hardlyby targeting be in ple Dreyer, on the ground ‘Practical that Theology’, usually does 5 proposes not get published. international audience you may have to ignore local relevance to ensure 51 and poor research being published, see global relevance. Thus local targeting J. ForKastrenakes, examples ‘Sham of fakeScience: peer Fake review Re- and international targeting remains a search Paper Accepted by Over 100 Jour- nals’ (2013), https://www.theverge. com/2013/10/3/4798840/fake-research- 52 paper-exposes-poor-standards-open-ac- Rating’, http://www.nrf.ac.za/rating, for a cess-journals; C. Seife, ‘Science’s Big Scandal: discussion See National of its purposes Research and Foundation, process. ‘NRF Even Legitimate Publishers Are Faking Peer 53 - Review’, Slate, 1 April 2015, http://www. dey and P. N. Pattnaik, ‘University Research slate.com/articles/health_and_science/sci- Ecosystem: Dreyer, ‘PracticalA Conceptual Theology’, Understanding’, 5; S. C. Pan Review of Economic and Business Studies 8, journals_publish_fraudulent_plagiarized_or_ no. 1 (2015): 172, https://doi.org/10.1515/ nonsense.html.ence/2015/04/fake_peer_review_scientific_ rebs-2016-0021. Doing Practical, Public Theology 329 tension for decolonization of scholar- practical theology is equally faced ship. with the same challenge. Far from being a simplistic project, decolonization requires serious discipline VI. Conclusion This article has discussed practical theology within South Africa’s discus- introspection,are conscious of academic their positionality reflection sion of the decolonization of universi- thatwithin is reflexive,the remnants and academicsof the colonial who ty curricula. It highlighted the need for power matrix. This process is a jour- practical theology and pastoral care ney, an ongoing experimentation with to increasingly assume a public role. new ways of generating knowledge. Importantly, however, decoloniza- In South Africa, this public role entails tion entails an intentional process of developing a theology that genuinely doing theology on a plane with three engages with contemporary issues. interlocking interfaces: theology and To that end, reconstruction theology its traditions, Western historical par- provides a useful nexus. However, for adigms through which theology has practical theology to effectively per- been done thus far, and African wis- form a reconstructive role, it should dom and knowledge. From this per- be practical and relevant to its con- spective, practical theology becomes text. Relevance, among other things, an open process of learning, unlearn- entails shaking off colonial shackles; ing and re-learning in the space of that is, it requires decolonization. practical life where people yearn for As discussions of decolonizing disentanglement from colonial hang- universities brews in South Africa, over. ERT (2019) 43:4, 330-344 Resistance to Japanese Nationalism: Christian Responses to Proposed Constitutional Amendments in Japan

Surya Harefa Although constitutional amendments and societal groups see a threat of are not uncommon in democratic fascist nationalism behind some of countries, the present Constitution of the amendment efforts and have thus strongly opposed them. Nota- been amended since it took effect in ble evangelical Christians have been Japan1947. 1 (NihonkokuAmendments Kenpō) have been has never pro- among these opponents, even though posed, but they have never gained the Japanese Christians are frequently consensus required for passage. described as tending to withdraw Since its establishment in 1955, from political engagement.2 the current ruling party, the Liberal In this paper, after explaining the Democratic Party (LDP), has pro- LDP’s efforts to amend the present pounded the view that the present constitution, I describe and evaluate - the responses of evangelical Chris- nese values, because it was drafted by constitutionAmericans and does imposed not reflecton Japan Japa by to draft amendments that the LDP the Allied occupation government of tians. I focus specifically on responses 1945–1952. They also insist that revisions are necessary to address new 2 - challenges facing Japan, especially tics in Japan’, in Handbook of Christianity with regard to the right of having a in M. Japan William, ed. Mark Steele, R. ‘ChristianityMullins (Leiden: and Brill, Poli self-defence force. 2003), 360–61, 364; Shinohara Motoaki, However, several other parties ‘The Church as God’s Missionary Commu- nity: Towards an Evangelical Missional Ec- clesiology with Implications for the Japanese Church’ (PhD diss., Trinity Evangelical Divin- 1 ity School, 2012), 176–77, 249–51; Furuya - amendments For example, in since 1951, the 1961, end of1964, the Second 1967, maranainoka’ (Why Does Christianity Not 1971World and War, 1992; the France United has State amended has ratifiedits con- ProsperYasuo, ‘Naze in Japan?), Nihon NiNihon Kirisutokyo No Shingaku Wa Hiro (Ja- stitution twenty-four times. pan’s Theology) 53 (2014): 167–71.

Surya Harefa (MA, Theological University of Kampen) is a PhD student at the Theological University in Kampen, the Netherlands. His research focus is on the ecclesiology of Abraham Kuyper and its potential to equip Japanese Christians for political engagement. Prior to coming to Kampen, he studied at Tokyo Christian Theological Seminary as well as International Reformed Evangelical Seminary in Jakarta, and he also served as pastor at the Indonesian Interdenominational Evangelical Church in Japan. Resistance to Japanese Nationalism 331 released in 2012. My analysis en- General Douglas MacArthur (1880– who have disseminated their work by1964), Matsumoto the Supreme Jōji in CommanderFebruary 1946, for compassesthrough the several major prominent evangelical figures pub- the Allied Powers (SCAP) in Japan, lisher Inochi no Kotobasha.3 I con- presented an alternative draft within clude by arguing that the ecclesiology less than a week. This draft, prepared of Abraham Kuyper provides useful by two Americans, was implemented direction for Christians in Japan as with only minor revisions. they pursue continue their engage- Matsumoto’s draft sought to main- ment with this and other issues retain the prescriptions of the 1889 lated to nationalism. Constitution of the Empire of Great Japan (Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kenpō),5 - I. Movements to Amend the ereign and the Japanese people as Japanese Constitution whichhis subjects. identified In contrast, the emperor MacArthur’s as sov In December 2018, Prime Minister draft established the Japanese peo- 4 declared his determina- ple as the sovereign and the emperor tion to see the Japanese constitution only as a symbol of the nation. Thus, amendedAbe Shinzō by 2020. He argued that re- from the perspective of supporters of vising the present constitution would the 1889 Constitution, the American restore Japan to its glory days. This draft and the new constitution were declaration by Abe was not new, as ‘new and bad’ and not based on the he had made similar statements on ‘old and good’ Japanese values. More- several previous occasions. During over, the SCAP’s Civil Censorship De- his 2012 campaign, for example, Abe tachment (CCD), which exerted pre- used the slogan ‘Taking Back Japan’ publication censorship over about (Nippon wo Torimodosu) and pro- seventy daily newspapers, all books moted constitutional revision as an and magazines, and many other pub- important plank in the LDP platform. lications, reinforced the sense of co- To the LDP, the present constitution ercion. is a foreign imposition. After its sur- When Japan regained its sover- render in 1945, Japan was occupied eignty in 1952, this narrative of coer- by the Allied occupation government cion soon surfaced. Ever since its for- until 1952. After rejecting a draft con- mation in 1955, the LDP has always stitution written by a Japanese com- included revising the constitution mittee of constitutional scholars led on its political agenda. For the LDP, amending the present constitution ‘will unshackle the country from the 3 system established during the oc- denominations in Japan, selecting thinkers published Since there by Inochi are numerousno Kotobasha evangelical ensures that the people examined have attained fair- 5 ly broad recognition in Japanese evangelical Meiji Constitution (Meiji Kenpō) or the Old circles. Constitution This document (Kyū Kenpōwas also). Its known contents as theare 4 available at www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/ - etc/j02.html (Japanese version) or www.ndl. ever, I use for theEnglish Japanese literature style written of writing by one’sJapa- go.jp/constitution/e/etc/c02.html (English nese,first name I use thefollowing Western the style. family name. How version). 332 Surya Harefa cupation and make a truly sovereign making it easier to amend the consti- state’.6 tution. The draft also inserted clauses In recent years, the LDP has taken regarding the emperor as the head of - state and the familial responsibility alizing its amendment agenda. Fol- for ensuring a healthy economic situ- several significant steps towards re ation.8 draft of proposed amendments, in These proposed amendments were lowing2007, the the party release, succeeded in 2005, in of gaining a first released a little more than a year after approval of an act stipulating pro- the great triple disaster (earthquake, cedures to amend the constitution tsunami and nuclear reactor acci- - dent) that Japan sustained in March 2011. During the intervening year, all (Nihonkokuhouses of the Kenpō Japanese no KaiseiDiet. The Tetsut act of Japan had been preoccupied with zukiwas legally ni kansuru necessary Hōritsu) because from hith both- relief and recovery activities. In view erto there had been no practical law of this fact, the LDP’s ongoing work on that indicated how the constitution should be amended. Although the change the constitution. LDP lost to the Democratic Party of amendmentsIn December shows 2012, its firm the resolve LDP re to- Japan (DPJ) in the 2009 general elec- gained a majority in the House of Rep- tion, it did not give up this effort; on resentatives and became the ruling the contrary, it released a Draft for the party again. Following this success, Amendment of the Constitution of Ja- the party also won a majority of seats in the House of Councillors in July on 27 April 2012. 2013. These electoral results have panBoasting (Nihonkoku that its Kenpō amendment Kaisei Sōan)com- given the LDP a greater probability of mittee had reviewed and revised winning approval from the Diet for its all articles of the present constitu- proposals, thus increasing the likeli- tion, this conservative political party hood of constitutional amendments. claimed that it was presenting ‘a draft of a revised constitution appropri- ate to the times and circumstances of II. Responses by Japanese Japan’.7 The proposed revisions were substantial. Along with suggested Christians changes in the preamble, the LDP offered eleven new chapters and 110 from Christians when the LDP pub- articles to replace the ten chapters Therelished wasits 2012 no significantdraft amendments. response and 103 articles of the present consti- Not only was the country heavily fo- tution. It prescribed new provisions cused on recovering from the great governing such matters as the nation- disaster, but also, the LDP was not the ruling party at that time. defence, emergency declarations and In contrast, a sense of crisis al flag and anthem, the right of self- emerged as the 2012 general election approached. On one hand, many Japa- 6 - nese realized that the DPJ could not manage the government better than Party), ‘LDP 7 Announces May 2012, awww.jimin.jp/english/ New Draft Constitu news/117099.html.tion for Japan’, Jimintō (Liberal Democratic 7 8

‘LDP Announces a New Draft.’ ‘LDP Announces a New Draft.’ Resistance to Japanese Nationalism 333 the LDP. On the other hand, they saw The Christian Newspaper (Kurisu- that Abe, who had suddenly resigned chan Shinbun) also began to highlight as Prime Minister in September 2007, the constitutional amendment issue seemed to have been reborn as a promising leader since winning the from 14 April to 13 October 2013.11 post of LDP president in September Thewith Social a series Committee of twenty-five of the articles, Japan 2012. Evangelical Alliance (Nihon Fukuin In this context, some Christians started to raise concerns about the meeting. The Christian Student Fel- presence of nationalist tendencies in lowshipDōmei) hosted(Kirisuto-sha an emergency Gakusei-kai) prayer the LDP under Abe’s leadership.9 For held a prayer meeting titled ‘Confess- example, the chairperson of the Japan ing Hope’. And in August 2013, the Baptist Convention (Nihon Baputesu- Church and State Committee of Japan to Renmei) sent a special message Alliance Christ Church held a special reminding Christians to exercise their prayer meeting at Nakano Church, To- voting rights and to pray earnestly, as called for in 1 Timothy 2:1, because Japanese Christians’ main con- a movement to change Japan funda- cernskyo with were fifty topeople preserve participating. Article 9, mentally was afoot. Three days before the election, the JBC held a voluntary provisions related to the freedom of ‘Emergency Prayer Meeting Due to religion.known as Article Japan’s 9 describespacifist article, Japan asand a Concerns about the Circumstances peaceful country without any right to of Constitutional Amendments’ (Kai- wage war, as follows (emphasis added to show differences): - erationken Jōsei held wo Ureua similar Kinkyū event Kitōkai) in the in Tokyo. After the New Year, the fed Several events held by Christians or amendment of Articles 96 (on the rules for ChristianKyūshū region. organizations during 2013 amending the constitution) and 9. On 23 further raised the awareness of an June 2013, the Wind of Fraternity Peace impending crisis. The Christian Year- University Research Institute co-hosted a book (Kirisuto-kyō Nenkan) reported dialogue(Yūai heiwa meeting no kaze) on the and form Aoyama of the Gakuinnation, four events related to this issue.10 attended by 90 persons including both of revisionists and advocates of the present constitution. Finally, the Christian Newspaper 9 and the Christ Newspaper (Kirisuto Shinbun) Asaoka Masaru et al., Kurisuchan Toshite held an emergency symposium titled ‘Where “Kenpō” Neda wo Shōichi, Kangaeru ‘Maegaki’ (Thinking (Foreword), about the in Will This Country Go?’ at Meiji Gakuin Uni- Constitution as Christian), Kurisuchan Shin- versity, Tokyo. About 150 participants at- bun (Christian Newspaper) (Tokyo: Inochi tended this symposium. Since the number no Kotobasha, 2013), 3. in attendance was greater than the meeting 10 room’s capacity, it appears that the response Should Christians Do Regarding the Amend- to the symposium exceeded the host’s expec- ments?’ On 27at MayKeisen 2013, Baptist a seminar Church called in Tokyo, ‘What held by the JBC, was attended by 60 persons. ed., Kirisutokyō Nenkan 2014 - booktations. 2014) See Kirisutokyō(Tokyo: Kirisuto Nenkan Shinbun-sha, Hensyūbu, Christian, Buddhist, and Shinto backgrounds 2014), 10–16. (Christian Year releasedOn 29 May a joint 2013, statement 50 religious on opposing figures from the 11

Neda, ‘Maegaki’, 4–5. 334 Surya Harefa

Current constitution: tention to the effort to revise Article 1. Aspiring sincerely to an 20, although the mass media pay less international peace based attention to this issue than to Article on justice and order, the 9. Following are the current text and Japanese people forever re- the proposed revision (emphasis add- nounce war as a sovereign ed to show differences): right of the nation and the Current constitution: threat or use of force as 1. Freedom of religion is guar- means of settling interna- anteed to all. No religious tional disputes. organization shall receive 2. In order to accomplish any privileges from the the aim of the preceding State, nor exercise any politi- paragraph, land, sea, and cal authority. air forces, as well as other 2. No person shall be com- war potential, will never be pelled to take part in any re- maintained. The right of ligious act, celebration, rite belligerency of the state will or practice. not be recognized. 3. The State and its organs Draft amendment: shall refrain from religious 1. Aspiring sincerely to an in- education or any other reli- ternational peace based on gious activity. justice and order, the Japa- Draft amendment: nese people renounce war 1. Freedom of religion is guar- as a sovereign right of the anteed. The State shall not nation and will not employ grant privileges to any reli- the threat and use of force gious organization. as a means of settling inter- 2. No person shall be com- national disputes. pelled to take part in any re- 2. The provisions of the pre- ligious act, celebration, rite ceding paragraph shall not or practice. prevent the exercise of the 3. The State, local govern- right to self-defence. ments and other public en- Under the present constitution, if a tities shall refrain from par- dispute occurs, Japan must seek to re- ticular religious education solve it by means other than military and other religious activi- action. The second clause reinforces ties. However, this provision shall not apply to activities the nation’s right to maintain military that do not exceed the scope forces.this pacifist However, commitment the draft by rejectingamend- of social rituals or customary practices. and weakens that clause’s meaning The draft amendment omits the byment introducing omits ‘forever’ a new in thesentence first clause concerning the right of self-defence. It weakens the prohibition regarding also removes the statement abolish- wordsreligious ‘to all’organization in the first clause.by omitting It also ing all national forces. ‘nor exercise any political authority’ Christians have also paid close at-

in the first clause, and it weakens the Resistance to Japanese Nationalism 335 third clause by excluding religious ac- preserve Article 9. rituals or customary practices’. Based hasWatanabe called on articulates Christians an to essential fight to tivitieson this thatwording, can be it classified is plausible as ‘social that principle for Japanese Christians en- the government could treat worship gaging in the public square. He be- at shrines as merely social rituals in- lieves that Article 9 is consistent with stead of religious acts. biblical principles. However, he em- Long before the release of the phasizes that his public advocacy is 2012 draft amendments, several Jap- not based on the idea that this article anese Christians had been involved was in accordance with the teachings in initiating movements to preserve of the Bible.13 Rather, the struggle is Article 9 and protest against alleged violations of this article, as well as to not only for Christians who believe in protect freedom of religion and sepa- justifiedthe Bible becausebut also thisfor non-Christians. article is true, ration between religion and state.12 He suggests focusing on the fact that if - countries do not give up their right to ing a lawsuit when the government establish military forces and to wage Forused example, public funds they participatedto pay a contribu in fil- war, humanity will eventually destroy tion for rituals at a Shinto shrine and itself.14 when the prime minister worshipped Watanabe has criticized political at a shrine, not as a private individual leaders as lacking ideologies and be- but in his function as prime minister. liefs that would equip them to resist We will now consider how several war. In Watanabe’s view, those leaders also failed to understand the prin- the issue of constitutional amend- ciple of the separation of religion and evangelicalments and howfigures they have have engaged attempted with state. He points out that religion is to encourage other Christians to over- often used to justify war. For him, become their tendency to withdraw hind the attempt to revise Article 20 from political involvement. lies a desire among members of the present government to utilize religion 1. Watanabe Nobuo Watanabe Nobuo (b. 1923) is a pastor 13 at the Tokyo Confession Church of the - Japan Christ Church denomination, ticle Watanabe 9), 31 October Nobuo, 2005, ‘Kenpō http://tokyokoku Kyū-jō no- Seishin-teki Shichū’ (Mental Support of Ar which is Presbyterian in orientation. hakuchurch.world.coocan.jp/kouen/ken- npoukyuujounoseishinntekisityuu.html. He holds a doctorate in the ecclesi- 14 - ology of John Calvin from Kyoto Uni- vinists support just wars, Watanabe sup- versity. Watanabe has been involved It is interesting that although most Cal- in the movement to defend Article 9 since the 1950s. In his seminars, he Japaneseports pacifism. imperial Drawing navy, he on states his deeplythat Chris im- tianspactful should war experienceresist war absolutely. as an officer Christians in the must be willing to endure injustice rather 12 Kenpō kyūjō no sengoshi (Postwar History of Article 9) (To- not mean a passive attitude because Chris- kyo: See Iwanami Tanaka Shoten, Nobumasa, 2005), 118–19, 149. tiansthan must fight withalso workviolence. actively For to him, create this peace. does Examples of Christians involved in this way include Ishitani Susumu and Ono Michio. strong support among Japanese Christians. Overall, it seems that pacifism has unusually 336 Surya Harefa to make mobilization for war easier. own purposes.17 Building nuclear and other high-tech weapons, Watanabe argues, endangers not only Japan’s thatA firmthe churchbeliever must in the not separation intervene of enemies but also Japan as the maker inchurch matters and under state, the Watanabe jurisdiction affirms of and the user of the weapons them- the state. However, the church may selves. Article 9 shows the path to- ask the state to repent, especially in wards growth for a country that has an emergency situation like this one, begun to be destroyed by this military where the state is violating the reli- modernization. For these reasons, he gious sphere for the sake of a politi- calls on Christians to defend Article 9. cal agenda. He also contends that the The strong point in Watanabe’s failure of Japanese churches to resist argument is his personal experience the government during the imperi- of war, which caused him to study alist and fascist periods was closely the ecclesiology of John Calvin. Since related to their vague understanding most of today’s Japanese Christians of faith.15 Therefore, he suggests that have no war experience, Watanabe Christians clarify their understand- stories about the horror of war. This stand up for what they believe in their canfeature influence makes themhis arguments with his real-lifepersua- heart.ing so16 as to have the confidence to sive as well as solidly grounded in Watanabe states that Christians Christian thought. must understand and identify the real Through his explanations of the - right of resistance, Watanabe has ways detrimental to both the attacker - andbeneficiaries the attacked, of war.but the Any arms war indus is al- cal Christian engagement with the contributedthreat of Japanese significantly nationalism. to evangeli He revise Article 9, he sees people who has also been a source of inspiration aretry profits.trying to Behind take theadvantage LDP effort of the to for Asaoka Masaru (b. 1968), another opportunity to manufacture and sell Japanese Christian who has engaged high-technology military weapons. actively with this issue.18 However, Although many believe that those seeking to remove Article 9 are right- wing politicians, Watanabe believes 17 that representatives of the weapons Constitution Watanabe by Nobuo, a War ‘SensōSurvivor), Seikan-sha 12 August no industry (heiki sangyō) are using the 2004,Heiwa Kenpōhttp://tokyokokuhakuchurch.world. Yōgo-ron’ (Advocacy of Peace power of the political right for their coocan.jp/kouen/kouen29.html. 18

15 Asaoka is a pastor of Japan Alliance Daini no Haisen: 3.11 kara Miete kita Mono’ respondedChrist Church to the (Nihonsituation Dōmeiin a unique Kirisuto way. (The Watanabe First War-Defeat Nobuo, ‘Daiichiand the noSecond Haisen War- to HeKyōdan) considers in Tokumaruthis political district, development Tokyo. as He a Defeat: Things That Are Seen from 3/11), ‘situation of confessing faith’ similar to what in Higashinihon Daishinsai kara Towareru German Christians experienced in 1933. On Nihon no Kyōkai (Questioning the Japanese 18 December 2012, he launched a Facebook Church after the Great East Japan Disaster), group called ‘We Believe and Confess’ as a forum to share information and arguments no Kotobasha, 2013), 30, 33. among Christians who have a similar view of 16ed. Shinshū Kaki Senkyō Kōza (Tokyo: Inochi the crisis.

Watanabe, ‘Daiichi no Haisen’, 17. Resistance to Japanese Nationalism 337 with regard to the proposed amend- him, the current constitution is not ments, Watanabe’s focus has been an imposed constitution. Before its limited to Articles 9 and 20. The next promulgation and coming into effect, the constitution went through sev- to address other articles as well. eral democratic processes such as the figure we will examine has attempted elections of House of Representatives and House of Councilors members, 2. Nishikawa Shigenori which enabled the Japanese people Nishikawa (b. 1927) is a Christian to express their will.21 Nishikawa also journalist active in both church minis- shows that the content of the cur- try and political issues, such as Abe’s rent constitution was not necessarily unknown to the Japanese people. Shrine. He served for a long time as In 1880, long before the Allied Oc- controversialan elder at Tokyo visit Church, to the in Yasukuni the Re- cupation period, a group of Japanese formed Church in Japan, and received civil-rights activists led by Chiba the title of ‘Honorary Elder’. Nishikawa adopted a unique ap- proposed a draft constitution simi- proach to the constitutional situa- larTakusaburō in some ways in Itsukaichi, to the constitution Tokyo had tion, attending and listening to all proposed by the occupation govern- the meetings of the National Diet’s ment.22 Considering these historical Constitution Investigation Committee facts, Nishikawa urges Christians to (Kenpō chōsa-kai), which lasted for study history and recognize how the Japanese government during its Great 2005.19 Japan Imperial period (1864–1945) fiveAlthough years from he Januaryis not a2000 law toexpert, April denied freedom of religion by sup- he has held a series of lectures on porting the emperor system and the constitution and has published state Shintoism. The government op- a book that explains the meaning pressed Christianity and Buddhism of each of its articles.20 He indicates and compelled worship at Shinto several problems in contemporary Japanese politicians’ approach to the Shrine.23 It also infringed on the free- amendment issue. Although his en- shrines,doms of assembly particularly and association, the Yasukuni as gagement is broader, like Watanabe well as freedom of the press, by glori- he emphasizes the importance of Ar- fying war. ticles 9 and 20. As Nishikawa explains, although Nishikawa refutes the LDP’s narrative regarding the importance of revising the current constitution. For 21 Watashitachi no Kenpō, 112- 13. General elections for the House of Repre- sentatives Nishikawa, were held on 10 April 1946 (seven 19 Watashitachi no months before the promulgation of the con- Kenpō: Zenbun kara Dai 103-jō made (Our stitution) and 25 April 1947 (one month Constitution: Nishikawa Preamble Shigenori, to Article 103) (To- before the constitution coming into effect); kyo: Inochi no Kotobasha, 2005), 3. the election for the House of Councillors was 20 held on 20 April 1947. deals with the draft amendments of 2005, 22 Watashitachi no Kenpō, 50– but This the arguments work was are published valid for in evaluating 2005 and 51. the draft of 2012 as well. 23 Nishikawa, Watashitachi no Kenpō, 29.

Nishikawa, 338 Surya Harefa the Meiji Constitution of 1868 guar- As a law professor, however, he anteed freedom of religion and ex- goes further, criticizing the 2012 pression, the Japanese violated this draft amendments as a destruction of principle ‘for the sake of the emperor the constitutional system. As the rul- and the country’.24 In his view, studying party, he observes, the LDP is part ing history, and in particular what of the government. Therefore, the the Japanese imperial army did to LDP politicians bear a duty to respect Asian countries, will help Japanese and defend the existing constitution, Christians to understand the dangers which guarantees individual rights posed by and the false claims of the and limits the power of the govern- Japanese government. This aware- ment. However, the LDP is trying to ness of history will also increase Japa- revise precisely the constitutional nese Christians’ involvement in politi- sections that limit the government. cal issues.25 Sasakawa also highlights a prob- Nishikawa’s dedication in attend- lem in how the LDP draft addressing all the meetings of the National es the emperor system. The draft Diet’s Constitution Investigation amendments do not return to the Committee is unique. On one hand, it imperial system as in the Meiji era, enables him to offer a lively report on which made the emperor the ruler in attempts to amend the constitution in - the National Diet. It also strengthens tion of 1868, the LDP draft restricts his arguments. On the other hand, it allthe fields.emperor Unlike from thehaving Meiji a role Constitu in the - political arena. However, this restric- tinue his approach. tion is not consistently observed. The is difficult for other Christians to con draft gives the emperor the status of - 3. Sasakawa Norikatsu ment in government organizations Sasakawa Norikatsu (b. 1940) is a head(tōchi of soshiki state ).and Here affirms also, histhere involve is no former law professor at Meiji Univer- sity. In 2015, Sasakawa published an of the emperor’s role.27 Rather, these academic article based on a seminar specificprovisions limitation give an onopening the expansion for the he delivered on 15 October 2013 for government to exert its power more the Nationwide Pastors’ Meeting of freely.28 The LDP differs from the 1947 Church (the same Presbyterian de- constitution with regard to its un- Japannomination Christ as Churchthat of Watanabe in the Ōmori No- derstanding of the terms of popular buo). Like Watanabe and Nishikawa, Sasakawa also opposes the revision of current preamble clearly denies any 26 Article 9. sovereignty.power and authority The first outside sentence the of con the- stitutional system: 24 Watashitachi no Kenpō, 30. We, the Japanese people, acting 25 Watashitachi no Kenpō, 29. through our duly elected repre- 26 Nishikawa, Nishikawa, ni Sokushite’ Sasakawa (Analysis Norikatsu, of LDP’s ‘Jimintō Amendment “Kenpō (March 2015): 57. Draft:Kaisei Focusing Sōan” no Mainly Bunseki: on the Omoni Emperor Ten’nōsei Sys- 27 tem), Hōritsu Ronsō (Law Journal) 87, no. 6 28 Sasakawa, ‘Jimintō Kenpō Kaisei’, 88. Sasakawa, ‘Jimintō Kenpō Kaisei’, 58, 88. Resistance to Japanese Nationalism 339

sentatives in the National Diet, of state and religion, thus paving the determined that we shall secure way for the prime minister, cabinet for ourselves and our posterity members, and parliament members the fruits of peaceful cooperation - with all nations and the blessings ni temples and Gokoku shrines.31 of liberty throughout this land, and to performSasakawa public warns worship that atthe Yasuku 2012 resolved that never again shall we draft amendments, if enacted, may be visited with the horrors of war severely affect Christians in Japan. Al- through the action of government, though no articles limit the church’s do proclaim that sovereign power functioning directly, history suggests resides with the people and do that the emperor system, with its - The proposed new preamble re- ni and Gokoku shrines, would have placesfirmly those establish sentiments this Constitution. with the fol- negativepublic worship consequences. rituals at It the would Yasuku re- lowing: inforce a tendency to consider faith as an internal matter only.32 It would Japan is a nation with a long his- also result in many collisions between tory and unique culture, receiv- government policy and the beliefs of ing the Emperor as the symbol of Christians, who regard worshipping the unity of the people, governed at shrines as idolatry.33 based on the separation of the leg- As a law professor, Sasakawa has islative, administrative and judicial dedicated his expertise to the issues powers subject to the sovereignty raised by proposed constitutional of the people. revisions. He has dealt bravely and The amendment text, rather than candidly with the sensitive problems recognizing the Japanese people as of the emperor system and clearly re- sovereign, declares that the nation vealed the undertone of nationalism ‘receiv[es] the Emperor’ (Ten’nō wo that pervades the amendments. How- itadaku) regardless of any consent by ever, like Watanabe and Nishikawa, the people.29 In this way, the LDP draft he has not offered a solution to this undermines the conception that the state belongs to the people.30 whom we will examine has tried to Sasakawa also criticizes the ten- suggestdeadlock. some The solutions. fourth and final figure dency of the draft amendments to limit freedom of thought and conscience 4. Inagaki Hisakazu and anthem, its establishment of an Inagaki Hisakazu (b. 1947) is a mem- imperialin its statements calendar on system the national based flagon ber of Japan’s Christian Reformed the year of the emperor’s reign, and Church and a professor of Christian its positing of concerns for ‘public philosophy at Tokyo Christian Uni- versity, the country’s most prominent freedom. He adds that the draft un- evangelical institute of theological derminesbenefits and the public principle order’ of asseparation limits on

31 29 32 30 33 Sasakawa, ‘Jimintō Kenpō Kaisei’, 89. Sasakawa, ‘Jimintō Kenpō Kaisei’, 76. Sasakawa, ‘Jimintō Kenpō Kaisei’, 90. Sasakawa, ‘Jimintō Kenpō Kaisei’, 95. Sasakawa, ‘Jimintō Kenpō Kaisei’, 91. 340 Surya Harefa education. Similar to Nishikawa and peting worldviews and evaluate the Sasakawa, he views the amendment appropriateness of proposed amend- movement as an attempt to make ments based on that investigation. Inagaki seeks not only to preserve constitutional and to allow the gov- the existing constitution but also to ernmentpublic worship to oppress at the thoseYasukuni who shrine have apply its provisions thoughtfully.36 He different opinions or positions by us- does not settle for indicating the danger of the term ‘public interest and and public order’. By reviving the em- public order’ in the 2012 LDP draft peroring the system, justification he believes, of ‘public the interestgovern- but also contrasts it with the concept ment is trying to foster nationalism of ‘public welfare’ in the current Ar- and thus make it easier to mobilize ticles 12 and 13 (which prescribe the Japanese people.34 responsibility in using guaranteed - freedom) and Article 29 (which au- ures discussed above in his approach. thorizes property rights). Here are He Inagakiaddresses goes the further indifference than of the evan fig- the relevant passages (emphasis add- gelical Christians toward the amended): ment issue as well as other intercon- Article 12. The freedoms and nected matters of nationalism. For rights guaranteed to the people him, the reason for this indifference by this Constitution shall be main- is the lack of a properly conceived, tained by the constant endeavor of robust Christian worldview, without the people, who shall refrain from which Christians do not have a prop- any abuse of these freedoms and er interest in social engagement and rights and shall always be respon- - sible for utilizing them for the pub- plicated terrain such as the question lic welfare. ofare constitutional not equipped amendments. to fight on a comThis theme requires an understanding of Draft amendment: history, ideology, politics, economy, The freedoms and rights guaran- society and religion.35 Since a particu- teed to the people by this Consti- lar worldview undergirds any con- tution shall be maintained by the stitution as well as the amendment constant endeavor of the people. thereof, with a concept of a Christian The people shall refrain from any abuse of these freedoms and rights, shall be aware of the fact that there deeperworldview to investigate one can not implicit only fight com at- are responsibilities and duties that the superficial level but can also go accompany these freedoms and rights, and shall not infringe the 34 Kaiken Mondai to public interest and public order. Kirisutokyō (The Problem of Constitution- al InagakiAmendment Hisakazu, and Christianity) (Tokyo: Article 13. All of the people shall Kyobunkwan, 2014), 51. be respected as individuals. Their 35 Kaiken Mondai, 8. See also Ina- right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness shall, to the ex- no Inagaki,Nihon Shingaku no Saihensei’ (Reor- tent that it does not interfere with ganizationgaki Hisakazu, of Theology ‘Kirisutokyō from Sekaikan a Christian kara Worldview), Kirisuto to Sekai (Christ and the World) 24 (March 2014): 140–44. 36 Kaiken Mondai, 9, 29–30, 32.

Inagaki, Resistance to Japanese Nationalism 341

the public welfare, be the supreme situation, Inagaki proposes to make consideration in legislation and in positive use of the concept of public other governmental affairs. welfare, which is repeated several times in the current constitution. He Draft amendment: calls this direction the new public- All of the people shall be respected ness (kōkyōsei) or citizen’s publicness as persons. Their right to life, lib- (shimin no kōkyō). erty, and the pursuit of happiness After criticizing the weakness shall, to the extent that it does not of Japanese churches in engaging interfere with the public interest with this concept of public welfare, and public order, be the supreme Inagaki encourages them to draw on consideration in legislation and in their considerable capacity to lead other governmental affairs. and to become role models for the Article 29. (2) Property rights shall wider Japanese society in carrying out public welfare.38 He encourages with the public welfare. Christians to cooperate with non- be defined by law, in conformity Christians towards this end, drawing Draft amendment: on the doctrines of common grace, sphere sovereignty, and the church by law, in conformity with the as an organism as articulated by the publicProperty interest rights and shall public be order. defined In Dutch theologian and political leader this case, with regard to intellec- Abraham Kuyper. tual property rights, consideration Inagaki believes that creating a civ- shall be given for contributing to il society in this way can help Japanese the improvement of the intellec- people to solve many socio-political tual creativity of the people. problems, including the problem of The draft proposes to change the nationalism.39 His suggestion has at- terms ‘public welfare’ (kōkyō no fuku- tracted support from several scholars shi) in the above three articles to ‘pub- in the social welfare arena and several lic interest and public order’ (kōeki labour unions. This is a very interest- oyobi kō no chitsujo). Inagaki warns ing movement because most of the that the term ‘public’ (kō) in the draft people showing interest in Inagaki’s amendment appears to denote the thinking are not Christians. government, whereas the meaning of With this Kuyperian approach, Ina- ‘public’ (kōkyō) in the current consti- gaki attempts to broaden the political tution is broader, including the whole engagement of Japanese evangelical society.37 Hence, under the proposed Christians. He encourages them not amendment, it is the government, not just to protest against threatening public interest and public order. This 38 Kaiken Mondai, 45–47. Inagaki understandingthe society, that ofhas ‘public’ the right could to define lead elaborates that the insertion of ‘family re- to an authoritarian government, as sponsibility’ Inagaki, in the 2012 draft was intended happened in the Great Japan Imperial to shift the responsibility for welfare from period. Rather than going back to that the state to the family. He also emphasizes the importance of freedom of association for creating citizen awareness (pp. 30, 32, 44). 37 Kaiken Mondai, 30. 39 Kaiken Mondai, 33–34.

Inagaki, Inagaki, 342 Surya Harefa actions by the government, but also their usual inclination to withdraw to be a showcase for the government from political engagement, Christians with regard to creating a better soci- have generated various movements ety based on the public welfare con- and arguments in response to the cept. Although he calls his own approach public philosophy, Christians discussed in this paper have applied in Western contexts may classify it amendmenttheir differing issue. talents—as The four figurespastor, within the realm of public theology or journalist, law professor and philoso- political theology. phy professor—to engage actively with this issue and raise the awareness of many evangelical Christians III. Evaluation of Japanese regarding the potential danger of the Responses nationalism present in the efforts to amend the constitution. As we have seen, behind the amend- Since the question of what to do ment movement there is a nation- with the proposed amendments has alistic agenda. The proposed draft remained deadlocked, Inagaki’s ap- amendments of 2012 display similar- proach deserves special attention. As ities to the condition of Japan during we have seen, the LDP has envisioned its Great Imperial era, when the na- amending the constitution since 1955. tion made rapid progress in the tech- On one hand, the right-wing conserv- nological and military realms. In that time period, Japan could motivate cit- revisionists (kaiken-ha); on the other izens to die for their country and was ativeshand, theirfirmly opponents hold to their remain position guard as- thus able to achieve major victories in ians (goken-ha) of the existing constitution. As Japanese evangelical Chris- and Russia. tians continue their protests against conflictsHowever, with the other current Asian constitution countries the amendment movement, they un- prohibits Japan from having a mili- doubtedly strengthen the guardian tary force. It also prescribes the prin- camp. However, it is also clear that ciple of freedom of religion as well as mere opposition would not produce a separation between religion and the way out of the deadlock. state. These principles make it more From this point of view, Inagaki’s - desire to utilize the current constitu- lize people by using religious narra- tion (katsuken) in a positive way, to difficulttives, as forit did the during government its imperialistic to mobi help in building Japanese civil soci- period. Therefore, the politically con- ety, hints at a third-way solution. At servative camp is attempting to re- least for the guardian camp, this idea vise the constitution partly to return provides another way of engagement Japan to its glory days. besides merely protesting against the The responses of Japanese evan- revisionist camp. If one considers gelical Christians to this return to mil- itaristic nationalism are admirable. Despite their small numbers40 and book 2016) (Tokyo: Kirisuto Shinbun-sha, 2015), 7. Whereas the whole population in Japan is 126,163,576, the number of Protes- 40 tants in Japan is given as 416,672, or about Kirisutokyō Nenkan 2016 - 0.33 percent of the total. Kirisutokyō Nenkan Hensyūbu, ed., (Christian Year Resistance to Japanese Nationalism 343 protest as a negative action, then de- understanding is exacerbated by the veloping a civil society based on the lack of Christian worldview thinking concept of public welfare can be seen as noted by Inagaki. Hence, equipping as a positive action. In fact, as noted Japanese evangelical Christians to de- above, Inagaki’s ideas have won sup- velop effective forms of Christian en- port from the social-welfare and la- gagement is necessary. bour communities. If this movement For that purpose, implementing could actually yield visible positive the ecclesiological suggestions of results in Japanese society, it is not in- conceivable that the revisionist camp As we have seen, Inagaki proposes the would reconsider its currently articu- Kuyperconcepts may of the contribute Christian significantly. worldview, lated intention to change the term common grace, sphere sovereignty ‘public welfare’ to ‘public interest and and the church as an organism. All public order’. these Kuyperian concepts are interre- If we compare the attendance at lated and rooted in his ecclesiology.42 events related to the constitutional Kuyper distinguishes the church into amendments with other Christian two interrelated aspects, organism events, one can see that the passion and institution.43 Whereas the former for this issue among Japanese evan- refers to the mystical body of Christ gelical Christians remains quite mod- that unites all believers from all over est.41 Clearly, a large portion of the the world and all periods of time, the evangelical community has not yet latter denotes a human organization become interested in the topic. As Ni- for implementing the preaching of shikawa has pointed out, this lack of God’s Word and administering the interest may relate to the limited his- sacraments. The institution nurtures tory education that Japanese students believers so that they can bring light receive. The Japanese government out to those outside the institution. does not provide history textbooks These gathering and sending func- that explain honestly what the impe- tions should exist together and con- rial army did to other Asian countries tinuously.44 Kuyper’s ecclesiological during the era of the Great Japan Em- pire. This lack of proper historical 42 Going Dutch in the Mod- ern Age: Abraham Kuyper’s Struggle for a Free 41 Church John in H. the Wood, Netherlands Jr., Kirisutokyō Nenkan 2014, 14–15. For ex- University Press, 2013), 174; James D. Bratt, ample, Cf. there Kirisutokyō were 280 Nenkan participants Hensyūbu, at the Abraham Kuyper: Modern (NewCalvinist, York: Christian Oxford commemoration seminar of 450 years of Democrat (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2013), the Heidelberg Catechism on 30 September 172. 2013 and 150 persons at the church hall 43 dedication ceremony of Fujimi Church in To- (1870), in On the Church, ed. John H. Wood, kyo on 27 October 2013. The contrast is even Jr. Abrahamand Andrew Kuyper, M. McGinnis, ‘Rooted and trans. Grounded’ Nelson greater if we compare to the Christmas din- D. Kloosterman et al. (Bellingham: Lexham, ner held by the International VIP Club at Ho- 2016), 54–57; Abraham Kuyper, Lectures on tel New Otani Tokyo on 26 November 2013, Calvinism (1931; rpt. Grand Rapids: Eerd- with 300 participants, or the ceremony for mans, 1999), 59–62. the hundredth anniversary of Sophia Univer- 44 - sity on 1 November 2013, which had 4,200 ham Kuyper’s Ecclesiology in the Twenty- people in attendance. First Ad Century’, de Bruijne, Journal ‘“Colony for Markets of Heaven”: and Moral Abra- understanding could guide evangeli- portance of the church remaining cal Christians to overcome their ten- free from the state. With the slogan dency to withdraw from political en- of ‘a free church in a free state’, he gagement without becoming like the suggests that the institutional church liberal camp, which, from an evangeli- must avoid both intervening in and cal perspective, has actively engaged believes that the best way for both the with socio-political issues but at the beingchurch influenced and the state by the to state.prosper Kuyper is to cost of neglecting matters of faith. let both detach from and respect each Kuyper also emphasizes the im- other. This principle might help evangelical churches to keep themselves from the pitfall they experienced dur- ity 17, no. 2 (2014): 464–65; Ad de Bruijne, ing the imperialist period, when they ‘Not without the Church as Institute: The Relevance of Abraham Kuyper’s Ecclesiol- ogy for Christian Public and Theological Re- by the Japanese state. Moreover, it sponsibilities in the Twenty-First Century’, in letmight themselves be a guide be to unduly help influencedother reli- The Kuyper Center Review, vol. 5: Church and gious organizations in Japan, includ- Academy, ed. Gordon Graham (Grand Rapids: ing Shinto shrines, to pursue their Eerdmans, 2015), 77–78; Michael R. Wagen- existence as distinct from the state. man, ‘Abraham Kuyper and the Church: From Hopefully, Kuyper’s understanding Calvin to the Neo-Calvinists’, in On Kuyper: A could even encourage the Japanese Collection of Readings on the Life, Work and state not to abuse any religion but Legacy of Abraham Kuyper, ed. Steve Bishop to remain separate from and respect and John H. Kok (Sioux Center, IA: Dordt Col- lege Press, 2013), 137. every religion, including Shintoism. ERT (2019) 43:4, 345-358 Influence of the Bible on Care for Creation: Insight from the Indian Context

Samuel Richmond Saxena

The Bible’s incredible impact in alism seriously and the missionaries - who helped in nation building; (3) tics, art, science, technology and oth- the contribution of missionaries and theer areas fields of of human health, endeavour education, is poliwell other Christians in sowing the seeds known globally. Christian institutions of ecological consciousness; (4) how in India are the result of the same the ‘new humanity’ in Christ teaches source of inspiration, and their grad- us to use, maintain and preserve the uates have contributed immensely to environment collectively. the making of modern India. Caring for creation, as an important part of social responsibility, is one of those I. Religious Indictments of contributions. Both West and East Environmental concern in India Many intellectuals, including some had its nineteenth-century roots in Christians, have a gross misconcep- the Commons Preservation Society, tion that the present environmental Royal Society for the Protection of crisis is supported by biblical texts. Birds, Garden City Movement, and Scholars such as Roderick Nash, Ru- Forestry Commission, among other dolf C. Heredia, Lynn White and Max groups that sought to resist industri- Nicholson are in this group.1 alization, deforestation, and urbani- zation. Even though some accuse the Judeo-Christian tradition of encour- aging neglect of the environment, in 1 The Rights of Na- actuality Scripture has strongly in- ture: A History of Environmental Ethics (Mad- ison: Roderick University Nash, of author Wisconsin of Press, 1989), has stated that ‘Christianity has done too lit- and theologians to speak and act on tle to discourage and too much to encourage fluencedbehalf of care authors, for creation. writers, scientists the exploitation of nature.’ Rudolf C. Heredia, This paper will highlight (1) the in ‘Ethics and Ecology: Towards an Ecologi- accusation that Christianity pro- cal Ethic—Religious and Secular Perspec- motes ecological crises; (2) the role tives’, New Frontiers in Education 18, no. 3 of Indian Christians who took nation- (1988): 1, emphasized that Christianity has

Samuel Richmond Saxena (PhD, Sam Higginbottom‘paved University) the isway University for the tremendousChaplain and Headscientific of the Department of Advanced Theological Studies, Faculty of Theology, Sam Higginbottom University of Agri- culture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad, India. A member of the World Evangelical Alliance Theologi- cal Commission, he is the author of Contemporary Issues in Science and Theology (2018). 346 Samuel Richmond Saxena

White, a medieval historian, in a man. He concluded that as long as our paper delivered to the American As- science and technology are tinctured sociation for the Advancement of with orthodox Christian arrogance, Science in 1966, contended that the there would be no solution.4 roots of the ecological crisis lie in White became an icon in the world of environmental protection. In the in Western Christianity’s anthropo- - centrismreligious cosmology,and instrumentalist and specifically view tion of White’s essay, Christian eco- of nature. ‘Especially in its Western theologiesfifty years have since robustly the initial responded publica form, Christianity is the most anthro- to it. Nearly every book on the rela- pocentric religion the world has seen’, tion of Christianity to its environment White stated. According to White, refers to White’s thesis, and most Christianity insists that ‘it is God’s introduce their argument as an ex- will that man exploits nature for his plicit response to it.5 Francis Schaef- proper ends.’ The Genesis story, in fer in Pollution and the Death of Man which God created Adam in His im- (1970) was probably the earliest to age, paved the way for humans to de- defend Christianity against White. In stroy nature by giving them the domi- the following year, Richard Wright nance over God’s creation, which has published a response to Lynn White’s resulted in environmental destruc- article in Bioscience, titled ‘Responsi- tion and crisis.2 bility for the Ecological Crisis’. Furthermore, White argued, linear India is among the twelve mega- thought within Christianity teaches biodiversity countries of the world and is home to numerous species of glorious purpose of God’s creation, plants and animals which collectively andthat that humankind therefore wasnon-human the final nature and form 8 percent of the world’s diver- was created for the sole purpose of sity of life.6 Its total land area of 329 humanity’s use and development.3 million hectares is a gorgeous land- White maintained that our environ- scape.7 In the last few decades, how- mental problems would persist and ever, India has suffered from serious even worsen until we reject the Chris- environmental problems.8 Indian tian axiom that nature exists to serve

4 and technological advancement’ rather than Ruether, Christianity and Ecology (Cam- promoting care for creation. Lynn White, bridge, Dieter MA: T. Harvard Hessel andUniversity Rosemary Press, Radford 2000), a historian from the University of Califor- 497. nia, published ‘The Historical Roots of Our 5 Ecological Crisis’, Science 155, no. 3767 (10 Ethics and Environmental Problems’, Journal March 1967). See also Max Nicholson, The of Willis Religious Jenkins, Ethics ‘After, 37, no. Lynn 2 (2009): White: Religious 285. Environmental Revolution (London: Hodder 6 - & Stoughton, 1970), 265, and in general, O. hairs’, Science Reporter (November 2006): P. Dwivedi, World Religions and the Environ- 11. Brij Kishor Gupta, ‘Wildlife in the Cross ment (New Delhi: Gitanjali, 1989), 38–39. 7 Encyclopedia of Environ- 2 ment: Environment Problems and Policies 3 - (New K. R. Delhi: Gupta Atlantic (ed.), Distribution, 2005), 39. enant, White, and ‘Historical Nature’, Baptistic Roots’, 1205. Theologies 8, no. 8 1 See(2016), Annette 63–67. Mosher, ‘Christianity, Cov Control of Grass and Fodder Resources in Sumit Guha, ‘A Historical Study of the Influence of the Bible on Care for Creation 347 culture is dominated by Hinduism. Modern industrialization, with its at- consuming the forest. As the forest titude that nature is a vast store of re- ofbegins fire, to who burn, satisfies the forest his hungercreatures, by sources to be exploited for economic including naga (snakes, usually co- - 11 ronmentally sound cultures that ex- The Ganges River, considered the istedprofit, in has pre-modern overtaken India. the more In spite envi of holiestbras), flee river the by flames. ancient Hindu texts, is the prevalence of strong pantheism, facing severe crises. In spite of several animals are being mistreated,9 rivers warnings from various government worshipped as goddesses are being authorities, this goddess has become polluted, and trees thought to be the a dumping site for industrial wastes, abode of deities are being destroyed. idols made of clay and heavy metals, According to Vishal Mangalwadi, ‘The and dead bodies. The rivers that are environmental mess in India, which supposed to purify human beings is far worse than in the industrialized physically, morally, and ritually are West, is a clear indication that the said to be on the receiving end of ad- worship of nature damages creation harma, unrighteous behaviour. more than do our attempts to manage Among animals, the cow especially it.’ 10 serves for Hindus as a sacred symbol It is believed that the ancient Hin- of God’s preserving and sustaining du myth is founded on a profoundly power; without cows, families could ecological vision, as mentioned in the not survive. But sadly, cows are being mistreated publicly once they stop Rig Vedas. But David Gosling paints milking. In addition, uncontrolled use another picture, giving the example - of two prominent Hindu deities from ues to pollute the air and deafen the Mahabharata and their strange be- ofurban fireworks population. during ‘Hindus festivals have contin behaviour towards the environment. In come champions at raping their moth- this story, Krishna and Arjuna are in er’, laments Swami Srivatsa Goswami, the forest when a poor Brahmin asks a Vrindavan-based scholar.12 The wor- for alms. The request is granted and ship of nature elements according to he is transformed into Agni, the god Hindu philosophy is need-based and situational; the creatures being wor- Eighteenth-Century Maharashtra’, in Mahesh shipped either supply food or pose a Rangarajan, Environmental Issues in India: threat to the worshippers. A Reader (Delhi: Pearson Longman, 2007), In contrast to Western traditions 97–98. in which humans are described as 9 - separate from nature over which geon removed 70 kg of plastics from a cow’s stomach. Recently Vishant a newspaper Vaze, ‘70 reported Kg Plastic that Wastea sur Taken Out from Cow’, Navhind Times, 4 Janu- 11 ary 2016, http://epaper.navhindtimes.in/ David L. Gosling, Religion and Ecology: In In- pageimages/pdf/2016/01/04/04012016- dia The and episodeSouth Asia occurs in the Mahabharata. md-ga-03.pdf. Routledge, 2001), 16. 10 The Legacy 12 (LondonRiver of andLove New in an York: Age of William Carey: A Model for Transformation of Pollution: The Yamuna River of Northern of a Vishal Culture and (New Ruth Delhi: Mangalwadi, Good Books, 1993), India David (Berkeley: Haberman, University of California 108. Press, 2006), 84. 348 Samuel Richmond Saxena they have dominion, Indian thought opinion has created confusion in the has seen humans (in their embodied minds of their followers. There is no lives) as an intimately interconnected concrete eco-theology within Hindu- part of nature. In the Vedic worldview, ism that can protect the environment. gods, humans and nature formed one organic whole. None was superior and none was inferior. All three were II. The Natural World in the equally eternal and mutually depend- Early Church Fathers and the ent.13 Therefore, according to Hindu- ism, to harm any aspect of nature, Scientific Revolution be it air, water, plants or animals, is The patristic traditions contained tantamount to harming oneself. Thus, many beliefs about nature: about the there is a clear and unambiguous origins and structure of the cosmos, environmental ethic within Indian the motions of celestial bodies, the el- thought. Nevertheless, this ethic has ements, sickness and health, explana- not protected South Asia from envi- tions of dramatic natural phenomena (thunder, lightning, eclipses and the ronmental problems. The rise in eco- like), and the relationship between logical crises in India signals our loss the cosmos and the gods. These con- of control over the natural world.14 siderations were studied as part There are several reasons for toof ‘natural philosophy'.15 The early day’s environmental crisis in India. Christian church was confronted by First, we have failed to understand the dualist cosmology of Gnosticism, our responsibility to care for creation. which held that Christ and his Father Second, we have forgotten the dedi- were not responsible for the created cation of visionaries who laboured world and that salvation consisted in to preserve our natural ecosystem. transcending material creation. In re- Third, we have been guilty of anthro- sponse to this teaching, Irenaeus (ca. pocentrism in our view of nature. 120–202) set out the basis for Chris- Fourth, we in India have blamed the tian cosmology.16 West and Christianity for the prob- Irenaeus became a resolute de- lem rather than examining where we fender of the strict divinity of the have failed to protect the environ- Logos (Christ), through whom God ment. Fifth, under the umbrella of In- the Father created all things.17 Ire- dian traditions are many beliefs and philosophies (such as polytheistic, monotheistic, monist, dualistic and 15 , ‘Early Christian At- even atheistic views) which contra- titudes toward Nature’, in Gary B. Ferngren dict each other, and the difference of (ed.), David The History C. Lindberg of Science and Religion in the Western Tradition: An Encyclopedia (Lon- don: Garland, 2000), 278. 13 Eco-dynamics of 16 Religion: Thoughts for the Third Millennium Creation’, in M. B. Cunningham & Elizabeth (Bangalore, Augustine India: Thottakara, Dharma Publications, Theokritoff Elizabeth (eds.), Theokritoff, The Cambridge ‘Creator Compan and- 2000), 106. ion to Orthodox Christian Theology (Cam- 14 Purifying the Earthly bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), Body of God: Religion and Ecology in Hindu In- 63. dia Lance E. Nelson, 17 Press, 1998), 39. in Gary Ferngren (ed.), The History of Science (New York: State University of New York Stanley L. Jaki, ‘God, Nature, and Science’, Influence of the Bible on Care for Creation 349 naeus stated that ‘the initial step for least plant may bring you the clear the soul to come to the knowledge of God is contemplation of nature.'18 His blade of grass or one speck of dust is Cappadocian naturalism was not op- enoughremembrance to occupy of your your Creator. entire mind … One in posed to the pervasive presence of beholding the art with which it has God in creation and treated nature been made.’22 as a dynamic and interactive event In his Apology for Allegory, Gregory within which both divine and cosmic of Nyssa displayed the relationship energies converged and synergized.19 between ‘God and the cosmos’, or ‘the According to Theokritoff, Cappado- structure of matter and the creation’ cians believed that ‘it is for the sake as both one event and many events.23 of the whole creation that man the Gregory was more interested in microcosm receives the divine in- bridging the scriptural worldview breathing, so that nothing in creation should be deprived of a share in com- time, rather than in the interpretation munion with God.’ This sense of ‘soli- ofand Genesis. the scientific24 He displayed cosmologies an ability of the to darity in createdness’, she added, ‘has remained a leitmotif in Eastern Chris- data and naturalistic explanations tian theology.’20 withinintegrate his large theological amounts narrative. of scientific The Basil of Caesarea sharply attacked accuracy of Gregory’s explanations Greek philosophers and astronomers when compared with the modern sci- who ‘have willfully and voluntarily blinded themselves to the knowledge relevant is that he was aware of the of the truth’. These men, he continued, knowledgeences is not of significant the sages here;who studiedwhat is have ‘discovered everything, except nature before and in his own time.25 one thing: they have not discovered Rene Dubos proposed that Chris- the fact that God is the creator of the tian stewardship should have a ba- universe.’21 Basil asserted, ‘I want cre- sis in the teachings of St. Benedict. ation to penetrate you with so much The Benedictine order ‘actively in- admiration that wherever you go, the tervened in nature’ as farmers and builders. According to Dubos, 'Ben- and Religion in the Western Tradition: An the patron saint of those who believe Encyclopedia (London: Garland Publishing, thatedict trueof Nursia conservation … can be regardedmeans not as 2000), 54. only protecting nature against human 18 through the Ages’, in The Green Bible NRSV misbehaviour but also developing hu- J. Matthew Sleeth, ‘Teachings on Creation man activities that favour a creative, 19 harmonious relationship between World:(New York: Theology Harper and Collins, Science 1989), in St I-98. Gregory of DoruNyssa’s Costache,An Apology ‘Making for the SenseHexaemeron of the’, Phronema 28, no. 1 (2013): 6. 22 Hexaemeron, 20 Homily 5, ‘Germination of the Earth’, cited in Basil the Great (329–379), 21 , ‘Early Christian At- Sleeth, ‘Teachings on Creation through the titudes Theokritoff, toward Nature’, ‘Creator in and Gary Creation’, B. Ferngren 65. Ages’, I-99. (ed.) David The History C. Lindberg of Science and Religion in 23 the Western Tradition: An Encyclopedia (Lon- 24 don: Garland, 2000), 278. 25 Costache, ‘Making Sense of the World’, 1. Costache, ‘Making Sense of the World’, 6. Costache, ‘Making Sense of the World’, 8. 350 Samuel Richmond Saxena man and nature.'26 the Revolution of Celestial Spheres) of Genesis speaks of man’s dominion by Nicholas Copernicus.30 Whatever over nature. The Benedictine The first chapterrule, in the case, the Bible was directly re- contrast, seems inspired rather by sponsible for producing modern sci- the second chapter, in which the Lord ence. placed man in the Garden of Eden not Francis Bacon is considered the as a master but rather in the spirit of 31 He stewardship. Throughout the history was the Lord Chancellor of England of the Benedictine order, its monks founderand a founder of scientific of the Royal methods. Society. Ba- have brought about profound trans- con held to the truth of both of God’s formations of soil, water, fauna and two books—the book of nature and 27 Saint Bernard believed that the book of God’s word, the Bible: it was the monks’ duty to work as There are two books laid before flora.partners with God in improving His us to study, to prevent our falling creation, or at least in giving it a more human expression. Implicit in his writings is the thought that labour is Scriptures, which reveal the will of God;into error;then thefirst, volume the volume of the ofCrea the- like a prayer which helps in recreating 32 paradise out of chaotic wilderness.28 tures, which express his power. Johannes Kepler asserted that the pioneers to go in search of the laws universe was a ‘bright Temple of God of Thenature—a Bible inspiredlong, tedious, many scientificdemand- and we astronomers are priests of the ing, and multigenerational journey. highest God in regard to the book of The Bible taught that God ‘gave the nature’.33 He elaborated the idea of sea its boundary so the waters would nature as a living organism in the late not overstep His command’.29 Many sixteenth century.34 believe that the birth of modern science took place at the establishment of the Royal Society of London for Im- 30 Science Meets Faith: An proving Natural Knowledge in 1660. Interdisciplinary Conversation (Mumbai: St. Sarojini Henry, Others place it in 1620, when Francis Paul’s Press, 2009), 59. Bacon’s book, Novum Organum Scien- 31 Galileo Galilei, First Physicist tiarum (New Instrument of Science) 1997). James MacLachlan, was published. Still others may prefer 32 (New York: OxfordThe AdvancementUniversity Press, of 1543, the year of publication of De Learning (London: Henrie Tomes, 1605). revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On The Francis 1893 edition Bacon, by David Price (Cassell and Company) is available online at www.full- books.com. Cited in Vishal Mangalwadi, The 26 A God Within Book That Made Your World: How the Bible Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1972), 168. Created the Soul of Western Civilization (Dal- 27 Rene Dubos,A God Within, 169. (New York: las, TX: Thomas Nelson, 2011), 240. 28 A God Within, 171. 33 - 29 Dubos, ence and the Decline of Theology’, Reforma- shaped Dubos, the original idea of ‘natural laws’. tion Avihu and Renaissance Zakai, ‘The Review Rise 9, of no. Modern 2 (August Sci Francis Proverbs Oakley, 8:29. ‘Christian Verses Theology like this and onethe 2007): 135. Newtonian Science: The Rise of the Concept 34 of the Laws of Nature’, Church History 30 Jnanadeepa (Ecological Concerns) 9, no. 1 (1961) 436. (January J. Kozhamthadam, 2006): 23. ‘Science and Ecology’, Influence of the Bible on Care for Creation 351

Isaac Newton regarded his scien- read the Bible more carefully than he did.’39 At a fundamental level, Newton study of God’s works. In all his discov- believed that science leads to God. eries,tific work Newton as praise seems for to God have and silently as the The early evangelicals also welcomed acknowledged a divine presence.35 When Newton discovered his law of evidence of the scope of God’s work gravitation he did not say, ‘Now I have scientificin nature. 40discoveries, seeing them as gravity, I don’t need God.’ Instead he wrote Principia Mathematica, the most famous book in the history of III. The Foundation of science, expressing the hope that it Ecological Consciousness in would ‘persuade the thinking man’ to 36 India believe in God. He declared that ‘the Long before world organizations for- most elegant system of the sun, plan- mally addressed ecological crises, ets, and comets could not have arisen concern for the natural environment without the design and dominion of was prominent among many Chris- 37 an intelligent and powerful being.’ tian missionaries and scientists. The Then he went on to speak about the British societies were founded with majestic God of the Bible, on whose meeting civic needs among their ob- power and dominion the universe’s jectives41 and most environmental very existence is constantly depend- movements and related government ent.38 policies were the outcomes of the sci- Newton’s religious faith was more important to him than his science. He a great impact in promoting environ- was concerned with theology, proph- entificmental revolution.care in India. Such societies had ecy and church history right from an The Royal Geographical Society early age. He was a fervent reader as initiated awareness regarding de- well as a student of the Bible. Wil- forestation, desiccation, and climate liam Stukeley, who was acquainted change and proposed large-scale with Newton near the end of the lat- forest conservation.42 Subsequently ter’s life, wrote, ‘No man in England adopted in India, this aggressive for-

35 39 The Isaac Newton Guide Book, 23. 36. 36 Kozhamthadam, ‘Science and Ecology’, 40 Alexander, Creation Care in Christian September 2010, reprinted at https://www. Mission (Oxford: Regnum Books, 2016), 108. rzim.org/read/just-thinking-magazine/ste John Lennox, ‘Stephen Hawking and God’,- 41 Dave Bookless, - phen-hawking-and-god. graphical Societies in Britain, 1884-1914’, in 37 The Principia: Mathemati- Morg John Bell M. and MacKenzie, Robin Butlin ‘The (eds.), Provincial Geography Geo cal Principles of Natural Philosophy, trans. I. and Imperialism 1820–1940 (Manchester, Bernard Isaac CohenNewton, and Anne Whitman (Berke- UK: Manchester University Press, 1995), 95. ley: University of California Press, 1999), 42 940, cited in Denis Alexander (ed.), The Isaac Discourse of Desiccation: The Institution- Newton Guide Book (Cambridge: Faraday In- alisation Richard of Global H. Grove, Environmental ‘Imperialism Concerns and the stitute, 2012), 42. and the Role of the Royal Geographical Socie- 38 The Isaac Newton Guide Book, ty, 1860–1880’, in Bell and Butlin, Geography 42. and Imperialism, 36. Alexander, 352 Samuel Richmond Saxena est protection effort led to the emer- lions of India.46 Carey was the bota- gence of a school of environmental- nist after whom Careya Herbacea, one ists in the country.43 of the three varieties of eucalyptus the Society of Arts led William Rox- found only in India, is named.47 His burgh, the second superintendent The influence of interest in botany gave birth to horti- Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta (now culture in India.48 Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose In- Carey placed great emphasis on dian Botanic Garden), to promote ex- introducing modern science to India tensive tree planting policies in Ben- and taught botany, zoology and as- gal. After 1842, forest conservation tronomy in addition to theology at practice and environmentalism in In- Serampore.49 Dave Bookless regards dia drew from the climatic theories of him as one of the early examples of renowned naturalist and geographer ‘evangelical ecological conscious- Alexander von Humboldt (who had ness’, saying that his motivation for a Lutheran background) and Joseph environmental protection ‘came from Boussingault.44 his belief that God has made man re- Great Christian missionaries, intel- sponsible for the earth.’50 Carey be- lectuals and environmentalists who came acquainted with William Rox- admired God’s creation did their best burgh, whose wife was the daughter to create environmental awareness of a missionary.51 Roxburgh gave the among Indians. name Careya to an interesting genus of Myrtaceae.52 1. William Carey Carey brought the English daisy to India and introduced the Linnaean William Carey was born in England in - 1761 and arrived in India in 1793 as a Baptist missionary. He is considered booksspecies on classification science and systemnatural history to gar a founder of the modern Protestant indening. India and He wasedited the Flora first Indica to publish, writ- missionary movement. Known for his ten by Roxburgh. He believed that famous admonition to ‘expect great ‘all thy works praise Thee, O Lord.’53 things from God and to attempt great things for God’,45 with much effort he established the Agricultural Horticul- 46 tural Society on 14 September 1820. 47 The Lega- His vision of forming this society was cy of Behera, William ‘William Carey, 17. Carey’, 252. guided by his practical interest in im- 48 Mangalwadi and Mangalwadi, - proving India’s agricultural economy tion of the Missionary Motive Abroad’, in The and supplying food to the hungry mil- Triumph Joseph of C.the Robbins, Missionary ‘The Motive Social (Philadel Applica- phia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1920), 69. 43 49 The Lega- 40. cy of William Carey, 81. Mangalwadi and Mangalwadi, 44 Grove, ‘Imperialism and the Discourse’, 50 Creation Care, 106. Discourse', 41. 51 The Life of William Carey: Bookless, 45 Richard H. Grove, ‘Imperialism and the- A Shoemaker and Missionary (London: J. M. liam Carey and the British East India Com- Dent George & Co.), Smith, 220-221. pany’, Marina American Ngursangzeli Baptist Quarterly Behera, (January ‘Wil 52 The Life of William Carey, 304. 1, 2010): 246. 53 The Lega- Smith, Mangalwadi and Mangalwadi, Influence of the Bible on Care for Creation 353

He was prompted to become heav- - ily involved in ecological endeavours dia, acknowledged the contributions Nehru,of the earlythe first missionaries, Prime Minister especially of In Indian ecosystem, which had ‘become the Baptists of Serampore: becausean uncultivated he was jungle horrified abandoned to see the to The desire of the Christian mis- 54 wild beasts and serpents.’ He was sionaries to translate the Bible into - every possible language thus resulted in the development of many thebefore first the person government in India made to write its very es Indian languages. Christian mis- says on forestry, almost fifty years sion work in India has not always 55 Malabar. been admirable or praiseworthy firstBookless attempt asserts at forest that conversation Carey would in have drawn inspiration from the hym- the collection of folklore, it has un- nody of Isaac Watts (1674–1748), …doubtedly but in this been respect, of great as servicewell as toin whose work focussed on ‘the Psalm- India.60 ist’s celebration of God’s glory in nature in the light of Christocentric New Testament theology.’56 It was William 2. Vedanavakam Sastri Carey, a Christian missionary, and not Scholar Indra Vishwanathan Peter- the Hindu mystics who initiated the son describes two Indian intellectu- struggle for regenerating eco-balance als in the early nineteenth century: 57 in India. King Serfoji II (1777–1832), a Hindu Chittabrata Patil claims that mis- and prince of the Maratha dynasty sionaries (especially the Baptist that ruled Tanjore, and the Tamil poet missionaries of Serampore, who in- Vedanayakam Sastri (1774–1864), cluded William Carey, Felix Carey and John Max) served the Indian people, to write in the Tamil language. Both left a valuable legacy of science and 58 the first Protestant Christian poet culture, and played a path-breaking education and their interest in Eu- role in spreading science and technol- wereropean quite arts and influenced sciences. by Before Western the ogy in India. But according to him, British could establish education in this was all a tool for them to convert South India, these two became key people with the help of British coloni- 59 instruments in providing Western alism. On the other hand, Jawaharlal education by establishing schools.61 They embraced the vision of Profes- cy of William Carey, 17. The Lega- 54 60 The Discovery of In- cy of William Carey, 20. (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1946), Mangalwadi and Mangalwadi, dia 55 The Lega- 317–18. Jawaharlal Nehru, cy of William Carey, 22. Mangalwadi and Mangalwadi, 61 56 Creation Care, 106. Tranquebar, and Halle: European Science 57 The Lega- and Indra German Vishwanathan Missionary Peterson,Education ‘Tanjore, in the Bookless, cy of William Carey, 108. Lives of Two Intellectuals in the Early 19th 58 Mangalwadi and Mangalwadi,Scientific Bengal: Sci- Century’, in Robert Eric Frykenberg (ed.), ence, Technology and Environment under the Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross- Raj Chittabrata (Delhi: Kalpaz Patil, Publications, 2006), 42. Cultural Communication since 1500 (London: 59 Scientific Bengal, 51. Routledge, 2003), 94.

Patil, 354 Samuel Richmond Saxena sor August Hermann Francke in Halle, tion for modern Tamil literature.66 which was introduced by Ziengen- balg under the Tranquebar Mission.62 Francke’s philosophy maintained an 3. Sam Higginbottom integral relationship between science Sam Higginbottom was another out- and theology. Missionaries and others standing missionary who responded in India received their theological and to the cry of the poor and hungry pedagogical training in this format.63 world, dedicating his life to the cause of agriculture in India. In 1910 he established the Allahabad Agriculture Tamil-English curriculum with bibli- Institute (now Sam Higginbottom calOne ideals can and find the a principles blend of of mixed sci- University of Agriculture, Technology ence and technology from the West in the education program that King 64 agriculture, along with the Gospel, Serfoji and Sastri provided. They andprovided Sciences). the solution He was toconfident the poverty that introduced the study of the natural of India.67 environment into the educational The Institute sat on a large parcel system in South India; the study and of poor land, as if meant for the out- growing of various species of plants - in a botanical garden became part of ginbottom showed the people what the curriculum. New approaches to castecould farmersbe done towith cultivate. dry, hard, Yet thin, Hig natural history and new cosmology in cactus-infested land. He taught farm- a pietist Christian theological context ers to burn off the cactus spines and were mentioned in Vedanayakam Sas- then to use the cactus to feed their tri’s Tamil poems.65 Serfoji became a cattle in times of drought when all member and fellow of the Royal Geo- other fodder failed.68 graphical Society. The work of these Motivated by Matthew 14:13–16, - Higginbottom drew on the power of ing science, environment, botany and the Gospel to reach the rural masses cosmologytwo men in helped a variety to oflay fields the founda includ- of India and make an impact in agricultural sciences. The Allahabad Agriculture Institute (AAI) became 62 staffed by German missionaries and by the seminary The Danishfounded Tranquebar by Francke Missionat the end was of 66 the seventeenth century in the German city Modern India: Information and the Spread of Halle-on-the-sale. Francke was a German of RobertEducation, Frykenberg, Enlightenment ‘The Halle and LegacyEvangeli in- Lutheran clergyman, philanthropist, and bib- zation’, in Missionsberichte aus Indien im 18. Jahrhundert (Halle, Germany: Franckesche missionary efforts were greatly enhanced, Stiftungen, 2004), 19. zeallical was scholar. aroused Under and his recruits influence, for Christian 67 - missions were gained, and Halle also became tion of the Missionary Motive Abroad’, in Wil- a centre for Danish mission activity in India. liam Joseph H. Hill (ed.), C. Robbins, The Triumph ‘The Social of the ApplicaMission- 63 ary Motive (Philadelphia: American Baptist Halle’, 97. Publication Society, 1920), 69. 64 Peterson, ‘Tanjore, Tranquebar, and 68 The King’s Halle’, 98. Highway (West Medford, MA: Central Com- 65 Peterson, ‘Tanjore, Tranquebar, and mittee Helen on the Barrett United Montgomery, Study of Foreign Mis- Halle’, 100. sion, 1915), 107. Peterson, ‘Tanjore, Tranquebar, and Influence of the Bible on Care for Creation 355 a centre for teaching, research and years, his mission and vision continue extension services. Higginbottom to be implemented at this institute, which is now a university (under the farming, horticulture and extension state government of India) where I andwrote designed India’s first programmes textbooks onto dairytrain teach. Sam Higginbottom University - of Agriculture, Technology and Sci- troduced silo pits for storing green ences (SHUATS) in Allahabad pro- andofficials dry forfodder the for civil animals. services. In He1935, in motes agricultural research with the Gandhi asked him to inspect and re- goal of providing food security and port on the earthquake-stricken area improved quality of life to the people of Bihar, where he was received by Dr. of India. The university has worked to develop temperature-tolerant wheat of independent India).69 His vision for and rice varieties for Indian farmers IndiaRajendra is expressed Prasad (the in his first writings: president ‘I in order to mitigate climate change am anxious to see the day when India due to global warming. shall take her proper place as one of the great self-governing peoples of 4. J. C. Kumarappa the world.’70 Joseph Chelladurai Cornelius (Ku- Higginbottom played an important marappa) was a Tamil Christian from role in creating ecological conscious- Tanjore who had been trained in ac- ness among his students and recognized the work of those who were 71 After returning to India in 1929, he involved in this task. Even after 109 camecountancy into contact in London with and Gandhi. New 72 York. Ku- marappa’s mother, Esther Rajanay- 69 - akam, was a devout Christian who bottom’s Vision on Gospel and Plough: Then inculcated the moral and spiritual and S. Now’, B. Lal, in ‘A BriefJagdhari Sketch Masih of Dr. andSam SamuelHiggin values in his life that played an im- Richmond (eds.), NACSAR-09 Technological portant role in shaping his economic Advancement in Science and its Socio-Reli- philosophy.73 gious Impact (Allahabad, India: AAI, 2009), Kumarappa was in charge of two 61. Gandhian swadeshi (indigenous 70 The Gospel and the goods) institutions: All India Spin- Plow: The Old Gospel and Modern Farming ners Association and All India Village in SamAncient Higginbottom, India (Mussoorie, India: Nivedit Good Books, 2014), 16. Industries Association. His writings 71 had profound ecological implica- Hunting, The Wonderland of India (New See Helen M. Rockey and Harold B. US-Canada, 1992), 117. Among those whose Cawnpore, who sowed different varieties of worksYork: Missionary Higginbottom Education recognized Movement in The of Gos the- cotton (p. 34); and Dr. Carleton of the Ameri- pel and the Plow were Colonel E. Hudson, can Presbyterian Mission, who introduced superintendent of Naini Jail, who planted a varieties of fruits in India (p. 33). large number of trees and changed the whole 72 A Historical Study, 118. landscape (pp. 7–8); Mr. and Mrs. Howard, 73 imperial economic botanists, who bred the economist Guha, ahead of his time’ in a Down-to- ‘Pusa Series’ of wheat; Dr. Barber, an imperial Earth Kumarappa article at is http://www.downtoearth.described as ‘a Gandhian botanist who worked on sugarcane (p. 41); org.in/indepth/a-gandhian-economist- Mr. Leake, Director of the United Province of ahead-of-his-time-30798 (n.d.). 356 Samuel Richmond Saxena tions. He said, ‘If we produce every- April globally (and in India as well), thing we want from within a limited reminds us about our responsibility area, we are in a position to supervise towards planet Earth. On this occa- the methods of production; while if sion, we Indians plant trees, clean the we draw our requirements from the surroundings, organize seminars and ends of the earth it becomes impos- conferences and hold painting com- sible for us to guarantee the condi- petitions, among other creative activi- tions of production in such places.’ ties. Surprisingly, the founder of this While denouncing industrialization day was John McConnell, a Christian in tune with Gandhi, he observed that believer and the son of a Pentecostal agriculture is and ought to be ‘the evangelist.78 As a visionary, he always greatest among occupations’ in which gave priority to the care for creation ‘man attempts to control nature and and devoted his life to ‘peace, justice his environment in such a way as to and care of Earth'.79 produce the best results.’74 For him, Those are international examples; industrial development was contrary there are plenty in India as well. In to the Mahatma’s dream of a ‘village- 1988, under the directorship of Fr. centered economic order.’75 Jose Chirackal, a movement against Sumit Guha stated that ‘J.C. Ku- deforestation, called Friends of Trees, marappa, even more than Mahatma was started in Patna, Bihar.80 Similarly, Gandhi, was a prophet and a pioneer in the early 1990s when deforestation of the contemporary environmen- was rampant, Bishop William Moses tal movement.’76 His work combined of the Anglican Church’s Coimbatore biblical principles and Gandhian non- Diocese started a ‘Tree Evangeliza- violence, with a focus on human dig- tion Mission’ with the slogan ‘Green- nity. Both he and Gandhi worked on ing the mind of the people’.81 creating an economy that would focus Temsutula Imsong under took a on meeting human needs and resolv- bold initiative to clean the Varanasi ing unemployment, poverty and envi- Ghats in conjunction with Swachh ronmental crises. M. M. Thomas de- Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Move- scribed him as one of the ‘Christians ment), a government-sponsored of the inner Gandhi circle’.77 clean-up programme launched in

IV. Christian Influence on the 78 ‘Pentecostal Pioneer of the Earth Day: John Indian Ecosystem McConnell Darrin Jr.’ J. Rodgersin A. J. Swoboda and Nicole (ed.), Sparks, Blood Earth Day, which is celebrated on 22 Cries Out: Pentecostals, Ecology, and the Groans of Creation (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2014), 3. 74 A Historical Study, 118. 79 Peace, Justice, Care of 75 An Anthropologist Earth: The Vision of John McConnell, Founder Among Guha, the Marxists and Other Essays (Delhi: of Earth Robert Day M.(Kalamazoo, Weir, MI: Press On Pub- Permanent Ramachandra Black, 2001), Guha, 82. lishing, 2007). 76 An Anthropologist, 86. 80 Ecology: A Theological 77 The Acknowledged Christ Response (Madras: Gurukul Summer Insti- of Guha,the Indian Renaissance (Madras: CLS, tute, Andreas 1994), 268. Nehring, 1970), M. M.242. Thomas, 81 Ecology, 260.

Nehring, Influence of the Bible on Care for Creation 357

2014. In an interview, she mentioned and economic injustice in India.85 that when she was an eight-year-old The Department of Ecological Con- she cleaned the road in her village cerns within the Church of South In- as part of a local church program in dia86 is continuously making efforts Nagaland.82 Her initiative got a boost to generate ecological consciousness after Prime Minister Modi praised her among the people of India. Its direc- on 31 March 2015 on Twitter: ‘This tor, Dr. Mathew Koshy, organizes na- effort by @temsutulaimsong & the tional and international conferences entire team to clean the Ghats in Vara- and awareness programs, which have nasi is phenomenal! I salute them.’83 been well attended by religious lead- A Rocha, an international evangeli- ers, politicians and scientists over the cal Christian conservation organiza- last few decades.87 EFICOR (Evangeli- tion, is actively involved in India, fo- cal Fellowship of India Commission cusing on biodiversity conservation on Relief) is a national Christian organization engaged in development, environmental education, church advocacy, disaster response and and emphasizingtheological scientificengagement, research, and training; it serves the poor, socially community-based conservation pro- excluded and marginalized irrespec- jects.84 The ACTS (Agriculture, Crafts, tive of caste, creed or ethnicity. It also Trades and Studies) Group (www. addresses the negative impact of cli- actsgroup.org) and its initiative called mate change and networks with other PEAS (Programme for Environmen- like-minded civil organizations, NGOs tal Action in Schools) are running and concerned government minis- nationwide projects related to en- tries. vironmental awareness, fostering The Roman Catholic Church, eco-culture, and health issues under through the Caritas wing of the Cath- the leadership of renowned Indian olic Bishops Conference in India, is environmentalist Dr. Ken Gnanakan. imparting ecological awareness by The National Council of Churches in involving itself in tree planting; par- India (NCCI) with its Commission on ticipating in Swachh Bharat Abhiyan; Justice, Peace, Creation is keenly in- sharing the ecological values of Fran- volved in addressing threats to crea- cis of Assisi, Pope John Paul II, Pope tion along with combatting poverty Francis and others; and giving humanitarian assistance in the context

82 Up a Broom and Bucket and Cleaned Up a 85 Riverbank’, Kavitha Christian Rao, ‘Temsutula Science ImsongMonitor , Picked 8 Oc- India, ‘Commissions’, nccindia.in/commis- tober 2015, http://www.csmonitor.com/ sion/. See National Council of Churches in World/Making-a-difference/2015/1008/ 86 Temsutula-Imsong-picked-up-a-broom-and- the union of churches of varying traditions: bucket-and-cleaned-up-a-riverbank. Anglican, The Church Methodist, of South Congregational, India is the result Pres of- 83 byterian, and Reformed. It was inaugurated Sanitation at Varanasi Ghats’, 4 April 2015, in September 1947, after protracted negotia- http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/duo- NDTV, ‘Duo Praised by PM Modi Bats For tion among the churches concerned. praised-by-pm-modi-bats-for-sanitation-at- 87 varanasi-ghats-752219. India, Department of Ecological Concerns, 84 Creation Care, 116. http://www.csisynod.com/erec.php. Report by Dr. Koshy, Church of South

Bookless, 358 Samuel Richmond Saxena of natural and human-made calami- unfortunate members of Indian com- ties.88 munities. Today major Christian agencies understand their role and commit- V. Conclusion ment towards addressing climate Christians (both from the West and change, environmental crises, global from India) have made enormous warming, poverty and natural disas- contributions towards addressing ters. God has given us a mandate to a wide range of environmental con- care for creation as stewards, care- cerns, both globally and locally. Lynn takers, children of God, and servant White’s critical paper drove Christian leaders—loving and nurturing our theologians to interpret the doctrine fellow beings. As Christians, we are of creation more intently in the light called to make a difference in society, of caring for creation. as the salt of the earth and the light According to the Word of God, of the world. The Bible encourages Christian believers are considered us to work for the glory of God with part of the ‘new humanity’ (Eph 2:15) integrity: ‘Whatever you do, work at created in Christ Jesus to do good it with all your heart, as working for works (2:10), and hence they know the Lord, not for men’ (Col 3:23; Eph their responsibility towards God's 6:7–8). creation. Through the power of the We admire all those who have Gospel and the compassion of our worked diligently and tirelessly in Lord Jesus Christ, missionaries were protecting and preserving the biodiversity of India as God’s gift to us. We in India. They worked genuinely and retain the eschatological hope that ableeffectively to influence among many the aspectshelpless of andlife one day God will restore this fallen creation but until then, as good stewards, we must keep on working me- 88 http:// ticulously to preserve it. cbci.in/Caritas-India.aspx. See the Caritas India website, ERT (2019) 43:4, 359-371 How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups

Thomas Schirrmacher

This text contains translated excerpts from his religion includes the right to change invited testimony at a public hearing of the Ger- one’s religion, which means that I man Bundestag’s Committee for Human Rights can leave any religion in the direction and Humanitarian Aid on 28 November 2018. of another religion or non-religious Dr Schirrmacher’s comments provide an insight- worldview without being punished ful example of how an informed Christian can function effectively and even be in demand in In answering the question, I would the realm of secular public-policy discourse. The bylike the to state, highlight an employer, three areas or others. which … questions that appear as headings were devel- seem to me to be the most serious oped by committee members and presented to Dr and appear to cause the most seri- Schirrmacher in advance. ous violations of the right to freedom of religion and belief: (1) genocide of religiously determined ethnic groups, Question 1: Freedom of (2) fundamentalism or religious ex- Religion tremism, and (3) religious national- Displacement, discrimination, and ism. The three are not delimited or threats against religious minorities unrelated but rather partly overlap. constitute violations of the fundamental human right to religious free- A. Genocide against Religiously dom. Where around the world do you Determined Ethnic Groups currently see this human right most threatened and what are the reasons In international law, genocide is the and causes for this? most abhorrent human rights crime I will begin with a natural but nec- and can often lead to international essary preliminary remark. What we prosecution even if the main perpetrators cannot be legally prosecuted is actually freedom of religion and be- in their own country or are in fact not liefbriefly and state includes to be the freedom freedom of religionof non- prosecuted. Accordingly, the worst religious worldviews. This applies violations of freedom of belief and at the level of the UN, the Council of conscience are genocides directed Europe, and the EU as well as to Ger- against religiously or ideologically many’s Basic Law. The fact that leav- ing the church today has no social high number of victims in the form of consequences is a consequence of defineddisplaced minorities and dispossessed and resulting persons in a the fact that the right to freedom of The European Parliament, the Par- in addition to those murdered. … Thomas Schirrmacher is the World Evangelical Alliance’s Deputy General Secretary for Theological Concerns. 360 Thomas Schirrmacher liamentary Assembly of the Council of placed. Europe (PACE), about a dozen nation- Ninety percent of the approxi- al parliaments, and Pope Francis saw mately eleven million Muslim Uig- and see in the war of the so-called Is- hurs live in the autonomous region lamic State (IS or Daesh) a genocide of China named after them, and one million Muslim Kazakhs also live there. Human Rights Watch estimates againstOf course, Christians the victims and against of extremist Yazidis. that there are 800,000 inmates in re- …movements in Islam are often Mus- education camps, while other experts lims themselves, and not only in the estimate that there are one million Near and Middle East. In Afghanistan, inmates. However, research on the - ground is impossible. That would be lion Hazaras is regarded as marginal- 7 to 10 percent of the Muslim popu- theized ethnic because group they of are five Shiite to seven Muslims mil lation in the region. The main motive and they speak a mother language is quashing unrest and exercising of related to Persian. They are poor and state control. The rejection of any re- are fair game for the Taliban and IS. ligion that used to play a major role is Hundreds have been killed by direct less and less in the foreground. How- acts of terror, and tens of thousands ever, there is arguably a fundamental have been driven out. They all live in great fear. It would be worth its own column of Islamic power. China thus investigation to see where the mutual suspicionalso proves against that people Muslims without as a fifthreli- oppression by Sunnis and Shiites— gion are still capable of genocide, just depending on who has the power in as history has demonstrated in the the state—assumes the character of cases of Mao or Stalin. genocide. In Sri Lanka, Buddhists are the Let us stick with genocides com- main threat to Hinduism, whereby mitted against Muslim peoples, this the religious diversity is superim- time by non-Muslims. They are mo- posed upon by the ethnic diversity tivated in very different ways. In of the Sinhalese and Tamils. The long Myanmar, which is actually a multi- civil war has had many victims, espe- - cially among the Tamils. Christians ly driven out by a mixture of Buddhist and Muslims have also been fought ethnicfundamentalism, state, the Rohingya racism, wereeconomic final against. The President of the country interests, and military control mania has just dismissed the legitimately after decades of apartheid. The re- elected Prime Minister in favour of his sult is that today one million out of predecessor, partly because he sees 1.3 million Rohingyas live in refugee the Buddhist character of the country dwellings in poor neighbouring Bang- as endangered. ladesh. Shockingly, machete-armed The various forms of genocide with thugs from Buddhist monasteries were organized against the Rohingya. investigation. It should be noted that Monks called for Myanmar’s Bud- aalmost religious all genocides influence arein recent still awaiting history dhist culture to be protected from have included a religious line of con- the growing Muslim minority. There were hundreds of deaths and several The genocide of Muslims in Bos- hundred thousand Muslims were dis- flict.nia-Herzegovina, including the mas- How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups 361 sacre of Srebrenica, took place with under Saddam Hussein always had a the blessing of the Serbian Orthodox religious-worldview component and Church. The International Criminal was also directed against the com- paratively loose toleration of ethnic (1993–2017) in the Hague and the In- religions and of Christians and Jews ternationalTribunal for Court the of former Justice Yugoslavia regarded from among their midst. However, the massacre of Srebrenica as geno- the current attitude of the Iraqi gov- cide. It was not coincidental that a ernment towards the autonomous corresponding resolution of the UN region of Kurdistan and the Kurds Security Council was prevented by in general is not only racist but also Russia in 2015, a decision seconded religious. The 2005 constitution, for by the Russian Orthodox Church lead- example, prescribes Arabic/Kurdish ership. bilingualism. Thirteen years later, Despite all the necessary discus- however, the central government has sion and differentiation in detail, this not yet published a line in Kurdish. It set also includes the wars in Kosovo has also not implemented many other and Chechnya. Ulrich Delius rightly central requirements of the Consti- includes the resettlement of more tution. Thus, a supreme court and a than 100,000 Muslims from the Cen- second chamber where regions have tral African Republic, supposedly to prevent genocide against them.1 It is a particular thorn in Iraq’s side Let us return from Muslims as vic- athat say the in centralKurdish lawsgovernment are missing. recog …- tims to Muslim states as perpetrators. nizes many newer religious commu- The genocide of indigenous peoples nities, for instance some Protestant in Indonesian Irian Jaya (West Papua) and Evangelical churches, that are not who are Christians or practice ethnic recognized and are combatted in Iraq. religions is discussed in detail below. I remember that in the mid-1980s (Editor’s note: That section is not I sat in Bonn with Tilman Zülch, the included here.) The ever-changing long-time Secretary General of the genocide in Darfur and South Sudan, Society for Threatened Peoples, as the only two Germans in a large as- of South Sudan—without really solv- sembly of Kurds of all languages, ingwhich the finally problems—is led to the notindependence limited to religions and countries who had religious characteristics but does in- travelled from all over Germany. I had deed include them.2 just published a Kurdish grammar The genocide of the Kurds in Iraq and the Turkish President had asked the federal President to close our publishing house. We were accused 1 of working for the US Central Intelli- Cleansing—No Effective Protection of the gence Agency and were banned from Civilian Ulrich Population: Delius. ‘Genocide Central Averted African by Repub Ethnic- entering the country. Since then, I lic: Exodus of More Than 100,000 Muslims’, have experienced very closely for thir- 5 March 2014, news/mit-ethnischen-saeuberungen-genoz- ty years how all countries possessing id-abgewendet-kein-wirksamer-schutz-der-https://www.gfbv.de/de/ parts of the Kurdish settlement areas zivilbevoelkerung-6298/. try to control the Kurds, push them 2 Darfur. Der ‘uneindeutige‘ back into the mountains, extinguish Genozid (Hamburg, 2007). their languages and religions, or Gérard Prunier. 362 Thomas Schirrmacher eliminate them completely. What an ism can connect itself directly with a unnecessary tragedy! At times there state, but it can also form a movement were quite obvious genocides among directed against the state that follows them, but for me the overall strategy has genocidal traits, the attempt by However, the percentage of those several states to rob the Kurds of their thewho same justify religion. violence … in the name of basic needs and prevent them from God has varied greatly in the history participating in society. of each religion. In Christianity, the It is also important to identify and percentage has dropped sharply over address potential genocides at an the last 100 years and continues to early stage. If in India the governing decrease, even if we include special party of several federal states and the Christian groups in the statistics. This Prime Minister, due to Hindu funda- also applies to atheistic worldviews, mentalism (Hindutva) behind it, set which have largely abandoned violent the goal of making the country free models since the collapse of the Soviet of non-Indians by 2025, one wonders Union. However, countries such as Vi- what should then happen to the ap- etnam or to some extent China show proximate 200 million Muslims and that a variant advocating violence is around 32 million Christians. Fore- still possible. In Hinduism, the per- runners have been violent forced re- centage of those factions legitimating conversions of helpless villagers and violence against others has unfor- the elimination of their livelihood, for tunately increased sharply in recent example by banning cattle breeding, times, as we have seen. But Islam is going through the most problematic It is gratifying that the EU, under development, so that Islamism, which fromthe umbrella which many of Eurojust, Muslims live.maintains … is prepared to use violence and began the European Network of contact only one hundred years ago (apart points with respect to persons re- from the older Saudi Wahhabism), sponsible for genocide, crimes against has in the meanwhile gained tremen- humanity and war crimes. It coordi- dous worldwide popularity and con- nates EU states’ legal processing and tinues to grow, even if it is still in the prosecution of the above-mentioned minority within Islam. Whereas un- serious crimes.3 der Mao and Stalin communist rulers killed the most Christians, the large B. Fundamentalism or Religious mass of Christian martyrs worldwide can currently be traced back to at- Extremism tacks by Islamists. Fundamentalism and religious ex- I prefer to use the term ‘fundamentalism’ instead of religious extrem- among all religions. Religious extremism since otherwise non-religious tremism … cause the most deaths or quasi-religious worldviews are automatically excluded. Viewed his- 3 torically, however, the largest num- Chaplin, ‘European Religious Freedom and the Thomas EU’, in Jonathan Schirrmacher Chaplin and and Gary Jonathan Wilton bers of victims are due to extremist, (eds.), God and the EU: Faith in the Europe- fundamentalist variants of commu- an Project nist and nationalist worldviews such 2017), 151–74. as those embodied by Franco, Hitler, , 2nd ed. (London and New York, How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups 363

Mussolini, Lenin, Stalin, Ceausescu ism and fundamentalist Hinduism or Pol Pot. In Vietnam, Christians are (Hindutva), and between majority still threatened by representatives of Buddhism and fundamentalist Bud- an atheistic ideology up to the pre- dhism as in Myanmar and Sri Lanka. sent day. The right to control all other They all represent a new form of their worldviews and religions is derived respective religions that did not exist from the view of the correctness of before the twentieth century. non-religious ideologies. This view Islamism says that an Islamic coun- also provides the right to employ try can only be ruled by Sharia law state power to force people to think and inhabited by Muslims. All others and live in a certain permissible corri- have no place there. By the way, the dor as desired; otherwise, people face the threat of punishment in prison the Ahmadiyyas, who from our and camps or even death.4 firsttheir toown be point affected of view in Pakistan are Muslims. were Fundamentalism does not simply mean having a claim to truth. In such point of view of the Sunni because a case, the largest part of mankind However,they claim they a new are prophet infidels after from Mo thewould probably be considered funda- hammad. mentalists. Rather, fundamentalism Needless to say, Islamism devel- means that one is prepared to assert oped historically from Islam just as one’s claim to truth against others the Crusades developed from Chris- by force. The term fundamentalism, tianity. At the same time, it is wrong which became famous in 1979, was to say that Islam and Islamism are applied to Ayatollah Khomeini, who simply identical. The truth lies some- imposed the claim to truth of a cer- where in between. Islamism is a tain Islamic view on all people in Iran, strongly politicized form of Islam, which is still imposed today. A person which developed about a hundred who thinks that something is absolutely right or wrong is not thereby European colonial period and makes dangerous. He only becomes a prob- yearssome central ago in demands the final that phase were of not the lem for society if he deduces from this characteristic of what has historically that one can force others to believe represented the majority of Islam. the same thing, to do the same thing, Islamism predominantly turns and that the whole society has to against the governments of Islam- function in the way he thinks is right.5 ic countries and only secondarily Therefore, one must indeed differ- against the West, which these coun- entiate between majority Islam and tries supposedly follow too closely. Islamism, between majority Hindu- Islamism brings about forms of violence that historical Islam has predominantly rejected or would have 4 Das Schwarzbuch des rejected. Today, for example, mothers Kommunismus: Unterdrückung, Verbrechen have appeared as suicide bombers und Stéphane Terror (Munich: Courtois, Piper, 1998); Thomas Schirrmacher, Hitlers Kriegsreligion, 2 vols. who only a few years ago thoroughly (Bonn: VKW, 2005). mourned their sons who blew them- 5 Fundamentalism: When Religion Becomes Dangerous (Bonn: death of thousands of Muslims to be VKW, Thomas 2011). Schirrmacher, selvescollateral up. damage Thus today, as well we as findthe thede- 364 Thomas Schirrmacher struction of graves and historical Is- mentalist Hinduism (Hindutva) has lamic sites.6 increased, which the Prime Minister If there were more comprehensive is also promoting and practicing. In democracies in the Islamic world, Myanmar and Sri Lanka, the undesir- there would also be more religious able development has been promoted freedom and parliaments would push and demanded by Buddhist funda- more and more for women’s rights, as mentalists, and in Russia Putin can has happened wherever democracy rely on the country’s ancestral Chris- has taken hold in the Islamic world. tian church. Also, even within the EU, The main problem here is classical governments are beginning to elevate theology and, along with it, the theo- religious nationalism—here of course logians. Among Muslim politicians, of a Christian nature—to the status of lawyers, economists and others, de- state doctrine. mocracy has many supporters. In In my view, it is particularly fright- Pakistan, the supreme judges, all of ening that such developments have them Muslims, repeal blasphemy ver- not been halted even by reasonably dicts under mortal danger and would free elections. In Turkey, Pakistan, Sri immediately abolish relevant laws. It Lanka, Russia and India there would is the ‘little’ imams, especially in the have been the possibility of ending countryside, who prevent this.7 the nightmare with certain elections The tragedy is that countries with if not with all elections. Instead, one Islamic majorities repeatedly decide has seen that those primarily respon- to leave the modern, ‘Western’ path sible have been able even to mobilize and choose an Islamist path. Exam- enormous masses. ples are Iran in 1979, Pakistan which has been creeping in this direction since 1984, and Turkey presently Excursus: No One Would Have creeping in the same direction. Expected Peaceful Christianity Admittedly, this dangerous development has the most serious One Hundred Years Ago consequences in the Islamic realm. In the First World War, the large However, it is by no means a unique Christian nations waged war against feature of Islam; we see the same de- each other in the name of the Chris- velopment in all world religions with tian God, and their respective state different characteristics. In India, churches demonized the peoples of - their opponents. Even in the 1920s, it could not have simply been said the influence of the political-funda that Christianity was broadly peace- 6 Das Schwarzbuch des Dschi- ful, that it refused to force people to had. (Munich: Piper, 2002); Christine Schir- believe, and that it was committed to rmacher, Gilles Kepel,Islamismus: Wenn Religion zur freedom of religion. Politik wird, 2nd ed. (Holzgerlingen: SCM On the contrary, fundamentalism Hänssler, 2011). in all denominations was on the ad- 7 Islam und Demokratie: Ein Gegensatz? (Holzgerlingen: vance, scheming with allegedly Chris- SCM Christine Hänssler, 2013; Schirrmacher, Christine Schirrmacher, tian dictators like Franco or even Politischer Islam und Demokratie: Konflikt- offering open support. Colonialism felder (Holzgerlingen: SCM Hänssler, 2015. dressed up in Christian garb did not How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups 365 want to free the colonies, and the anity and secular worldviews who ad- dream of a denominational, Chris- vocate violence is strongly declining, tian state or at least the involvement there is a painful development within of the state in the spreading of one’s the two other big world religions, Is- own denomination was still the order lam and Hinduism. In Islam this has of the day. been the case since the First World Only after the Second World War War; in Hinduism it is the case only in did Christianity broadly began to rec- more recent times. The increase and ognize democracy and above all the geographical expansion of Islamist inclusion of human rights, including violence is taking place right before freedom of religion, in the basic teach- our eyes. ings of the churches. This prevailed in I am not concerned here with deni- theory (doctrines) in the mid-1960s grating Muslims or Hindus or with and determined real life more and sweeping statements about religions more in the following decades. that have enormously many varieties. Christianity had come to the end of After all, peaceful Muslims and Hin- a long road. With the elaboration and dus are also in large numbers victims signing of the document 'Christian of the violent wings of their religions. Witness in a Multi-Religious World' Rather, I am noting a worldwide trend (2005–2011) by almost all churches, and observing that the minority with- it became clear that the Constantin- in a given world religion who are advocating violence sometimes grows against Christian doctrine and against larger and sometimes smaller. How- ianthe spiritage was of Jesusfinally Christ over toand force that other it is ever, if it becomes too large, it takes people to believe or to misuse the the whole religion into its scourge. state for such purposes. At the same Violent wings of Christianity and time, any kind of mission that does non-religious worldviews are on the not respect the human rights of oth- retreat, while violent wings within ers is rejected. Islam and Hinduism are growing and With a time lag, atheism and non- gaining more and more supporters religious worldviews have also under- worldwide. The vast majority of peo- gone a similar development. Violent ple belong to these four worldview regimes, which wanted to extermi- groupings. nate all religions or used the state to At the same time, this survey also force a non-religious worldview upon shows that no world religion is per everyone, at times dominated large se automatically averse to the idea parts of the world. They largely disap- of spreading its faith by force. And peared with the end of the Soviet Un- every world religion has a large wing ion and gave way to a more peaceful that gets along without convictions intellectual discourse. Countries such favouring violence. The situation has as China, Cuba, Vietnam and North to do with concrete historical devel- Korea, which still originate from this opments that work causally upon tradition, are only conditionally de- individuals, and not inevitabilities or to classify. terminedIn contrast by atheism to the fact and that are thedifficult per- biologically fixed factors. centage of the supporters of Christi- 366 Thomas Schirrmacher

C. Religious Nationalism The reasons for the persecution of Where a country is no longer ethni- religious groups, and for the persecu- cally and culturally homogeneous, tion of Christians, are almost always parties, governments, the majority re- multi-layered and mostly not only religion or the media increasingly play ligiously determined. Thus political, the religious card to unite the popula- cultural, racist, nationalist, economic tion. This corresponds with the desire and personal motives can play an im- of many in the majority population to portant role. Long ago the Holy Scrip- protect their own cultural identity tures of Christianity made this clear. against growing minorities of other In the Old Testament, for example, the faiths. This religious nationalism is infamous Queen Jezebel mixed her marching ahead around the world, and it is globally becoming socially with her desire for power, but also acceptable. A Turk has to be a Mus- hatredwith very of Yahwehpersonal and attempts his prophets at en- lim, an Indian a Hindu, a Russian an richment because she wanted to seize Orthodox Christian, a Burmese a Bud- the property of her Jewish neighbor dhist, etc. More and more often, reli- (1 Kings 16–19). In the last book of gion takes on the role which in for- the New Testament, the Revelation of mer times the common language or John, political and economic reasons culture often had. are added to the hatred of the church. This trend is also evident in the The craftsmen and goldsmiths and Christian and Jewish world. For the silversmiths in Ephesus (Acts 19:23– 29) are a good example. They saw in has demanded and has been able to Paul’s proclamation and its success firstpass time,in the aKnesset prime ministera law that in only Israel a a ‘danger’ to their ‘good income’ and Jew can be a full citizen, even if hu- therefore instigated a revolt against man rights are guaranteed to all oth- the Christians with the battle cry ers. In Hungary and Poland, ruling ‘Great is Artemis of the Ephesians’. parties have declared the country to According to this Christian report, the be Christian, in a way we otherwise furor was ended by the Roman army, know from Orthodox countries. In which ensured law and order. Also, Russia the old connection between the imprisonment of Paul and Silas state and church has been invoked after expelling a spirit of divination anew, and Russia has been appointed from a slave was caused by the own- as the Christian protective power. Re- ers’ anger with regard to their poten- ligious writings must be approved by the state before they can go into print. If the Bible itself makes it clear Non-Orthodox communities are usu- tialthat profit persecution (Acts 16:16–24). of Christians can ally denied this permission. It is also be closely intertwined with political and economic interests, it is precisely community to obtain permission to Christians today who should soberly verybuild difficult a place offor worship. a Catholic This or approvMuslim- recognize and make this a subject al practice is handled more rigorously of discussion. There is no unsullied from year to year. At the same time, restriction of religious freedom but thousands of Orthodox churches are always a mostly confusing entangle- being built at state expense through- ment of the problematic nature of out the country. religion with problems and human How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups 367 rights violations within the respective denly transform his immoral feel- cultures and societies involved. ings into honourable decisions. An The opposite can also be true: If a individual does not become master of follower of a hated religion and at the same time the bearer of a hated skin forms of racism, but rather if (1) one colour is tortured, one may neither thisdeals if withone fightsthis problem only against in principle, certain trivialize the racism by saying that (2) one can convey a system of values in reality a religious component is at in which respect for others and ad- issue, nor vice versa. Racism and reli- vocacy for others are the focus (e.g. gious hatred are both despicable, and brotherly love or Kant’s categorical if they occur at the same time, they imperative) and (3) no one acts as if must be fought along both lines. It is they are completely free of this prob- not a question of playing off the viola- lem and are therefore morally superi- tion of religious freedom against the or in such a way that others only have oppression of women, against geno- to learn from them. cide, or against the lack of freedom In Belgium, a historical conglom- of the press. In reality, human rights eration of language problems, envy, and their violation are always closely election campaign issues, politi- linked, such that states that violate cal party orientation and, since the religious freedom usually also violate 1960s, differences in economic de- many other human rights and vice velopment have made the country versa. ungovernable. Meanwhile, the majority on both sides believe that these are ancient communities of descent Question 7: Racism and that have always tried to live at the Displacement expense of each other. All this, how- How often are racism and ethnically ever, was missing when Belgium was related ideas the cause of displace- founded in 1830, when the educated ment and discrimination such as, for Flemish still spoke French and almost example, Islamophobia worldwide? all the inhabitants were Catholics. Always. I would say that displace- Step by step, a negative description of ment of and discrimination against the character of each other’s people ethnic groups are always connected with some form of racist thinking. the others. (Please forgive the neces- wassarily given shortened as to whyversion one of had a complex to fight Sooner or later, racist ideas lead to historical process.) This shows how Ittheir doesn’t implementation matter what in practice. comes first. The racism can emerge out of nowhere. opposite is true as well: the repres- Racism can be found in everyday sion of and discrimination against life as well as in politics and science. groups and ethnic groups sooner or It ranges from prejudice and discrimi- later create a supposedly rational jus- nation to slavery and racial segregation to pogroms, displacement, ethnic Man has a tendency to provide his cleansing and genocide. The most ex- tificationnegative feelingsthrough racistsuch asexplanations. envy, jeal- treme form to date was the industrial ousy, inferiority or hatred with an extermination of Jews in the Third apparently rational and intelligent- sounding substructure and thus sud- Racist movements always have a Reich. … 368 Thomas Schirrmacher national or cultural character and dif- Question 8: Cohesion and fer greatly, depending on which group Religious Communities - Increasing migration to Europe also uses racism to fight which other one. poses new challenges for the cohesion ‘Whereverdepending weon the find particular racism, we epoch, dis of society. How can religious communi- coverthe particular that it isculture, historically and the specific, parties contribute to this cohesion? ticular form of society in which it oc- Let us start with the negative side: religious communities or, more con- be analyzed. So when we talk about curs.concrete These social specific reality, differences we should must not of organized religious communities talk about racism, but about various can—dependingcretely, the official on their representatives degree of forms of racism.’8 In my book on racism, I have ar- massive damage to the cohesion of a gued that there are three groups of influence on the population—cause- victims of racism that are the most lation is not measured above all by widespread internationally, each of whichsociety. part The of influence the religious on the commu popu- which can be traced over many cen- nity actively practices the faith and turies: which does not, but to what extent 1. Blacks (or people who have a the religious community is accepted darker skin colour than your- as an authority on relevant topics, es- self)—they are supposedly pecially for those for whom belonging stupid, crude and uncivilized; to a religion is rather a cultural factor. 2. Jews—they are supposedly For example, in Russia only a very devious, greedy and domi- small percentage of the Christian neering; population attends church services, 3. Gypsies—they are allegedly even on the highest holidays, and antisocial and thieving. the feeling that one has to adhere to A study of the history of these the moral guidelines of the church three forms of racism is very instruc- in one’s private life is hardly still tive for less common forms of racism. For example, the prohibition or Orthodox Church describes a group avoidance of derogatory designations aspresent. a ‘sect’ But and if as the ‘dangerous’, official Russian this is of these groups—as meaningful as unquestioningly taken at face value it may be—has not reduced racism by almost all people who understand anywhere. Also, the intensity of the themselves as Russian Orthodox, and dislike of these groups has little to do it is a standpoint even adopted to a large extent by many completely sec- live within the reach of the racists but ularized people who do not perceive withrather how with many who of isthe creating vilified actuallya mood themselves to be Christians at all. against them. Extreme examples can be found in Pakistan, where the state still partly resists Iranian conditions, but where 8 - - course’, in Nora Räthzel (ed.), Theories on ence on the people than authorities or Racism Stuart (Hamburg: Hall, ‘Racism Argument-Verlag, as Ideological 2000), Dis securitythe local bodies.imam usually Here the has country more influ can 11. hardly rule against public statements How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups 369 by religious leaders. That leads then is certainly not welcomed by all po- still another step further towards litical forces. However, I am of the Iran, the only example in the world opinion that it is devastating when of direct political rule by religious people who in the end remain are leaders and which is also historically immediately received with rejection an extremely rarely found hieroc- instead of welcome. This happens, for racy (meaning rule by priests). The example, in Australia, where poten- religious leaders of the state religion tial immigrants are initially held for have direct political control and thus longer periods of time on foreign is- also directly determine who is re- lands and get stirred up there against garded as an outcast and who is not. their future homeland or make their - sentatives of the two major institu- who have to leave Germany in the end tionsIn of Germany, the majority if the religion official were repre to firstshould criminal get a positive contacts. impression Even people that campaign massively against other re- they have been treated with respect. ligions, against certain ethnic groups such as the Roma and Sinti, or against ‘social parasites’ and accuse the state Question 11: International of pampering these groups too much, Understanding What importance do you attach to One can be all the more grateful that means of international understanding theall hereditarydamage would religious be devastating. communities … as a preventive measure to reduce the in Germany—even if only after long threat level to threatened peoples? learning processes—have clearly International understanding, of- supported democracy itself from the ten also called cultural exchange or 1960s at the latest as well as in par- cultural diplomacy, is a deliberately ticular the secular character of the induced direct acquaintance of two state, the freedom of religion and parties who otherwise have little or conscience of the followers of other no opportunity to do so. The planned religions, and the special importance communication between different of the protection of minorities. groups of a society, different cultures, religions, or social groups or even through many channels. It begins whole states has the goal of break- whereThe churches positive are influence still involved is felt ing down prejudices that were taken in the socialization of children and for granted against them by getting young people, be it through church to know actual counterparts and by programmes, through day-care cen- establishing relationships where they tres and schools, or through hospitals were not previously present or not or counselling centres. It also encom- considered possible. passes the entire media presence and International understanding can - be carried out by citizens, by NGOs, tion through visible, often symbolic by educational institutions, by states, finallyappearances leads toof concrete religious implementa dignitaries or by international institutions such within the framework of dialogue and as UNESCO or the Alliance of Civiliza- international understanding. tions—or by a combination of these. The fact that all churches in Ger- many basically welcome migrants The importance of everyday, sta- … 370 Thomas Schirrmacher ble international understanding at one another. In addition to seminars, all levels cannot be overestimated, which take place in the participating nor can the importance of organized - forms such as art, sport, science, the ings, reports are jointly written and countries,experiences and exchanged. official virtualWhen I meet have representatives of religions. Where gotten to know these young people media,this is ornot dialogueenough, betweenthe state official must at the end of the programmes, I have organize additional possibilities, be- been delighted not only at how much cause this is one of the most effective momentum they have gotten for their peace-building measures. commitment, but also that they have The 1963 Franco-German Treaty all reported how intensively these encounters have promoted their view serve as a model. A comprehensive of other countries, as well as how ofpackage Friendship of measures (‘Élysée Treaty’)was put canin their general feeling for the diver- place to ensure that ‘enemies become sity of people on this earth has been friends’—that as many French people promoted. In this way, furthermore, as possible could get to know Germa- many from non-democratic countries ny and Germans through their own experience and that as many Ger- by their peers from other countries. mans as possible could get to know areI am given deeply the benefitsconvinced of that democracy there is France and the French. The extensive no substitute for really and truly get- student exchanges organized by the ting to know other people. And unfortunately, these people, whom I do not principle still exist (unfortunately on know but should get to know person- Franco-Germana smaller scale), Youth are not Office, only whichthe best in ally, may be living in the same high- known but have probably also had rise as me! Our assessment of other the most far-reaching consequences. people is formed by what we hear about them or what we concretely of the other side at a very early stage experience in our dealings with them. Youngbefore peopleprejudices got and a positive dislikes picture could As a teenager I got lost during my establish themselves at all. Even if up holidays in the Glasgow harbour area to the present day Germany remains when our excursion ship left with active in international understand- my parents but without me. Left in ing on many levels, it is time to ana- a rundown area, an even younger black boy scooped me up. Thanks to Treaty in such a way that it can be great hospitality and care, I spent the lysetransferred the implementation to other areas, of theespecially Élysée night in the cramped space where his those where the feeling of enmity poor family, with their many children, hovers in the air or threatens to hover lived and slept. Their willingness to help was greater than that of many of my acquaintances who have a guest in the future. … - tionalWith Society the financial for Human support Rights of has, the treat people who looked and lived Federalfor example, Foreign run Office, programmes the Interna in room.differently … At with that the time, same I decidednormality to and friendliness with which this fam- of human rights in Eastern Europe (in ily had welcomed me, although I was whicha broad young sense) bloggers are networked from the with field white and ‘rich’. How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups 371

As my parents had close contacts the unusual hair of Africans who af- with churches all over the world, we terwards held lectures. I grew up with received church leaders from Indone- the fact that people are very different sia, Paraguay, Gambia and many other but that they equally deserve respect. countries. As a small child I touched ERT (2019) 43:4, 372-376 Peter’s Second Pentecost

Thomas Schirrmacher

We have heard from Ruth Padilla De- Borst [the previous speaker] how the for several reasons, including my relationships between Paul, Philemon WCC.activities … My on change behalf of heartpersecuted came and Onesimus shaped a new category churches. In 2005 we started the of personal relations. I want to extend International Institute for Reli- this idea a step further and suggest gious Freedom and I found myself that this story shows that encounters and relationships also improve our and confessions. Here I was sitting theology and our worldview. defendingand praying people for the of …protection all churches for Christians, whom I still thought to involved with the development of be unbelievers. I was also changed theThe document five years ‘Christian during Witnesswhich I wasin a though the joining of ‘spiritual ex- Multi-religious World’, released in perience and friendship’. Theology 2011 by the Vatican, the World Coun- cil of Churches and the World Evan- decision: strange for a professor gelical Alliance, powerfully changed followedof Systematic later Theology. and had theBut finalstill my life. This was not because I read it’s the truth. The years of diligent a lot of books and papers around the work around the globe changed topic, which I did, but because of long- my perception of the Catholic term personal encounters with the Church and the World Council of other people involved in the project. Churches and made me a champi- When I was introduced as a new on of the goals that are now central member of the committee of the to the GCF. Global Christian Forum, the newslet- Some Evangelicals have taken issue ter of the Forum wrote: with my statement that experience In terms of his personal journey Dr Schirrmacher says that, com- I held such a position, they said, I no ing from a very conservative evan- camelonger first could and be theologythe head of followed. the theo If- gelical background, ‘I would not logical concerns department of the even enter Catholic or Pentecostal WEA. They also said the statement proves that the Global Christian Fo- one day would attend two Vatican rum waters down biblical convictions churches.synods, help … I to never work expected on close that con -I and the strong endorsement of the tacts between the World Council of Global Christian Forum by the WEA Churches and the WEA, and speak is wrong. at the General Assembly of the But in response I would ask: Is

Thomas Schirrmacher is Associate Secretary General of World Evangelical Alliance. This message was initially presented at the Third Global Gathering of the Global Christian Forum in Bogotá, Colombia in April 2018. Peter’s Second Pentecost 373 evangelical or even Pentecostal theol- Many prophets and leaders in ogy with no experience possible, just the Old Testament testify to the fact as a pure academic exercise in com- that only real-life experience of and paring and judging theologies? Can encounters with God—directly and we have a correct understanding of through other people—enabled them the Trinity without the life-changing to understand God and his will. experience of being loved by, and lov- This is still true today. I know more ing, the triune God? Is not our evan- people who started to think more fa- gelical and Pentecostal theology al- vourably about Pentecostals because ways a narrative theology? they experienced healing or other The global gathering of the Global wonders for themselves or others Christian Forum and the theme of the than I know people who were swayed day give me the chance to prove from by heated discussions of Pentecostal Scripture that experience of how God systematic theology. acts in this world in the lives of other We know that pure, uninterpreted people and churches, and of growing experience does not teach us anything mutual relations with other Chris- by itself, and we surely do not accept tians, is a good road to a sound theol- experience as such as the highest au- ogy. thority in the church. By experience I By all means, Holy Scripture is also do not mean that we constantly God’s revelation and our highest au- adapt to cultural circumstances or to thority. This is true for the Orthodox the Zeitgeist, the spirit of the age. If Church as much as for the Catholic you marry the Zeitgeist, you will be a Church. What we discuss is only who widow or a widower soon anyway. may be the authoritative interpreter But often, personal experience of Scripture, but not the nature of and relationships with others can Scripture as such. remove the haze in front of our eyes. But the God who gave Scripture to Experience opens our minds to things us used experience to shape the the- that we perhaps could have known ology of the authors of Scripture. This through intellectual research and dis- is why large parts of Scripture are in cussion but do not realize because we narrative form. And he shapes our have biases that cause us not to see theology to the good by experiences what we do not want to see. and encounters. In other words, if you Often in the gospels, Jesus said - something and it obviously was true, ity of Scripture, experience of how yet his disciples listening to him un- areGod firmlyacts through committed other to thepeople author and derstood only much later what he churches is indeed a good road to a meant, and always after some major sound theology. event had happened or some expe- Job’s theology did not become up- rience occurred. The most famous graded through the endless theoreti- example is that Jesus promised to re- cal discussions with his friends. Only build the Temple in three days. Only through his life’s experience—ugly after his resurrection did his follow- and painful as it was—did he reach ers understand that he was not refer- this conclusion about God: ‘So far my ring to the Temple made of stone, but ears had heard of you, but now my to himself (Jn 2:21–22). eyes have seen you’ (Job 42:5). The Apostolic Council of Acts 15:1– 374 Thomas Schirrmacher

33 was about a very serious theologi- Was this the same Peter who heard cal matter. The whole church met— the original oral version of the Great the apostles, elders, delegates from Commission out of Jesus’ mouth? Was the churches and apostolic teams. this the Peter who preached in Jeru- The end result was summarized by the person presiding, James, who the Peter in whom Jesus invested so claimed that their conclusion must salemmuch ontime the infirst personal Pentecost? encounters Was this be true because it was in line with and extra lessons, last but not least Scripture. But even though the inter- calling him to shepherd his sheep (Jn pretation and declaration of Scripture 21:15–21)? by the authorities was the council’s Like all the disciples, Peter learned from the living Word of God himself actually centred on reports of experi- that the Great Commission is to all finalences. step, Peter, the Paul theological and Barnabas discussion won nations (Mt 28:18–20) and that the the day, so to speak, because of the power of the Holy Spirit would come many moving stories they told, argu- upon them so that they would be wit- ing that God had decided the matter nesses ‘to the end of the earth’ (Acts already by sending his Holy Spirit to 1:9). God used the emerging leader of the Gentiles, as they had witnessed it. the church, Peter, more than anybody Acts tells us that Peter addressed else when Pentecost occurred, as he those gathered as follows: ‘Broth- had the privilege of preaching that ers and sisters, you know that some time ago God made a choice among new age that had come. you that the Gentiles might hear from day and being the first herald of the my lips the message of the gospel and his correct words, Peter did not be- believe. God, who knows the heart, lieveYet this despite deep all in his his learning heart. Heand still all showed that he accepted them by believed in the separation of Jews and giving the Holy Spirit to them, just as Gentiles. he did to us’ (Acts 15:7–8). And Acts How did God convince Peter? By adds, ‘The whole assembly became presenting him with a new volume of silent as they listened to Barnabas systematic theology written by Paul? and Paul telling about the miracu- By compiling all statements from Je- lous signs and wonders God had done sus as well as from the Old Testament among the Gentiles through them’ prophets that are relevant to the (15:12). topic so as to prove overwhelmingly Telling those stories was Christian that people from all nations and lan- and biblical theology at its best, not guages will enter the kingdom of some inferior method of theological God? Or even better, did God give him argument! a well-prepared, systematic lecture In Galatians 2:11, Paul wrote, with nine convincing arguments di- ‘When Peter came to Antioch, I op- rectly from heaven? posed him to his face, because he was Well, as you all know, God did re- clearly in the wrong.’ Paul added a veal himself directly to Peter, but not lengthy explanation of why Peter was in the way we theologians would have wrong, indicating that God accepts chosen. He used a dream that con- people from all nations simply by tained a shocking example and ap- faith (Gal 2:11–19). plied it to the upcoming encounter Peter’s Second Pentecost 375 with Cornelius. He had Cornelius wait friend His Holiness Patriarch Mor Ig- for Peter so that Peter could see with natius Aphrem II, who represents a - church that originated where Chris- perience of true theology. tianity originated and goes back to hisRead own eyescarefully and havethe whole a firsthand story ex of Cornelius in Acts 10 tonight. How words are up to date and speak spir- much effort God put into shaping theitually first to century. our churches Yet his today. message and Peter’s theology through this expe- Let me address my evangelical and rience! He corrected Peter’s wrong Pentecostal friends more directly. In views, but in a way that changed his Scripture, Jesus speaks two judge- life forever and to which he would ments that I pray will not be spoken witness for the rest of his life. over us. While on earth, he described Only after what I like to call ‘Peter’s a Pharisee (the closest thing to an second Pentecost’ did Peter grasp the evangelical in the Jewish world—ask theology of the first Pentecost. After me about it if you question this!) who the conversion of Cornelius, he de- came to the Temple and prayed about clared, ‘I now realize how true it is himself: ‘God, I thank you that I am not that God does not show favouritism like the others’ (Lk 18:11). This state- but accepts men from every nation ment was opposed to the ‘evangel’ who fear him and do what is right’ (after which ‘evangelical’ is named), (Acts 10:34–35) and ‘Can anyone the gospel, which was captured in the keep these people from being bap- other man’s prayer: ‘God, have mercy tized with water? They have received on me, a sinner’ (Lk 18:13). the Holy Spirit just as we have’ (Acts The second judgement comes 10:47). from the risen Lord in his letter to Of course, those examples relate directly to what we are doing here in Bogotá. Listening to the faith sto- theBut churchyou do atnot Laodicea: realize that ‘You you say, are “I ries of other Christian leaders, young amwretched, rich … andpitiful, do poor,not need blind anything.” and na- and old, male and female, is one of ked’ (Rev 3:17). the marks of the Global Christian Our high view of Scripture should Forum. These sharing times are not not keep us from being always will- just to give more people a chance to ing to learn more (Rom 12:1–2). The say something. They are as much and Holy Spirit has many ways to teach deep a theological encounter as the us sound theology, not just the class- superb messages delivered by people room. If we listen, we will often hear like Ruth Padilla DeBorst, who spoke profound truths spoken and lived in before me. places where we did not expect it. I hope that those from older If Scripture is God’s Word, then churches seize the opportunity we should follow Scripture when it here to listen to people from newer teaches us that we often understand churches. I hope those coming from God’s deepest thoughts not just newer churches open their ears wide by quoting them, but through life- for the faith stories of people from changing encounters and experienc- older churches, as their churches may es. be long established but their stories Thanks be to the triune God that are not old! Take as an example my he did not just leave us a holy book 376 Thomas Schirrmacher inspired by the Holy Spirit and reveal- understand his revelation, put it into ing Jesus as Saviour to us, but that he practice in our lives, and grow all the sent the Holy Spirit himself into us, to more in love for our Father in Heaven, understand this book and its divine our Saviour Jesus Christ and the Holy author. Thank God that he uses mul- Spirit. tiple means to help us more deeply ERT (2019) 43:4, 377-381 Books Reviewed Rodney L. Reed (ed.) Jared Compton African Contextual Realities Psalm 110 and the Logic of Hebrews Reviewed by Jem Hovil Reviewed by Abeneazer G. Urga Michael F. Bird and Scott Harrower (eds.) Trinity without Hierarchy: Reclaiming Nicene Orthodoxy in Evangelical Theology Reviewed by Don McLellan Book Reviews ERT (2019) 43:4, 377-378 for scholarship on the African continent. Kenyan nationals authored the lion’s African Contextual Realities share of the articles, with Southern Afri- Rodney L. Reed (ed.) cans and long-term non-African mission partners also contributing. Although the Carlisle: Langham Global Library, 2018 title suggests a work on African realities Pb., 290 pp. more broadly, the Kenyan focus lends Reviewed by Jem Hovil, director, BUILD welcome cohesion to a work that covers Partners; visiting lecturer at East Africa a wide range of issues; I found that that institutions; associate mission partner the papers provide useful interpreta- with BCMS/Crosslinks tive background for one another. One repeated theme related to this conti- African Contextual Realities is an edited nental–regional tension is the question whether ‘African Christian theology’ and those given at the sixth annual confer- ‘the African worldview’ (singular) are encevolume of theof fifteen African papers Society selected of Evangelical from valid categories given the heterogeneity Theology (ASET), held in Nairobi, Kenya of the continent. Various sections of the in 2016. The society and publisher have book address that issue in informative also released Christianity and Suffering: ways. African Perspectives (2017) and Govern- African Contextual Realities is arranged ance and Christian Higher Education in the African Context (2019). A fourth vol- together four papers under the title ume, God and Creation, is due to appear, ‘Contextualisingin three parts. The Theory first part and groupsTheology as will papers from their March 2019 for Africa’. This is foundational con- conference, ‘Forgiveness, Reconciliation tent, with contributions on setting and and Peacemaking’. This is a formidable method. They include Gift Mtukwa’s work rate. The volume reviewed here showcases twins of holiness and mission, followed ASET’s approach: it engages with the byintroductory Johana Gitau’s reflection outstanding on the conjoinedpaper on partial disconnect between the faith re- a theology of spiritual power. Ndung’u ceived through mission endeavours and Ikenye’s elaborate treatment of the the context, and it provides a platform contextualization of pastoral theology 378 Book Reviews comes next, and the section concludes man, mind, will, heart’) and how that with David Ngaruiya’s assessment of the concept can guide Christian universities. The other chapters in this part are nineteenth-century mission work. case studies and evaluations of different significance of Johann Ludwig Krapf’s types of education. They include a phi- an unusual choice; however, it not only losophy of multi-disciplinary Christian providesThat paper background may at first on appear the genesis to be universities; the challenges posed by of the faith in East Africa (a faith that an example of church-based theological needs continual contextualization) but education; an evaluation of six seminar- also offers an outstanding introductory ies and their degree of contextualiza- thumbnail sketch of Krapf and his work. tion; the establishment of Christian This background dovetails nicely with schools; and a critical and timely analy- part two, an issue-based approach to - ‘Addressing African Realities’. Joseph ingly popular area of distance learning. sis of staffing challenges in the increas Galgalo opens with perhaps the stand- Part three skilfully brings themes and out paper of the collection: ‘Syncretism in African Christianity: A Boon or Bane?’ insights from the first two parts to bear Galgalo offers a breathtaking depth of The quality of papers and their bibliog- on one specific area. analysis of this cross-cutting issue, and raphies vary somewhat, but ASET and he presents precise challenges in his the publisher, Langham Global, are to be model example of evangelical practical congratulated for the vital contribution theology. they are making to evangelical study in Africa. So is general editor Rodney Reed, The next article, on dependency, ties who has done a careful and thorough job in well with Galgalo’s, and these two in developing the papers, even managing papers lay the foundation for studies a double-blind peer-review process. on peace building, widow cleansing, religiosity and interfaith relations. All the authors provide well-penned introduc- ERT (2019) 43:4, 378-380 contributions; the papers on peacemak- ingtions and to interfaiththeir topics dialogue and make whet significant one’s Trinity without Hierarchy: appetite for the papers from the most Reclaiming Nicene Orthodoxy in recent ASET conference. Evangelical Theology Hermann Mvula’s contribution on Michael F. Bird and Scott Harrower religiosity is well-constructed and hard- (eds.) hitting, as he deploys a single Old Testa- Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2019 ment event, the story of the golden calf, Pb, 344 pp, indices of biblical to challenge the ubiquitous tendency for references and names, bibliographies religion to become a path to disobedi- with each chapter ence. His analysis has implications well Reviewed by Don McLellan, academic beyond African soil. tutor at Malyon College, Brisbane, Australia of Christian education, exploring praxis inThe various final part ways. stays Daryll within Stanton the domain and We need books like this one, because the Rickson Nkhata’s paper is a biblical and doctrine of the Holy Trinity is the sine theological study of the Old Testament qua non of Christianity but is forever at concept of the lev (Hebrew for ‘the inner

risk of overt or inadvertent modification. Book Reviews 379

Michael Bird and Scott Harrower have that taxis overrides arche is upheld, but been concerned at the apparent slippage not always convincingly. of evangelical thought into semi-Arian- Perhaps by deliberate policy, Bird and ism, particularly in the arguments some Harrower called on women to write the evangelicals have mounted in support of complementarianism. According to com- 6. Patriarchal complementarians may plementarianism, women are created first three chapters, as well as chapter- to ‘complete’ men in the creation order; able, but if the book achieves anything, a frequent corollary of this view is that itfind demonstrates reading these that essays women uncomfort have women should take secondary roles to important things to say in theology that men in the home and in the church. Thus we men need to read. Women were complementarianism is often linked to patriarchy, typically a pejorative term such through our redemption in Christ these days. created as our equals and reaffirmed as Bird and Horrower commissioned a seeking deliberately to see things from - theirJesus, viewpoint. and we males can only benefit by cal scholars to address various aspects A second strong undercurrent is that ofwide-ranging trinitarian dogma,group of the fifteen main evangeli one being trinitarian theology is the key to sound the question of taxis (order) versus biblical interpretation. In other words, if arche (authority). If Jesus subjects we don’t believe in the Trinity, or if our himself to the Father, does this indicate trinitarian theology is unsound, we may his eternal subordination, and if so, does misinterpret the Bible. But this claim this suggest that the Son is not co-equal needs to be nuanced. When we read the with the Father? Space does not permit a summary of them constantly citing Scripture as their each chapter. But one of the book’s over- ultimateworks of authority.the Trinitarian It may Fathers, be asserted we find that they came to trinitarian convictions consensus that ‘the Trinity consists of because they believed that this was what oneall themes God who is to is reaffirmthree distinct the orthodox and equal persons, and the distinctions do not Bible proclaims only one God, but then entail subordination or hierarchy.’ The givesthe Scriptures the statuses teach. of bothSpecifically, distinct the per- book overall ‘constitutes a robust re- sonality and absolute divinity to Father, statement of Trinitarian orthodoxy with Son, and Holy Spirit alike. special attention paid to a non-subordi- This pathway to declaring the trin- nationist and non-hierarchical account ity of three co-equal persons in the of the relationships within the Godhead’, Godhead remains to this day the only and it ‘attempts to wrestle the doctrine reliable method of arriving at trinitarian of the Trinity away from the trenches orthodoxy. The Nicene and Constantino- of American evangelical debates about politan formulations are distillations of gender and authority’ (p. 11). biblical teaching and must be seen as One clear undercurrent, then, is to subject to the authority of Scripture, not emphasize that an orthodox doctrine the reverse. of the Trinity does not endorse any Granted, once the doctrine of the Trinity complementarianism that results in the is established, it makes sense to inter- subordination of women. Whether the pret the whole Bible with the Trinity book achieves this goal is for the reader as a backdrop. This means there is a to judge. In my opinion, the argument certain circularity in evangelical theol- 380 Book Reviews ogy: we read the Bible for theology, and ERT (2019) 43:4, 380-381 then we read that theology back into the Bible. To imply, however, that the Psalm 110 and the Logic of trinitarian theology of the Nicene-Con- Hebrews stantinopolitan Creed is the chief tool Jared Compton of interpretation seems to suggest that London/New York: T&T Clark, 2015 something we must avoid even so much Pb., xiv + 226 pp., appendix, asthe hinting creeds at.are our final authority. That is bibliography, index The arguments here against subordi- Reviewed by Abeneazer G. Urga, Ph.D. nationism and homoianism (that is, candidate, Columbia International the view of Christ as of similar but not University, Columbia, SC, USA the same essence to God) rest on the Jared Compton, a pastor at CrossWay observation, based on careful biblical Community Church in Bristol, Wiscon- studies, that the persons of the Trinity sin, USA, observes that the use of the Old are co-equal and eternal. It is intriguing, - ment of Psalm 110, in the structure of HebrewsTestament, is anda neglected specifically area. the He deploy points ‘subordinationist’then, that the writers text find in the it necessary NT. Have to out that he is extending three pieces of theyfind theologicalnot heard of explanations Occam’s razor? for every previous research, relying on Gert J. C. Theology is at its most profound when Jordaan and Pieter Nel’s ideas, which in it is uncomplicated. Liberalism does not turn build on George Wesley Buchanan’s like paradoxes and believes that where proposal that Hebrews depends on they appear, they must be solved. But Psalm 110 for its exposition. evangelicalism accepts that the Bible is Chapter 2 delineates Jesus’ Messianic full of them. One of these is that Jesus, demonstrably co-equal with the Father described in Hebrews 1–2. Hebrews in the Bible, demonstrably also submit- 1:5–14enthronement expresses and that his Jesus’salvific resurrec- death as ted to the Father’s will. Attempts to prove or disprove subordination from the successor of the Davidic throne. tion from the dead qualifies him to be these simple facts will never convince anyone who is determined to hold the OT promises, and Psalm 110 highlights Hence, Jesus becomes the fulfiller of the opposite opinion. For this reason, some this fact. In Hebrews 2:5–9, the author of Hebrews uses Psalm 8 to solve ‘the Trinity without Hierarchy con- Adam-problem’ by explaining that Jesus vincing and others will not. will find reclaimed the place of Adam via death. In any case, this book is worth read- Psalm 110 is also employed to indi- ing. Its quality is mostly good though cate that the crowned Jesus has solved sometimes patchy, and its arguments do the problem of sin. Hebrews 2:10–18 not always convince, but its raison d’être explicates the necessity of Jesus’ death is sound. to tackle the Adam-problem. Jesus’ suffering also made possible spiritual solidarity between Jesus and God’s sons. The only link Compton locates to argue

the term argiereus. for the influence of Psalm 110:4 here is Book Reviews 381

a suffering Messiah or the absence of Psalm 110 in Hebrews 5–7. In Hebrews Jesus’ intervention while believers were Chapter 3 discusses the significance of enduring severe suffering. - Compton ably demonstrates that Psalm pointed,5:1–10, Jesus and he meets was theexpected qualifications to bring - for the office of priesthood: he was ap tle’s expositional arguments. In many Here Psalm 110:4 presents the fact that instances,110 plays ahe significant is on point role in detectingin the epis the sacrifices for sins (Pss 2:7; 110:4). of a priest. Hebrews 7:1–10 elucidates author’s presentation of Jesus’ superior theJesus superiority must be human of Jesus’ to priesthoodfulfil the role influence of Psalm 110:1 and 4 in the compared to that of the Levites, for he There are some matters of contention, is of the order of Melchizedek. Here the however.priesthood and his better sacrifice. author of Hebrews gleans from Genesis First, Compton understands the quota- 14:17–20 and does not explicitly refer- tions from Deuteronomy 32:43 and ence Psalm 110:4. Hebrews 7:11–28 Psalm 102:25–27 to be mainly mes- expounds that the Melchizedekian priest sianic, rather than referring to the replaced the Levitical one since the superiority of Christ over the angels old order had not provided perfection. because of his divinity. But his assertion Psalm 110:4 attests to Jesus’ superiority is not convincing, because the author because only Jesus delivers perfection. has already established the fact that In Chapter 4, Compton argues that the Jesus is divine in v. 3. Contra Compton, author also employs Psalm 110 to guide the author argues for the superiority of the structure of his argument in He- Jesus not merely based on his mes- brews 8–10. Hebrews 8:1–13 presents sianic enthronement but also based Jesus as a priest in the heavenly sanctu- on his divinity. This is even supported ary and as the mediator of a better cov- by Psalm 110:1, where the Masoretic enant. Hebrews 9:1–10 reveals that the Text indicates that the conversation is between divine beings (using Yahweh no explicit quotation of or allusion to and Adonai), making Psalm 110:1 about PsalmOld Covenant 110 is present, cult is deficient. Compton Although argues both messianic enthronement and Jesus’ that the exposition of the inadequacy of divinity simultaneously. Second, Compton’s argument that need for a priest with a better covenant. Psalm 110 is the central OT passage Hebrewsthe first covenant 9:11–28 inexpounds this unit that betrays Jesus’ the throughout the expositional arguments of Hebrews underplays the very vital access to God possible, for he delivered citation of Jeremiah 31 in Hebrews forgiveness.superior sacrifice Compton of himself states madethat though better 8–10. At times, Compton seems to push Psalm 110 is absent here, it has more other OT quotations unnaturally to the footing than Jeremiah 31. Finally, He- periphery in order to place Psalm 110 at brews 10:1–18 relates that the law was centre stage. Despite these concerns, I commend the In Chapter 5, Compton summarizes his book to students and professors alike insufficient to bring about perfection. - if they wish to delve into studying the nation that the readers of the epistle priesthood of Christ, the use of the OT in werefindings struggling and posits with the either possible the ideaexpla of Hebrews, or the structure of the epistle. ERT (2019) 43:4, 382-384

Index for Evangelical Review of Theology, Volume 43

Articles

Incarnations, Christian and Hindu: Christology in Conversation with StevenVaishnavism D. Boyer ...... 17

Can Followers of Christ Have Sexual Identities? ...... 205 GDregoryavid R. D Cunaetzoles Evangelism, Social Media, and the Mum Effect ...... 138

Making Evangelicals Great Again? American Evangelicals in the Age of BrantleyTrump . W.. .G asaway...... 293

Resistance to Japanese Nationalism: Christian Responses to Proposed SuryaConstitutional Harefa Amendments in Japan ...... 330 Jim Harries Practising Mission and Development in a Multi-lingual African Context of Jostling for Money and Power ...... 152 Thomas K. Johnson Law and Gospel: The Hermeneutical and Homiletical Key to Reformation Theology and Ethics ...... 53 Thomas K. Johnson The Rejection of God’s Natural Moral Law: Losing the Soul of Western Civilization ...... 243 Michael King, Bob Jamison and Bruce Barron The Little Seminary That Could: Trinity School for Ministry ...... 71 Vhumani Magezi Doing Practical, Public Theology in the Context of South Africa’s Decolonization Discourse ...... 312 Gerald R. McDermott Can Evangelicals Support Christian Zionism? ...... 253 Ronald T. Michener Face-to-face with Levinas: (Ev)angelical Hospitality and (De)constructive Ethics? ...... 112

Kevin Vanhoozer’s Theodramatic Improvisation and the Jerusalem BrentCouncil Neely of Acts 15 ...... 5 Annual Index 383

Stephen Noll Image-Bearers for God: Does Biblical Language for Man Matter? . . . 196 Kristina Pickett The Emerging Church and Traditional Christian Understanding of Human Sexuality and the Family ...... 230 Nicholas Rudolph Quient ‘Thou Hast Forsaken Thy First Love’: Soteriological Contingency in the Book of Revelation ...... 167 Johannes Reimer Frangelism: Evangelizing by Storytelling ...... 263 Samuel Richmond Saxena Otherness and Embrace: Towards a Theology of Hospitality in the Indian Context ...... 100 Samuel Richmond Saxena . . . . Context ...... 345 ThomasInfluence Schirrmacher of the Bible on Care for Creation: Insight from the Indian Wilhelm Lütgert and his Studies of the Apostles’ Opponents: Aspiring to a Better Understanding of the New Testament Letters ...... 40 Thomas Schirrmacher ...... 181 Thomas Schirrmacher Complementarity and Its Significance for Biblical Theology The Doxological Dimension of Ethics ...... 268 Thomas Schirrmacher How to Deal with Displaced and Threatened People Groups ...... 359 Thomas Schirrmacher Peter’s Second Pentecost ...... 372

Designed for Flourishing ...... 217 Joshua Steely Learning from African Theologians and Their Hermeneutics: Some Hans-Georg Wuench ...... 26

Reflections from a German Evangelical Theologian Release from Batara Kala’s Grip: A Biblical Approach to Ruwatan from Panchathe Perspective W. Yahya of Paul’s Letter to the Ephesians ...... 126

Book Reviews Michael F. Bird and Scott Harrower (eds.), Trinity without Hierarchy: Reclaiming Nicene Orthodoxy in Evangelical Theology ...... 378 384 Annual Index

Hans Boersma, Scripture as Real Presence: Sacramental Exegesis in the Early Church ...... 89 Christopher A. Castaldo, Talking with Catholics about the Gospel: A Guide for Evangelicals ...... 189 Jared Compton, Psalm 110 and the Logic of Hebrews ...... 380 Keith Ferdinando, The Message of Spiritual Warfare ...... 95 Dario Fernandez-Morera, The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise: Muslims, Christians, and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain ...... 90 Mike Higton and Jim Fodor (eds.), The Routledge Companion to the Practice of Christian Theology ...... 92 Raymond Ibrahim, Sword and Scimitar: Fourteen Centuries of War between Islam and the West ...... 90 John Jusu (ed.), Africa Study Bible ...... 94 Stephanie A. Lowery, Identity and Ecclesiology: Their Relationship among Select African Theologians ...... 96 Jonathan W. McIntosh, The Flame Imperishable: Tolkien, St. Thomas, and the Metaphysics of Faerie ...... 191 R. W. L. Moberly, The Bible in a Disenchanted Age: The Enduring Possibility of Christian Faith ...... 188 Nancy R. Pearcey, Love Thy Body: Answering Hard Questions about Life and Sexuality ...... 383 Rodney L. Reed (ed.), African Contextual Realities ...... 377 Kenneth R. Ross, J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu and Todd M. Johnson, eds., Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa ...... 381 Donald Sinnema, Christian Moser and Herman J. Selderhuis, eds., Acta et Documenta Synodi Nationalis Dordrechtanae 1618–1619, vol. 1 ...... 377 Philip G. Ziegler, Militant Grace: The Apocalyptic Turn and the Future of Christian Theology ...... 87