BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

FACULTY OF COMMERCE

DEPARTMENT OF INTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY

TOPIC

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF ILLEGAL GOLD MINING: THE CASE STUDY OF MUDZI DISTRICT (2012 TO 2014)

BY

TINEYI PROGRESS MHENE

B1233558

THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION IN POLICE AND SECURITY STUDIES DEGREE AT BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

JUNE 2015

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RELEASE FORM

Registration Number: B1233558

Dissertation Title: The Socio-Economic Implications of Illegal Gold Mining. [The Case Study of Mudzi District] 2012-2014.

Year granted: 2015

Permission is granted to the Bindura University of Science Education Library and the department of Security and Intelligence to produce copies of this Dissertation in an effort it deems necessary for academic use only.

Signature of student……………………………………………………………………

Permanent address: Minerals and Border Control Unit ZRP Nyamapanda

Date signed……………………………………………………………………………..

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APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Bindura University of Science Education for acceptance of a dissertation entitled “THE SOCIO- ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF ILLEGAL GOLD MINING. THE CASE STUDY OF MUDZI DISTRICT 2012-2014” submitted by B1233558 in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Bachelor of Business Administration (Honours) Degree in Police and Security Studies.

……………………… ...………………………… ……………………...... Student’s Name Signature Date

……………………….. ………………………….. ……………………...... Name of Supervisor Signature Date

…………………………… …………………………...... ……………………… Name of Chairman Signature Date

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DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP

I, Tineyi Progress Mhene, declare that this research project herein is my original work and has not been copied or extracted from previous source without due acknowledgement of the source.

………………………………… ……………...... …... Signature Date

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DEDICATION

This research project is dedicated to my late father and mother, Jefter and Annacleta Mhene, whose greatest desires in life were to see their children learn and succeed and to my son, Perfect Tatenda Mhene, for always giving me the will and zeal to move on in life.

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ABSTRACT

This research explores the social and economic impacts caused by illegal gold mining in Mudzi District. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) acknowledges that illegal gold mining and panning provides the means of livelihood for more than 13 million people in the developing world. Whilst there are several potential socio- economic benefits that accrue from these informal gold mining activities, there are numerous negative impacts arising as a result of such mining activities. In this study the researcher sought to establish the main causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District, how illegal gold mining activities affect society and economy?, how effective are the laws governing gold mining in Zimbabwe?, and what measures can be adopted to mitigate problems caused by illegal gold mining by employing descriptive and explorative survey methods. In so doing, the researcher used a hybrid of research tools such as questionnaires, interviews, observations and focus groups to solicit the much needed data from a sample of 96 respondents. The respondents were classified into three main groups namely; illegal miners, stakeholders, and police officers. In answer to the research questions, the study found the escalating rate of unemployment as a drive behind the increase of illegal gold miners. Lack of police presence, motivated offenders, attractive targets and quick source of income were established as the other main causes. These unregulated mining activities result in risk accumulation processes through contamination and pollution of water sources. Other socio-economic effects were established as increase in; prostitution, violent related cases, disease outbreak, economic crimes of money laundering, corruption and fraud. In light of these implications, the study recommends that penalties should be reviewed to deter offenders. Health education and campaigns should be conducted at and around mining camps. Police operations should be increased at mining sites.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank the Almighty God for guiding me up to this day and for granting me the strength to see this research project through. I could be nowhere without his profound and undying love.

I also wish to extend my sincere gratitude to the Commissioner General of Police, A. Chihuri and the entire command of the Zimbabwe Republic Police for granting me the opportunity to further my studies.

Special mention goes to my supervisor, Mr C.P. Chikomba for instilling confidence in me and making me realise the best of my potential. His patience is highly appreciated for I can only compare it to that of a father monitoring steadfast the progress of an infant through the stages of seating, crawling and walking.

I would like to also thank the entire members of staff of Bindura University of Science Education Faculty of Commerce, in general and the Department of Intelligence and Security in particular for imparting the invaluable knowledge that became valuable for the success of this research project.

Last, but by no means the least, I wish to thank the entire Police and Security Studies students for their assistance in mutual and material respect. I specifically acknowledge with heartfelt gratitude the overwhelming love and support I received from my colleagues, Roy Matandare, Patrick Bereson, and Oscar Chikwaya.

.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS RELEASE FORM ...... ii

APPROVAL FORM ...... iii

DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP ...... iv

DEDICATION ...... v

ABSTRACT ...... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... viii

LIST OF TABLES ...... xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xv

CHAPTER I ...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.0 Introduction ...... 1

1.1 Background to the study ...... 1

1.2 Statement of the problem ...... 4

1.3 Research objectives ...... 4

1.4 Research questions ...... 4

1.5 Assumptions ...... 5

1.6 Significance of the study ...... 5

1.6.2 To the community ...... 5

1.6.3 To the university ...... 6

1.6.4 To the researcher ...... 6

1.7 Delimitations ...... 6

1.7.1 Scope delimitation ...... 6

1.7.2 Spatial delimitation ...... 6

1.7.4 Temporal delimitation ...... 7

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1.8 Limitations ...... 7

1.9 Definition of terms ...... 7

1.10 Summary ...... 8

CHAPTER II ...... 10

LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 10

2.0 Introduction ...... 10

2.1 Theoretical aspects ...... 10

2.2 Criminological and sociological theories ...... 10

2.2.1 Strain theory ...... 10

2.2.2 Rational choice theory ...... 12

2.2.3 Routine activities theory ...... 12

2.3 Legal Framework ...... 13

2.3.1 Mines and Minerals Act (1961, Chapter 21:05) ...... 13

2.3.2 Gold Trade Act Chapter 21:03 (1940) ...... 14

2.3.3 Environmental Management Act Chapter 20:27 (2002) ...... 15

2.4 Empirical evidence ...... 16

2.5 Justification of the study ...... 18

2.6 Summary ...... 19

CHAPTER III ...... 19

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 19

3.0 Introduction ...... 19

3.1 Research design ...... 19

3.1.1Qualitative research...... 20

3.1.2 Quantitative research...... 21

3.2 Target population ...... 21

3.3 Sampling technique ...... 21

3.4 Sample size ...... 22

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3.5 Research instruments ...... 24

3.5.1 Questionnaire ...... 25

3.5.2 Semi Structured Interviews ...... 25

3.5.3 Observations ...... 26

3.5.4 Focus Group ...... 26

3.6 Data collection procedures ...... 27

3.7 Validity of data ...... 28

3.8 Reliability of data ...... 29

3.9 Data presentation and analysis ...... 29

3.10 Ethical considerations ...... 30

3.11 Summary ...... 31

CHAPTER IV ...... 31

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION ...... 31

4.0 Introduction ...... 31

4.1 Response rate ...... 32

4.1.1Questionnaire response rate ...... 32

4.1.2 Interview response rate ...... 32

4.1.3Focus Group Response Rate ...... 33

4.2 Demographic information of the respondents ...... 33

4.2.1 Gender composition ...... 33

4.2.2 Age range ...... 34

4.2.3 Level of education ...... 35

4.2.4 Illegal gold miners profile ...... 35

4.2.5 Police Officers Profile ...... 36

4.2.6 Stakeholders Profile ...... 37

4.3 Extent of illegal gold mining ...... 38

4.3.1Estimated number of miners in the main mining zones in Mudzi district 39

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4.3.2 Most prevalent gold type...... 40

4.3.4 Estimates of Daily Gold Production per individual ...... 42

4.3.5 Estimates of the yearly production value of gold ...... 43

4.4 Causes of illegal gold mining ...... 44

4.5 Social and Economic Implications of Illegal Gold Mining ...... 48

4.5.1 Increase in prostitution ...... 49

4.5.2 Contamination of drinking water ...... 50

4.5.3 Increases in violent related cases ...... 50

4.5.4 Abuse of young local girls ...... 50

4.5.5 Theft of commodities from villagers ...... 51

4.5.6 Increase in vending activities ...... 52

4.5.7 Widespread disease outbreak ...... 52

4.5.8 School Dropout ...... 53

4.5.9 Alleviates poverty ...... 54

4.5.10 Robs the state of its revenues ...... 54

4.5.11 Money remains in the informal sector ...... 54

4.5.12 Makes commodities relatively expensive near mining sites ...... 54

4.5.13 Increase in money laundering ...... 55

4.5.14 Increase in corruption ...... 55

4.5.15 Increase in fraud ...... 55

4.6 Legislative and regulatory legal framework ...... 55

4.6.1 Effectiveness of Legislative System ...... 56

4.6.2 Evaluation of the Penal System ...... 58

4.7 Suggested solutions to illegal gold mining ...... 59

4.8 Summary ...... 60

CHAPTER V ...... 61

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 61

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5.0 Introduction ...... 61

5.1 Summary of research findings ...... 61

5.2 Conclusions ...... 63

5.3 Recommendations ...... 64

5.4 Areas for Further Study ...... 65

REFERENCES ...... 65

APPENDIX ‘A’ ...... 70

APPENDIX ‘B’ ...... 71

APPENDIX ‘C’ ...... 75

APPENDIX ‘D’ ...... 79

APPENDIX ‘E’ ...... 83

APPENDIX ‘F’ ...... 84

APPENDIX ‘G’ ...... 85

APPENDIX ‘H’ ...... 86

APPENDIX ‘I’ ...... 87

APPENDIX ‘J’ ...... 89

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LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Merton’s typology of modes of individual adaptation ...... 11 Table 3.2: Research instruments used in study ...... 24 Table 4.1: Percentage response rate for questionnaires ...... 32 Table 4.2: Percentage response rate for interviews...... 32 Table 4.3: Percentage response rate for focus groups ...... 33 Table 4.4: Age distribution ...... 34 Table 4.5: Level of education ...... 35 Table 4.6: Duration in illegal gold mining ...... 35 Table 4.7: Nature of engagement ...... 36 Table 4.8: Duration of employment ...... 36 Table 4.9: Nature of duties ...... 37 Table 4.10: Position held ...... 37 Table 4.11: Employment status ...... 37 Table 4.12: Estimates of illegal gold miners in each of the mining zones ...... 39 Table 4.13: Annual gold recoveries ...... 41 Table 4.14: Estimates of the production value of gold ...... 43 Table 4.15: Main drivers of illegal gold mining ...... 44 Table 4.16: Socio-economic implications ...... 48 Table 4.17: Suggested and possible solutions to illegal gold mining ...... 60

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Model of routine activity theory ...... 13 Figure 2: Distribution according to gender ...... 34 Figure 3: Map of the main mining zones in Mudzi District ...... 39 Figure 4: Most prevalent gold type ...... 41 Figure 5: Estimated daily gold production per individual ...... 43 Figure 6: Innovation mode of deviant behaviour ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 7: Contamination of Rwenya river ...... 50 Figure 8: Vending activities at Manyuchi site, Makaha ...... 52 Figure 9: Frequency of home and family visit by miners ...... 53 Figure 10: Effectiveness of Gold Trade Act ...... 56 Figure 11: Effectiveness of Mines and Minerals Act ...... 57 Figure 12: Effectiveness of the Environmental Management Act ...... 58 Figure 13: Evaluation of the penal system ...... 59

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LIST OF APPENDICES

INTRODUCTORY LETTER ...... 70 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ILLEGAL GOLD MINERS ...... 71 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STAKEHOLDERS ...... 75 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR POLICE OFFICERS ...... 79 INTERVIEW GUIDE ...... 83 OBSERVATION GUIDE ...... 84 FOCUS GROUP GUIDE ...... 85 RESEARCH APPROVAL LETTER: BUSE ...... 86 RESEARCH APPROVAL LETTER: ZRP ...... 88 SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATOR ...... 89

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction This chapter covers the background of the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions, importance of the study, assumptions, delimitations and limitations of the study.

1.1 Background to the study Gold mining and trade in Zimbabwe pre-existed colonisation by Britain in 1890 (Masiya, Mlambo, and Mungoni, 2012). Evidence highlights that gold production and trade was vital for the pre-colonial Zimbabwe states namely Great Zimbabwe, Khami and Mutapa (Schmidt, 1988). Colonial policies which forced Africans (natives) into wage labour accounted for the death of the craft of artisanal gold mining. Some pieces of legislations were also enacted by the colonisers such as the Gold Trade Act Chapter 21:03 (1940) and Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 21:05 (1961), which then redefined artisanal gold mining practice by Africans into illegal gold mining practice.

Upon gaining independence in 1980, several new small-scale mines were established through support from the Ministry of Mines and the state owned Zimbabwe Mining Development Corporation (ZMDC). The number of registered claims increased from 1,000 to 10,000 between 1983 and 1990 (Masiya et al, 2012).

In the early 1990s the government started to actively encourage artisanal mining. New Mining Regulations were imposed in 1990 that ceded powers to Rural District Councils (RDCs) to license artisanal miners and regulate environmental impacts (Mawowa, 2013). The Ministry of Mines was assisted by the University of Zimbabwe’s engineering department in providing technical training for artisanal miners (Masiya et al, ibid). According to Danielson (in Hilson, 2009), the political logic was: ‘Thousands 1 of artisanal and small miners are less of a threat to public order than thousands of the unemployed’. From 1996, Fidelity Printers, a Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ)’s gold-buying agency, started to accept and purchase gold in small amounts. Small miners were offered relatively high prices for gold deliveries but police raids on ‘illegal’ artisanal mining activities were common, though according to Mawowa (2013) the raids were not as intense as in the post-2000 period.

In 2002, Shoko estimated that 500,000 people were active in the gold sector. Years that followed (crisis period), were marked by government policies such as price controls, fixing foreign exchange and gold prices. According to Hilson (2009), inflation rose to become the second worst in world history thus rendering the country’s payment and exchange system dysfunctional. This led to the emergent of parallel/informal market since literally everything ceased to be available on the formal market, from meat to fuel to foreign currency and gold (Mawowa, ibid).

In 2006 the government enacted the Environmental Management Act (EMA) Chapter 20:27, in the process undoing several elements of the 1990 mining regulations mentioned earlier. This was after the discovery of the Chiadzwa diamonds fields and various gold fields across the country which saw an increase in unregistered artisanal miners. Most of the artisanal miners lacked geological information of the ore bodies thereby just digging everywhere and causing devastating effects on the environment as clearly remarked by Minister Nhema (in Mambondiyani, 2008) that, “We have collectively come to the conclusion that the environmental costs emanating from the panning activities far outweigh the benefits accruing to the panners”.

Some of the changes in the EMA included the illegalisation of river-bed gold panning and regulations banning Rural District Councils from issuing mining permits and this inevitably led to the resurgence of illegal mining (Mawowa, ibid). This legislation was to a greater extent successful in its efforts to regulate the negative environmental impacts of artisanal mining. However, its enforcement met challenges in compliance from the artisanal miners (registered and unregistered per se). In 2007, at an Extraordinary Session of ZANU (PF) Congress in Harare, the governor of the RBZ , Dr Gono by then, estimated that more than 15 tons of gold (worth over US$400m),

2 diamonds worth over US$800 million and other minerals worth about US$200 million were smuggled out of the country annually between 2002 and 2007.

The year 2008, which according to Masiya et al (2012) was the lowest point for Zimbabwe’s mining industry, saw illegal mining reaching its highest point since pre- colonisation. This was mainly due to closure of most mining giants due to non-payment of cash in lieu of gold deliveries by the RBZ. According to the Zimbabwe Independent (18 June 2010), by the time gold trade was liberalised in 2009, gold miners were owed more than US$30 million by the RBZ. Generally, since then, Zimbabwe has not fully recovered from the social and economic challenges emanating from the crisis period, mentioned earlier.

Mudzi District is located in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe and to the North Eastern boundary with the neighboring Mozambique and is 163Km away from the capital city, Harare. The District covers an approximate area of 4208.96 Km2 (ZimStat, 2012). The area falls in the climatic Region 5 of Zimbabwe and as such has extreme hot and dry weather conditions. According to the MMCZ list of Minerals Found in Zimbabwe Report (2014), Mudzi District is endowed with vast mineral deposits such as caesium, copper, dolomite, garnet, gold, kainite, limestone, lithium, manganese, sapphire, tantalite, tin, tungsten and vermiculite. Generally, the illegal miners in Mudzi District mainly target gold and tantalum owing to the low capital injection required and high rewards that accrue from extracting these two minerals. As evidenced by the ZRP Nyamapanda Criminal Record Book (2014), panners mainly operate along Rwenya, Mudzi and Mazowe River where they extract alluvial gold whilst unlawful mining for reef gold is dotted around the district.

For academics this presents the ideal opportunity to examine the fundamental and underlying aspects of illegal gold mining and establish the social implications of illegal gold mining activities to Mudzi District, in particular and the economic implications to the nation, in general. It is also the intention of the researcher to provide policy recommendations that are founded on data-driven evidence obtained from this study.

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1.2 Statement of the problem There is a general public outcry over the social and economic challenges brought about by the vast illegal gold mining activities perpetrated in Mudzi District. Generally, it is feared that the Government of Zimbabwe is losing a lot of revenue as some of the gold is traded to foreigners and smuggled out into neighbouring Mozambique with no proceeds ever reaching the fiscus. This is further compounded by the fact that these mining syndicates are not levied any tax in this risky but lucrative venture. According to the ZRP Nyamapanda Criminal Record Book (2014) it has been noted with great concern that there has been an increase in reported incidents of serious fighting amongst the mining syndicates, theft of livestock and food stuffs by the illegal miners, and cases of prostitution and infidelity at and around the mining sites. In general, there has been talk about school children dropping out or missing school to join in the illegal gold mining acts. This has ultimately prompted the researcher to examine the magnitude of the illicit gold mining activities taking place in Mudzi district and the social and economic implications of such mining acts.

1.3 Research objectives The general objective was to get insight into the magnitude and extent of illegal gold mining activities in the Mudzi District and specifically:  To determine the main causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District  To establish the effects of illegal gold mining activities to society and the economy of the country  To evaluate the effectiveness of Zimbabwe’s legislative and regulatory legal framework to prevent and combat illegal gold mining  To make appropriate recommendations to help combat illegal gold mining in Mudzi District in particular and the country in general

1.4 Research questions The present study seeks to address the following questions:  What is the extent of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District?  What are the main causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District?

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 How do illegal gold mining activities affect society and the economy of the country?  How effective are the laws governing gold mining in Zimbabwe?  What measures can be adopted to mitigate problems caused by illegal gold mining in Mudzi District in particular and the country in general?

1.5 Assumptions Going into the study, the assumptions of the research were that Mudzi District is a fair representation of the rest of the districts across Zimbabwe. Additionally, the study assumed that the chosen respondents are a fair representation of the whole population in Mudzi District. Furthermore, the research assumed that respondents would answer questions truthfully and provide accurate information. It was also assumed that the chosen respondents would be cooperative throughout the duration of the study.

1.6 Significance of the study In the main, this research seeks to make a contribution in the area of economic crime of illegal gold mining in the Mudzi District of Zimbabwe. This area of study is in the opinion of the researcher under researched and it is felt the research will provide a framework for better security management of mining activities in Zimbabwe as well as benefit the following;

1.6.1 To the ZRP It is anticipated that the study should be useful in that the findings and recommendations will help the ZRP in coming up with informed decisions to address illegal mining issues.

1.6.2 To the community The research raises awareness to the concerned society, through focus and group interviews, on the possible risks and hazards the community is facing. The sound knowledge of these hazards and risks helps the community to develop coping strategies that provide local solutions to the local problems emanating from illegal gold mining.

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1.6.3 To the university The research will form a basis of practical reference material for future university students pursuing similar research.

1.6.4 To the researcher The study will satisfy the researcher’s curiosity as well as expand knowledge to same in the field of policing mineral and cross border crimes. Above all, the research will set a foundation and stepping stone for the researcher who wishes to do more researches in future.

1.7 Delimitations

1.7.1 Scope delimitation This research is anchored on the causes of illegal gold mining activities and the socio- economic implications of such activities to Mudzi District in particular and Zimbabwe in general.

1.7.2 Spatial delimitation The study was confined to Mudzi District in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe. Gozi, Makaha, Katsande, Suswe, and Chiunye communal areas were chosen for the study out of 18 wards in the district. These areas are a hub of illegal gold mining activities ranging from alluvial to reef gold extraction on an estimated area covering 26.6 hactares.

1.7.3 Demographical delimitation Both male and female participants were adopted since both sexes are involved in the unlawful gold mining activities either directly or indirectly. The study targeted the 15 to 55 years age group since it is the active age group.

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1.7.4 Temporal delimitation The study covered a period of three years dating back from the 1st of January 2012 to the 31st of December 2014.

1.8 Limitations Illegal gold mining has not been extensively researched in Mudzi District in the past as such secondary and statistical data necessary in the study for comparison purposes was not readily and easily available. Government Agencies also have the discretion over which data to provide hence the researcher failed to obtain information from Ministry of Mines and Development such as the number of registered miners and gold concentration sites in Mudzi District. The researcher also faced challenges such as budgetary constraints which impeded the researcher from exploring the whole study area as intended. Another setback was that the two focus groups held which did not fully generate the intended information since they were at times occasioned by finger pointing and unproductive arguments between the locals (stakeholders) and illegal gold miners.

1.9 Definition of terms The following general definitions will feature in this paper throughout;

Alluvial gold: According to the Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 21:05 (1961), means any accumulation of sand, gravel or clay deposited by surface-water containing gold

Artisanal miner: According Hentschel et al (2003) means an illegal or informal or a registered poorly skilled small-scale miner who uses traditional tools on small claims and obtains low levels of production.

Korokoza: A mining lingo which generally refers to a person who illegally mines for minerals or pan for gold

Mining: The science, technique, and business of mineral discovery and exploitation and practically includes opencast work, quarrying, alluvial dredging, and combined operations, including surface and underground attack and ore treatment (infomine dictionary, Online) .

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Panning: the process of separating gold grains from gravel by washing the contents with water (Kusi-Ampofo and Boachie-Yiadom, 2012)

Reef gold: According to the Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 21:05 (1961), means any form of gold ore deposit contained within defined boundaries occurring in the earth’s crust that has been deposited in the enclosing country rocks

Socio-economic: relating to or concerned with the interaction of social and economic factors (Concise Oxford Dictionary, 1998)

Abbreviations and acronyms AIDS: Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome

CMZ: Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe

EMA: Environmental Management Agency

MBCU: Minerals and Border Control Unit

MMCZ: Minerals Marketing Corporation of Zimbabwe

RBZ: Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe

ZASMC: Zimbabwe Artisanal and Small Scale for Sustainable Mining Council

Zim Asset: Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation

Zim Stat: Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency

ZIMRA: Zimbabwe Revenue Authority

ZMDC: Zimbabwe Mining Development Corporation

ZRP: Zimbabwe Republic Police Service

1.10 Summary This first chapter covered the problem and its setting through areas such as introduction, background, statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, assumptions,

8 significance of the study, delimitations, limitations and definition of terms. Chapter 2 will deal with literature review while chapter 3 will deal with research methodology. Chapter 4 will cover data presentation, analysis and interpretation whilst chapter 5 covers conclusions and recommendations

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction This chapter discusses theoretical and conceptual aspects of the study. Criminological and sociological theories, legal framework and empirical evidence will all be covered in this chapter.

2.1 Theoretical aspects The researcher employed triangulation or mixed theory since both descriptive and exploratory researches were adopted. The researcher opted for theoretical triangulation since the phenomenon of the crime of illegal gold mining under investigation was looked at from a combination of different theoretical perspectives which include criminological and socio-economic theories. This helps in clearly deriving the causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District and, in turn, how such illegal activities impact on society and the economy. Triangulation method also enhances confidence in the ensuing findings (Jupp, Davies and Franis, 2000).

2.2 Criminological and sociological theories There are various theories or proponents that attempt to explain the cause of crime. Among them strain theory, rational choice theory and routine activity theory, to mention just a few. These will be evaluated to establish how they influence the economic crime of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District as elaborated herefrom:

2.2.1 Strain theory Merton (1910-2002) assumes that people are law-abiding but when under great pressure will resort to crime. He describes this pressure as emanating from a disparity between goals and means. Merton (in Adler et al, 2007) posits that all members of society subscribe to one set of cultural values that of the middle class. This theory emphasises

10 the importance of the two elements in any society which Merton (1968) identified as: (1) cultural aspirations, or goals that people envisage as worth striving for; and (2) institutionalised means or acceptable ways to attain desired ends.

Merton (in Adler, ibid) argues that if a society is to be stable, then these two elements must be reasonably well integrated. Thus there should be means for individuals to attain the goals that are of importance to them (Lilly, Cullen and Ball, 2007). Disparity between goals and means, according to Merton (in Adler, 2007), fosters frustration which then leads to strain.

Merton (1968) noted that different ways exists for people to resolve the strains generated from the inability to achieve success. He then developed a classic typology of five modes of adoption as shown in table 2.1 below.

Table 2.1: Merton’s typology of modes of individual adaptation

Modes of Adaption Culture Goals Institutionalised Means Conformity + + Innovation + - Ritualism - + Retreatism - - Rebellion ± ± Source: Merton (1968) KEY: + signifies acceptance; - signifies rejection; ± signifies rejection and substitution

Of importance to this study is the innovation mode of adaptation in which individuals continue to accept the goal of economic success but since they have few legitimate means of achieving them, they reject the means of working and undertake new means to achieve success (Barkan, 2012). Adler et al (2007) concurs that one of the most important middle class values is economic success and argues that since lower-class persons do not have legitimate means to reach this goal, they turn to illegitimate means in desperation. This shall be contrasted with the current research study to see whether the theory can be contextualized to illegal gold mining activities in Mudzi district. 11

2.2.2 Rational choice theory This theory was largely popularised by the works of Cornish and Clarke (1986) and Becker (1968). The theory assumes that potential offenders decide on whether to perpetrate crime after carefully considering the possible rewards (personal situation) and risks (situational factors), (Lilly et al, 2007). An individual commits crime after deciding that the rewards outweigh the risks and does not commit crime after deciding that the risks outweigh the rewards (Barkan, 2012). In making the decisions, the reasoning criminal takes into account several factors such as: (1) possible opportunities for earning money from legitimate occupations; (2) the amount of legitimate money they may earn; (3) the amount of money they might gain from committing crime; (4) the possibility of being arrested for committing crime; (5) the possibility of being punished if arrested; (6) the seriousness of the expected punishment (Barkan, ibid).

This theory is important in that it reminds potential victims and law custodians that criminals do make choices and that criminal behaviour is more likely if opportunities for it exist, hence these opportunities must be addressed for crime to be reduced. This theory has, however, been criticised for exaggerating the rationality of criminal offenders (Barkan, 2012:121). The research will link this theory to the present study to evaluate how illegal gold miners make rational decisions in committing this economic crime as well as how these opportunities available to the illegal miners, if any, can be addressed.

2.2.3 Routine activities theory Routine activities theory was introduced by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson (1979) and it assumes that crime is more likely to occur when the following three factors are simultaneously present; (1) motivated offenders, (2) attractive targets, (3) an absence of guardianship (such as police, bystanders, and even a dog). Cohen and Felson (in Barkan, 2012)agree that for a crime to occur, offenders, targets and the absence of guardians must converge at the same time and in the same location. This convergence in time and space is illustrated in figure 1.

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Figure 1: Model of routine activity theory (Adapted from Adler, Mueller & Laufer (2007) Criminology. McGraw-Hill, New York)

Routine activity theory is essential in that it explains important aspects such as differences in crime rates among different categories of people and among different locations (Barkan, 2012). The theory also explains the aspects of changes in crime rates over time. The theory, in one possible problem, has been criticised for ignoring factors that motivate offenders to commit crime (Akers and Sellers, 2009). The researcher will evaluate how these three variables promote opportunism and cause offenders to commit the economic crime of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District and beyond in Zimbabwe.

2.3 Legal Framework There are various pieces of legislation aimed at curbing illegal mining activities that are implemented by various regulatory authorities. Hereunder, such policies and laws will be discussed.

2.3.1 Mines and Minerals Act (1961, Chapter 21:05) The Act regulates the acquisition of mining rights, prospecting for, extraction and disposing of all minerals, mineral oils and natural gases. This Act is specifically implemented by Ministry of Mines and Energy and generally by other bodies such as the Zimbabwe Republic Police. The Act also sets general offenses and the stipulated sentences/fines thereof. Illegal gold mining is specifically prohibited by Section 368(1)

13 of the Act which provides that, “No person shall prospect or search for any mineral, mineral oil or natural gas except in the exercise of rights granted under a prospecting licence, exclusive prospecting order or special grant or unless he is the duly authorized representative of the holder of such licence, order or special grant and acting in the exercise of such rights.”

Section 368(4)(a) of the Act provides that, “Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be guilty of an offence and liable, if there are no special circumstances in the particular case, to imprisonment for a period of not less than two years.” However, Section 368(4)(b) further provides that, “if the person convicted of the offence satisfies the court that there are special circumstances in the particular case why the penalty provided under paragraph (a) should not be imposed, which circumstances shall be recorded by the court, to imprisonment for a period not exceeding two years or a fine not exceeding level ten.” Section 368(5) sums up with a provision which states that, “A court sentencing a person under paragraph (a) of subsection (4) shall not order that the operation of the whole or any part of the sentence be suspended.”

2.3.2 Gold Trade Act Chapter 21:03 (1940) This Act prohibits the possession of gold by unauthorised persons and regulates the buying, selling, pledging, exchanging, giving or receiving, or offering of gold. Ministry of Mines is the implementing authority. Section 3(1) of the Act provides that, “No person shall, either as principal or agent, deal in or possess gold, unless— (a) he is the holder of a licence or permit; or (b) he is a holder or tributor; or (c) he is the holder of an authority, grant or permit issued under the Mines and Minerals Act [Chapter 21:05] authorizing him to work an alluvial gold deposit; or (d) he is the employee or agent of any of the persons mentioned in paragraphs (a), (b) and (c) and is authorized by his employer or principal to deal in or possess gold in the lawful possession of such employer or principal.”

Section 3(3) of the Act further provides that, “Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be guilty of an offence and liable— (a) if there are no special circumstances in the particular case, to imprisonment for a period of not less than five years or more than ten years; or 14

(b) if the person convicted of the offence satisfies the court that there are special circumstances in the particular case why the penalty provided under paragraph (a) should not be imposed, which circumstances shall be recorded by the court, to imprisonment for a period not exceeding five years or a fine not exceeding level nine or twice the value of the gold that is the subject-matter of the offence, whichever is the greater, or to both such fine and such imprisonment.” Section 3(4) concludes with a provision which states that, “A court sentencing a person under paragraph (a) subsection (3) shall not order that the operation of the whole or any part of the sentence be suspended.”

2.3.3 Environmental Management Act Chapter 20:27 (2002) The Act provides for the sustainable management of natural resources, protection of the environment and the prevention of pollution and environmental degradation. The implementing authority for this Act is the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Item 7 (Mining and Quarrying) on First Schedule of this Act specifically mention mineral prospecting, mineral mining, ore processing and concentrating and quarrying as projects that require environmental impact assessment before one embarks on such projects.

Section 97(2) of this Act provides that, “Any person who knowingly implements a project without environmental impact assessment certificate shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding ten million dollars or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding five years or to both such fine and such imprisonment.” Additionally, Section 97(3) provides that, “The Agency may serve an order on a person who knowingly implements a project in contravention of subsection (2) ordering that person— (a) to mitigate the effects of any adverse environmental impact in the manner specified in the order; (b) where in the opinion of the Agency, it is not possible to mitigate any adverse environmental impact, ordering that person to destroy any works undertaken in connection with the projects.”

In policing alluvial gold panning Section 57(1) of the same Act can be used which states that, “Any person, who discharges or applies any poison or toxic, noxious or obstructing 15 matter, radioactive waste or other pollutants or permits any person to dump or discharge such matter into the aquatic environment in contravention of water pollution control standards shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding level fourteen or fifteen million dollars, whichever is the greater, or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding five years, or to both such fine and such imprisonment.

Further to that, Section 57(2) requires that a person found guilty under subsection (1) be, in addition to any sentence or fine imposed on him— (a) pay the cost of the removal of any poison, toxic, noxious or obstructing matter, radioactive waste or other pollutants, including the cost of restoration of the damaged environment, which may be incurred by a government agency; (b) pay third parties reparation, cost of restoration, restitution or compensation as may be determined by court on application by such third parties.

2.4 Empirical evidence The researcher was guided mainly by previous related researches. Saunders (2003) concurs with this view and reiterates that empirical evidence is important to any research as it focuses on past studies on the topic understudy and also it tries to place the study on the body of knowledge.

A descriptive study by Mawere (2011) to examine the effects of gold panning in the central province of Manica, Mozambique established that while illegal gold miners consider gold panning in the area as their key and sole means to survival, panning is causing more harm than good to humans, non-humans and the natural environment. According to his study, the country and Manica province in particular runs the risk of facing catastrophic changes in the physical environment, water sanitation, agriculture, aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity and habitats and new pressures on human healthy, culture and economy.

Another descriptive survey by Ernest Adu-Gyamfi (2014) to assess the effect of illegal mining on school attendance and academic performance of junior high school students in the Upper Denkyira West District of Ghana revealed that illegal mining activities carried out by students have negative effect on both school attendance and academic 16 performance. The study further recommended the implementation of the New Educational Reform and Free-Compulsory Universal Basic Education and parents as well as teachers must educate their wards and students on the importance of education. Additionally, parents should bear in mind that it is their responsibility to meet the cost of their children’s needs.

In a research carried out by Ampofo and Yiadom (2012) to assess the social and environmental impacts of illegal mining operations in River Bonsa in Ghana, it emerged that illegal mining along the river has caused a discourse of the river from its natural course. The study also established that the illegal mining activities increased impurity of the river, drops in pH levels, change in colour of the river, healthy hazards due to use of mercury and water sumps are also blocked owing to siltation caused by panning. The study recommends that illegal mining activities within and around the river should be ceased forthwith. These results will be used in evaluating the effects of alluvial gold mining in Mudzi district.

A 3 month study carried out by Mensah et al (2006) in Obuasi Municipal Assembly (OMA) to unearth the youth unemployment challenges in mining areas of Ghana explored the socioeconomic changes as a result of inflows of migrants into OMA Township and its catchment area. The study revealed that there is acute unemployment in Obuasi. This is mainly due to the fact that AngloGold Ashanti has limited job opportunities for the menial workers seeking employment with the company. There are a few other income generating chances. Agriculture which has the potential to employ majority of the unemployed youth is generally regarded as not appealing and not lucrative. These high unemployment levels then contribute to large-scale illegal mining, high crime rate and prostitution. The study suggests job creation through sustainable programmes targeting the training of these youths who are vulnerable and susceptible to crime so that they acquire the requisite employable skills. The findings shall be contrasted against results of the current study since Mudzi district and Zimbabwe, in general has high unemployment levels.

A study undertaken by A.G.N. Kitula in 2003 to assess the socio-economic and environmental impacts of mining in Geita District, Tanzania, it was revealed that

17 mining has negative socio-cultural effects on local people. It was noted that a vast of locals had shifted from the traditional activities of farming, fishing, selling fruit crops and transportation and moved in mining thus indicate that mining activities have created a multitude of income opportunities for the inhabitants of Geita District. The study, however, also revealed that mining was taking up land which was meant for agriculture purposes. The survey suggested that environmental and interrelated socio-economic improvements can be realised within artisanal gold mines if the government provides technical support to local operators, improves regulations, and reduces illegal mining activity.

A research study was conducted by Phiri (2011) on the impact of artisanal small scale gold mining in Umzingwane District (Zimbabwe), a potential for ecological disaster. This research explored the ecological disasters in Umzingwane district caused by artisanal small scale gold mining. The operations were found to be worsening environmental impacts. According to the research findings negative effects are already being felt in the district as rampant land degradation has contributed to siltation of rivers and dams among other variables, destruction of vegetation as well as contamination of water bodies. Bulawayo Metropolitan province and other rural areas that receive their water supply from the Umzingwane catchment have been affected in the process. The study recommended that the role of the government as enforcers of laws and regulations and promoter of mining development need to be defined.

2.5 Justification of the study Most of the studies carried out and related to illegal mining have not dug deeper to establish challenges faced by police institutions in enforcing laws related to the mining activities. This study goes beyond to examine also the various legislations and policies available to the police and evaluate the effectiveness of such legal instruments. This research has also brought in a new dimension by including crime causation and prevention theories such as strain theory, rational choice theory and routine activity to assess how they influence the economic crime of illegal gold mining. Whilst most previous researches in Zimbabwe were confined to environmental impacts, this study in particular aims also to access the estimated and potential revenue loss by the state to illegal gold mining in Mudzi District alone. 18

2.6 Summary This section looked into underlying criminological (causation) and sociological theories (covering effects of illegal gold mining and recommendations). The section also reviewed the legal framework and further took a swipe on empirical evidence and gap analysis. The next will look at research methodology.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction This chapter discusses methods and procedures used to collect data such as research design, research instruments, sampling size, data collection procedures, validity and reliability.

3.1 Research design According to Mathenge (2011), a research design outlines procedures employed to achieve the objectives of the research. Research design is used to refer to the stages and

19 processes which connect research questions to data (Punch, 1998). It is the “glue” that holds all the elements in a research project together (Kothari, 2004).

The researcher employed participatory research methodology. This is a research that tends to employ more contextual methods and elicit qualitative and quantitative information (Mohan, 2002). In this study, the researcher used a case study design that focused at a single entity or case which in this case is Mudzi District. Auckson (2004) describes a case study design as focused on enquiry around an instance that is, a study of a particular phenomenon. The case study is suitable because the design involved direct observation of the participants. Triangulation approach was used and encompassed data collection techniques such as questionnaires, interview guides, observation and primary and secondary documentary analysis. This approach was proposed since it ensures that the problems associated with one data collection method are compensated for by the strengths of another. As supported by Brennen (1992), the use of more than one method is seen as ‘complementary’ rather than purely ‘integrative’ technique. Moreover, the approach enables cross-checking of gathered data which increases data validity as one set of data is weighed against data from another collection method. Triangulation approach was also opted for since different methods are appropriate in different research situations and for collecting different types of data (Sayer, 1992).

3.1.1Qualitative research Qualitative methodology was the main research design utilised in this study and it provided the much needed depth of the data. The method, according to Matveev (2002), is concerned with attempting to accurately describe, decode and interpret the meanings of phenomena occurring in their normal social contexts. The approach assists in obtaining rich, detailed data and phenomena such as people’s beliefs, attitudes and behaviour towards illegal gold mining as it occurs in its natural setting in Mudzi district. The qualitative tools used include observations, interviews and focus groups.

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3.1.2 Quantitative research Qualitative research was complimented by quantitative data which facilitated in providing a complete picture of the research issue. Quantitative research, as viewed by Matveev (2002), involves the counting and measuring of events and performing the statistical analysis of a body of numerical data. This research type produces quantifiable and reliable data which can usually be generalised to a larger population. The quantitative approach eliminates the researcher’s own bias and subjectivity (Matveev, ibid). Questionnaires were used which is a less precise but vital semi- quantitative approach.

3.2 Target population Crawshaw and Chambers (2002) define population as a group of interest to the researcher to which he or she would like results of the study to be generalised. The target population for this study were male and female people in Mudzi district (since both sex are directly or indirectly involved or affected by the mining activities) aged between 15-59 years (active age) bringing the total to 54477 people according to the Zim Stat Census 2012 Mashonaland East Provincial Report. A report by Zimbabwe National Statics Agency (Zimstat) in 2014 estimates the literacy rate of the province at 91%. The study population was classified into three broad groups whose views, opinions and perspectives the researcher felt were valid to obtain. These groups were classified as: illegal miners (unregistered miners, unlicensed artisans and illegal panners prospecting for gold in Mudzi district); stakeholders (non-miners including, villagers, Village heads, chiefs, school heads, government agencies and registered miners); and police officers (drawn from various departments, stations and sections within Mudzi district).

3.3 Sampling technique The target population was comparatively excessive to successfully examine given the time and budgetary confines of the research. The researcher therefore employed both probability and non-probability sampling techniques to suit the prevailing circumstances. Kothari (2004) defines non-probability sampling as that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item

21 in the population has of being included in the sample. Purposive sampling, which is a non-probability procedure, was adopted in choosing key stakeholders such as Chiefs, Mining officers, District Administrator representative and school head. White (2000) concurs that with purposive sampling, the researcher extracts the sample that he or she thinks will deliver the best information in order to satisfy the research objectives in question, the greater the sample the more accurate it is.

Convenient sampling was also adopted in the interest of the costs, time and the number of people required for the study. Crawshaw and Chambers (2002) acknowledge that convenient sampling is a technique which allows the study of readily available and accessible respondents and as such was used in selecting of respondents in proximity of the illegal gold mining sites. Conversely, convenient sampling has shortfalls in that the readily available and accessible respondents may not truly and fully represent the rest of the population.

Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’ and under this sampling design, every item of the universe (whole population) has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample (Kothari, ibid). This sampling technique is useful in that it eliminates prohibitive costs of surveying everyone. This technique was adopted in selecting illegal gold miners in the sense that there was no certain structure followed in selecting them.

Stratified sampling was also employed and this technique involves the division of the sampling frame into categories in order to ensure that the sample is representative of each group. This technique was used to group police officers proportionally according to their rank structures.

3.4 Sample size A sample is a part of the whole or a sub-set of measurements drawn from a population (Collins et al 2000:149). A sample size that is too small may not serve to achieve the objectives and a too large sample can be costly and a waste of resources. As a general rule, the sample must be of an optimum size which should neither be excessively large

22 nor too small (Kothari, 2004). In coming up with a sample size to use for this study, the researcher used Raosoft sample size calculator (Appendix ‘J’) with;

Margin of error of 10% Confidence level of 95% Population size of 54477 (aged between 15-59 years), according to ZimStat, Mashonaland East Province (2012:153)

The sample size calculator uses the following formula to compute the sample size:

c 2 x = Z( /100) r(100-r)

N x 2 n = /((N-1)E + x)

(N - n)x E = √[ /n(N-1)] Where N is the population size, r is the fraction of responses that you are interested in, and Z(c/100) is the critical value for the confidence level c, n is the sample size and E is the margin of error.

Therefore the recommended sample size is 96 respondents and comprise of illegal miners, police officers, with the ultimate view of obtaining a balanced research outcome that can be representative of the whole affected areas. This sample size concurs with Laurel (2005) who proposes that a sample of 30 to 500 is adequate for academic researches. Table 3.1 below depicts the distribution of the sample size.

Table 3.1: Distribution of sample size Group Sample Size Constitution Illegal Miners 30 Male and female alluvial and reef gold panners (makorokoza) Stakeholders 56 Registered miners, Revenue Collectors, District Administrator, Mine Inspectors, chiefs, school heads, village heads and local villagers Police Officers 10 Constables, Sergeants, Assistant Inspectors and Inspectors across police sections (DUB, PISI, CID and MBCU)

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Total 96 Whole sample

3.5 Research instruments Research instruments are the tools that are used to gather the data, Shukla (2008). Case study research mostly uses a combination of various methods of data collection. As such, the researcher employed methods such as review of secondary literature, survey questionnaire, semi structured interviews and non-participatory (direct) observation to achieve the objective and was guided by the table overleaf.

Table 3.2: Research instruments used in study

Question Objective Research Techniques 1 To ascertain the main causes of illegal gold Questionnaire, semi mining in Mudzi District structured interviews 2 To establish the effects of illegal gold mining Semi structured activities to society and the economy of the interviews, country observation, focus groups 3 To evaluate the effectiveness of Zimbabwe’s Secondary documents legislative and regulatory legal framework to analysis, semi prevent and combat illegal gold mining structured interviews 4 To make appropriate recommendations to help Questionnaire, semi combat illegal gold mining in Mudzi District structured interviews, in particular and the country in general focus groups 24

3.5.1 Questionnaire A questionnaire is a list of predetermined and structured questions which are answered by respondents. It provides a critical link by translating objectives into language understandable to respondents (McDaniel and Gates, 2001). Self-administered questionnaires were used to solicit for information from the highly literate respondents and the participants answered questions during their own time. The results of a questionnaire response can be relatively quantified and analyzed quickly using computers. They also have merits in that they guarantee anonymity of the respondent.

A blend of structured and unstructured questions was used to obtain primary data from the respondents. These were specifically designed to suit the different different study groups (illegal miners, stakeholders and police officers). Structured (closed) questions assisted in saving respondents’ time whilst unstructured (open-ended) questions ensured that respondents had room to fully express their feelings without limitation.

Adversely, a questionnaire does not take into account body language and gestures and the interviewee cannot provide extra information since the questions will be preset (Brannen, 1992). Questionnaires also have a problem of limited response from the interviewees and to mitigate for these problems systematic follow ups of the questionnaires were made.

3.5.2 Semi Structured Interviews The researcher used interviews as a way of catering for the shortcomings of a questionnaire. Face to face interviews were used and questions were derived from an interview guide specifically prepared by the researcher. Face to face interviews are essential in that they take into account body language and the interviewee can also provide extra information (Kothari, 2004). The researcher asked open ended questions to locals which then provided both qualitative and quantitative data.

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In-depth interviews were carried out with the key informants such as the District Administrator of Mudzi District, Mining officer in the Ministry of Mines, registered small scale miners, Police officers, School heads and Village heads. These main groups were interviewed in order to obtain their views as the policy makers, district planners, law enforcers, child curators and local leaders. These interviews were kept in the boundaries and confines of their capability as professionals. However, interviews are expensive and time consuming and as a result an optimum number were carried out.

3.5.3 Observations Kothari (2004) defines observation as a method by which information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. The researcher used the direct observation method as opposed to the participatory method due to the large risks of harm or death involved in this activity of illegal gold mining. The researcher used this instrument in noting the behaviour, conduct, and number of illegal miners at the sites as well as the visible effects of the illegal gold mining activities. This method has an ultimate advantage in that it eliminates subjective bias, if the observation is accurately carried out (Sayer, 1992). Secondly, observation method is independent of respondents’ willingness to participate and hence a lot can be learnt without using the usual interaction of questionnaires and interviews (Punch, 1998). This method, nonetheless, has its own limitations as it is expensive and can provide limited information.

3.5.4 Focus Group Collis and Hussey (2009) defines a focus group as a form of qualitative research in which a group of individuals selected and assembled by researchers are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, views and experiences of a topic. The researcher conducted two separate focus group meetings in Ward 16 and Ward 7 which are both located nearer to the illegal gold mining sites so as to get views from those who are mostly affected by the mining activities. This tool has the ultimate advantage in that it enables the researcher to gain a larger amount of information within a shorter period

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of time. The groups were restricted not to exceed 15 people in each group for easy manageability and control of the respondents.

The group members were purposefully chosen to include key and influential figures (Chiefs, Village heads, School heads and Mine Inspectors) as well as both the elements (illegal miners) and affected (villagers and registered miners). The focus groups were used to complement other methods (triangulation) and for validity checking. Another benefit is that focus groups elicit information in a way which allows researchers to find out why an issue is salient, as well as what is salient about it Morgan (1997).

Focus group, like other methods, has its own limitations. Some can be overcome by careful planning and moderating, but others are unavoidable and peculiar to this approach. For example, the researcher, or moderator, has less control over the data produced (Morgan 1997) as opposed to either quantitative studies or one-to-one interviewing.

3.6 Data collection procedures According to Kotler (2007), data collection procedure entails how the primary and secondary data is collected. Part of the data used in this research was secondary data in that it had been collected and collated by other people such as geographical location of illegal gold mining sites and estimated size of area affected by illegal gold mining in Mudzi through a survey carried out by Environmental Management Agency (EMA) in 2008. Jupp et al (2000:62) view secondary data and analysis as, “a form of enquiry and analysis based entirely on pre-existing data sources. … A secondary source is an existing source of information which has been collected by someone other than the researcher and with some purpose other than the current research problem in mind”.

Data which was not available from secondary source was collected using primary research techniques. Primary data can be collected in various ways including questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and observation. The researcher physically hand distributed the questionnaires to all the target groups. Illegal gold miners were issued with 30 questionnaires in the morning and were given the whole day to fill up. 27

Questionnaire 1 of 3 (Appendix ‘B’) was issued to this study group. The questionnaires were then collected before sunset since these artisanal miners have no fixed place of operation and there was risk of failing to identify those issued with the questionnaires should a day lapse. Other study groups were given a maximum of one before the questionnaires were recollected on the convenience of the location. Questionnaire 2 of 3 (Appendix ‘C’) and Questionnaire 3 of 3 (Appendix ‘D’) were adopted to solicit for data from stakeholders and police officers respectively.

Interviews were conducted in strict confidentiality at geographical location points of the respondents. The researcher conducted all the interviews by self and the questions being influenced by the interview guide (Appendex ‘E’). A total of 13 separate interviews were conducted in which the researcher recorded the responds on data sheet and taking special notice of emphasis in both implied or applied farm. In so doing the researcher did not use pre-set questions but rather kept the questions within confines of the particular individual being interviewed since there were diverse respondents (illegal gold miners, specialists, law enforcers, traditional leaders and common villagers).

Observations were made at five (5) different mining sites using the observation guide (Appendix ‘F’). The researcher used the direct observation method and recorded on data sheet activities and incidents noted such as number of illegal golg miners at the site, most active gender and age group, productivity of the miners and how the gold was disposed, and live hood within the camps amongst other observations. Pictures were also taken using a canon digital camera. A maximum of 3days was spent on each site.

3.7 Validity of data Validity refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it purports to measure/how truthful the research results are (Walden; 2012). The researcher used face validity to test validity. This examines whether the test appear to measure what it is supposed to measure. Validity of the instrument was checked through the 12 sample questionnaires that were distributed to the pilot sample so as to assess the aptness of the questionnaire in achieving the desired goals. Corrections were then made to ensure that the structure of the questions satisfied the research objectives. The researcher also employed triangulation (questionnaires, interviews, observations and focus groups) 28 which is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from more than two instruments (Payne and Payne 2009).

3.8 Reliability of data According to Ayodele (2012), reliability refers to a fit between what the researcher record as data, and what actually comes in the natural setting that is being studied. A test is thus reliable if it yields consistent results. Reliability is a prerequisite for measurement of validity. To test reliability the researcher used multiple instruments (triangulation) such as questionnaires, interviews and observations to assert results from another instrument.

3.9 Data presentation and analysis Marshall and Rossman (2004) acknowledge that qualitative data analysis is concerned with three flows of activity namely data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing or verification. According to these two authors, data reduction activity involves the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting and transforming the data. The researcher buttressed this activity by adding up and grouping all the data collected through the various data collection techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and observations. This data and statistics were then recorded on one single data sheet and a copy the sheet saved on computer using Microsoft Office Word application.

According to Marshall and Rossman (2004), the second activity, data display, involves the consideration of the reduced data and displaying it in an organized, compressed way so that conclusions can be more easily to drawn. The researcher achieved this by copying any related data onto a Microsoft Excel Spread Sheet then the corresponding data used to present the data in graphs, pie charts and frequency tables for easy of interpretation. For example, the respondents were asked to rank the perceived drivers (causes) of illegal gold mining in Mudzi using the scales; strongly agree, uncertain and strongly disagree. The data obtained from participants was then used to give weight to each of the 10 perceived main drivers. The resultant data was then presented in tabular form and clearly indicating the percentage weight awarded to each of the drivers by the respondents as in Table 4.15.

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Marshal and Rossman (ibid) reiterated that the last activity is to decide what things mean, check the regularities, patterns, explanations, possible configurations, casual flows and positions. In that same sense, the researcher examined methodically and in detail the data presented in the form of bar graphs, pie charts and frequency tables to draw logical conclusions on each given question or aspect.

3.10 Ethical considerations Cole (2003) outlines three underlying requirements for informed consent which were adopted by the researcher during the interaction and interface with respondents. The first requirement points out that the research participants ought to be fully informed of the research procedure, purpose, risks and anticipated rewards or benefits. It also includes the opportunity for respondents to freely ask questions and the right to withdraw at any time from the research. The study upheld the principle of informed consent through notifying the participants of the purpose and goals of the research and this enabled them to freely take part in the study.

The second requirement is comprehension which demands researchers to adopt information which is understandable to every participant (Cole, ibid). This involves taking into account differences in intellectual abilities and capabilities, literacy levels, maturity, and language differences. The researcher thus fully embraced the distinct and diverse characteristics of the participants and was accommodative enough to acknowledge different behaviours and personalities.

The third requirement, according to Cole (ibid), is of privacy and confidentiality which is a very important component for research involving human subjects. The populace has the right to protect self, and the information gathered during the survey has potential to harm a person through violation of the inherent right to privacy. The researcher thus sustained the standard of confidentiality by guaranteeing the respondents that all names remained unidentified (anonymous) and that information obtained from the study would not be used for any other purpose other than this academic exercise.

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3.11 Summary This chapter touched on the research methodology used by the researcher such as the research design, sampling techniques and research instruments used. The chapter further looked into data collection procedures, data presentation and analysis and reviewed on how data validity and reliability were tested in the process. The next chapter focuses on data presentation, analysis and discussion.

CHAPTER IV

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction This chapter presents the main findings of the research, interpretation and analysis of data. According to Singh and Nath (2011), quantitative data is of very little use to most people unless it is converted into understandable information through techniques like charts, statistics and graphs. These techniques are of crucial importance in exploring, presenting, describing, and examining relationships and trends within data. They also provide the foundation on which the conclusions and recommendations of the study are made. The researcher shall thus accordingly present research findings and the analysis thereof and link these with the theoretical and conceptual framework.

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4.1 Response rate

4.1.1Questionnaire response rate A total of 96 questionnaires were distributed to the respondents and out of these a total of 87 were returned thereby accounting for a response rate of 91 percent as depicted in table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1: Percentage response rate for questionnaires (n=96) Source: Primary Data. Respondents Sample Questionnaires Questionnaires Response Size Administered Returned Rate (%) Illegal Miners 30 30 24 80 Stakeholders 56 56 53 95

Police officers 10 10 10 100 Total 96 96 87 91

4.1.2 Interview response rate Table 4.2: Percentage response rate for interviews (n=15)

Participants Sample Number Number of Response Size targeted for interviews Rate (%) interview conducted Illegal Miners 2 2 2 100 Police officers 1 1 1 100 Chiefs 1 1 1 100 Village Heads 2 2 2 100 School Heads 1 1 1 100 D.A Officers 1 1 1 100 Mining officers from 1 1 1 100 Ministry of Mines Fidelity Printers 1 1 0 0 officers Registered mine 2 2 1 50 owners

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Villagers 3 3 3 100 Total 15 15 13 86

Source: Primary Data.

The findings in Table 4.2 above shows that 13 out of 15 respondents were interviewed translating to 86 % response rate.

4.1.3Focus Group Response Rate Table 4.3: Percentage response rate for focus groups (n=30) Source: Primary Data Participants Sample Number targeted Actual number that Response Size for participation attended Rate (%) Group 1 15 15 13 87 Group 2 15 15 11 73 Total 30 30 24 80 The results in Table 4.3 reveal that 24 respondents out of the scheduled 30 turned up at the group meetings translating to 80% response rate.

4.2 Demographic information of the respondents Demographic data reflects personal attributes of the respondents with respect to aspects such as age, gender, and educational background of respondents from the information drawn from the questionnaires.

4.2.1 Gender composition Out of the 87 respondents who returned questionnaires, 46 were females whilst 41 males and equating to 53% and 47% respectively as shown if figure 2 below. The results reveal that at household level, majority of the population were females. This can be attributed to the perception that a greater proportion of men have migrated or relocated to urban areas in search of employment whilst women are left behind to take charge of the family and conduct agricultural activities. This however, shows a true and balanced portrayal of the study since ZimStats (2012), estimates 52% of the total population of Mudzi District as females.

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Percentage of respondents according to gender

47% Key 53% Male Female

Figure 2: Distribution according to gender (n=87) (Source: Primary Data)

4.2.2 Age range Table 4.4 indicates the age range of the respondents who filled in and returned the questionnaires, and the highest percentage came from the 31-44 years age category with 31% The below 16 age group had the least number of respondents with 3%. This depicts that majority of the respondents were mature adults who can make sound and uninfluenced responds to the questions paused.

Table 4.4: Age distribution (n=87) Age Range Number Percentage (%) Below 16 years 3 3 16 – 24 years 16 18 25 – 34 years 24 28 35 – 44 years 27 31 45 – 54 years 12 14 55 years and above 5 6 Total 87 100 Source: Primary Data

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4.2.3 Level of education Of the 87 respondents, there was 0% who never attended school whilst 6% did not go beyond primary level. Majority of the respondents (79%) reached secondary level as depicted by Table 4.5. This depicts that the literacy level is significantly high hence respondents could answer from an informed position and unaided.

Table 4.5: Level of education (n=87) Level of Education Number Percentage (%) No Schooling 0 0 Primary 5 6 Secondary 69 79 Tertiary 13 15 Total 87 100 Source: Primary Data

4.2.4 Illegal gold miners profile Table 4.6 below shows that out of the 24 illegal gold miners who responded to questionnaires, 38% of them had 1 – 5 years in that trade whilst those with less than 1 year into illegal gold mining constituted the least with 12%.

Table 4.6: Duration in illegal gold mining (n=24) Duration in illegal gold mining Frequency Percentage Less than 1 year 3 12 1 – 5 years 9 38 6 – 10 years 8 33 Over 10 years 4 17 Total 24 100 Source: Primary Data

Table 4.7 below reflects that most of the respondents (38%) practice illegal mining seasonally. This could be attributed to the fact that when the interviews were conducted there were less agricultural activities taking place. The minority (8%) engage into illegal gold mining occasionally. 35

Table 4.7: Nature of engagement (n=24) Nature of engagement in illegal gold mining Frequency Percentage Full time 8 33 Part time 5 21 Seasonally 9 38 Occasionally 2 8 Total 24 100 Source: Primary Data

4.2.5 Police Officers Profile Table 4.8 below shows that 50% of the police officers respondents have been employed in the ZRP for 2 – 9 years which is an experienced range of service to fully appreciate their duties and responsibilities.

Table 4.8: Duration of employment (n=10) Length of service Frequency Percentage Less than 2 years 1 10 2 – 9 years 5 50 10 – 20 years 3 30 Over 20 years 1 10 Total 10 100 Source: Primary Data

Table 4.9 below shows that 30% of the police respondents are attached to operations section and an equal percentage is also attached to investigations. These two sections are usually involved in handling of cases and as such this also enhances the ability to respond from a knowledgeable view.

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Table 4.9: Nature of duties (n=10) Nature of duties Frequency Percentage Operations 3 30 Administrative 1 10 Investigations 3 30 Intelligence 2 20 Other duties 1 10 Total 10 100 Source: Primary Data

Table 4.10 below indicates that 60% of the respondents were constables. This signifies the ground officer and selection was on proportional representation.

Table 4.10: Position held (n=10) Position (Rank) Held Frequency Percentage Constable 6 60 Sergeant 2 20 Assistant Inspector 1 10 Inspector 1 10 Total 10 100 Source: Primary Data

4.2.6 Stakeholders Profile Other sources of employment, both formal and informal, constituted majority (36%) of the respondents as shown in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11: Employment status (n=53) Employment Status Frequency Percentage

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Student 3 5 Farmer 18 34 Government Employee 11 21 Vendor 2 4 Other 19 36 Total 53 100 Source: Primary Data

4.3 Extent of illegal gold mining The extent of illegal mining was accessed using different dimensions such as the area covered, number of illegal miners, and income generated by the illegal miners amongst other measurement criteria. The total area covered by these illegal gold mining activities is estimated at 26.6 hectares according to ZRP Nyamapanda MBCU statistics. The researcher devided the illegal gold mining activities into five main zones namely Rwenya River (Zone 1), Makaha (Zone 2), Mudzi River (Zone 3), Suswe (Zone 4) and Chiunye (Zone 5) as shown on the map in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Map of the main mining zones in Mudzi District (Source EMA, 2008 and observations made by researcher)

4.3.1Estimated number of miners in the main mining zones in Mudzi district In coming up with the estimates, the researcher used data obtained from interviews as well as data gathered through the observations made at the five principal mining zones. The Zones have mining camps which totalled to 13 from the observations carried out by the researcher. Table 4.12 below depicts the estimates.

Table 4.12: Estimates of illegal gold miners in each of the mining zones

Zone Name of Zone Mining Camp Estimated

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Number of Miners 1 Rwenya River 1 30 2 50 2 Makaha 3 80 4 40 3 Mudzi River 5 60 6 20 7 30 4 Suswe 8 20 9 30 10 20 11 50 12 70 5 Chiunye 13 40 Total 5 13 530 Source: Interviews and Field Observation

4.3.2 Most prevalent gold type The most extracted gold by illegal miners is alluvial according to the outcome of this research in which 49% of the respondents confirmed that it is the most mined in their respective areas. Field observations made by the researcher also noted that gold panning was common in most rivers whilst reef gold mining sites are dotted in places such as Makaha and Suswe. Figure 4 depicts the findings.

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Most prevalent gold type

21% 30% Key Reef Alluvial Both 49% None

Figure 4: Most prevalent gold type (n=87) (Source: Primary Data)

4.3.3 Number of reported cases involving illegal gold mining/dealing The number of reported cases involving Illegal gold mining/dealing has been increasing annually since the year 2009 and so is the value involved. In 2014, the number of reported cases fell and that of arrests also slumbered to be the lowest figure over the five years. Surprisingly, the value involved and recovered rose up 15 times the value in 2013. The statistics were obtained from ZRP Nyamapanda MBCU Dockets Register. The police interviewee however noted that on the contrary, there are a lot of illegal gold mining and dealings that go undetected since the crime is of a covert nature. Table 4.13 below depicts number of reported cases, arrests made, value involved and value recovered over the last 5 years ending 2014.

Table 4.13: Annual gold recoveries

2008 2009 2012 2013 2014 TOTAL Number of 26 37 40 65 28 196 reported cases

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Number of 39 46 60 72 32 249 arrest Value $411,34 $517,39 $806,53 $2082,56 $30956,07 $34773.89 involved

Value $411,34 $517,39 $806,53 $2082,56 $30956,07 $34773.89 recovered

Source: Secondary Data

4.3.4 Estimates of Daily Gold Production per individual The respondents had varying opinions as to the quantity of gold they obtain on an average day. Most (46%), however, registered their estimated daily productions within the 1,01 to 2,5grams category. This was supported by one of the interviewees (illegal gold miner) who stated in the vernacular language that;

“Mukoma wangu, nyaya yekuti munhu anowana goridhe rakawanda sei pazuva inoti netsei kutsanangudza nokuti zvinoenderana ne raki rako munhu zuva racho. Kazhinji munhu hauzoshayi kana half gram kusvika 1,5 grams. Zvakadzora unobata kana 2.5 grams. Zvakabhadhara unogona kupinda mu5 grams. Zvakafaya unopinda mu 10grams. Kuzoti kana chakaputika unenge vakapfura 15 grams”.

This mining lingo can be translated to mean that;

“My brother, the issue of daily gold production per person is a bit difficult to explain since it depends with the lucky of an individual on a day in question. Normally a person would get 0,5 to 1,5 grams. On a better day one can get 2.5 grams. On a high earning day one can reach 5 grams. On a rare high earning day one can obtain up to 10 grams. On an extreme high earning day one can exceed 15 grams.”

Figure 5 shows the quantity of gold (in grams) obtainable on an average day by each illegal gold miner who participated in the questionnaire survey.

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Average daily gold production per individual per gram

50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% Key 20% Respondents 15% 10% 5% 0% Less 1.01 - 2.51 - 4.01 - Over than 2.5gra 4grams 5grams 5grams 1gram ms Respondents 4% 46% 29% 13% 8%

Figure 5: Estimated daily gold production per individual (n=24) (Source: Primary Data)

4.3.5 Estimates of the yearly production value of gold Yearly production value of gold can be calculated using available information such as daily gold production per gram per person, estimate number of illegal gold miners and the market price of the gold.

Table 4.14 below shows the yearly production value estimates with permutations in estimated daily productions per individual (in grams) and estimated number of illegal gold miners in Mudzi.

Table 4.14: Estimates of the production value of gold (US$/year) at London gold fixing price of US$39,59 per gram (price of gold for December 2014) 43

Daily productions Number of illegal gold miners

per each illegal gold 100 250 500 750 1000 miner (grams) 0,5 $621,563 $1,553,908 $3,107,815 $4,661,723 $6,215,630 1 $1,243,126 $3,107,815 $6,215630 $9,323,445 $12,431,260 1,5 $1,864,689 $4,661,723 $9,323,445 $13,985,168 $18,646,890 2 $2,486,252 $6,215,630 $12,431260 $18,646,890 $24,862,520 2,5 $3,107,815 $7,769,538 $15,539,075 $23,308,613 $31,078,150 3 $3,729,378 $9,323,445 $18,646,890 $27,970,335 $37,293,780 3,5 $4,350,941 $10,877,353 $21,754,705 $32,632,058 $43,509,410 4 $4,972,504 $12,431,260 $24,862,520 $37,293,780 $49,725,040 4,5 $5,594,067 $13,985,168 $27,970,335 $41,955,503 $55,940,670 5 $6,215,630 $15,539,075 $31,078,150 $46,617,225 $62,156,300 Source: Primary data and estimates

An illegal gold miner who averaged 2grams per day in the year 2014 thus earned an estimated US$24,863 in that year which is far greater than what a government employee would get at a monthly salary of US$600. In calculating the yearly production values, the researcher excluded Fridays since it is a traditional common practice that the illegal miners should not engage in any mining activity on such days of the week in Mudzi district.

4.4 Causes of illegal gold mining The respondents had mixed feelings as to the main drivers behind engagement into illegal gold mining. These drivers can be classified into both pull and push factors. The results of the findings are presented in table 4.15 below

Table 4.15: Main drivers of illegal gold mining (n=87) ITEM RESPONSES

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Strongly Uncertain Strongly Total agree disagree No. % No. % No. % No. % Motivated offenders i.e people 53 61 4 5 30 34 87 100 determined and willing to engage into illegal gold mining and waiting for opportunity to do so Attractive targets i.e the price 67 77 0 0 20 23 87 100 value of gold as compared to other minerals in Mudzi District makes it more vulnerable Absence of guardianship such as 50 57 3 4 34 39 87 100 police to restrict and protect the illegal gold mining sites from unregistered miners Quick source of income 49 56 0 0 38 44 87 100 Lack of employment 69 79 0 0 18 21 87 100 Severe drought 40 46 1 1 46 53 87 100 Lack of knowledge that it is 19 22 0 0 68 78 87 100 crime Traditional practice i.e passed 27 31 0 0 60 69 87 100 on from generation to generation just like farming and hunting Lack of capital to register as 35 40 1 1 51 59 87 100 small scale miner Lack of transparency in the 18 21 2 2 67 77 87 100 registration process of mines Source: Primary data

Lack of employment was ranked top with 79% out of 87 respondents. This result was also confirmed by the interviews conducted and the two focus group meetings held. These findings are buttressed by a research conducted in Umzingwane District by Phiri (2011) which looked into impacts of artisanal gold mining from an ecological perspective. The study revealed that 88% of the 140 respondents perceive lack of employment as the main driver for artisanal gold mining. Lack of employment subscribes to Robert Merton’s (1968) strain theory and the study confirms that people

45 are law-abiding but when under great pressure will resort to crime..

Attractive targets was perceived as the second main driver of illegal gold mining in Mudzi district with 77% of the respondents sharing this consensus view. This was also confirmed by interviews held with illegal gold miners confirming that gold was more valuable than other minerals found in the district as such it is targeted more ahead of other minerals. The results also concur with findings of a study undertaken by Kitula (2003) in Geita District, Tanzania in which it was noted that a vast have shifted from traditional activities towards illegal gold mining which has more income opportunities. This pull aspect has however been overlooked by most past illegal mining researchers who mainly dwelt on lack of employment, income and drought. Attractive targets is

Motivated offenders constituted 61% of the respondents and it was ranked as the third main driver. As with attractive targets, this aspect has also been overlooked in past illegal mining researches. 5% of the respondents were uncertain. The researcher was patient enough to define and explain the term ‘motivated offenders’ to participants before then conducting interviews and focus group meetings. This was done so as to ensure that responses came from an informed position. The findings from the questionnaires were also confirmed in the two focus group held and one respondent had this to say in emotional vernacular language, “Haisi nyaya yekushaya iri kukonzeresa chikorokoza, asi kuti munhu anenge agara anepfungwa yacho achimirira mukana nekunzwa kuti kwakati kuri kucherwa, ozoenda kundozadzisa pfungwa dzake. Translation of the vernacular language implies that, “It is not poverty that is causing illegal gold mining, but the individual with a predetermined mind waiting for the opportunity and word as to where there is gold, who then eventually engages to fulfil his/her mind”. The findings conform to those of a study made by Kitula (ibid) in which it was established that locals from Geita District in Tanzania are abandoning productive agricultural projects and using up that land for illegal gold mining projects.

Absence of guardianship was considered the fourth main driver in this study and accounted for 57% of the respondents. Similarly, this aspect has not been extensively utilised by past researchers as a driver to illegal mining. Interviews and focus groups yielded the same results and from the observations made at all the five mining zones no

46 single police officer was seen in vicinity. One old lady singled out at one of the focus group meetings had this to say in vernacular language, “Panouya mapurisa zvinoita nani nekuti makorokoza anotiza oita mazuva ari mugomo. Anozodzika odzekera kurwizi kana mapurisa aenda”. Translation of the vernacular is, “When police officers come the situation gets better because the illegal gold miners flee and spent days in the mountains. They only return to the river when police officers are gone”. This aspect together with the above two confirms that the routine activity theory is also at play in the causation of illegal gold mining in Mudzi district. The same results were confirmed in an unrelated study conducted by Franklin et al (2012) in California, U.S.A in which it was discovered that most of employee theft incidences were recorded in areas and sections were security was minimum.

Quick source of income was consensually regarded as the fifth main driver by 56% of the respondents. This was also confirmed through interviews held with illegal miners who compared the activity with other activities such as farming which they believe takes time to yield earnings. This ultimately confirms the rational choice theory in which an individual weighs the benefits accruing from using legitimate means and those accruing from illegitimate before deciding to engage into crime. The results closely relate to those of a study conducted by Kusi and Yiadom (2012) along River Bonsa in Ghana where it was discovered that activities such as fishing, farming and formal employment are not favoured by locals ahead fast income generating panning activities along the river.

Majority of the respondent (53%) disagreed that severe drought, which subscribes to strain theory, was a cause of illegal gold mining in Mudzi. This was also confirmed at a focus group meeting held at Mapingidza business centre, in Ward 16 where one villager highlighted in vernacular language that, “Nzara haisiriyo inokonzoresa chikorokoza. Nyangwe mvura isinganaye zvakanaka kuno, tine zvimwe zvirimwa zvakaita senzungu zvatinorima nematamatisi atinodiridza mumagadheni zvinotengeseka kuMbare”. This can be translated to mean that, “Drought is not the cause of illegal gold mining. Even though we experience erratic rainfalls here, we have other drought resistant crops like groundnuts and tomatoes which we water from our gardens and sell at Mbare”. The results are in tandem with those obtained in a study by

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Phiri (2011) in Umzingwane district, in which it was established that only 39% of the 140 respondents agreed that drought was a cause of artisanal mining in that district.

On the least perceived drivers were traditional practise, lack of transparency in the registration process of mines and lack of knowledge that illegal gold is a crime. An overwhelming 96% of the 24 illegal gold miners who participated in the survey confirmed that they knew that their activities were criminal. This goes on support the rational choice theory as forwarded by Barkan (2012) that an individual commits crime after deciding that the rewards outweigh the risks and does not commit crime after deciding that the risks outweigh the rewards.

4.5 Social and Economic Implications of Illegal Gold Mining The researcher used a blend of suggested social and economic effects of illegal gold mining obtained from past researches as well as effects obtained from the pilot study conducted by the researcher in Mudzi district.

Table 4.16 summarizes the findings.

Table 4.16: Socio-economic implications (n=87) ITEM RESPONSES 1 2 3 4 5 Total Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree No. % No. % No. % No % No. % No. % .

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Increase in 74 85 9 10 4 5 87 100 prostitution Contamination of 85 1 1 1 1 87 100 drinking water 98 (panning) Increase in violent 78 90 3 3 6 7 87 100 related cases Abuse of young 7 8 32 37 19 22 26 30 3 3 87 100 local girls Theft of 16 18 29 33 11 13 27 31 4 5 87 100 commodities from locals or villagers Increase of vending 68 78 19 22 87 100 activities at and around mining sites Widespread disease 53 61 8 9 5 6 21 24 87 100 outbreak School dropout 6 7 19 22 7 8 46 53 9 10 87 100 Alleviates poverty 61 70 26 30 87 100 Robs the state of its 54 62 27 31 6 7 87 100 revenues Money remains in 39 45 23 26 13 15 12 14 87 100 the informal sector Makes commodities 72 83 15 17 87 100 relatively expensive near mining sites Increase in money 33 38 29 33 12 14 13 15 87 100 laundering Increase in 27 31 34 39 15 17 11 13 87 100 corruption Increase in fraud 38 44 33 38 7 8 9 10 87 100 Source: Primary Data

4.5.1 Increase in prostitution Most of the respondents (85%) concurred with the view that illegal gold mining increases prostitution whilst 5% disagreed and 10% were not certain. These findings from the questionnaires were reaffirmed by interviews and observations. The researcher noted that on Thursday nights, prostitutes flock the mining camps in search of clients, since no mining activity is carried out on a Friday in the district as the day is regarded a sacred day (chisi). These findings were also obtained in a study conducted by Mawere (2011) in Manica, Mozambique in which 73% of the responded agreed that gold panning increases prostitution. A study carried out by Mensah et al (2006) in Ghana also revealed the same results.

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4.5.2 Contamination of drinking water Majority of respondents (98%) agreed with the notion that gold panning makes water unsafe for drinking. The research observed reddish-brown sediments strewn along Rwenya, Mudzi, Nyamusizi and Nyamereri rivers as shown in figure 7 below. A research by Phiri (2011) also established that an uncontested 100% of the respondents agreed that artisanal small scale mining activities were polluting water. A study by Ampofo and Yiadom (2012) on River Bonsa in Ghana, established that gold panning causes impurity of the river, change in colour of the river and health hazards due to use of mercury.

Figure 7: Contamination of Rwenya river (left) and Mudzi river (right). Photographs by researcher on 23 and 25 November 2014 respectively

4.5.3 Increases in violent related cases Majority of the respondents (90%) acknowledged that illegal gold mining increases violent related incidents. The findings are buttressed by a research by Mensah et al (2006) in Obuasi Municipal Assembly (OMA) to unearth the youth unemployment challenges in mining areas of Ghana which revealed that the mining areas were occasioned by violent incidents. 73% of the respondents in a study by Mawere (2011) concurred that illegal panning was causing an increase in violent cases in Manica, Mozambique.

4.5.4 Abuse of young local girls Generally, a greater portion of the respondents were of the view that illegal gold mining

50 was contributing towards the abuse of young local girls with 8% strongly agreeing and another 37% in agreement whilst a modest 22% of the respondents were unsure. The researcher reaffirmed this aspect through key holders interviews held with 2 village heads and 1 school head who all confirmed that the illegal gold miners engage in promiscuous relationships with young girls especially secondary school girls. The school head interviewed remarked that, “These illegal miners have become a menace to schools nearer to their mining sites to the extent of wandering around school premises to pick-up school girls especially on Fridays”.

4.5.5 Theft of commodities from villagers A significant number of the respondent shared the view that indeed illegal gold mining has caused an increase in theft of commodities from villagers with a combined 49% of them in total agreement whilst 13% of the respondents were uncertain. This social aspect has not been explored by past researchers and hence brings about a new dimension for further study by other researchers in this field of illegal and artisanal gold mining. One chief who was interviewed confirmed having received numerous theft incidents of small livestock (chickens, guinea pigs, rabbits) and agricultural produce (green maize, vegetables, tomatoes). The commodities are then used for consumption by the illegal miners, some of whom spent a great considerable time away from their homes.

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4.5.6 Increase in vending activities This is also a somewhat overlooked effect, of illegal gold mining, by past researchers. This aspect was uncontested as all respondents (100%) confirmed that illegal mining causes an increase in vending activities at and around mining sites. 78% of these strongly agreed whilst the other 22% agreed with notion. Observations made at the 5 main mining zones confirmed existence of countless vending activities (from food, clothing, alcohol, radios, torches, artisanal mining tools, mercury, weighing scales, toiletries, etc.) by both mobile and static vendors. Figure 8 below shows some of the plastic made shacks used by static vendors near one the mining zones

Figure 8: Vending activities at Manyuchi site, Makaha. Photograph by researcher on 27 November 2014

4.5.7 Widespread disease outbreak Majority of the respondents (61%) were the opinion that illegal gold mining contributes to disease outbreak. This was also confirmed at one of the focus group meetings where one participant fumed in vernacular that, “Zvirwere zvizhinji zvinobva neku makorokoza kusanganisa mudumbu, manyoka, marariya nesiki chaiyo.” This can be translated to mean that, “Most diseases emanate from illegal gold miners including

52 cholera, diarrhea, malaria and sexually transmitted infections also”. Fears of HIV and AIDS transmission at the sites cannot be overlooked given the frequenting of mining sites by prostitutes. More so, confirmation by 56% of the 24 illegal gold miners who returned questionnaires that they visit their families on a monthly basis as shown in Figure 9 rings bell. Statistics could not however been drawn from local and nearby clinics to substantiate the claims.

how often illegal miners visit their families

8% 13% Key

25% Daily weekly

54% monthly other

Figure 9: Frequency of home and family visit by miners (n=24) (Source: Primary Data)

4.5.8 School Dropout A considerable number of the respondents (53% disagreeing and another 22% strongly disagreeing) disputed the statement that illegal gold mining contributed towards school dropout. This differed from the findings obtained in a descriptive survey by Gyamfi (2014) to assess the effect of illegal mining on school attendance and academic performance of junior high school students in the Upper Denkyira West District of Ghana which revealed that illegal mining activities was also a causation in school dropout. The school head interviewed, however, acknowledged that illegal gold mining activities by students have negative effect on both school attendance (missing lessons) and academic performance (poor grades). 53

4.5.9 Alleviates poverty An overwhelming 100% of the respondents were of the opinion that illegal gold mining alleviates poverty. Of this total, 70% strongly agreed while another 30% agreed. Research conducted by Mawere (2011) produced similar results.

4.5.10 Robs the state of its revenues All the respondents were in support of the notion that illegal gold mining robs the state of its revenues with the exception of 7% of the respondents who were uncertain. The findings are further supported by 43% of the respondents who are of the opinion that illegal gold miners dispose of the gold to unregistered buyers and an almost equal number 38% who are of the opinion that gold is mostly sold to foreign dealers and buyers. All of the 24 illegal gold miners confirmed that they do not remit any tax to the government from their proceeds. The results far exceed those obtained in a study conducted by Mawere (2011) in Manica, Mozambique in which only 53% of the respondents agreed to this view.

4.5.11 Money remains in the informal sector A combined 71% of the respondents concurred that illegal gold mining causes money to remain in the informal whilst 15% of the respondents were uncertain. The same notion was expressed at the focus meetings with one respondent clearly remarking that it is common knowledge that most of the illegal gold miners are not bank account holders.

4.5.12 Makes commodities relatively expensive near mining sites All the respondents agreed with the notion with an overwhelming 83% of them strongly agreeing. All the research instruments produced similar results including observations by the researcher which revealed that commodities were not just relatively expensive but rather artificially expensive near mining sites.

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4.5.13 Increase in money laundering All respondents were in agreement except for 12% who were uncertain and another 15% who disagreed with the statement. Pasts researches on illegal gold mining did not incorporate this aspect. The results obtained were, however, validated through interviews and focus groups where one incensed respondent noted that some of the illegal gold miners and buyers have licensed commuter omnibuses business and bottle stores which they operate in Mudzi district as a cover-up to their illegal gold mining and trading activities.

4.5.14 Increase in corruption Only 13% of the respondents disagreed with the general statement whilst another 17% were uncertain. The illegal gold miners interviewed acknowledged that they sometimes contribute money as syndicates which they commonly referred to as ‘protection fee’ that is then used to bribe police officers in order for the miners to continue with their illegal business. The results concur with Palmer (1992) who noted that, “Restrictive laws which seek to prohibit activities for which there is a substantial demand and which are very profitable encourage the involvement of organised crime and corruption”.

4.5.15 Increase in fraud An intriguing overall 82% of the respondents agreed that illegal gold mining increases fraud cases whilst 8% were uncertain. The illegal gold miners interviewed confirmed the occurrence of numerous fraud incidents amongst miners and buyers some of which are never reported. The respondent gave examples such as: sell of fake gold; transactions paid using fake money; under declaration of gold obtained amongst syndicates; use of tempered gold weighing scales; faking arrests; and sell of fake mercury. A review of the ZRP Nyamapanda Crime Register book, however, could not substantiate the findings of the research. This could be attributed to the fact that those defrauded do not report these cases for fear arrests since they are not licensed to possess gold hence the reason for high violent incidents at the mining sites.

4.6 Legislative and regulatory legal framework Illegal gold mining is generally policed using statutory instruments such as the Gold

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Trade Act Chapter 21:03 (1940), Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 21:05 (1961) and Environmental Management Act Chapter 20:27(2002). The Gold Trade Act and Mines and Minerals Act are regulated by the Ministry of Mines and Development whilst the Environmental Management Act is regulated by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. These respective ministries are then assisted by the ZRP in enforcement of the laws relating to illegal gold mining.

4.6.1 Effectiveness of Legislative System Out of the 10 police respondents who were asked the extent to which the Gold Trade Act is effective in policing illegal gold mining, 60% concurred that it is effective to a moderate extent and the results of which are depicted by Figure 10 below. These findings were also confirmed by a police officer from Minerals and Border Control Unit (MBCU) who was interviewed. The interviewee highlighted that the Gold Trade Act (GTA) was effective to a moderate extent and noted that the Act is only effective where the legal miners are actually found in possession of gold as it does not provide for penalties to those found in the act of extraction.

Effectiveness of Gold Trade Act 70% 60% 50% 40% Key 30% No extent at all 20%

Respondents Small extent 10% Moderate 0% Category 1 Large extent No extent at all 0% Very large extent Small extent 30% Moderate 60% Large extent 10% Very large extent 0%

Figure 10: Effectiveness of Gold Trade Act (n=10) (Source: Primary Data)

A review of the GTA Section 3 (after amendment in 2006) confirmed that a person found unlawfully dealing or in unlawful possession of gold shall be guilty and liable to 56 imprisonment for a period of not less than five years or more than ten years (if there are no special circumstances in the particular case) or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding five years or a fine not exceeding level nine (if the person convicted of the offence satisfies the court that there are special circumstances in the particular case)

Asked on the effectiveness of the Mines and Minerals Act, 20% of the respondents stated that it was effective to a moderate extent, while 30% noted that it was effective to a large extent and majority of the respondents (50%) agreed that it was effective to a very large extent. The interviewee, however, preferred that this Act was effective to a large extent and drew attention and mention to the provision of prospecting (unlawful extraction) for minerals and cutting of wood. The interviewee sited lenience of penalties as the only drawback of this Act. The researcher reviewed this Act and noted that the Act provides for imprisonment for a period of not less than two years where there are no special circumstances. Figure 11 shows the findings.

Effectiveness of Mines and Minerals Act 60% 50% 40% Key 30% No extent at all 20%

Respondents Small extent 10% Moderate 0% Category 1 Large extent No extent at all 0% Very large extent Small extent 0% Moderate 20% Large extent 30% Very large extent 50%

Figure 11: Effectiveness of Mines and Minerals Act (n=10) (Source: Primary Data)

The respondents had mixed feelings as to the effectiveness of the Environmental Management Act. 10% of the respondents highlighted that it is effective a small extent, 20% stated that it is effective to a moderate extent, another 20% was of the view that it 57 is effective to a large extent while the rest of the respondents (50%) concurred that it is effective to a very large extent. The interviewee was quick to point out that the Act is by all means the most effective of the three since it provides numerous offenses and penalties. The interviewed respondent gave an example of the offense relating to sell of hazardous substances which includes mercury as another advantage of this Act. Figure 12 depicts the findings.

Effectiveness of the Environnmental Management Act 60% 50% 40% Key 30% No extent at all pondents 20%

Res Small extent 10% Moderate 0% Category 1 Large extent No extent at all 0% Very large extent Small extent 10% Moderate 20% Large extent 20% Very large extent 50%

Figure 12: Effectiveness of the Environmental Management Act (n=10) (Source: Primary Data)

4.6.2 Evaluation of the Penal System According to Beccaria’s (in Adler et al, 2007) classical theory, the swiftness, severity, and certainty of punishment are some of the key elements in understanding a law's ability to control human behaviour. Asked about their opinion of the penal system, most of the respondents (60%) highlighted that the punishments imposed on illegal gold miners are to a small extent commensurate to the offenses whilst the remainder (40%) noted that the punishments are to a moderate extent commensurate with the crime of illegal mining. This was confirmed also by the interviewee who noted that that the penalties provided by the Act are lenient and narrated that most illegal gold miners are

58 repeat offenders who were either imprisoned for a shorter period or paid fine. Figure 13 shows the results of the evaluation.

The extent to which punishments are commensurate with the crime of illegal gold mining 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% No extent at all 20% Small extent 10% 0% Moderate Category 1 Large extent No extent at all 0% Very large extent Small extent 60% Moderate 40% Large extent 0% Very large extent 0%

Figure 13: Evaluation of the penal system (n=10) (Source: Primary Data)

4.7 Suggested solutions to illegal gold mining The participants were given the opportunity to express their opinions on measures which can be taken to address illegal gold mining activities in Mudzi district. Asked on whether illegal gold mining should be decriminalized, 66% of the respondents strongly agreed whilst the remaining 34% strongly disagreed.

A resounding 78% of the participants disagreed with the notion that illegal gold mining should be stopped. This goes a long way in proving that most people are benefiting either directly or indirectly from illegal gold mining and hence are in favour of the status quo. The same results were obtained in previous researches by Mawere (2011), Rutsate (2010) and Ndunguru et al (2006). However, an overwhelming 95% of the respondents were quick to reveal out that Ministry of Mines should decentralize its operations, particularly to register illegal gold miners.

Table 4.17 below shows the findings.

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Table 4.17: Suggested and possible solutions to illegal gold mining (n=87) ITEM RESPONSES Strongly Uncertain Strongly Total agree disagree No. % No. % No. % No. % Illegal gold mining should be 57 66 0 0 30 34 87 100 decriminalized i.e disregarded as a crime Illegal gold mining should be 15 17 4 5 68 78 87 100 stopped Ministry of Mines and 83 95 0 0 4 5 87 100 Development should work to decentralize its operations particularly to register illegal miners Government should control the 63 72 0 0 24 28 87 100 mining activities and assist with funding Fidelity Printers and Refinery 71 82 2 2 14 16 87 100 should strategically deploy its personnel to buy gold at illegal mining or milling sites Source: Primary Data

Additionally, majority of the respondents (72%) were of the opinion that government should control and fund the mining activities. However, 28% of the respondents who were in disagreement mainly drew from the illegal gold miners indicating that they prefer their unmonitored activities. A striking 82% of the populace insisted that Fidelity Printers should strategically deploy its personnel to buy gold at illegal mining or milling sites. This was reaffirmed by the interviews conducted with illegal miners who pointed out that besides availing its personnel at strategic centers, Fidelity Printers should also buy the gold at competitive prices.

4.8 Summary This chapter dealt with data analysis and discussions based on findings on the socio- economic implications of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District. The next chapter will dwell on conclusions and recommendations.

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CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction This chapter provides the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the research analysis on the socio-economic implications of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District. The analysis, interpretation and discussion of the research findings have helped create the opportunity to draw conclusions which should then subsequently lead to feasible and suitable recommendations in the future. The ensuing conclusion and recommendations are drawn in light of the research variables and research questions that were proffered in the preceding chapters.

5.1 Summary of research findings The study aimed and sought to find the socio-economic implications of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District, Mashonaland East Province from 2012 to 2014. In so doing the study was guided by the following general objective: to evaluate the magnitude and extent of illegal gold mining activities in Mudzi District; and the following specific objectives: to ascertain the main causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District; to establish the effects of illegal gold mining to society and economy of the country; evaluate the effectiveness of Zimbabwe’s legislative and regulatory legal framework to prevent and combat illegal gold mining; and to make appropriate recommendations to help combat illegal gold mining in Mudzi District in particular and the country in general.

The study was mainly qualitative although quantitative research methodology was also implemented in data gathering and analysis. The opinions, views, notions and attitudes of the respondents concerning the socio-economic implications of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District were collected through tools that included interviews, observations, questionnaires, focus groups and the review of existing evidence.

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Participants in this research included illegal gold miners who were selected randomly, community members, and communal leadership. Other stakeholders included Mining Officers from Ministry of Mines, personnel from District Administrator’s office, registered miners and school heads. Representation from the stakeholders was chosen strategically thus heads of departments were chosen to represent the respective organisations. The third group of participants were police officers from different departments and sections. The results were presented, analysed and discussed in the preceding chapter whereby graphs, tables and pie charts were used to represent the information gathered in this research.

The study established the estimated area affected by illegal gold mining activities as 26,6 hectares which covered by an estimated 530 illegal gold miners and panners. The study also established that on average each miner obtains between 1 to 2,5 grams of gold which traded at a yearly average price of US$39,59 (2014 London gold fixing price). In that same year (2014), US$34,773.89 worth of gold was recovered by ZRP from 32 arrests. The study also revealed that the illegal gold miners in Mudzi District mainly target alluvial gold.

Furthermore, the study found out that the main perceived causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi district are lack of employment, value of gold as compared to other minerals, people determined to commit the crime, lack of security personnel to restrict the crime, and quick source of income. The study also showed that drought was not a main cause of illegal gold mining. Similarly, the study revealed that lack of transparency in the registration process of mining had little to do with causing illegal gold mining. It was also discovered that 96% of the 24 illegal gold miners who participated during the questionnaire survey knew that their mining escapades are unlawful.

Main effects of illegal gold mining to society were established as; contamination of drinking water, increase in violent related cases, increase in prostitution, increase in vending activities and widespread disease outbreaks. The respondents largely rejected that school dropout was a social effect of illegal mining. All the respondents, however, concurred that illegal gold mining alleviates poverty in Mudzi District. The following were agreed, by the respondents, to be the economic effects of illegal gold mining;

62 commodities are relatively expensive near mining sites, robs the state of its revenues, money remains in informal sector, and increase in the economic crimes of fraud, money laundering and corruption.

It was established in the study that generally the Gold Trade Act, Mines and Minerals Act, and the Environmental Management Act are used in combating the economic crime of illegal gold mining. Majority of the respondents agreed that the Environmental Management Act was the most effective of the three whilst the Gold Trade Act was perceived as the least effective. Majority of the respondent (60%) highlighted that the penalties lashed on illegal gold miners are not commensurate with the crime.

Furthermore, the study revealed that most of the respondents were of the opinion that Fidelity Printers should strategically deploy its personnel to purchase gold from illegal mining sites and milling points. The study further established that most respondents (78%) are against the notion that illegal gold mining should be stopped but rather a significant number vie for the decriminalisation of the offense.

5.2 Conclusions In seeking to analyse the socio-economic implications of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District, five research questions were adopted to guide the implementation of the survey thus become the bases of the conclusion. The study revealed that area affected by illegal gold mining in Mudzi District is estimated to be 26,6 hectares. At an average production of 2 grams of gold per day a miner earns US$79.18 per day using the 2014 average price of gold of US$39,59 (London gold fixing price). Impliedly, the miner would obtain an income of US$24,862.52 annually in 2014. The study revealed lack of employment, value of gold in relation to other minerals, people determined to commit crime, lack of security personnel to restrict the and quick source of income as the main drivers of illegal gold mining in the District thereby asserting that criminological theories namely Strain Theory, Rational Choice and Routine Activity are at play in the causation of illegal gold mining activities in Mudzi District. Illegal gold mining Mudzi District is causing social effects such as contamination of drinking water, increase in violent related cases, increase in prostitution, increase in vending activities and widespread disease outbreaks. It is also robing the state of its potential revenue collection which 63 can be estimated at US$13,177,140.90 per year using the 2014 average gold price which is not taxed. Illegal gold mining is increasing other economic crimes such as fraud, money laundering and corruption in and around Mudzi District. The laws governing gold mining in Zimbabwe include the Gold Trade Act Chapter 21:03 (1940), Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 21:05 (1961) and Environmental Management Act Chapter 20:27 (2002). The penalties provided for by these respective Acts are, however, lenient given the weight of this economic crime.

5.3 Recommendations In light of the findings and conclusions made in the study, it is clear that the economic crime of illegal gold mining in Mudzi district poses a serious threat of environmental damage, sociological problems and economic sabotage. One thing certain is that the cumulative effects of illegal gold mining need to be mitigated to reduce their environmental and social impact on Mudzi District in particular and the economic impact on Zimbabwe in general. Another thing apparent is that illegal gold mining appears to be the only sound and meaningful income generating project in Mudzi due to lack of employment and general poverty since the district has no viable industries. Therefore, the government and Mudzi community should come up with strategies that seek to strike a balance in promoting mining and at the same time reducing the negative impacts of the mining activities. The strategies can take form of the following;

Decriminalisation – currently most of the illegal gold miners dispose the gold they extract to unregistered buyers and foreign buyers not only because of the higher price these buyers offer, but also for fear of apprehension by registered buyers or agencies of Fidelity Printers since they are not licensed to possess the gold under the Gold Trade Act to begin with. So mining and possession of the gold should be formalised, following which Fidelity Printers should strategically deploy its gold buying agencies, in order to curb leakages and smuggling the gold.

Penalties – the legislature should review and amend the Acts relating to illegal gold with the view of making the penalties proportional to the crime. Most illegal gold miners apply the Rational Choice theory in deciding how much it will costs them to register

64 their activities, the chances of getting caught mining illegally and the punishment they will receive when caught. Thus swift, severe and certain punishment will deter illegal mining and promote registered mining.

Anti-Corruption Commission – the commission should intensify its operations with the view of improving on effectiveness and particularly to eliminate the issue of police officers who connive with the illegal gold miners and receive bribes so that the miners remain in operation. These law custodians should be lashed with stiffer sentences or imprisonment terms as deterrence measure.

Government Control – this can be achieved by organising the miners into associations or cooperatives which are then funded, registered and monitored for tax purposes.

Police Operations and Patrols – these can be done with ultimate efforts to evict all the illegal gold miners. It will however require gigantic efforts because of the high number of miners and difficulties in accessing the mining zones, of which the enforcing organisation is under-resourced.

Health Education and Campaigns – these can be conducted at illegal gold mining sites to promote and raise awareness on how the illegal gold miners can reduce the spreading of different diseases and practising of safe sex at respective sites.

5.4 Areas for Further Study The researcher is of the opinion that whilst the area of gold panning, illegal gold mining and artisanal gold mining has been extensively researched, little has been done to research and unearth the illegal activities perpetrated by the registered and formal miners. It is also worthwhile to conduct a further research with the view to prove or disprove the current findings.

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APPENDIX ‘A’

INTRODUCTORY LETTER

Bindura University of Science Education P.Bag 1020 Bindura

…..../……. / 2015

Re: Research on the Socio-economic Implications of Illegal Gold Mining: The Case Study of Mudzi District

Dear Respondent. My name is Mhene Tineyi Progress. I am a student at Bindura University of Science Education studying for a Bachelor of Business Administration (Honours) Degree in Police and Security Studies. It is a requirement for the completion of the degree program that a student should carry out a research project on a problem of his/her choice which will be subject to approval by university authorities. As such I am conducting a research on “The socio-economic implications of illegal gold mining: The case study of Mudzi District” with the following objectives in mind:

1. To ascertain the main causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District 2. To establish the effects of illegal gold mining activities to the economy of the country 3. To evaluate the effectiveness of Zimbabwe’s legislative and regulatory legal framework to prevent and combat illegal gold mining 4. To make appropriate recommendations to help combat illegal gold mining in Mudzi District in particular and the country in general

You are kindly requested to assist in this research by truthfully completing the questionnaire provided. The information you provide shall not be used for any other purposes but purely for this academic study and you are absolutely assured that the information will be subject to utmost confidentiality. I would appreciate it so much if your completed questionnaire can be returned at your earliest convenient time. For more information please contact me on 0772 995 301.

Your cooperation in this regard is greatly appreciated.

Yours faithfully,

Tineyi Progress Mhene 70

APPENDIX ‘B’

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ILLEGAL GOLD MINERS

QUESTIONNAIRE NO 1 of 3 Confidential Serial No. SECTION A: BACKGROUND/ STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

No. Questions and Filters Responses A. Thank you for taking time to answer this questionnaire. The questions presented are about the economic crime of illegal gold mining, the causation thereof, effects, and your views on how and whether it can be prevented and combated in order to save Mudzi District in particular and Zimbabwe in general. Please answer the questions truthfully and as accurately as possible.

B Would you like your completed questionnaire to be Returned returned or destroyed? Destroyed C Indicate whether you are willing to participate in a Telephone: Yes further and short interview for the purpose of No obtaining qualitative data either by telephone or meeting Meeting : Yes No 1. What is your age in years? 1.1 Below 16 1.2 16 – 24 1.3 25 – 34 1.4 35 – 44 1.5 45 – 54 1.6 55 & above 2. What is your gender? 2.1 Male 2.2 Female 3. What is your marital status? 3.1 Single 3.2 Married 3.3 Divorced 3.4 Widowed 4. Level of Education attained 4.1 No schooling 4.2 Primary 4.3 Secondary 4.4 Tertiary 5. Level of Professional qualification 5.1 Certificate 5.2 Diploma 5.3 Degree 5.4 Other (specify)……. ………………………… 71

6. Which type of gold do you mine? 6.1 Reef 6.2 Alluvial 6.3 Both 7. Do you know that extracting gold without a license 7.1 Yes is illegal and punishable under the law? 7.2 No 8. For how many years have you been into artisanal 8.1 Less than 1 gold mining? 8.2 1 - 5 8.3 6 - 10 8.4 Over 10 9. What is your nature of engagement in artisanal gold 9.1 Full time mining? 9.2 Part time 9.3 Seasonally 9.4 Occasionally 10. How many grams of gold do you obtain on an 10.1 Less than 1 average day? 10.2 1 to 2.50 10.3 2.51 to 4 10.4 4.01 to 5 10.5 Other(specify)……. …………………………

11. To which buyers or dealers do you mostly sell your 11.1 Registered gold? 11.2 Unregistered 11.3 Foreign 11.4 Other(specify)...... ………………………… 12. How often do you return to your home or family? 12.1 Daily 12.2 Weekly 12.3 Monthly 12.4 Other(specify)...... …………………………

SECTION B: 13. Use the following scale 1-3 to answer the questions that follow Strongly Disagree Uncertain Strongly Agree 1 2 3

using the above scale indicate by ticking the appropriate box to show how much you agree that illegal gold mining is caused by the following factors;

Folio Item 1 2 3 13.1 Motivated offenders i.e people determined and willing to engage into illegal gold mining and waiting for opportunity to do so 13.2 Attractive targets i.e the price value of gold as compared to other minerals in Mudzi District makes it more vulnerable

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13.3 Absence of guardianship such as police to restrict and protect the illegal gold mining sites from unregistered miners 13.4 Quick source of income 13.5 Lack of employment 13.6 Severe drought 13.7 Lack of knowledge that it is a crime 13.8 Traditional practice i.e passed on from generation to generation just like farming and hunting 13.9 Lack of capital to register as small scale miner 13.10 Lack of transparency in the registration process of mines 13.11 Specify other causes, if any; a)…………………………………………………………………………… b)…………………………………………………………………………… c)…………………………………………………………………………… d)…………………………………………………………………………… e)……………………………………………………………………………

14. Use the following scale when responding to each item below by ticking the appropriate box Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5

Using scale of 1-5 please indicate how far you agree with the statement that illegal mining contributes to the following social and economic effects;

Folio item 1 2 3 4 5 14.1 Increase in prostitution

14.2 Contamination of drinking water (panning)

14.3 Increase in violent related cases

14.4 Abuse of young local girls 14.5 Theft of commodities from locals or villagers 14.6 Increase of vending activities at and around mining sites 14.7 Widespread disease outbreak

14.8 School dropout

14.9 Alleviates poverty

14.10 Robs the state of its revenues

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14.11 Money remains in the informal economy

14.12 Makes goods relatively expensive around mining sites 14.13 Increases money laundering

14.14 Increases corruption

14.15 Increases in fraud

14.16 Suggests any other social and/or economic effects of illegal gold mining ...………………………………………………………………………… ...………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………...

15. The following are possible measures aimed at reducing the social and economic impacts of illegal gold mining. Using scale of 1-3 please indicate how far you agree with the following statements.

Strongly Disagree Uncertain Strongly Agree 1 2 3

Foli Item 1 2 3 o 15.1 Illegal gold mining should be decriminalized i.e disregarded as a crime 15.2 Illegal gold mining should be stopped 15.3 Ministry of Mines and Development should work to decentralize its operations particularly to register illegal miners 15.4 Government should control the mining activities and assist with funding 15.5 Fidelity Printers and Refinery should strategically deploy its personnel to buy gold at illegal mining or milling sites 15.6 Suggests any other recommendations, if any a)…………………………………………………………………………… … b)…………………………………………………………………………… … c)…………………………………………………………………………… … d)…………………………………………………………………………… …

Thank you for your cooperation

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APPENDIX ‘C’

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STAKEHOLDERS

QUESTIONNAIRE NO 2 of 3 Confidential Serial No

SECTION A: BACKGROUND/ STRUCTURED QUESTIONS No. Questions and Filters Responses A. Thank you for taking time to answer this questionnaire. The questions presented are about the economic crime of illegal gold mining, the causation thereof, effects, and views on how and whether it can be prevented and combated in order to save Mudzi District in particular and Zimbabwe in general. Please answer the questions truthfully and as accurately as possible. B Would you like your completed questionnaire to be Returned returned or destroyed? Destroyed C Indicate whether you are willing to participate in a Telephone: Yes further and short interview for the purpose of No obtaining qualitative data either by telephone or meeting Meeting : Yes No 1. What is your age in years? 1.2 Below 16 1.2 16 – 24 1.3 25 – 34 1.4 35 – 44 1.5 45 – 54 1.6 55 & above 2. What is your gender? 2.1 Male 2.2 Female 3. Marital status 3.1 Single 3.2 Married 3.3 Divorced 3.4 Widowed 3.5 Other (specify)…… ………………………… 4. Which part of Mudzi District are you based in? 4.1 Chiunye 4.2 Makaha 4.3 Suswe 4.4 Rwenya 4.5 Other (specify)…… 75

………………………… 5. Employment status 5.1 Student 5.2 Farmer 5.3 Government 5.4 Vendor 5.5 Other (specify)……. ………………………… 6. Level of Education attained 6.1 No schooling 6.2 Primary 6.3 Secondary 6.4 Tertiary 6.5 Other (specify)……. ………………………… 7. Level of Professional qualification 7.1 Certificate 7.2 Diploma 7.3 HN Diploma 7.4 Degree 7.5 Other……………… ………………………… 8. Which type of gold is mined in your area of 8.1 Reef residence or vicinity? 8.2 Alluvial 8.3 Both 9. How many known illegal gold mining sites are in 9.1 One your area of residence? 9.2 Two 9.3 Three 9.4 Four 9.5 Other(specify)...... ………………………… 10. In your opinion to which buyers or dealers do 10.1 Registered illegal miners sell their gold? 10.2 Unregistered 10.3 Foreign 10.4Other(specify)...... …………………………

SECTION B:

11. Use the following scale 1-3 to answer the questions that follow Strongly Disagree Uncertain Strongly Agree 1 2 3

using the above scale indicate by ticking the appropriate box to show how much you agree that illegal gold mining is caused by the following factors;

Folio Item 1 2 3 11.1 Motivated offenders i.e people determined and willing to engage into illegal gold mining and waiting for opportunity to do so

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11.2 Attractive targets i.e the price value of gold as compared to other minerals in Mudzi District makes it more vulnerable 11.3 Absence of guardianship such as police to restrict and protect the illegal gold mining sites from unregistered miners 11.4 Quick source of income 11.5 Lack of employment 11.6 Severe drought 11.7 Lack of knowledge that it is a crime 11.8 Traditional practice i.e passed on from generation to generation just like farming and hunting 11.9 Lack of capital to register as small scale miner 11.10 Lack of transparency in the registration process of mines 11.11 Specify other causes, if any; a)……………………………………………………………………………… b)……………………………………………………………………………… c)……………………………………………………………………………… d)………………………………………………………………………………

12. Use the following scale when responding to each item below by ticking the appropriate box Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5

Indicate how far you agree with the statement that illegal mining contributes to the following social and economic effects;

Folio item 1 2 3 4 5 12.1 Increase in prostitution

12.2 Contamination of drinking water (panning)

12.3 Increase in violent related cases

12.4 Abuse of young local girls 12.5 Theft of commodities from locals or villagers 12.6 Increase of vending activities at and around mining sites 12.7 Widespread disease outbreak

12.8 School dropout

12.9 Alleviates poverty

12.10 Robs the state of its revenues

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12.11 Money remains in the informal economy

12.12 Makes goods relatively expensive around mining sites 12.13 Increases money laundering

12.14 Increases corruption

12.15 Increases in fraud

12.16 Suggests any other social and/or economic effects of illegal gold mining ...…………………………………………………………………………… ...…………………………………………………………………………… ...……………………………………………………………………………

13. Use the following scale in responding to the listed items below by ticking the appropriate box Strongly Disagree Uncertain Strongly Agree 1 2 3

The following are possible measures aimed at reducing the social and economic impacts of illegal gold mining. Indicate how far you agree with the following statements.

Foli Item 1 2 3 o 13.1 Illegal gold mining should be decriminalized i.e disregarded as a crime 13.2 Illegal gold mining should be stopped 13.3 Ministry of Mines and Development should work to decentralize its operations particularly to register illegal miners 13.4 Government should control the mining activities and assist with funding 13.5 Fidelity Printers and Refinery should strategically deploy its personnel to buy gold at illegal mining or milling sites 13.6 Suggests any other recommendations ...…………………………………………………………………………… …. ……………………………………………………………………………… … ……………………………………………………………………………… …

Thank you for your cooperation

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APPENDIX ‘D’

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR POLICE OFFICERS

QUESTIONNAIRE NO 3 of 3 Confidential Serial No

SECTION A: BACKGROUND/ STRUCTURED QUESTIONS No. Questions and Filters Responses A. Thank you for taking time to answer this questionnaire. The questions presented are about the economic crime of illegal gold mining, the causation thereof, effects, and your views on how and whether it can be prevented and combated in order to save Mudzi District in particular and Zimbabwe in general. Please answer the questions truthfully and as accurately as possible. B Would you like your completed questionnaire to be Returned returned or destroyed? Destroyed C Indicate whether you are willing to participate in a Telephone: Yes further and short interview for the purpose of No obtaining qualitative data either by telephone or meeting Meeting : Yes No 1. What is your age in years? 1.3 18 – 24 1.2 25 – 34 1.3 35 – 44 1.4 45 – 54 1.5 55+ 2. What is your gender? 2.1 Male 2.2 Female 3. For how many years have you been employed in 3.1 less than 2 the police service? 3.2 2-9 3.3 10-20 3.4 Above 20 4 What rank do you hold in the police service? 4.1 Constable 4.2 Sergeant 4.3 A/Insp 4.4 Insp 5. Level of Education attained 5.1 No schooling 5.2 Primary 5.3 Secondary 5.4 Tertiary 6. Level of Professional qualification 6.1 Certificate 6.2 Diploma 6.3 Degree 6.4 other………………. ………………………… 79

7. What duties are you currently performing in the 7.1 Operations organisation? 7.2 Administrative 7.3 Investigations 7.4 Intelligence 7.5 Other(specify)...... …………………….. 8. How many known illegal gold mining sites are in 8.1 One Mudzi District? 8.2 Two 8.3 Three 8.4 Four 8.5 Other(specify)...... …………………….. 9. In your opinion to which buyers or dealers do 9.1 Registered illegal miners sell their gold? 9.2 Unregistered 9.3 Foreign 9.4 Other(specify)...... ………………………… …………………………

SECTION B:

10. Use the following scale 1-3 to answer the questions that follow Strongly Disagree Uncertain Strongly Agree 1 2 3

using the above scale indicate by ticking the appropriate box to show how much you agree that illegal gold mining is caused by the following factors;

Folio Item 1 2 3 10.1 Motivated offenders i.e people determined and willing to engage into illegal gold mining and waiting for opportunity to do so 10.2 Attractive targets i.e the price value of gold as compared to other minerals in Mudzi District makes it more vulnerable 10.3 Absence of guardianship such as police to restrict and protect the illegal gold mining sites from unregistered miners 10.4 Quick source of income 10.5 Lack of employment 10.6 Severe drought 10.7 Lack of knowledge that it is a crime 10.8 Traditional practice i.e passed on from generation to generation just like farming and hunting 10.9 Lack of capital to register as small scale miner 10.10 Lack of transparency in the registration process of mines

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10.11 Specify other causes, if any; a)…………………………………………………………………………….. b)……………………………………………………………………………… c)……………………………………………………………………………… d)………………………………………………………………………………

Use the following scale when responding to each item below by ticking the appropriate box Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5

11. Using scale of 1-5 please indicate how far you agree with the statement that illegal mining contributes to the following social effects;

Folio item 1 2 3 4 5 11.1 Increase in prostitution

11.2 Contamination of drinking water (panning)

11.3 Increase in violent related cases

11.4 Abuse of young local girls 11.5 Theft of commodities from locals or villagers 11.6 Increase of vending activities at and around mining sites 11.7 Widespread disease outbreak

11.8 School dropout

11.9 Alleviates poverty

11.10 Robs the state of its revenues

11.11 Money remains in the informal sector

11.12 Makes goods relatively expensive around mining sites 11.13 Increases money laundering

11.14 Increases corruption

11.15 Increases in fraud

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11.16 Suggests any other social and/or economic effects of illegal gold mining ...…………………………………………………………………………… ...…………………………………………………………………………… ...……………………………………………………………………………

12. Use the following scale in responding to the listed items below by ticking the box of preference No Extent At Small Extent Moderate Large Very Large All Extent Extent Extent 1 2 3 4 5

Folio item 1 2 3 4 5 12.1 To what extent is the Gold Trade Act effective in policing illegal gold mining? 12.2 To what extent is the Mines and Minerals Act effective in policing illegal gold mining? 12.3 To what extent is the Environmental Management Act effective in policing illegal gold mining? 12.4 To what extent are the penal and punishment verdicts reached by the courts commensurate with the crimes of illegal gold mining/dealing?

Use the following scale in responding to the listed items below by ticking the appropriate box Strongly Disagree Uncertain Strongly Agree 1 2 3

14. The following are possible measures aimed at reducing the social and economic impacts of illegal gold mining. Using scale of 1-3 please indicate how far you agree with the following statements.

Foli Item 1 2 3 o 14.1 Illegal gold mining should be decriminalized i.e disregarded as a crime 14.2 Illegal gold mining should be stopped 14.3 Ministry of Mines and Development should work to decentralize its operations particularly to register illegal miners 14.4 Government should control the mining activities and assist with funding 14.5 Fidelity Printers and Refinery should strategically deploy its personnel to buy gold at illegal mining or milling sites 14.6 Suggests any other recommendations a)…………………………………………………………………………… … b)…………………………………………………………………………… …

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c)…………………………………………………………………………… … d)…………………………………………………………………………… …

Thank you for your cooperation

APPENDIX ‘E’

INTERVIEW GUIDE

Interviews shall be used to clarify data collected through questionnaires as well as solicit for further data. A total of 15 interviews shall be conducted with respondents across the three questionnaire groups to include; illegal gold miners (x2), local villagers (x3), village heads (x2), chiefs (x1), school heads (x1), District Administrator’s representative (x1), Mining officers from Ministry of Mines (x1), Fidelity Printers representative (x1), Police officers (x1) and registered miners (x2).

In conducting the interviews the researcher shall observe the following protocol; 1. Start by introducing self. 2. Thank the participant for agreeing to take part in the interview. 3. Notify the participants of the purpose and goals of the research. 4. Acquaint the participants with their right to privacy and confidentiality. 5. Inform the participant of the right not to answer any question and right to withdraw at any time from the research.

Since there are various stakeholders and key holders earmarked for interviews, the researcher shall thus not use pre-set questions but rather the questions will be kept in the boundaries of the key holders diverse capabilities. These will, however, be guided by the main research questions as highlighted below;

1. What is the magnitude and extent of illegal gold mining activities in Mudzi District? 2. What are the main causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District? 3. How do illegal gold mining activities affect society and the economy of the country? 4. What are the laws and how effective are the laws governing gold mining in Zimbabwe? 5. What measures can be adopted to mitigate problems caused by illegal gold mining in Mudzi District in particular and the country in general?

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APPENDIX ‘F’

OBSERVATION GUIDE OBSERVATION GUIDE

ZONE OF OBSERVATION: ______

DATE: ______

VARIABLES ILLEGAL GOLD MINING SITES

1 2 3 4 5

The most active gender at illegal gold mining sites The most active age group at illegal mining sites Type of livelihood activities

The number of illegal gold miners at each site Productivity of the illegal gold miners How the gold is disposed

Types of buyers or dealers

Social effects of illegal mining;  Prostitution  Violent incidents  Disease outbreaks  Vending activities  Child labour  Contamination of drinking water Economic effects of illegal mining;  Price hiking  Illegal dealings

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 Corruption

APPENDIX ‘G’

FOCUS GROUP GUIDE

Following questionnaires, interviews and observations, the researcher shall arrange two focus group meetings in two of the most critically affected areas or zones so as to obtain a balanced research view that portrays the views of those mostly affected by the illegal mining activities.

A total of 15 participants for each focus group is deemed manageable by the researcher. The researcher shall invite and accommodate religious leaders, traditional leaders, community leaders, illegal miners, registered miners, villagers and business operators. A mediator shall be chosen who will be issued guiding questions or issues for discussion whilst the researcher will record the proceedings. Time slots of 30 to 45 minutes will be allotted for each focus group meeting.

In conducting the focus group meetings the researcher shall observe the following protocol; 1. Start by introducing self. 2. Thank the participant for agreeing to take part in the discussion. 3. Notify the participants of the purpose and goals of the research. 4. Acquaint the participants with their right to privacy and confidentiality. 5. Inform the participant of the right not to answer any question and right to withdraw at any time from the research.

As with interviews, the questions and issues for discussion will be guided by the following main research questions;

1. What is the magnitude and extent of illegal gold mining activities in Mudzi District? 2. What are the main causes of illegal gold mining in Mudzi District? 3. How do illegal gold mining activities affect society and the economy of the country? 4. What are the laws and how effective are the laws governing gold mining in Zimbabwe? 5. What measures can be adopted to mitigate problems caused by illegal gold mining in Mudzi District in particular and the country in general?

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APPENDIX ‘H’

RESEARCH APPROVAL LETTER: BUSE

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APPENDIX ‘I’

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RESEARCH APPROVAL LETTER: ZRP

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APPENDIX ‘J’

SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATOR

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