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PERGAMON Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 25 (1999) 437–562 www.elsevier.com/locate/pecs Automotive spark-ignited direct-injection gasoline engines F. Zhaoa,*, M.-C. Laia, D.L. Harringtonb aDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Wayne State University, 5050 Anthony Wayne Dr., Detroit, MI 48202, USA bThermal and Energy Systems Laboratory, General Motors Research and Development Center, 30500 Mound Road, Warren, MI 48090, USA Abstract The development of four-stroke, spark-ignition engines that are designed to inject gasoline directly into the combustion chamber is an important worldwide initiative of the automotive industry. The thermodynamic potential of such engines for significantly enhanced fuel economy, transient response and cold-start hydrocarbon emission levels has led to a large number of research and development projects that have the goal of understanding, developing and optimizing gasoline direct-injection (GDI) combustion systems. The processes of fuel injection, spray atomization and vaporization, charge cooling, mixture preparation and the control of in-cylinder air motion are all being actively researched, and this work is reviewed in detail and analyzed. The new technologies such as high-pressure, common-rail, gasoline injection systems and swirl-atomizing gasoline fuel injectors are discussed in detail, as these technologies, along with computer control capabilities, have enabled the current new examination of an old objective; the direct-injection, stratified-charge (DISC), gasoline engine. The prior work on DISC engines that is relevant to current GDI engine development is also reviewed and discussed. The fuel economy and emission data for actual engine configurations are of significant importance to engine researchers and developers. These data have been obtained and assembled for all of the available GDI literature, and are reviewed and discussed in detail. The types of GDI engines are arranged in four classifications of decreasing complexity, and the advantages and disadvantages of each class are noted and explained. Emphasis is placed upon consensus trends and conclusions that are evident when taken as a whole. Thus the GDI researcher is informed regarding the degree to which engine volumetric efficiency and compression ratio can be increased under optimized conditions, and as to the extent to which unburned hydrocarbon (UBHC), NOx and particulate emissions can be minimized for specific combustion strategies. The critical area of GDI fuel injector deposits and the associated effect on spray geometry and engine performance degradation are reviewed, and important system guidelines for minimizing deposition rates and deposit effects are presented. The capabilities and limitations of emission control techniques and aftertreatment hardware are reviewed in depth, and areas of consensus on attaining European, Japanese and North American emission standards are compiled and discussed. All known research, prototype and production GDI engines worldwide are reviewed as to performance, emissions and fuel economy advantages, and for areas requiring further development. The engine schematics, control diagrams and specifications are compiled, and the emission control strategies are illustrated and discussed. The influence of lean-NOx catalysts on the development of late-injection, stratified-charge GDI engines is reviewed, and the relative merits of lean-burn, homogeneous, direct-injection engines as an option requiring less control complexity are analyzed. All current information in the literature is used as the basis for discussing the future development of automotive GDI engines. q 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Automotive; Four stroke; Gasoline; Direct injection; Spark ignition; Engine * Corresponding author. Currently with Liberty and Technical Affairs, DaimlerChrysler Corporation, CIMS 482-01-19, 800 Chrysler Dr. E, Auburn Hills, MI 48326, USA. 0360-1285/99/$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0360-1285(99)00004-0 438 F. Zhao et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 25 (1999) 437–562 Contents Nomenclature .................................................................... 439 1. Introduction .................................................................. 440 1.1. Overview ................................................................ 440 1.2. Key potential benefits: GDI engine versus PFI engine ............................... 441 2. Direct-injection gasoline fuel system ................................................ 444 2.1. Fuel system requirements .................................................... 444 2.2. Fuel injector considerations .................................................. 446 2.3. Fuel spray characteristics .................................................... 452 2.3.1. Atomization requirements .............................................. 452 2.3.2. Single-fluid high-pressure swirl injector .................................... 455 2.3.3. Effect of injector sac volume ............................................ 462 2.3.4. Air-assisted injection ................................................. 464 2.3.5. Best practice performance of current GDI injectors ........................... 467 2.3.6. Future requirements of GDI fuel sprays .................................... 468 3. Combustion chamber geometry and in-cylinder mixture dynamics .......................... 470 3.1. Flow structure ............................................................ 470 3.2. Fuel–air mixing ........................................................... 476 4. Combustion process and control strategies ............................................ 485 4.1. Combustion chamber geometry ................................................ 485 4.2. In-cylinder charge cooling ................................................... 494 4.3. Engine operating modes and fuel injection strategies ................................ 495 4.4. Combustion characteristics ................................................... 501 4.5. Injector deposit issues ...................................................... 507 5. Fuel economy and emissions ...................................................... 512 5.1. Fuel economy potential ..................................................... 512 5.2. Emissions versus fuel economy compromise . .................................... 516 5.2.1. UBHC emissions .................................................... 518 5.2.2. NOx emissions ...................................................... 524 5.2.3. Particulate emissions .................................................. 529 6. Specific combustion systems and control strategies ...................................... 532 6.1. Early research engines ...................................................... 532 6.2. Mitsubishi combustion system ................................................ 536 6.3. Toyota combustion system ................................................... 539 6.4. Nissan combustion system ................................................... 541 6.5. Ford combustion system ..................................................... 543 6.6. Isuzu combustion system .................................................... 543 6.7. Mercedes-Benz combustion system ............................................. 544 6.8. Mazda combustion system ................................................... 544 6.9. Audi combustion system .................................................... 545 6.10. Honda combustion system ................................................... 545 6.11. Subaru combustion system ................................................... 546 6.12. Fiat combustion system ..................................................... 546 6.13. Renault combustion system .................................................. 547 6.14. Ricardo combustion system .................................................. 548 6.15. AVL combustion system .................................................... 548 6.16. FEV combustion system ..................................................... 550 6.17. Orbital combustion system ................................................... 552 7. Conclusion ................................................................... 552 References ...................................................................... 552 F. Zhao et al. / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 25 (1999) 437–562 439 Nomenclature ATDC after top dead center BDC bottom dead center BMEP brake mean effective pressure BSFC brake specific fuel consumption BSU Bosch smoke unit BTDC before top dead center CAFE corporate average fuel economy CC close-coupled CCD charge-coupled device CFD computational fluid dynamics CIDI compression-ignition direct-injection CO carbon monoxide COV coefficient of variation CVCC compound vortex combustion chamber CVT continuously variable transmission D32 Sauter mean diameter of a fuel spray DI direct-injection DISC direct-injection stratified-charge DISI direct-injection spark-ignited DMI direct mixture injection DOHC dual overhead cam DV10 spray droplet size for which 10% of the fuel volume is in smaller droplets DV90 spray droplet size for which 90% of the fuel volume is in smaller droplets EFI electronic fuel injection EGT exhaust gas temperature EGR exhaust gas recirculation EOI end of injection FID flame ionization detector GDI gasoline direct injection HC hydrocarbon IDI indirect injection IMEP indicated mean effective pressure IPTV incidents per thousand vehicles
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