THE FIRE MANAGER’S GUIDE TO Blue Ridge Ecozones

By J. Adam Warwick THE FIRE MANAGER’S GUIDE TO Blue Ridge Ecozones

By J. Adam Warwick

Written by J. Adam Warwick Design by Chelsea Broderick Maps by Greg Cooper

All photos © Adam Warwick, unless otherwise noted

Advisory Committee: Pete Bates, Western Carolina University and Forest Stewards Gary Kaufmann, USDA Forest Service Josh Kelly, MountainTrue Ed Schwartzman, Joe Pye Ecological Services Lesley Starke, North Carolina Department of Agriculture

Additional technical review by: Margit Bucher, Greg Cooper, Liz Kalies, Jean Lorber, Katherine Medlock and Megan Sutton — The Nature Conservancy Ryan Jacobs and Dean Simon (retired) — North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission Matt Keyes and Rachel Dickson — USDA Forest Service 4 INTRODUCTION

6 Fire in the Mountains 8 Forests Out of Whack 10 Purpose and Need 12 Ecological Concepts 14 What Does Restoration Look Like?

16 Fire Intensity and Severity

18 OAK FOREST 52 PINE-OAK HEATH

31 White Oak 61 Table Mountain Pine & Pitch Pine 36 Chestnut Oak 66 Indiangrass 38 Great Rhododendron 68 Mountain Laurel 42 Red Maple 72 /WI\ӊ[:]M 46 Poverty Oatgrass 74 Fragrant Goldenrod 48 Naked Ticktrefoil 76 Eastern Turkeybeard 50 Spreading Aster

PLANTS OF 124 FIRE-ADAPTED ECOZONES TABLE OF Contents

HIGH-ELEVATION 78 SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK 104 RED OAK

87 Shortleaf Pine 113 Northern Red Oak 92 Hillside Blueberry & 116 American Chestnut Hairy Blueberry 120 Oak Sedge 96 Little Bluestem 122 Whorled Loosestrife & 98 Appalachian Small .ZI[MZӊ[4WW[M[\ZQNM Spreading Pogonia 100 Appalachian Hillcane & Rivercane

REFERENCES & 142 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 144 RECOMMENDED READING 4 he Southern Blue Ridge Mountains can XZW^QLMIVMV[MUJTMaW]_WVӊ\PMIZI\ a backyard bird feeder. Pine warblers, chestnut-sided warblers, indigo buntings and yellow-breasted chats are a chorus everyone PM\ZIQT\ٺPW]TLJMIJTM\WM`XMZQMVKM)[aW]^MV\]ZMW] Tthe crunchy pine needles and oak leaves are a signal for skinks and fence lizards to dash from their sunning spots. \MZMV\¸KZQ[XMZ\PIVaW]UQOP\M`XMKٺPMIQZQ[ITQ\\TMLQ> QV\PMUW]V\IQV[¸IVL\PMXWTTQVI\WZ[#[WUIVaÆW_MZ[ _Q\PJMM[IVLJ]\\MZÆQM[M^MV\PMUW[\XZWTQÅKXWTTQVI\WZ OIZLMV[KIVӊ\UI\KP;]VTQOP\JMIU[\PZW]OPIVWXMV\ZMM canopy falling on little bluestem, asters, Joe-Pye weed and OWTLMVZWL1\ӊ[VW\\PMUW[\PW[XQ\IJTMMV^QZWVUMV\NWZ people, July especially, but it is the ideal home for many of our native plants and animals. Once you have visited one of \PM[MXTIKM[aW]_WVӊ\[MM*T]M:QLOMNWZM[\[\PM[IUM

Sites like this are rare in the mountains, as are many of the plants and animals that depend on them. They contribute immensely to biodiversity — the essence of the Southern *T]M:QLOM.ZWUJZWILZQ^MZ^ITTMa[\W\PM[XZ]KMÅZ\PM QVÅVQ\MJTMVLWN I[XMK\MTM^I\QWVIVL[WQT[]XXWZ\WVMWN  \PM_WZTLӊ[UW[\JW\IVQKITTaZQKPXTIKM[

While these mountains have changed over time and _WWL[J]ZVQVOK]T\]ZMPI[_IVML\PMXW\MV\QITNWZÅZM remains. It is a disturbance that will forever be a part of \PQ[MV^QZWVUMV\.QZMPI[JMMVIN]VLIUMV\ITQVÆ]MVKM on the Blue Ridge landscape; it once sustained open forests, woodlands, shrublands and grasslands in some cases. ?PMZMÅZMWKK]Z[ZMO]TIZTaQ\OW^MZV[[XMKQM[XMZ[Q[\MVKM and dominance as well as size and shape; and if, when IVLPW_I[XMKQM[ZMXZWL]KM[1N P]UIV[ITTW_Q\ÅZM MLOZW][M\QUJMZٺ[XZWVMMV^QZWVUMV\[PMTX\W[][\IQVZ rattlesnakes, shortleaf pine and white oak.

Blue Ridge Mountains © Dennis Oakley W

5 FIRE IN THE MOUNTAINS

-`XTWZMZ[ӊRW]ZVIT[LM[KZQJM\PM_Ia[\PI\\PMVI\Q^M J]\M^QLMVKM[]OOM[\[ÅZM_I[NZMY]MV\\aXQKITTa )XXITIKPQIVXMWXTMPIZVM[[MLÅZMIVL][MLQ\\W[][\IQV TW_\WUWLMZI\MQV\MV[Q\aÅZMQVXQVMIVLWISNWZM[\[ food and medicinal plants, among the many purposes. Tree

6 OďœȭðĊĴÐĊĮðĴřťīÐðĊqðĊÐȭZ­ā>ЭĴìS

ecosystems for the future of people and for the lands and forest that has been managed, compared to unmanaged waters in which we live. Guided by science and cultural sites, is quite noticeable. Decades of research from the PQ[\WZaÅZMQ[XZM[KZQJMLNWZMKWTWOQKITPMIT\P?MTMIZV Central Hardwood Region provides a solid framework from management actions and share what we observe to NWZ]VLMZ[\IVLQVO\PM)XXITIKPQIV[ӊÅZMLMXMVLMV\ KWTTMK\Q^MTaILIX\IVLPWVMÅZMUIVIOMUMV\[\ZI\MOQM[ communities and how to conserve them. Plant and animal communities seem to come to life when sunlight can Land management agencies, nongovernmental penetrate the tree canopy, and science solidly supports conservation organizations and private landowners are \PM^IT]MWN ZM[\WZQVOÅZM\WÅZMLMXMVLMV\VI\]ZIT QVKZMI[QVOTaQV\MZM[\MLQVZM[\WZQVOÅZM\WUWV\IVMXQVM communities. Fire creates diversity of light and moisture and oak ecosystems. Where managers have implemented environments, productive groundcover and thus diverse burning programs to restore ecologically appropriate life forms. conditions, the results are evident from sights and MZMVKMJM\_MMVXQVMIVLWISPQKSWZaٺW]VL[

7 HIGH-INTENSITY CATASTROPHIC FIRE 4Q^MIVLLMIL^MOM\I\QWVIKK]U]TI\M_PMVÅZM is suppressed. Moisture evaporates from living plants and large logs during dry spells and can TMIL\WPW\\MZÅZM[IVL\ZMMUWZ\ITQ\a

FORESTS OUT OF WHACK

MK\[WN ÅZMWV^MOM\I\QWVQ[WN\MVKWV[QLMZMLQV lodgepole pine or boreal spruce forests of the West andٺPMM> terms of succession — the change of a biological North, respectively, where large areas of forests burn in KWUU]VQ\aW^MZ\QUM)TUW[\QV^IZQIJTaQ\Q[LMÅVMLI[ [\IVLZMXTIKMUMV\ÅZM[shrub, heavy fuel accumulation and woody understory, which young forest, mature forest and climax forest. Secondary KW]TLW\PMZ_Q[MKWV\ZQJ]\M\WPQOPÅZMQV\MV[Q\a.QZM succession \PMVNWTTW_[I[M^MZMÅZMWZKI\I[\ZWXPQKM^MV\ adapted plants are fertilized via the minerals and nutrients that kills most of the vegetation. This does not appear returned to the soil as ash. Sunlight invigorates blueberries, to have been common or widespread in the southern turkeybeard and Table Mountain pine, which supports U.S. over the past several thousand years, as opposed to biodiversity and ecosystem services.

8 FREQUENT LOW-INTENSITY FIRE Fire is generally limited to low or moderate QV\MV[Q\a_PMVQ\WKK]Z[ZMO]TIZTa:W]\QVMÅZM whether controlled or uncontrolled, limits the accumulation of heavy brush and dead plant UI\MZQITIVLXZWUW\M[[UITTÅVMN]MT[]KPI[ grasses and forbs.

9 PURPOSE AND NEED

The diversity of the Appalachians does not allow for an mountain woods burning will have a reference to become instruction book from which strategies and actions can familiar with nuanced biophysical relationships to serve as be copied and pasted; nor should any activity be applied INW]VLI\QWVNWZLM^MTWXQVOÅZMUIVIOMUMV\XZWOZIU[ _Q\PW]\KWV[QLMZQVO[XMKQÅK[Q\MKWVLQ\QWV[.QZM[KQMVKM in the Blue Ridge Mountains is relatively young, so we The Southern Blue Ridge Fire Learning Network has continue to study the ways of original Appalachian people QLMV\QÅMLIVLXZQWZQ\QbML[Q`ÅZMLMXMVLMV\ecozones and learn by burning. Not all information can be provided (ecological zones) — areas that support plant LMÅVQ\Q^MTaJ]\VI\]ZM_QTTVW\_IQ\NWZ[KQMVKM\WZMIKP and animal communities characteristic of the local complete certainty. This book integrates both science and MV^QZWVUMV\-KWbWVMUIX[ZMÆMK\IVLUWLMT^MOM\I\QWV ÅZMUIVIOMZ[ӊM`XMZQMVKM\WKPIZIK\MZQbM\PMKWUXTM`Q\a patterns and complex, interrelated physical factors IVLKWV[QLMZI\QWV[NWZUIVIOQVOUWV\IVMÅZMILIX\ML that determine the vegetation we expect to be present, MV^QZWVUMV\[.QZMXZIK\Q\QWVMZ[_QTTJMVMÅ\NZWU[KQMVKM including: elevation, aspect and solar exposure, geology, translated and consolidated into usable guidance to aid landform, variable temperature, and soil chemistry and planning and implementation. Those who are new to moisture. Some of the Appalachians distinct ecozones —

10 HIGH FIRE FREQUENCY ACROSS SOUTHERN BLUE RIDGE ECOZONES

ECOLOGICAL ZONE APPROXIMATE FIRE RETURN INTERVAL (YEARS)

PINE-OAK HEATH 3-7

SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK 3-7

DRY OAK 5-12

DRY-MESIC OAK 12-15

MESIC OAK 20-25

HIGH ELEVATION RED OAK 20-25

LOW UďĊÐďåĴìÐÐÆďšďĊÐĮÌÐĮÆīðÅÐÌðĊĴìðĮÅďďāœďķăÌÅÐ wďķīÆÐȚOU#9At' īÐĨīÐĮÐĊĴÐÌÅřĴìÐăďœÐĮĴȽÅăķÐȽåīÐĪķÐĊÆřȘ

verdant cove forests, northern hardwoods and spruce perpetuated oak dominance across the eastern U.S. ÅZ¸IZMPWUM\W]VQY]M[XMKQM[VW\ILIX\ML\WNZMY]MV\ Dry-Mesic Oak and Mesic Oak cover more of the WZ\[\W Southern Blue Ridge than any other ecozones, generallyٺÅZM

11 }ZqȚwìďīĴăЭåqðĊÐȭZ­āœďďÌă­ĊÌ ĴìīÐÐȭĴďťŒÐȭřЭīÅķīĊðĊĴÐīŒ­ăȘ qðĊÐTďķĊĴ­ðĊșwķĉĴÐīU­ĴðďĊ­ă 9ďīÐĮĴșwďķĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘX

Z}}ZTȚ9ðīÐȭÐŘÆăķÌÐÌwìďīĴăЭå qðĊÐȭZ­āåďīÐĮĴȘX

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

The historical extent of Blue Ridge forest and woodland TW_QV\MV[Q\aÅZM.QZM\WTMZIV\NWZJ[OZI[[M[IVLLMKQL]W][ is not well understood. It was undoubtedly variable over shrubs endure by sprouting after aboveground portions are \QUM_Q\P^IZaQVOKTQUI\QKIVLP]UIVQVÆ]MVKM8ZMKQ[M \WXSQTTML0W_M^MZÅZMKWVNMZ[IKWUXM\Q\Q^MIL^IV\IOMNWZ LMÅVQ\QWV[IZMTM[[QUXWZ\IV\QVLMÅVQVO_WWLTIVL ÅZMILIX\ML\ZMM[[]KPI[WIS[IVLaMTTW_XQVM[,WZUIV\ conditions than is the maintenance of a light regime buds are situated below ground just deep enough to be that meets the photosynthetic demands of many native insulated from heat, yet close enough to sprout soon after XTIV\[6M^MZ\PMTM[[\PM\MZU[IZM][MN]TQVPMTXQVOLMÅVM ÅZM.QZMUMT\[\PMZM[QV\PI\[MIT[XQVMKWVM[KTW[MLIVL\PM management goals. For purposes of this book, forest is [MML[IZMZMTMI[MLIJW]\\_WUQV]\M[IN\MZÅZMPI[XI[[ML LMÅVMLI[IVIZMILWUQVI\MLJa\ZMM[_Q\POZMI\MZ\PIV so that they fall on bare, but fertilized, ground that has 90% canopy closure — generally with multiple layers KWWTML*T]M[\MU[IVLW\PMZOZI[[M[[MMLXZWTQÅKITTaIVL of shade-tolerant trees in the subcanopy and a variable basal meristems allow rapid regeneration, and growth after blend of shrubs, vines, ferns and forbs, depending on soil ÅZM,MV[MTMIN TQ\\MZQVPQJQ\[ZMOMVMZI\QWVIVLÅZMQ[VMMLML chemistry and drainage. \WZML]KMTQ\\MZLMX\P

12 13 1 2 3

Historically, frequent wì­ÌÐȭăďŒðĊæ }ìÐăðāÐăðìďďÌďå ťīÐĉ­ðĊĴ­ðĊÐÌŦďī­ă ĴīÐÐĮ­ĊÌĮìīķÅĮ ťīÐðæĊðĴðĊæðĊťīÐȭ ÌðŒÐīĮðĴřșīðÆìðĊĮÐÆĴ ĴìīðŒÐœìÐĊťīÐðĮ ÐŘÆăķÌÐÌì­īÌœďďÌ ÆďĉĉķĊðĴðÐĮ­ĊÌ ĮķĨĨīÐĮĮÐÌȘwķĊăðæìĴ åďīÐĮĴðĮăďœȘOЭå ì­ÅðĴ­ĴÆďĉĨďĊÐĊĴĮ ðĮÅăďÆāÐÌåīďĉ ăðĴĴÐī­ÆÆķĉķă­ĴÐĮș åďīŒ­īðÐÌœðăÌăðåÐ īЭÆìðĊææī­ĮĮÐĮ ăðæìĴðĮÐŘÆăķÌÐÌș ĮĨÐÆðÐĮȘ ­ĊÌåďīÅĮș­ĊÌĉ­Ċř ­ĊÌÅðďÌðŒÐīĮðĴřðĮ ĮĨÐÆðÐĮÐŒÐĊĴķ­ăăř ÌðĉðĊðĮìÐÌȘ ÌðĮ­ĨĨЭīȘ

MESOPHICATION VS. REGULAR FIRE

1 2 3

ZĨÐĊșťīÐȭĉ­ðĊĴ­ðĊÐÌ tÐæķă­īťīÐīďķĴðĊÐăř ÅķĊÌ­ĊĴĮķĊăðæìĴ ÐÆďĮřĮĴÐĉĮ쭌РĴďĨāðăăĮœďďÌř ĮĴðĉķă­ĴÐĮĴìÐ ìðæìŦďī­ăÌðŒÐīĮðĴřș ŒÐæÐĴ­ĴðďĊșīÐĴķīĊĮ æīďœĴìďåæī­ĮĮÐĮ ðĊĮÐÆĴȭĮĨÐÆðÐĮ ĊķĴīðÐĊĴĮĴďĴìÐĮďðă ­ĊÌăðæìĴȭăďŒðĊæåďīÅĮș īðÆìĊÐĮĮș­ĊÌĨīďŒðÌÐ ­ĊÌĮķĮĴ­ðĊĮ­ìЭăĴìř œìðÆìĨīďŒðÌÐåďďÌ ì­ÅðĴ­ĴåďīŒ­īðďķĮ ­ĊÌÌðŒÐīĮÐďĨÐĊ ­ĊÌĊÐĮĴðĊæÆďŒÐīåďī œðăÌăðåÐĮĨÐÆðÐĮȘ ÐĊŒðīďĊĉÐĊĴȘ œðăÌăðåÐȘ

14 WHAT DOES RESTORATION LOOK LIKE?

ResilienceQ[VI\]ZMӊ[IJQTQ\a\WUIQV\IQV[XMKQM[LQ^MZ[Q\a Frequent initial burning can jump-start the restoration stability, and function as changes occur. Most southern phase and begin to reduce accumulated live and dead ecosystems that have developed with frequent disturbance, vegetation. A good restoration that topkills a majority []KPI[ÅZMIZMZM[QTQMV\IVLZMKW^MZY]QKSTa#[WUMPI^M of the undesirable shrubs and saplings can fertilize soil become dependent on disturbance to remain stable and IVLXZW^QLM[WUMÅT\MZML[]VTQOP\\W[\QU]TI\MOZW_\PWN  maintain biodiversity. A resilient ecosystem endures pest suppressed plants. Well-established mesophytic trees are IVLLQ[MI[MW]\JZMIS[LZW]OP\IVL_QTLÅZM\PI\\PZMI\MV IJTM\W_Q\P[\IVLTW_QV\MV[Q\aÅZM1V^IZQW][QV[\IVKM[ MK\[NWZMKWTWOQKITTaQUXWZ\IV\TIVL[KIXM[ a second burn in less than two years, and mechanicalٺKI\I[\ZWXPQKM Fire is a disturbance process in the Appalachian ecosystem, or chemical vegetation management, have expedited with an important ecological restorative function: Unnat- achievement the maintenance phase. urally dense forest that develops in its absence increases \[Q\M[XMKQM[_QTTKWV\QV]M\W[XZW]\J]ٺcompetition for resources, which stresses trees. Plants have =VLM[QZMLWZW various strategies for compensating to endure stress, but appropriate burning regimes will gradually reduce their additional stressors can be lethal to weakened trees. IJ]VLIVKM_PQTMÅZM\WTMZIV\[XMKQM[[PW]TLQVKZMI[M over time. Time, patience and even outplanting may be Is it feasible to restore the conditions we believe to have required for desired species to be reestablish. Upon reaching existed 300 years ago? Rarely. However, reestablishing objectives for fuel reduction, light levels or vegetation a range of diverse structure and composition (HRV) is structure, the subsequent burning should not require IKPQM^IJTM_Q\PÅZM5IVIOQVOMKWbWVM[\W_IZLIZIVOMWN  NZMY]MV\ÅZM\WUIQV\IQVWXMVNWZM[\[\PW]OP[WUM\ZMMTM[[ conditions is an appropriate strategy to regain resilience; PMZJLWUQVI\MLIZMI[UIaZMY]QZM[]KPNZMY]MV\ÅZM and restoration will result from the gradual adjustment of 7JRMK\Q^M[[Q\M[XMKQÅKKWVLQ\QWV[IVL^MOM\I\QWVZM[XWV[M \PM^MOM\I\QWV\W\PMKPIZIK\MZQ[\QKÅZMZMOQUM QVNWZU\PMQLMITQV\MZ^IT[NWZ_PQKPÅZM[PW]TLJMZMXMI\ML

:MM[\IJTQ[PQVOWXMVKWVLQ\QWV[QVÅZMM`KT]LML[Q\M[ may begin with burning as often as once per year.

15 OďœȭðĊĴÐĊĮðĴřťīÐȘS TďÌÐī­ĴÐȭðĊĴÐĊĮðĴřťīÐȘS

FIRE INTENSITY AND SEVERITY

MZMV\_Ia[IVLMIKP[XMKQM[ Elevation, landform position, steepness of a slope, ambientٺMK\[XMKQM[QVLQٺQZMKIVI. response can vary based on intensity and severity — terms air temperature, humidity, wind speed, fuel load and fuel MK\ UWQ[\]ZMQV\MZIK\\WLM\MZUQVM\PMQV\MV[Q\aWN ÅZM_PQKPٺPI\TIJMTWJ[MZ^MLÅZMJMPI^QWZIVLUMI[]ZMQ\[M\ on vegetation and soil, respectively. Interchangeable Q[ZMTI\Q^M\W[XMKQÅKMKWbWVM[The Photo Guide for Estimating use of these terms can be problematic because these Fuel Loading in the Southern Appalachian Mountains has been MZMV\Ta LM^MTWXML[XMKQÅKITTa\WPMTXÅZMUIVIOMZ[M[\QUI\MN]MTٺUMI[]ZMUMV\[KIVJMQUXZMKQ[MIVLQV\MZXZM\MLLQ among managers and scientists. TWIL[QV\PM;W]\PMZV)XXITIKPQIV[ӊÅZMM`KT]LMLNWZM[\[ )ÅZMÅOP\MZJ]ZVQVOQV,Za5M[QK7ISUIaR]LOM NWW\ Fire intensity is the combustion or energy release from ÆIUMTMVO\P[\WJMUWLMZI\M\WPQOPQV\MV[Q\a_PQKPUIa the burning of leaves, sticks and plants. The measurement XZMLQK\LIUIOM\W_PQ\MWIS;]KPÅZMJMPI^QWZUIaJM Q[PMI\W]\X]\XMZ]VQ\WN \QUMIVLZMTI\ML\WÆIUMPMQOP\ considered low- to moderate-intensity in Pine-Oak Heath and duration of heating. These are readily observable where Table Mountain pines emerge unscathed. Subtle NMI\]ZM[\PI\ITTW_IÅZMXZIK\Q\QWVMZ\WI[[M[[XW\MV\QITÅZM nuances among the ecozones challenge the forecasting of ]\MKٺseverity, or the degree to which plants will be damaged ÅZMM WZSQTTMLJaÅZMIVLILR][\ÅZQVOIKKWZLQVOTa;M^MZQ\a measurements reveal information about above and below- 4W_QV\MV[Q\aÅZMQV*T]M:QLOMWISNWZM[\[Q[OMVMZITTa ground organic matter consumption, or the relative change KPIZIK\MZQbMLJaÆIUMTMVO\PWN TM[[\PIVNMM\IVL MK\[>MZaNM_KIVWXaٺQV^MOM\I\QWVI[IZM[]T\WN ÅZM \aXQKITTaZM[]T\[QVTW_[M^MZQ\aM

16 >ðæìȭðĊĴÐĊĮðĴřťīÐȘɭ#ЭĊwðĉďĊS

trees are killed or damaged, and leaf litter may not be but it is generally limited to areas where tree mortality is completely consumed, with variable shrub and sapling of less concern. \WXSQTT0W_M^MZ[M^MZQ\aQ[IT[WQVÆ]MVKMLJaÆIUM L]ZI\QWV;PWZ\ÆIUMTMVO\P[_Q\PTWVOZM[QLMVKM\QUMKIV The complex relationships among topography, fuels, and MK\[\PIVTWVOÆIUMTMVO\P[ _MI\PMZIVLÅZMQV\MV[Q\aIVL[M^MZQ\aLWM[VW\TQUQ\*T]MٺWN\MVKI][MUWZM[M^MZMÅZMM _Q\PI[PWZ\L]ZI\QWVWN M`XW[]ZM\WÆIUM[ Ridge burning, but it can confound the achievement of [XMKQÅKWJRMK\Q^M[

-MK\[[]KPI[[WQTWZOIVQKUI\\MZKWV[]UXٺ5WZM[M^MZMM tion, altered soil structure and/or substantial tree mortality UIaZM[]T\NZWUPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZM_PQKPKIVWKK]ZL]ZQVO LZW]OP\*]\PQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZMLWM[VW\IT_Ia[ZM[]T\QV M`XW[ML\Wٺ[MK\[

17 ECOLOGICAL ZONE Z­ā9ďīÐĮĴ DRY, DRY-MESIC AND MESIC OAK

RESTORATION-FIRE MAINTENANCE-FIRE ECOZONE FREQUENCY FREQUENCY

DRY OAK 2-4 5-12 YEARS YEARS

DRY-MESIC OAK 2-7 12-15 YEARS YEARS

#īřȭTÐĮðÆZ­āœďďÌă­ĊÌÅķīĊÐÌ ÐŒÐīřĴìīÐÐĴďťŒÐřЭīĮȘ­ĴďďĮ­ ”ðăÌăðåÐT­Ċ­æÐĉÐĊĴīЭș MESIC OAK 2-7 15-25 Tennessee S YEARS YEARS

EXTENT CONTEXT SOIL Dry Oak 617,000 acres Dry Oak Southerly slopes generally Dry Oak Rocky, generally acidic, well- Dry-Mesic Oak 2,142,000 acres upslope of Dry-Mesic Oak, often drained with low fertility. Mesic Oak 2,017,000 acres blending with Pine-Oak Heath and Dry-Mesic & Mesic Oak Broad pH range; Shortleaf Pine-Oak. well-drained, and moderate fertility. ELEVATION Dry-Mesic Oak Intermixed with, or upslope of, Cove and Mesic Oak NMM\ NATURAL DISTURBANCESڃ Dry Oak forest, and downslope of Dry Oak NMM\ Fire, ice, wind, tree-fall, pests andڃ Dry-Mesic & Mesic Oak and/or Pine-Oak Heath. disease. Mesic Oak Intermixes with High- LANDFORM Elevation Red Oak from 3,500- Dry Oak Partially exposed sites, ridges, 4,500-foot elevation with subtle EMBEDDED COMMUNITIES OZIVQ\QKLWUM[OTILM[IVL]ٺMZMVKM[JM\_MMV\PMU +TQٺplateaus and steep, convex upper slopes. LQ ]ٺ[Dry-Mesic & Mesic Oak Sheltered ridges, JIZZMV[+IZWTQVIPMUTWKSJT concave upper slopes and narrow coves. rocky summits.

18 DRY OAK X }ìÐwďķĴìÐīĊăķÐtðÌæÐ ĨÐīðĨìÐīřȚĮďķĴìœÐĮĴÐīĊ:Ðďīæð­ ăķÐtðÌæЭĊÌwďķĴìÐīĊăķÐ tðÌæÐ'ĮÆ­īĨĉÐĊĴă­ĊÌĮÆ­ĨÐĮț wďķĴìTďķĊĴ­ðĊĮ­ĊÌœÐĮĴÐīĊ Ŧ­ĊāďåĴìÐ:īЭĴwĉďāř­ĊÌ €Ċ­ā­TďķĊĴ­ðĊĮă­ĊÌĮÆ­ĨÐĮȘ

#tšȭT'wAZNȧăðæìĴīÐÌȨɪ T'wAZNȧÌ­īāīÐÌȨW }ìīďķæìďķĴĴìÐwďķĴìÐīĊăķÐ tðÌæÐÅķĴÆďĊÆÐĊĴī­ĴÐÌðĊĴìÐ :Ðďīæð­ăķÐtðÌæÐ'ĮÆ­īĨĉÐĊĴș wďķĴìÐīĊăķÐtðÌæÐ'ĮÆ­īĨĉÐĊĴ ­ĊÌĴìÐœÐĮĴÐīĊU­ĊĴ­ì­ă­ ­ăĮ­ĉă­ĊÌĮÆ­ĨÐĮȘ

19 ECOLOGY

Dry Oak Forest canopy is generally open and dominated by chestnut Oak ecosystems have dominated the Blue Ridge since the oak and scarlet oak, with variable blends of hickory species MIZ\PJMOIV_IZUQVOIVL\PMXMZQOTIKQIT[XZ]KMÅZNWZM[\[ and white oak, shortleaf pine, red maple, blackgum, retreated around 10,000 years ago. Chestnut codominated and Virginia and pitch pine. American chestnut may throughout most Appalachian forest and woodland. Oak have occupied at least 25% of the canopy before blight. woodlands once burned frequently; a broken canopy =VLMZ[\WZa[\Z]K\]ZMIVLKWUXW[Q\QWV^IZaJI[MLWVÅZM allowed sunlight to support diverse herb ground cover frequency, land-use history and biophysical setting. \PI\NIKQTQ\I\MLÅZM-`XTWZMZ[LM[KZQJML[I^IVVI[IVL woodlands with abundant forbs and grasses and expansive lowland canebrakes that attracted deer, bison and elk. 14% Contemporary Dry Oak sites have a closed canopy, and SHRUBS evergreen shrub cover often exceed 50%. Herbaceous plants are a greater component in rich sites and frequently burned sites with canopy cover less than 70%. Mature oaks are present, but an increasingly dense variety of shade- 68% TW^QVOÅZMQV\WTMZIV\\ZMM[IVL[PZ]J[[]XXZM[[PMZJIKMW][ GRASSESș cover and plant diversity. 9Ztwș VINES AND FERNS 300-325 Oak woodlands and open forests provide copious ecosystem wq'A'w 18% services: biodiversity that bolsters ecological resilience; TREES habitat components for numerous plants and animals; and abundant, clean water that endures drought. Lower fuel TWIL[QVJ]ZVML_WWLTIVL[ZML]KM\PMZQ[SWN _QTLÅZM

DRY OAK COMPOSITION

­ĊďĨřåďăăďœðĊæĮìÐăĴÐīœďďÌ­ĊÌ ÅķīĊȘɭìīðĮUÐææÐīĮW

20 Dry-Mesic Oak & Mesic Oak These ecozones cover nearly half of the 9-million-acre ;W]\PMZV*T]M:QLOM5M[QK7ISQ[TM[[ÅZMLMXMVLMV\ relatively — similar to that of High-Elevation Red Oak. White oak is a dominant canopy tree in Mesic Oak, whereas the dominant trees of Dry-Mesic Oak are often northern red oak, or one of scarlet oak, white oak, and black oak. Tree diversity is high in both ecozones, including several hickory species, red maple and numerous mesic hardwoods. White pine comprises a greater proportion of the forest canopy in the Southern Blue Ridge escarpment. Lower elevations generally have a greater proportion of shortleaf pine, southern red oak and post oak.

The herb diversity of Mesic Oak is very high with relatively fewer shrubs. However, if managed with regular ÅZM,Za5M[QK7ISUIaPI^M[QUQTIZTaPQOP]VLMZ[\WZa diversity and structure; otherwise rhododendron and deciduous shrubs can dominate. Forb diversity is usually very high. Species composition varies considerably depending on soils, landform position, elevation, aspect, precipitation and land-use history. Typical herb species within Mesic Oak include: whorled loosestrife, summer JT]M\[XMKSTML_WWLTQTa[\WVMZWW\+]Z\Q[ӊ[OWTLMVZWL [Y]I_ZWW\_QTLaIUIVL;WTWUWVӊ[XT]UM,MKQL]W][ shrubs such as blueberry species and bear huckleberry are common soft-mast producers.

10% SHRUBS

78% GRASSESș 9Ztwș VINES AND FERNS 410-430 12% wq'A'w TREES

DRY-MESIC AND MESIC OAK COMPOSITION

#ÐÐĨăðĴĴÐī­ĊÌÌķååðĊìðÅðĴ­ÆďīĊæÐīĉðĊ­ĴðďĊ ­ĊÌĮÐÐÌăðĊææīďœĴìȘX

21 :ī­ĮĮÐĮ­ĊÌåďīÅĮåďăăďœðĊæ ă­ĴÐȭœðĊĴÐīÅķīĊȘ­ĴďďĮ­”ðăÌăðåÐ T­Ċ­æÐĉÐĊĴīЭș}ÐĊĊÐĮĮÐÐȘX

OAKS & WILDLIFE

Over 100 vertebrate species regularly consume acorns, a critical hard mast in the southern Appalachian Mountains. )KWZVKZWX[QVÆ]MVKMJTIKSJMIZZMXZWL]K\QWVIVL[]Z^Q^- al. The insulating properties of soil protect acorns that are cached by birds and rodents. Those that go unretrieved are MZMLNZWUÅZMNZMMbQVOIVLLM[QKKI\QWVIVL\P][PI^Mٺ[J a greater chance of germination and establishment, com- pared with uncached acorns.

7IS[IZMQUXWZ\IV\NWZJ]\\MZÆQM[IVLUW\P[#\PMTIZ^IMWN  many priority species consume the leaves and they serve as prey for birds and other insects. Flower and pollinator diversity increases when sunlight can reach the ground. Herb forage is more nutritious to deer and elk than hardwood browse.

Oak ecozones support a rich bird assemblage through all seasons. The loss of oak woodlands and herb plant cover has contributed to a 70% decline in disturbance-dependent JQZL[/ZI[[M[IVLNWZJ[WN ÅZMUIQV\IQVML_WWLTIVL[ are critical for nesting and provide diverse forage options. Oaks also have a high crown-to-stem ratio, which allows for greater canopy cover at lower stem density — optimal structure for songbirds like the cerulean warbler. ]MZNM_JI[SQVOIZMI[_PMZM[VISMٺMMXTa[PILMLNWZM[\[W, Dry-Mesic and Mesic Oak ecozones are home to a rich and lizards can regulate body temperature. Lack of sunny woodland salamander community. The biomass of patches makes areas unsuitable for most reptiles. In part, salamanders reportedly outweighs the collective biomass for this reason it is unclear if northern pine snakes still of all other vertebrates in suitable Appalachian forests. inhabit the Appalachians, and many reptile species are Fire can adversely impact salamanders, but communities declining in the region. rebound to pre-burn levels in a few years. Drought- QVL]KML_QTLÅZM\PZMI\MV[Q[WTI\MLXWX]TI\QWV[JMKI][MQ\ Floral diversity improved through burning promotes IVLKWV[]UM[UW[\TMI^M[ diverse insect forage for bats. Larger, less-agile bats needٺ[WN\MVJ]ZV[LMMXQV\W\PML and logs — refugia for salamanders, small mammals and a relatively uncluttered midstory for echolocation and ]KQMV\NWZIOQVO:WW[\QVOPIJQ\I\Q[XZW^QLMLJa\ZMMٻQV^MZ\MJZI\M[L]ZQVOÅZM[0MI^a\ZMMUWZ\ITQ\aKIVKPIVOM M the light and moisture environment over large areas and with exfoliating bark and hollowed snags. Roosts near open create unsuitable habitat conditions for salamanders. foraging areas are ideal.

22 CULTURAL IMPORTANCE

Indigenous Appalachian people harvested trees for Open oak ecosystems once provided important foods various purposes and burned oak forests and woodlands to such as nuts and berries, materials for medicine, tools and promote the health and productivity of important plants. weapons, structures and fuelwood. Fall burning facilitated Fire was used to manage a dense shrub understory, which acorn and chestnut harvest, and returned minerals and would have otherwise impeded hunting and provided areas nutrients to the soil to sustain agricultural productivity. from which enemies could set an ambush. Spring and summer burning promoted forbs, as well as soft mast such as blueberries and woodland strawberries. .ZM[PPMZJIKMW][OZW_\PIN\MZÅZMQ[PQOPTaXITI\IJTMNWZ large game and rich in protein and essential nutrients. Fire Today, oak woodlands attract game animals and provide is used to improve livestock forage. Abundant high-quality diverse, high-quality hunting experiences. Oak lumber forage promotes animal health and size, and improves is sought after for its strength and durability; veneer and hunting opportunity and success. bourbon barrels are economically important uses.

23 9ÐœìÐīÅ­ÆÐďķĮĨă­ĊĴĮ­ĊÌ­ÅĮÐĊÆÐďåď­āīÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊ Æì­ī­ÆĴÐīðšÐťīÐȭÐŘÆăķÌÐÌșÆăďĮÐÌȭÆ­ĊďĨř#īřȭTÐĮðÆZ­ā ĮðĴÐȘ9ďĮĴÐīīÐÐāșqðĮæ­ìU­ĴðďĊ­ă9ďīÐĮĴșUďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘS CONSERVATION CHALLENGES THE RARE WOODLAND LOW LIGHT — LOW DIVERSITY High-quality Appalachian oak woodlands are very rare; The high biodiversity of Mesic Oak and Dry-Mesic Oak is open forest is uncommon. Land has been converted L]MQVXIZ\\WXMZQWLQKÅZM#LQ^MZ[Q\aQ[LQUQVQ[PML_PMZM NWZ^IZQW][X]ZXW[M[IVLÅZMPI[VW_JMMV[]XXZM[[ML the light-dependent grasses and forbs have disappeared. for nearly 100 years. An evergreen, shrub-dominated Further, senesced herbaceous vegetation is a crucial understory has developed in most areas, and forests are NMMLJIKS\PI\NIKQTQ\I\M[ÅZMQOVQ\QWVIVL[XZMIL characterized by a less diverse, closed-canopy forest with a dense midstory of red maple and mesic hardwoods. YOUNG OAKS ARE MISSING Present-day oaks that sprouted from the trees logged in BRITTLE LEAVES — LESS FIRE the early 1900s are mature but generally stressed from the :MKMX\Q^Q\aWN WIS_WWLTIVL[\WÅZMQ[UWLMZI\M\W competition of dense forests. Increasingly vulnerable to PQOPJ]\LMKTQVM[_Q\P\QUMNWTTW_QVOÅZM

24 wìÐăĴÐīœďďÌì­īŒÐĮĴåďăăďœÐÌÅřĴìīÐÐÅķīĊĮīÐĮķăĴÐÌðĊ ­ÅķĊÌ­ĊĴď­āīÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊ­ĊÌÌðŒÐīĮÐæīďķĊÌÆďŒÐīðĊ­ #īřZ­āœďďÌă­ĊÌȘOÐďĊ­īÌ9­īĉșwďķĴìTďķĊĴ­ðĊĮ:­ĉÐ O­ĊÌșUďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘS

RED MAPLE Oaks are less able to adapt to a low-light environment, relative to red maple, and are generally outcompeted QVITTJ]\\PMLZQM[\V]\ZQMV\TQUQ\ML[Q\M[+WUXTM\MÅZM exclusion further reduces any chance of curtailing rapid growth of maples in favor of young oaks. NO LIGHT FOR GROWTH Light is the limiting factor for seedling survival, and oak photosynthesis requires more sunlight than that provided under a closed canopy, so most seedlings eventually lose vigor and die. Most Appalachians conservation lands lack the light conditions that will ensure future oak ecosystems. Good acorn crops often result in copious seedlings that grow to a few feet under a closed canopy. However, conventional timber management has largely ignored MZQVOTQNMPQ[\WZQM[WN WIS[XMKQM[¸[XMKQÅKITTa\PMٺLQ requirement for repeated disturbance. Burning or other management that mimics natural disturbance is required to sustain oak woodlands and open forests; otherwise, mesophytic trees will continue to supplant oaks in eastern ”ìðĴÐď­āĮÐÐÌăðĊæĮæīďœĮăďœăř­ĊÌ­īÐďŒÐīĴďĨĨÐÌÅř hardwood forests. ÆďĉĨÐĴðĴðďĊðĊĴìЭÅĮÐĊÆÐďåťīÐȘS

25 FIRE MANAGEMENT REGULAR BURNING GOOD SEEDBED Trees and shrubs that compete with the growth of young Conditions that support oak seedling establishment can be WIS[KIVJMUIVIOML_Q\PÅZM#ZW]\QVMÅZMQ[N]VLIUMV\IT QUXZW^ML_Q\PÅZMQN Q\KWV[]UM[UW[\WN \PMIKK]U]TI\ML to restoring open forest or woodland from closed-canopy leaf litter. Acorns that fall upon a deep bed of leaves are forest. A long-term, regular burn cycle with mixed sea- vulnerable to drying out or freezing before germination. sonality and intensity is ideal to build ecosystem resilience. ;Q\M[XMKQÅKXZM[KZQX\QWV[^IZa0W_M^MZXZWOZIU[\PI\ VARIABLE RESULTS have achieved open forest conditions have burned re- The likelihood of topkilling a shade-tolerant shrub or XMI\MLTaIVLWN\MVI]OUMV\MLÅZM_Q\PUMKPIVQKIT\ZMM [IXTQVO_Q\PÅZMLMXMVL[WVÅZMQV\MV[Q\aIVL\PMXTIV\ӊ[ thinning, chemical treatment of undesirable sprouts, shrub stem diameter and moisture content. Weather conditions management and deer herd management. vary during a burn and throughout a burn unit. Diverse ]\MKٺWXWOZIXPaXZWL]KM[I^IZQM\aWN ÅZMM\ SUNLIGHT AND GAPS Although variability exists among oak species, seedlings BURNING FOR SPECIES and saplings thrive with 30% to 50% full sunlight. Vig- Fire is an imprecise tool for establishing or maintaining tree orous young trees are more likely to reach the canopy if [XMKQM[KWUXW[Q\QWV

26 COMPETITION ON FERTILE SITES FIRE AND TIMBER MANAGEMENT The ability of young oaks to compete declines with increas- Regular burning favors oaks by topkilling fast-growing, ing site quality (i.e., more available water and nutrients). ÅZMQV\WTMZIV\KWUXM\Q\WZ[#Q\KIVJMJMVMÅKQITJW\PJMNWZM Mesophytic trees grow rapidly in rich environments, which IVLIN\MZ\QUJMZPIZ^M[\?Q\PW]\ÅZMWZXZQWZ\ZMI\UMV\ .even small harvest gaps will favor mesophytic trees -ٻ[]IT[WJ]ZVTM[[WN\MVIVL][]ITTa_Q\PIVQV\MV[Q\aQV cient to topkill larger saplings. Fire is more frequent, and Leaving shelter trees and/or removing only the midstory MK\[WV_WWLaKWUXM\Q\QWVIZM][]ITTaOZMI\MZWV can provide light for oaks without stimulating a vigorousٺPMM\ xeric sites, where mesic hardwoods lack vigor and grow hardwood response. Although a complete midstory more slowly. removal enhances light conditions, the result is around 10% to 15% full sunlight — short of photosysnthetic OAK SPECIES VARIABILITY requirements for oak growth. Partial overstory harvests can Some oak species can endure more frequent and/or help achieve 30% full sunlight. PQOPMZQV\MV[Q\aÅZM+PM[\V]\WISJIZSQ[\PQKSMZ\PIV VWZ\PMZVZMLWIS[WQ\Q[UWZMÅZMZM[Q[\IV\

O'9}Ț:ďďÌåķÐăÆďĊĮķĉĨĴðďĊ tA:>}ȚTðŘÐÌæī­ĮĮșåďīÅ­ĊÌ ĨīďŒðÌÐĮ­ĮķðĴ­ÅăÐĮÐÐÌÅÐÌåďī œìðĴÐď­āīÐĮĨďĊĮÐĴœďĉďĊĴìĮ ­ÆďīĊĮȘO­āÐL­ĉÐĮwĴ­ĴÐq­īāș ­åĴÐīťīÐȘ­ĴďďĮ­”ðăÌăðåÐT­Ċ- UďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘW ­æÐĉÐĊĴīЭș}ÐĊĊÐĮĮÐÐȘS

27 FREQUENCY

*]ZVQVOIJW]\WVKMM^MZa\PZMM\WÅ^M years promotes herbaceous ground cover; variability in the vegetation response depends on site fertility and moisture (how rapidly vegetation re- OZW_[LQ[\]ZJIVKMPQ[\WZaÅZMQV\MV- sity and the amount of light available. Better shrub and small hardwood mortality can be achieved by increasing frequency to one burn every two years.

8MZQWLQKÅZMNZMMQV\MZ^IT[UIaJM required if an objective is to improve oak reproduction. Eight or more aMIZ[_Q\PW]\ÅZMKIVITTW_^QOWZW][ seedlings to develop; more than 20 years may be necessary to allow saplings to grow into the canopy. INTENSITY .QZMQV\MV[Q\aÆIUML]ZI\QWV\ZMM ķīăÐÌď­āăðĴĴÐīÌīðÐĮī­ĨðÌăřșðæĊðĴÐĮЭĮðăř­ĊÌå­ÆðăðĴ­ĴÐĮåðīÐĮĨīЭÌȘS LQIUM\MZIVLJIZS\PQKSVM[[QVÆ]MVKM hardwood mortality, which can roughly JMLM\MZUQVMLJa\PMKPIZPMQOP\WV\ZMM[/ZMI\MZÅZM managing the abundance and density of small evergreen QV\MV[Q\aIVLWZTWVOMZÆIUML]ZI\QWVQ[ZMY]QZML\W\WXSQTT shrubs over the long term. However, the proportion of TIZOMZ[\MU[IVLXMVM\ZI\M\PQKSJIZS8ZWTQÅK[XZW]\QVOWN  mesophytic hardwoods over 6 inches in diameter that are the targeted undesirable species usually ensues. \WXSQTTMLJaTW_QV\MV[Q\aÅZMQ[OMVMZITTa[UITT#\P][UIVa burns are often required to thin the midstory and understory. -^MK\Q^MNWZQUXZWٺQVOTMTW_QV\MV[Q\aÅZMQ[TIZOMTaQVM]( ing sunlight penetration, but frequent low- to moderate- 0QOPQV\MV[Q\a[\IVLZMXTIKQVOÅZMQ[\PW]OP\\WPI^MJMMV QV\MV[Q\aÅZM\WXSQTT[NI[\OZW_QVOUM[WXPa\QK[IXTQVO[[]KP infrequent historically. Mortality events were likely patchy as poplar and red maple, repeatedly. Oaks and a blend of and may have occurred only once or twice over the average annual and perennial herb ground cover are favored over lifespan of an oak. time; the vigor of competitor sprouting declines and open conditions and light levels improve. An entire forest stand can be regenerated by burning at high intensity, but it is infeasible to selectively topkill large, *IKSQVOÅZMXZWTWVO[\PM_WWLa[\MU[ӊM`XW[]ZM\WPMI\IVL mesophytic trees while leaving oak and hickory unscathed. OMVMZITTaZM[]T\[QVOWWLTQ\\MZKWV[]UX\QWV0W_M^MZÅZM Undesirable hardwoods sprout regardless of intensity, intensity will be increasingly subdued as mesophytic litter and most species thrive in abundant sunlight that follows replaces oak litter because the leaves release less energy. heavy tree mortality. Hardwood thickets often develop within a few years and the absence of oak litter may limit MK\Q^MNWZ the receptivity, and intensity of future burns. However, aٺTIUM[TM[[\PIVINWW\QVTMVO\PKIVJMM.

28 XZMNMZIJTMNWZÅZ[\MV\ZaJ]ZV[ However, initial low-intensity burns result in little, if any, change in plant species composition. Winter burning requires several burns over many years to restore herbaceous diversity.

MK\Q^MNWZٺXZQVOJ]ZV[IZMM; managing woody stem sprouting and restoring ground cover, but oak seedlings may be vulnerable if root reserves have not developed.

Lethargic reptiles emerging from winter dens are vulnerable and should be considered when planning early growing-season burns. Ground-nesting birds may be impacted, but spring MK\JQZLٺJ]ZV[LWVW\IXXMIZ\WI populations more than winter burns.

Good litter consumption can result from late summer or early fall burning. The exposure of bare soil with light leaf cover provides a suitable seedbed for acorns and pine seeds that drop in autumn. Drought and the potential ÅZMKIVJMIٺ[NWZ[UWTLMZQVOIVLL concern during this time.

?WWLa[\MU[[XZW]\IN\MZÅZM ZMO]TIZJ]ZVQVOZMOQUM\PI\NWTTW_[KI\I[\ZWXPQK_QTLÅZMKIV regardless of season. Density and coverage often increase manage hardwoods and sustain diverse ground cover over following initial winter burns. In general, greater control the life of a stand. Such conditions are not often achievable over woody sprouting can be achieved by burning under prescribed-burning conditions, and sites can be when plants are growing (May – September) because prioritized for burning to maintain the open conditions. carbohydrate root reserves are low.

SEASONALITY Oak stumps cut level to or below ground level promotes Indigenous burning is believed to have occurred primarily sprouts that anchor roots independently of the stump. in fall and spring, but open oak woods can burn at any time Burning after harvest kills high buds on stumps to dis- of year. Optimal burn timing is that which provides the courage multiple, high-origin sprouts and which enhances greatest opportunity to meet objectives. Timing of burning, growth for a single low-origin sprout, supports tree health, IT\PW]OPQUXWZ\IV\IXXMIZ[\WJMOMVMZITTaTM[[QVÆ]MV\QIT growth form and timber quality. \PIVÅZMNZMY]MVKaIVLQV\MV[Q\aQV\MZU[WN KPIVOQVO plant composition and structure. Repeated burning, regardless of season, maintains an open environment and suitable conditions for light-loving plants.

Winter can provide conditions for cooler burning and gradual reduction of heavy fuel loads, which may be

29 #īřȭTÐĮðÆZ­āåďīÐĮĴÅķīĊÐÌ ďĊÆÐÐŒÐīřåðŒÐřЭīĮȘìÐĮĴĊķĴ TďķĊĴ­ðĊșì­ĴĴ­ìďďÆìÐÐ U­ĴðďĊ­ă9ďīÐĮĴș:Ðďīæð­ȘX

PLANTS OF Oak Forest

Without action, we could see our white oak forests disappear in a generation with [QOVQÅKIV\QUXIK\[WV_QTLTQNMNWZM[\MKW[a[\MU[IVL\QUJMZ[]XXTQM[

— White Oak Initiative

30 White Oak CHEROKEE NAME: T¯'lû' SCIENTIFIC NAME: Quercus alba

LOCATION Sea level up to 5,000-foot elevation on all upland aspects and slope positions, GROWTH FORM from ridges to fertile coves; abundant Tree on dry to mesic south- and west- facing slopes. SOIL Deep and well-drained but widely tolerant. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Medium High

31 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

White oak is a large strong tree white oak has the largest range of consistently produce abundant acorn with complex wood structure that the eastern oaks and is arguably the crops; others may produce very few. is dominant in dry-mesic sites and *T]M:QLOMӊ[UW[\^IT]IJTM_QTLTQNM Traditionally, sprouting is a more codominant in mesic areas and within tree. It is shade-tolerant, and second dependable source for reproduction. Dry Oak and Shortleaf Pine-Oak only to northern red oak as the most ecozones. Canopy gaps and a mixed- mesophytic montane oak. White oak acorns germinate quickly, [M^MZQ\aÅZMZMOQUMPI^M[][\IQVML but longevity is less than one year and white oak for thousands of years. Good white oak acorn crops occur viability can drop from 90% to 7% about once every four to seven years, after six months. White oak acorns A very slow-growing oak that can live depending on tree size and vigor, are more palatable than tannin-rich nearly 500 years, usually to around 80 drought, competition, spring freezes red oak acorns: Wildlife shift to red feet in height and 3 feet in diameter, and genetics. Some individuals may oak acorns during a poor white oak

32 Cultural Uses

}¯ȾăĻȾĮ­ĨœďďÌœ­ĮķĮÐÌœðĴìīðŒÐīÆ­ĊЭĊÌ ìðÆāďīřÅ­īāĴďĉ­āÐÅ­ĮāÐĴĮțðĴœ­ĮĴ­āÐĊ ­Ĩ­īĴÅřĴìÐæī­ðĊĴďĉ­āÐĮĨăðĊĴĮșĮÆī­ĨÐÌ œðĴì­āĊðåÐșÆķĴ­ĊÌÌřÐÌœðĴìÅăďďÌīďďĴȘ 'ðæìĴȭĴďǠǟȭðĊÆìĮ­ĨăðĊæĮœÐīÐĨīÐåÐīīÐÌȘ

ÆďīĊĮȧæķăÐȨœÐīÐĴī­ÌðĴðďĊ­ăăř­ĊðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴ åďďÌ­ĊÌĴ¯ȾăĻȾ­ÆďīĊĮœÐīÐķĮÐÌĴďĉ­āÐ ÅīЭÌȧæķăÑæ®ĴĹȨ­ĊÌæīďķĊÌķĨ­Į­ĴřĨÐďå ÆďååÐÐȧā­œðȨȘZðăĮÌÐīðŒÐÌåīďĉ­ÆďīĊĮœÐīÐ ķĮÐÌĴď­ăăÐŒð­ĴÐþďðĊĴĨ­ðĊȘ

O'9}ȚZ­āăЭåĮì­ĨÐå­ÆðăðĴ­ĴÐĮ ăðæìĴĨÐĊÐĴī­ĴðďĊĴìīďķæì ĴìÐÆ­ĊďĨřȘɭN­Ĵþ­wÆìķăšș ðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴW

tA:>}Ț”ìðĴÐď­ā­ÆďīĊĮ­īЭ ìðæìăřÌÐĮðī­ÅăÐåďďÌðĊĴìÐå­ăăȘ ɩt­ķă>ȘqÐīКșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴ W

crop or later in winter and early White oak wood is heavy, durable NWZKWV[\Z]K\QWVÆWWZQVOKIJQVM\[ spring after tannins have leached. and impervious to liquid. The IVLJW]ZJWVJIZZMT[;QOVQÅKIV\ Animals may consume 70% of a structure and porosity of the wood concern exists for supply to meet white oak acorn crop. is ideal for alcohol storage. For wine, growing demand because of steady the wood allows enough exchange of decline, slow growth and inadequate White oak cavities are preferred oxygen and water through the barrel conditions for regeneration. dens for bears, and acorns are a to soften the wine and increase the preferred food. In the fall, bears wine’s concentration. The reaction require more than 15,000 calories of fruit with the complex chemistry per day (1 pound = 1,300 calories), of white oak wood imparts unique IVLKZWX[QbMQVÆ]MVKM[\PMV]UJMZ ÆI^WZ[IVL\I[\M[\PZW]OP\PMIOQVO XZQVO process. White oak is highly valued]ٺWN W

33 FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

FIRE TOLERANT diameter has about an 80% chance gaps created mechanically or with Mature white oaks are seldom killed of sprouting. ÅZMQUXZW^MTQOP\KWVLQ\QWV[NWZ JaTW_\WUWLMZI\MQV\MV[Q\aÅZM regeneration — more so if 30% to Damage is mitigated by reallocating TREE AGE AND SPROUTING 40% sunlight is provided prior to functions if parts of the tree are :WW\[\WWT[KWV\IQVKITT][\Q[[]MÅTTML burning. Competition on fertile sites killed. Little change in growth has with dormant buds. These develop responds vigorously to large openings. been observed in trees subjected to JMTW_OZW]VLIN\MZZMXMI\MLÅZMIVL NZMY]MV\ÅZM[

34 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

”ìðĴÐď­āìЭăðĊæ­ĊÌĮĨīďķĴðĊæ ­åĴÐīœďķĊÌðĊæÅřťīÐȘX

over time. Poor regeneration can ZM[]T\NZWU[\IVLZMXTIKMUMV\ÅZM especially if mature trees are older and advanced oak regeneration is absent or of low vigor.

Low- to moderate-intensity preceding timber harvest can help promote advanced oak regeneration while limiting timber damage. However, thinning before burning will avoid ]VKMZ\IQV\aQN UI`QU]UÅVIVKQIT return is an objective. SEASONALITY Winter burning is often preferred in order to limit damage to mature trees. IVL^MOM\I\QWV\PI\PI^Mٺ[MMXL, IKK]U]TI\MLQVÅZMM`KT]LML[Q\M[KIV burn intensely under dry conditions.

White oak mortality is generally lower following winter and early spring burns because trees are not actively growing; ambient temperature is lower, and it is the preferred timing following a timber harvest.

35 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

ìÐĮĊķĴď­āæīďœĮðĊīďÆāřșĊķĴīðÐĊĴȭĨďďīĮďðăĮďåĴÐĊðĊÐŘĨďĮÐÌșťīÐȭĨīďĊÐĮðĴÐĮȘ ɭ€ăīðÆìOďīðĉÐīș9ăðÆāīS Chestnut Oak

CHEROKEE NAME: Tsisátugwûléga SCIENTIFIC NAME: Quercus montana

LOCATION 500- to 5,300-foot elevation; common GROWTH FORM on dry ridges, south- to west-facing Tree slopes and rocky outcrops. SOIL Dry, rocky and infertile; grows best in well-drained loams. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High High

36 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

Chestnut oak is a deciduous canopy The one-and-a-half-inch-long would be catastrophic for biodiver- MK\[could includeٺtree widespread and dominant in acorns fall and germinate in [Q\a+I[KILQVOM dry sites and increasingly common autumn. Heavy crops occur about the loss of a food source for birds, in xeric sites. It can grow up to 70 M^MZaNW]Z\WÅ^MaMIZ[J]\KPM[\- bats and small mammals; detrimental feet tall and 3 feet in diameter over nut oak produces fewer acorns impacts to plant pollination; and less 300 years. relative to upland oaks. detritus and nutrients that support ar- thropod and microbial communities. Bristleless leaves, acorns that Chestnut oak germination is mature over one growing season, around 90%. It is the most drought- The non-native gypsy moth prefers and clogged pores in the wood tolerant of the Blue Ridge oaks and white oak; the caterpillar eats tender are traits chestnut oak shares with germinates well in dry soil. TMI^M[\PI\Æ][PQV[XZQVO

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS HIGH AND DRY DECLINE AFTER 60 MORE TO LEARN MK\[WN ÅZMNZMY]MVKaٺThe steepest and driest sites suitable Until about 60 years of age, chestnut

37 tìďÌďÌÐĊÌīďĊĮðšÐ­ĊÌÌÐĊĮðĴřðĮăðĉðĴÐÌÅřĨďďīĮďðă­ĊÌȥďī­īЭĮĴì­ĴÅķīĊåīÐĪķÐĊĴăřȘS Great Rhododendron

CHEROKEE NAME: #ķĮĸň­ĴĮĸĊĴ­Ċ­ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Rhododendron maximum

LOCATION All aspects from sea level up to 5,000- foot elevation. Stream bottoms and GROWTH FORM cove forests providing moderate shade Shrub beneath a high canopy are ideal. SOIL From well-drained to saturated bogs, best growth is on mesic, acidic soil with a thick, peat-like organic layer. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Low Low

38 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

This species is a shade- grouse and turkeys eat the tolerant, evergreen shrub buds and leaves. Beavers that can reach 40 feet tall Rhododendron covers the midstory of nearly browse twigs, and the and 25 feet wide with a three million acres of the Southern Blue Ridge, primarily thickets provides winter and stem 1 foot in diameter. in cove forests, riparian zones and mesic areas. Canopy escape cover for white-tailed Multiple stems grow openings created by chestnut loss combined with decades deer, eastern cottontail and from a root crown, and ďåťīÐÐŘÆăķĮðďĊì­ŒÐĉ­ÌÐðĴĉďīÐÆďĉĉďĊðĊď­āåďīÐĮĴĮȘ some songbirds. Thickets individuals can exceed can serve as bear den sites 100 years old. and escape cover.

Thick, leathery leaves can be retained Rhododendron can govern both Rhododendron twigs grow longer up to eight years. Leaves can acidify midstory and understory species and leaves are larger on mesic sites. soil through decomposition and limit richness as dense thickets exclude Limited available water and nutrients minerals and nutrients available to nearly all other plants. Oak and pine on dry sites limit growth; mountain W\PMZXTIV\[)U]\]ITTaJMVMÅKQIT seedling survival is often minimal due laurel is often the predominant shrub .KQMV\[]VTQOP\ on xeric sitesٻ[]relationship with fungi (ectomycorrhi- \WQV zal association) allows rhododendron to tie up soil nitrogen and phosphorus Rhododendron is browsed by white- as thickets expand. tailed deer in fall and winter, while

Cultural Uses

}ìÐìÐīďāÐÐĊ­ĉÐåďīīìďÌďÌÐĊÌīďĊ ðĮÌķĮĸň­ĴĮĸĊĴ­Ċ­ȘAĊÌðæÐĊďķĮĨÐďĨăÐ œÐīÐīÐĨďīĴÐÌĴďì­ŒÐåďķĊÌīÐåķæÐðĊ īìďÌďÌÐĊÌīďĊĴìðÆāÐĴĮœìÐĊðĊÌ­ĊæÐīȘ}ìÐ ĮЭĮďĊÐÌœďďÌœ­ĮĮ­ðÌĴďĉ­āÐĴìÐťĊÐĮĴ ÆďďāðĊæĮĨďďĊȘ}ďÌ­řșðĴðĮÆìďĮÐĊ­Į­Ċ ďīĊ­ĉÐĊĴ­ăĨă­ĊĴÅÐÆ­ķĮÐďåðĴĮÐŒÐīæīÐÐĊ åďăð­æЭĊÌ­ĴĴī­ÆĴðŒÐŦďœÐīĮȘ

tìďÌďÌÐĊÌīďĊŦďœÐīȘɭìīðĮĴð­ĊwÆ윭īšș ðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴW

39 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

FIRE MANAGEMENT LESS FIRE, MORE RHODO CURED STEMS BURN HOT Fire exclusion is in part cause for Stems cured for more than six months the proliferation of rhododendron _QTTKWV\ZQJ]\M\WOZMI\MZÅZMQV\MV[Q\a thickets and associated decline in Cut stems piled around undesirable biodiversity in Appalachian oak trees can generate high heat, thus ecosystems. Fire was frequent enough girdling trees to create small canopy within oak woodlands to routinely gaps as well as snags for insects, bats topkill rhododendron and keep it and cavity-nesting birds. KWVÅVML\W\PMKWWTMZI[XMK\[IVL narrow coves. FIERY THICKETS ,ZW]OP\QVL]KML_QTLÅZM[KIVZM[]T\ FINDS THE GAPS in the ignition of entire rhododen- Rhododendron expands into disturbed LZWV\PQKSM\[7J[MZ^MLÅZMJMPI^QWZ IZMI[IVL[XZW]\[XZWTQÅKITTaQVKIVWXa PI[QVKT]LMLÆIUMTMVO\P[W^MZ gaps. Branches that touch the ground feet, and extensive tree mortality is form a root system from which new often a result. stems sprout (layering). STRONG SPROUTING Cutting a single stem often results in Å^MWZUWZM[XZW]\[;\]UX[IVLZWW\[ persist, but allowing rhododendron to resprout before burning can increase MK\Q^MVM[[ tìďÌďÌÐĊÌīďĊÐĊÆīď­ÆìĉÐĊĴðĊĴďٺÅZMӊ[M ťīÐȭÐŘÆăķÌÐÌĨðĊЭĊÌď­āåďīÐĮĴ ĨīÐŒÐĊĴĮīÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊ­ĊÌæīďķĊÌ ÆďŒÐīīÐĮĴďī­ĴðďĊȘX

MANAGEMENT COSTS CHEMICAL PRESCRIBED $35 TREATMENT + $330-$430 FIRE ȥt' PRESCRIBED FIRE ȥt'

CHEMICAL $250-$450 MASTICATION TREATMENT ȥt' $350-$1,400 :tOZUǣ€}ȭw}€Tq ȥt'

PRESCRIBED MECHANICAL $325 N/A qOU}}Z™AA}š ȥt' HERBIVORY

40 FREQUENCY MK\Q^MNWZٺ7VMJ]ZVQ[TIZOMTaQVM curtailing rhododendron growth and spread, regardless of intensity or season.

]MK\Q^MZPWLWLMVLZWVKWV\ZWTQٺ- possible by burning at least once every four to six years. Frequent burning over many years is often necessary to eventually kill evergreen shrubs. INTENSITY 4W_QV\MV[Q\aÅZM_QTTWN\MV\WX- kill smaller rhododendron, but this becomes less likely as it grows larger and its bark thickens with age. Mini- UITTQOP\IVLIQZÆW_UIQV\IQVLIUX conditions, and dry conditions are often required to topkill a thicket.

Fire-induced topkill can generate XZWTQÅK[XZW]\QVONZWU^QOWZW][ well-established root systems, largely regardless of intensity. However, it can take several years for shrubs to become as large and thickets to regain their original density. SEASONALITY -ٻ[]QZM[QV[]UUMZIVLNITT_Q\P. KQMV\QV\MV[Q\aIVLÆIUML]ZI\QWV have completely killed individual ٺ[,]\XTIV\[IVLMV\QZM\PQKSM ÅZMIVL[UWTLMZQVO\PI\KIVWKK]Z L]ZQVOLZW]OP\QVL]KML_QTLÅZM increase mortality.

Winter burning can topkill most rho- dodendron stems less than 2 inches in diameter, but nearly all sprout within two years.

tìďÌďÌÐĊÌīďĊĨīÐåÐīĮÆďďășĉďðĮĴ ĉÐĮðÆåďīÐĮĴ­ĊÌĮĴīЭĉÅ­ĊāĮȘ ɭĊĊā­ĴīðĊtďĮÐșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴW

41 }ìÐăЭå­īЭďåīÐÌĉ­ĨăÐÅăďÆāĮĮķĊăðæìĴ­ĊÌīÐĮĴīðÆĴĮ­ðīŦďœœðĴìðĊåďīÐĮĴȘ ɭN­Ĵþ­wÆìķăšșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴS Red Maple

CHEROKEE NAME: }ĮĻĊœ­æðæðæ­æЭÌĮðăĻȾĮāó SCIENTIFIC NAME: Acer rubrum

LOCATION Below 6,000-foot elevation in a wide GROWTH FORM variety of environments. Tree SOIL Wide variety with best growth in moist, fertile loams.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Moderate Low

42 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

Red maple is a deciduous, dominant sunlight and demonstrates multiple practices are often ideal, and red or codominant tree that grows up to ÅZMZM[XWV[M[\ZI\MOQM[ maple readily establishes in most 90 feet tall and 4 feet in diameter. Bark disturbed areas. is smooth when young but darkens, Red maple can bear seed as early furrows and thickens with age. It as 4 years old. Wind can carry Maple saplings are nutritious browse has stout twigs with small, clustered nearly 1 million seeds from a single for deer and elk from late fall through ÆW_MZ[IVL\PZMMTWJMLTMI^M[ 12-inch-diameter tree. It is one of winter. Woodpeckers nest in their \PMÅZ[\\ZMM[\WMUMZOMNZWU_QV\MZ cavities. Ubiquitous and arguably the Appala- LWZUIVKaIVLÆW_MZQVMIZTa[XZQVO KPQIV[ӊUW[\ZM[QTQMV\ILIX\IJTMIVL which is important for pollinators. Few trees provide a more spectacu- genetically diverse tree species, red lar contribution to fall leaf colors. maple persists through inundation in ?Q\PXZWTQÅK[XZW]\QVOIVL\PM Leaves can turn golden yellow to JWO[IVLÆWWLXTIQVNWZM[\[\PZQ^M[QV ability to thrive under variable light orange to vibrant scarlet red before acidic, infertile soil and can endure levels, red maple is favored by canopy they detach (abscission). ÅZMWV\PMLZQM[\ZQLOM[1\OZW_[ disturbance. Conditions following _MTTQVLMV[M[PILMÆW]ZQ[PM[QVN]TT conventional timber management

Cultural Uses

}ĮĻĊœ­æðæðæ­æЭÌĮðăĻȾĮāóœ­ĮķĮÐÌ ĉÐÌðÆðĊ­ăăřșÆďĉÅðĊÐÌœðĴìĨÐīĮðĉĉďĊș ­Ì­ɹřÐĮāðȧȵЭĴðĊæðĴĮÐăåȶȨ­ăďĊæœðĴì Ìķɹ­ă­æďĮ­ȧȵðĊŦ­ĉĉ­ĴðďĊďåĴìÐĨ­ă­ĴÐȶȨȘAĴ œ­ĮÆďĉÅðĊÐÌœðĴìÅă­Æāď­āåďīœďķĊÌĮ Æ­ķĮÐÌÅř­īīďœĮșÅķăăÐĴĮ­ĊÌ­ŘÆķĴĮȘ tÐÌĉ­ĨăÐðĮ­ŒÐīřðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴĮĨÐÆðÐĮ åďīåķīĊðĴķīÐșŒÐĊÐÐīșĨ­ăăÐĴĮșÆ­ÅðĊÐĴīřș ĨăřœďďÌșÅ­īīÐăĮșÆī­ĴÐĮșŦďďīðĊæ­ĊÌ ī­ðăīď­ÌĴðÐĮȘ

Įĉ­ăăīÐÌĉ­ĨăÐÆ­ĊĨīďÌķÆÐǠǠșǟǟǟĮÐÐÌĮĨÐī­ÆīÐȘɭ”­řĊÐOďĊæÅďĴĴďĉșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴS

43 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS RED MAPLE PROLIFERATION CLOSED CANOPY BURNING TIMBER MANAGEMENT

tÐÌĉ­ĨăÐīÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊåīďĉīďďĴ ĮķÆāÐīĮÆ­ĊÅÐĴìÐÌďĉðĊ­ĊĴæīďķĊÌ ÆďŒÐīðĊĮďĉÐĮðĴķ­ĴðďĊĮȘX

44 killed with just one burn every two years or less. One study indicated \PI\Å^MLWZUIV\[MI[WVJ]ZV[QV MK\WV[XZW]\QVOٺÅ^MaMIZ[PILVWM MK\Q^MVM[[WN _QV\MZٺ-UIXTM burning is limited in part because the tree is not actively growing. Winter burns also create an ideal seedbed for maples in spring. MORE TO LEARN MK\[WN ÅZM[MI[WVNZMY]MVKaٺPMM> and intensity on red maple growth and reproduction is not well understood, and more research is needed to adapt ÅZMUIVIOMUMV\

#ÐÐĨșÌÐĊĮÐÆīďœĊĮ­ĊÌĉÐĮďĨìřĴðÆ ĴīÐÐĮÆ­ĊÅăďÆāǨǤɦďåĮķĊăðæìĴåīďĉ īЭÆìðĊæĴìÐæīďķĊÌȘX

45 9­Œďī­ÅăÐď­Ĵæī­ĮĮīÐĮĨďĊĮÐĴďťīÐďĊÆÐÐŒÐīřťŒÐřЭīĮȘ>ķÆāăÐÅÐīīřTďķĊĴ­ðĊșwďķĴìTďķĊĴ­ðĊĮ:­ĉÐO­ĊÌșUďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘS Poverty Oatgrass

CHEROKEE NAME: Kanéska (grasses) SCIENTIFIC NAME: Danthonia spicata

LOCATION 7TLÅMTL[XI[\]ZM[ZWKSW]\KZWX[IVL GROWTH FORM dry, open forest where it is widespread Grass at low density. SOIL Sandy or rocky, well-drained and infertile. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High High

46 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

Poverty oatgrass is a cool-season XMZMVVQITJ]VKPOZI[[_Q\PÅJZW][ZWW\[ but lacking rhizomes or stolons. Most of the foliage occurs as a crowed basal clump of leaves four to six inches long.

It begins growing in early spring, and blooms from late spring to early summer, and then lies dormant from mid to late growing season.

Reproduction is by seed, side shoots and multiple stems (tillers) that form dense clumps. Although seeds may lie dormant for decades awaiting disturbance, they germinate readily with adequate light and bare ground.

Poverty oatgrass can become dominant in favorable growing conditions.

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FREQUENT FIRE Poverty oatgrass is strongly associated _Q\PNZMY]MV\ÅZMIVLQ[WN\MVIUWVO \PMÅZ[\XTIV\[\WZM[XWVL FAST RESPONSE Fire usually topkills oatgrass, but the ÅZ[\OZW_QVO[MI[WVNWTTW_QVOÅZM often demonstrates a marked increase in vigor. With adequate sunlight, more \PIVNW]Z\QUM[\PMÆW_MZQVOK]TU[ may be produced. Z­Ĵæī­ĮĮĴìīðŒÐĮðĊĨďďīĮďðăȘ ɭtďÅtďķĴăÐÌæÐșw­ķăĴďăăÐæÐS LIGHT LOVER SEASONALITY Population maintenance in open Little information exists regarding forest and woodland depends on WX\QUIT[MI[WVIVLÅZMNZMY]MVKa ÅZM?PQTM[UITT[KI\\MZMLKT]UX[ [XMKQÅK\WXW^MZ\aWI\OZI[[0W_M^MZ UIa[]Z^Q^MQV\PMIJ[MVKMWN ÅZM winter burns generally reduce cool- populations decline over time with season species while growing-season diminishing light availability. ÅZMNI^WZ[\PMU

47 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

OďĊæȭìďīĊÐÌÅÐÐĮșăďĊæȭĴďĊæķÐÌÅÐÐĮ­ĊÌăЭåȭÆķĴĴðĊæÅÐÐĮ­īÐðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴĨďăăðĊ­ĴďīĮåďīăÐæķĉÐĮăðāÐĴìÐĴðÆāĴīÐåďðăĮșďīȽÅÐææ­īĴðÆāĮȘȽ ɭT­ĴĴìÐœКð­Ĵș9ăðÆāīS Naked Ticktrefoil

CHEROKEE NAME: ĊðĮĴðăĻȾðĮĴóȭřķ SCIENTIFIC NAME: >řăďÌÐĮĉķĉĊķÌðŦďīķĉ

LOCATION Sandy, rocky oak woodlands in partial sun, GROWTH FORM often where ground cover is undisturbed. Forb SOIL Rich, mesic, loamy or clay-loam soil with rock and decaying organic matter.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High Moderate

48 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

This species prefers mature, open woodlands, forest edges and other areas with dappled sunlight; rich soils often have high organic content.

Compound leaves bunched toward the center of the 18- to 36-inch stem. It ÆW_MZ[NZWU2]Ta\W;MX\MUJMZJ]\\PM ÆW_MZ[\MUMUMZOM[NZWU\PMOZW]VL near the stem that bears the leaves.

Long-tongued bumblebees are important pollinators for ticktrefoil and other legumes. Eastern tailed- JT]MJ]\\MZÆaKI\MZXQTTIZ[NMMLWV\PM foliage, as do white-tailed deer and MLOZW][M_QTLٺ[:]\KW\\WV\IQTZIJJQ turkeys and northern bobwhite eat the seeds.

Legumes convert nitrogen from the air into soil nitrogen compounds ^QI¹VQ\ZWOMVÅ`QVOºJIK\MZQI

U­āÐÌĴðÆāĴīÐåďðăŦďœÐīĮĴ­ăāȘɭLďìĊÐÐĴì­ĉșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴS FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

FIRE REDUCES COMPETITION NZMY]MV\ÅZM)LaVIUQKTIVL[KIXM frequency. Fire stimulates growth, Early growing-season burning with diverse species assemblages and and the overall response of patches reduces understory woody stem TQNMPQ[\WZQM[JMVMÅ\[NZWUI^IZQIJTM is to expand coverage and increase in density and enhances light available ÅZMZMOQUM+PIVOQVO\PMJ]ZVӊ[ diversity and abundance. for photosynthesis. timing, intensity and frequency pro- motes biodiversity. BURN AND LEARN FIXED VS. MIXED In the Blue Ridge, the science of ]MK\[WN J]ZVQVOWVVI\Q^MTMO]UMٺPeak productivity in some legumes BURN THE BEANS M has been observed with annual burn- Legumes exhibit a variety of and other forbs is not well understood. QVO#W\PMZTMO]UM[ÆW]ZQ[P_Q\PTM[[ ZM[XWV[M[\WÅZM[MI[WVIVL

49 }ìÐĨķīĨăÐī­řĮ­īÐåÐĉ­ăÐåăďœÐīĮȘ}ìÐřÐăăďœÌðĮāðĊĴìÐÆÐĊĴÐīðĮ­ÆďăăÐÆĴðďĊďåĮÐŒÐī­ăĉ­ăÐåăďœÐīĮȘ ɭ€ăīðÆìOďīðĉÐīș9ăðÆāīS Spreading Aster

CHEROKEE NAME: A Ĵ­ȸ­ĴřķĮĴò SCIENTIFIC NAME:wřĉĨìřďĴīðÆìķĉĨ­ĴÐĊĮ

LOCATION Open forest and edges, rock outcrops, GROWTH FORM glades and in partial shade to full sun. Forb SOIL Sandy and rocky, medium- to well- drained soils of low fertility.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High Moderate

50 PLANTS OF OAK FOREST

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

Spreading aster is an upright peren- in most asters. The rays of most species are often pollinator specialists for nial that grows to two and a half feet UIaKTW[MIZW]VL\PMÆW_MZ[I\VQOP\I[ the late-blooming asters and are on a slender, hairy, brittle stem; a protection from cold temperatures. also primary pollinators for apples QVKPLIQ[aTQSMÆW_MZIXXMIZ[QV IVLJT]MJMZZQM[,Q^MZ[MÆW_MZ[IVL late summer as an autumn harbinger. 7N \PM_WZTLӊ[JMM[XMKQM[ often those considered weeds pro- 20% occur in the U.S. The estimated vide nectar and pollen throughout It is often found around rock outcrops economic contribution of native the growing season; good pollinator and roadsides in oak forests, especially bees to crop production is around nesting habitat improves fruit and \PW[MI[[WKQI\ML_Q\PUIÅKZWKS $3 billion per year. Native bee vegetable production. species often specialize on certain Cross-pollination is required to set seed plants; fall-emerging mining bees

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FIRE ADAPTED MIX UP THE TIMING Although little information exists Altering burn timing fosters diversity ]MK\[XTIV\[XMKQMٺMK\[[XMKQÅK\W JMKI][MÅZMIٺZMOIZLQVOÅZMM MZMV\TaLMXMVLQVOWV\PMTQNM[\IOMٺspreading aster, the perennial appears LQ _MTTILIX\ML\WÅZMIVLZM[XWVL[\W _PMVÅZMWKK]Z[:MXMI\MLJ]ZVQVOI\ increased light availability. the same time of year will favor some organisms over others. Thus, the MK\UIaJMKWUMٺFORBS WILL SPROUT UIOVQ\]LMWN \PQ[M Perennial forbs of oak ecozones are pronounced the longer this is repeated largely dormant during winter burns. and some populations may decline as Few sun-loving forbs fail to sprout a result. NZWUZPQbWUM[IN\MZÅZMKWV[]UM[ aboveground parts. Mineral-rich ash YOU GET WHAT YOU GOT KIV[\QU]TI\MXZWTQÅK[XZW]\QVO The majority of native forbs in the Blue Ridge lack the ability to disperse ANY BURN > NO BURN long distances, so plant community Forbs appear no more negatively composition is largely stable. In gener- MK\MLJaJ]ZVQVOWVM[MI[WV^MZ[][ al, plants that have potential to emergeٺI another, according to studies in prairie NWTTW_QVOÅZM_MZMTQSMTaXZM[MV\JMNWZM ecosystems. Relative to the Blue Ridge, Propagules of plant with intermediate MK\[[PW]TL shade tolerance can sometimes persistٺIVa[]KPVMOI\Q^MM be ephemeral and relatively minor longer in a shaded environment. compared to the result of not burning. VARIABLE PLANT RESPONSES Asters and some forbs can be more MK\MLJaÅZM[\PI\WKK]ZٺVMOI\Q^MTaI during dry spells. Soil moisture before IVLIN\MZJ]ZVQVOQVÆ]MVKM[XTIV\ ĮĴÐīÅăďďĉĮĮðæĊ­ăĴìÐÐĊÌďåĮķĉĉÐī­ĊÌ recovery, and response times may be ĴìЭĨĨīď­ÆìďåœðĊĴÐīȘɭ#œ­řĊÐ'ĮĴÐĮș delayed under stressful conditions. ðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴS

51 ECOLOGICAL ZONE qðĊÐȭZ­ā >ЭĴì

RESTORATION-FIRE MAINTENANCE-FIRE ECOZONE FREQUENCY FREQUENCY

PINE-OAK HEATH 2-3 3-7 YEARS YEARS

EXTENT SOIL 490,000 acres Shallow often rocky, highly acidic, nutrient-poor and droughty. ELEVATION 900 – 5,000 feet NATURAL DISTURBANCE 5Q`ML[M^MZQ\aÅZMXM[\W]\JZMIS[QKM LANDFORM and wind. ]WX\ٺPIZXM`XW[ML[X]ZZQLOM[#KTQ; and convex dry slopes on generally EMBEDDED COMMUNITIES OZIVQ\QK]ٺ[south and west aspects; lower +IZWTQVIPMUTWKSJT elevations on broader, gentler slopes domes, rocky summits, barrens and ridges. and glades. qðĊÐȭZ­ā>ЭĴìĮĴīķÆĴķīЭĊÌÆďĉĨďĮðĴðďĊ Æ­ĊŒ­īřæīЭĴăřȘ­ÆāīÐÐāșqðĮæ­ìU­ĴðďĊ­ă 9ďīÐĮĴșUďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘS CONTEXT Intermixed with dry and dry-mesic oak or at slightly higher elevation; often blending with shortleaf pine- oak at lower elevations.

52 qðĊÐȭZ­ā>ЭĴìì­ĮĨ­ĴÆìřÌðĮĴīð- ÅķĴðďĊĴìīďķæìďķĴĴìÐăķÐtðÌæÐ TďķĊĴ­ðĊĮÅķĴðĮÆďĊÆÐĊĴī­ĴÐÌ ă­īæÐăřðĊĴìÐÐĊĴī­ă­ĊÌwďķĴìÐīĊ ăķÐtðÌæÐ'ĮÆ­īĨĉÐĊĴĮș>ðæì ďķĊĴīřș­ĊÌĴìÐĮďķĴìœÐĮĴÐīĊ ĨďīĴðďĊďåĴìÐ:īЭĴwĉďāř­ĊÌ €Ċ­ā­TďķĊĴ­ðĊĮȘX

53 ECOLOGY

Pine-Oak Heath is naturally dominated by an open canopy of Table Mountain and pitch pine. This composition is uncommon today beyond scattered, remnant patches. Chestnut oak and scarlet oak are becoming increasingly common, along with white pine, Virginia pine and various hardwoods. Sourwood and black gum are ubiquitous. Lower-elevation sites may have more shortleaf pine. 19% SHRUBS 61% GRASSESș 9Ztwș VINES AND FERNS 220-240 wq'A'w 20% TREES

PINE-OAK HEATH COMPOSITION

Heath refers to areas where the dominant plants are eri- caceous shrubs less than 3 feet tall. Over 200 species of forbs, grasses, ferns and shrubs of variable composition and density are possible. Mountain laurel and ferns often predominate contemporary Pine-Oak Heath with patches of suppressed forbs and grasses, some rare.

9ďīÅĮ­ĊÌď­āīÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊķĊÌÐīďĨÐĊȭÆ­ĊďĨřqðĊÐȭZ­ā>ЭĴìȘZĮÅďīĊÐ 8QVM7IS0MI\PQ[PQOPTaÅZMILIX\MLZMTI\Q^M\W*T]M tðÌæÐș:īÐÐĊtðŒÐī:­ĉÐO­ĊÌșUďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘS Ridge ecozones. A propensity for lightning strikes, rapid _I\MZLZIQVIOMIVL_QVLKWV\ZQJ]\M\WIÅZMXZWVM MV^QZWVUMV\IVLW^MZITTUWLMZI\M\WPQOPÅZMQV\MV[Q\a but these communities have not been well studied. Today, besides rock-dominated communities, regeneration Grass-dominated ground cover of once-open forests and WN 

54 CULTURAL IMPORTANCE include the prairie warbler, red-headed woodpecker, Some native Appalachians have attributed the fertility brown-headed nuthatch, whip-poor-will, northern fence of the valleys to soil deposited from eroded upper slopes lizard, coal skink, timber rattlesnakes and the extremely ¹LMNWZM[\MLJaÅZMº rare northern pine snake. )VIJZ]X\QVKZMI[MQVÅZMNZMY]MVKaWKK]ZZMLQV\PM Bunchgrasses, forbs and scattered shrubs provide both early 19th century. Scots-Irish herdsmen introduced their food and protection for young quail and turkeys. Many traditions of burning to enhance livestock forage and native forb species are good deer and rabbit forage. The facilitate hunting, which blended with Indigenous burning seeds and berries of light-demanding shrubs are food for IVLLMÅVML)XXITIKPQIV_WWL[J]ZVQVOK]T\]ZM birds and small mammals in mid to late summer. Modern timber demand from Pine-Oak Heath is low because of poor soils, undesirable species, and a tendency to produce crooked trees. But places like Linville Gorge and Table Rock State Park are popular outdoor recreation destinations.

55 CONSERVATION CHALLENGES ABSENCE OF FIRE FIRE REGIME THEN & NOW

56 ”ďďÌă­ĊÌīÐĮĴďī­ĴðďĊĨīďþÐÆĴșœðĴìĉðŘÐÌȭ ĮЭĮďĊÅķīĊðĊæďĊÆÐÐŒÐīřĴìīÐÐĴďťŒÐřЭīĮ ȧăÐåĴȨȘ€ĊÅķīĊÐÌȧīðæìĴȨȘW

RARE PLANTS HEAVY FUELS AND SEVERE FIRE The relatively harsh environment of Pine-Oak Heath is Fire exclusion has resulted in substantial fuel loads. The ٺ[QLMITNWZ[WUMZIZMXTIV\[QVKT]LQVO0MTTMZӊ[JTIbQVO[\IZ K]ZZMV\MV^QZWVUMV\WN LMMXXWWZTaLMKWUXW[MLL ITW LMIL_WWLLMV[MÆIUUIJTM[PZ]J[IVLXMZQWLQKTI\Mٺ[8M\MZӊ[5W]V\IQVUITTW__PQ\MQZQ[M\\MZ]VVQVOJ clover, rounded-leaf serviceberry, branched whitlow grass []UUMZLZW]OP\[KIVZM[]T\QV[M^MZM_QTLÅZM[[]KPI[ and witch alder. those that have recently impacted Linville Gorge. RISKS TO PEOPLE NON-NATIVE SPECIES .M_P]UIVLM^MTWXUMV\[IZMI\OZMI\MZZQ[SNWZ_QTLÅZM Heavy tree mortality and soil exposure following than those established within or near Pine-Oak Heath. KI\I[\ZWXPQKÅZMPMTXXZW^QLM\PMQLMITKWVLQ\QWV[NWZ\PM Droughty soil, exposed position and heavy fuel loads result invasion of non-native plants such as princess tree. QVPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZMIVLNI[\ZI\MWN [XZMIL+QZK]Q\W][ roads challenge evacuation and emergency response. Potential smoke impacts to communities greatly limit use of controlled burning to reduce hazardous fuels.

57 FIRE MANAGEMENT

REGULAR FIRE [\Z]K\]ZM][QVOÅZMITWVMMOM\I\QWVLQ^MZ[Q\aKIVJMUIQV\IQVML_Q\PIÅZMZM\]ZV pine regeneration. Strategic mechanical and/or chemical interval of about once every three to seven years, with vegetation management can augment restoration. variable timing and intensity.

OPPORTUNITY Three or more burns may be required to elicit a positive 0QOP[M^MZQ\a_QTLÅZM[KZMI\MKPITTMVOM[J]\ILQ^MZ[MXTIV\ response from characteristic plants: Allegheny chinkapin, community can be maintained throughout revegetation little bluestem, panic grasses, coreopsis and sweet fern are IVL\PMTQNMWN I[\IVLJa][QVONZMY]MV\ÅZM IUWVO\PM[XMKQM[\PI\JMOQV\WÆW]ZQ[PIN\MZU]T\QXTM frequent burns. WOODLAND RESTORATION -MZ[M`KMTTMV\XW\MV\QITNWZZM[\WZQVOWXMV Annual burning has resulted in open canopy and grassٺ8QVM7IS0MI\PW

qðĊÐȭZ­ā>ЭĴìœďďÌă­ĊÌÅķīĊÐÌÅřĨīÐĮÆīðĨĴðďĊ­ĊÌ­īĮďĊ #ðŒÐīĮÐæīďķĊÌÆďŒÐīœðĴìĨðĊЭĊÌď­ā ďĊÆÐÐŒÐīřďĊÐĴďĴìīÐÐřЭīĮĮðĊÆÐǠǨǨǧȘ:ī­ŒÐăĮĴ­ĊÌ}ďĨș īÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊÐŘĨďĮÐÌĴďåķăăĮķĊȘ:ī­ŒÐăĮĴ­ĊÌ ìÐīďāÐÐU­ĴðďĊ­ă9ďīÐĮĴș}ÐĊĊÐĮĮÐÐȘS }ďĨșìÐīďāÐÐU­ĴðďĊ­ă9ďīÐĮĴș}ÐĊĊÐĮĮÐÐȘS

58 LWUQVI\ML]VLMZ[\WZa)LQ^MZ[MNWZJKWUXWVMV\JMVMÅ\[ SEASONALITY NZWUJ]ZVQVOWVKMM^MZa\PZMMaMIZ[4M[[NZMY]MV\ÅZM 5W[\_QTLÅZMQV\PM*T]M:QLOMQ[KI][MLJaP]UIV[.QZM tends to favor a greater proportion of understory shrubs activity peaks in April, October and November, coinciding and hardwoods. with lower humidity and higher winds. Fewer ignitions and [UITTMZÅZM[ZM[]T\NZWUTQOP\VQVO\PMUIRWZQ\aWN _PQKP A pause in burning for eight to 15 years may be warranted if occurs in June. an objective is to promote pine and oak survival and/or re- cruitment into the canopy. Historically, intervals such as this Early to middle growing season can provide suitable burning occurred episodically, perhaps once every 50 to 200 years. conditions; however, closed canopy, heavy shrub cover and ]MZKWVLQ\QWVٺPQOPN]MTUWQ[\]ZMTQUQ\\PMJ]ZVLIa[\PI\W INTENSITY []Q\IJTMNWZ[][\IQVQVOUWLMZI\MQV\MV[Q\aÅZM Fire burns with greater intensity and can lead to more MK\Q^MNWZZML]KQVOٺMK\[[]KPI[\ZMMUWZ\ITQ\aWVLZaM`XW[MLZQLOM[ ,WZUIV\[MI[WVJ]ZVQVOQ[MٺM^MZMM] and upper south- and west-facing slopes. accumulated fuel loads while minimizing tree mortality. Hardwoods over 4 inches in diameter are often not ?QVLIVL[TWXMITQOVMLQOVQ\QWVPMILÅZMUIaJMXZMNMZZML topkilled to the desired extent. if resetting to young forest or early succession is an objective.

MK\Q^MNWZUIQV\IQVQVOIVWXMVٺ5WLMZI\MQV\MV[Q\aÅZMQ[M understory and suppressing shrub and mesophytic trees. MZMV\IOM[JMKI][MٺQ\M[\MVL\WLM^MTWX_Q\P\ZMM[WN LQ; some trees are killed. Even-aged stands develop following KI\I[\ZWXPQKÅZM

9ķÐăĮ­ÆÆķĉķă­ĴÐðĊĴìЭÅĮÐĊÆÐďåťīЭĊÌ ÆďĊĴīðÅķĴÐĴďÐŘĴīÐĉÐťīÐÅÐì­ŒðďīȘS

59 O'9}Ț}­ÅăÐTďķĊĴ­ðĊĨðĊÐĉ­ř æīďœðĊĮìīķÅåďīĉȘOðĊŒðăăÐ:ďīæÐ ”ðăÌÐīĊÐĮĮșqðĮæ­ìU­ĴðďĊ­ă 9ďīÐĮĴșUďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘX

tA:>}ȚqðĴÆìĨðĊÐĴÐĊÌĮĴďæīďœ ĮĴī­ðæìĴȘìÐĮĴĊķĴTďķĊĴ­ðĊș ì­ĴĴ­ìďďÆìÐÐU­ĴðďĊ­ă9ďīÐĮĴș :Ðďīæð­ȘX

PLANTS OF Pine-Oak Heath

5]KPQ[TMN\\WJMTMIZVMLQV\PM

— Tom Waldrop, USDA Forest Service (retired)

60 Table Mountain Pine & Pitch Pine

CHEROKEE NAME: U­ĴĮóȾ CHEROKEE NAME: U­ĴĮóȾ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pinus pungens SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pinus rigida

LOCATION 1,500- to 4,500-foot elevation; ridges and steep south- and west-facing GROWTH FORM slopes. Table Mountain pine is Tree becoming increasingly restricted to the rock-dominated sites above 3,500 feet. SOIL Shallow, acidic, infertile and excessively drained with exposed rock. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High High

61 }œďĮĴďķĴșĴœðĮĴÐÌĊÐÐÌăÐĮ­ĊÌ ǢðĊÆìÆďĊÐÆì­ī­ÆĴÐīðšÐ}­ÅăÐ TďķĊĴ­ðĊĨðĊÐȘS

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

These are two species that have long Table Mountain pine is the rarest of []J[MY]MV\KI\I[\ZWXPQKÅZM[ composed portions of the hardwood- the Blue Ridge yellow pines; it can dominated Appalachians. Conifer- be found only in the Appalachian Pitch pine grows up to 80 feet and dominated communities continue Mountains. Pitch pine ranges east to has an average life span of 80 years. to decline in health and extent the coast and north to Maine. A mature Table Mountain pine throughout the region. generally tops out at 50 feet in height Conditions for these long-lived, with many branches and stubs. It has Pitch is the dominant yellow pine in light-loving pioneer species have a crooked form and irregular, sagging elevations from around 2,200 to 3,200 JMMVXZWUW\MLJaÅZMNWZ\PW][IVL[ JZIVKPM[WN\MVQV[PZ]JNWZUQVÅZM feet. Table Mountain pine is generally of years. The ideal establishment excluded sites. One individual that more prevalent above that level and environment was created by early evaded the logging era exceeds 230 shortleaf below. 20th century industrial logging and years old.

62 PLANTS OF PINE-OAK HEATH

Cultural Uses

U­ĴĮóȾȧĨðĊÐȨÅī­ĊÆìÐĮœÐīÐķĮÐÌåďī ĮĉķÌæðĊæ­ÌœÐăăðĊæș­ăĮďāĊďœĊ­ĮĴìÐ w­ÆīÐÌwĉďāÐďœăăÐĮĮðĊæȘ}ìðĮÆďķăÌ īÐĉďŒÐĊÐæ­ĴðŒðĴřĮķÆìĴì­Ĵ­ĮåďăăďœðĊæ ĴìÐÅķīð­ăďå­ÌÐÆЭĮÐÌå­ĉðăřĉÐĉÅÐīȘ wĉďāÐœďķăÌ­ĴĴ­ÆìĴďĊÐæ­ĴðŒÐÐĊÐīæř ­ĊÌīÐĉďŒÐðĴȘ

}ìÐÐŒÐīæīÐÐĊåďăð­æÐďåĨðĊÐĮĮřĉÅďăðšÐÌ ăďĊæăðåÐȘ

}ìÐìÐīďāÐÐķĮÐÌĨðĴÆìĨðĊÐåďīÆ­ĊďÐ ÆďĊĮĴīķÆĴðďĊ­ĮœÐăă­ĮÌÐÆďī­ĴðŒÐÆ­īŒðĊæĮȘ }ìÐœďďÌďåĨðĴÆìĨðĊÐðĮīðÆìðĊīÐĮðĊ­ĊÌ ĮìďīĴĨðÐÆÐĮœÐīÐķĮÐÌ­ĮĴďīÆìÐĮȘ

qðĴÆìĨðĊÐĊÐÐÌăÐĮ­īÐĴœðĮĴÐÌðĊ ĴìīÐÐĮȘďĊÐĮĉ­ĴķīÐðĊĴìÐå­ăăȘ ɭ}­Å}­ĊĊÐīřș9ăðÆāīS

Presence of Table Mountain pine .QZMKWVNMZ[IVIL^IV\IOM\W\PMÅZM rock crevices with very little soil; is directly correlated with slope ILIX\MLXQVM

63 PLANTS OF PINE-OAK HEATH

9ðīÐðĊ­īďăðĊ­ìÐĉăďÆāÅăķååœðĴìðĊqðĊÐȭZ­ā>ЭĴìȘɭ:­īřN­ķååĉ­ĊS FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

HOT, FREQUENT FIRE HIGH INTENSITY REQUIRED? fuels in late summer or early autumn 5WLMZI\M\WPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZMQ[ 1VÅZMM`KT]LML[Q\M[WZ_PMZM can expose mineral soil before pitch conjectured to have occurred histori- mechanical thinning is infeasible, pine seeds fall. cally about once every three to seven QV\MV[MÅZMKIVPMTXUIQV\IQVITM[[ years. Pitch and Table Mountain hospitable environment for shrubs and SEEDS DIE ON DEEP LITTER XQVM[LMXMVLWVÅZMJMKI][MQ\Q[ hardwoods. Mature pines can tolerate Pine seeds will dry out if the radicle the only disturbance that maintains UWLMZI\MIVLPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZM cannot penetrate a deep litter layer. MK\[VWZKIVWXa Survival is greatest with moderateٺa suitable seedbed and suppresses J]\VMQ\PMZ[M^MZMM ٺ[hardwoods. Table Mountain pine removal is required for reproduction. [PILMIVLQVKPM[WN L can persist for decades in the absence WN ÅZMM[XMKQITTaWVLZaZWKSa[Q\M[ TIMING FOR REGENERATION 8MZQWLQKÅZMNZMMQV\MZ^IT[ITTW_ML Spring and summer burning is ideal fuel to accumulate, often resulting in for these pines. If a goal is to improve [\IVLZMXTIKMUMV\ÅZM seedling establishment, burning dry

64 How do we know these species need fire?

Insulation ­īāœðÌÐĊĮ­ĊÌĴīÐÐĮÅÐÆďĉÐĉďīÐ ťīÐĴďăÐī­ĊĴœðĴì­æÐȘAĴĨīďĴÐÆĴĮÆīðĴðÆ­ă ĴðĮĮķÐĮåīďĉĴÐĉĨÐī­ĴķīÐĮĴì­Ĵ­īÐăÐĴì­ă ĴďĉďĮĴĴīÐÐĮȘ

wÐīďĴðĊř }­ÅăÐTďķĊĴ­ðĊĨðĊÐÆďĊÐĮ­īÐĴìÐďĊăř ĮĨÐÆðÐĮðĊĴìÐăķÐtðÌæÐĴì­ĴīÐĪķðīÐĮ ìЭĴĴďīÐăЭĮÐĮÐÐÌȘ>ЭĴ­Įăďœ­ĮǨǟ9 ĉÐăĴĮĴìÐīÐĮðĊĴì­ĴāÐÐĨĮÆďĊÐĮÆăďĮÐÌ ĮďĮÐÐÌĮå­ăă­ÅďķĴĴœďĉðĊķĴÐĮ­åĴÐīťīÐ Ĩ­ĮĮÐĮșœìðÆìĨīďŒðÌÐĮĴìЭ̌­ĊĴ­æÐ ďåå­ăăðĊæďĊĊЭīăřÅ­īÐæīďķĊÌȘwÐīďĴðĊř Œ­īðÐĮ­ĉďĊæðĊÌðŒðÌķ­ăĴīÐÐĮÌÐĨÐĊÌðĊæďĊ ­ĮĨÐÆĴșĴīÐÐÌÐĊĮðĴřșĮì­ÌðĊæďåÆďĊÐĮ­ĊÌ ťīÐåīÐĪķÐĊÆřȘ9ÐœĨðĴÆìĨðĊÐĮðĊĴìÐăķÐ tðÌæÐÐŘìðÅðĴĮÐīďĴðĊřș­ĊÌĮÐÐÌðĮæÐĊÐī­ăăř ÌðĮĨÐīĮÐÌðĊå­ăăȘ

Seeds }­ÅăÐTďķĊĴ­ðĊĮÐÐÌĮÅÐÆďĉÐŒð­ÅăЭÅďķĴ ÐŒÐīřĴœďĴďĴìīÐÐřЭīĮșĮķææÐĮĴðĊæ­ åīÐĪķÐĊĴťīÐīÐæðĉÐȘ}ìÐĮÐÐÌĮ­īÐĴìÐ ìЭŒðÐĮĴďåĴìÐăķÐtðÌæÐĨðĊÐĮșœìðÆì ­ăăďœĮåďīī­ĨðÌÐĮĴ­ÅăðĮìĉÐĊĴåďăăďœðĊæ ťīÐȘ}ìÐĮðšÐďåÅďĴìÆďĊÐĮ­ĊÌĮÐÐÌĮ ÌÐÆīЭĮÐĮœðĴììðæìÐīÐăÐŒ­ĴðďĊȘ

tďďĴðĊæ­ĊÌwĨīďķĴðĊæ }­ĨīďďĴĮÅķīřÌÐÐĨðĊĮďðă­ĊÌ­īÐÅķååÐīÐÌ åīďĉìЭĴȘTďĮĴĨðĴÆìĨðĊÐĮÆķīŒÐþķĮĴ ­ÅďŒÐďīĮăðæìĴăřÅÐăďœĴìÐæīďķĊÌĮķīå­ÆÐ ȧÅ­Į­ăÆīďďāȨĴď­ăăďœī­ĨðÌĮĨīďķĴðĊæ­åĴÐī ĴďĨāðăăÅřťīÐȘqðĴÆìĨðĊЭăĮďĮĨīďķĴĮåīďĉ Ìďīĉ­ĊĴÅķÌĮ­ăďĊæĴìÐĴīķĊāȘ

Resin Heals ĊĴðÅ­ÆĴÐīð­ăĨīďĨÐīĴðÐĮďåĮ­ĨĨīďĴÐÆĴ œďķĊÌÐÌĨðĊÐĮåīďĉðĊåÐÆĴðďĊȘtÐĮðĊðĮ ­ĊĴðĮÐĨĴðÆ­ĊÌ­ĊĴðȭðĊŦ­ĉĉ­Ĵďīřș­ĊÌĴìÐ ĮĴðÆāðĊÐĮĮìÐăĨĮÆăďĮÐœďķĊÌĮȘqÐďĨăÐ ì­ŒÐķĮÐÌðĴĴďĴīЭĴœďķĊÌĮåďīĴìďķĮ­ĊÌĮ ďåřЭīĮȘ

>ðæìȭÐăÐŒ­ĴðďĊĨðĴÆìĨðĊÐĮĴ­ĊÌ­åĴÐīÅķīĊðĊæȘ ɭtř­ĊL­ÆďÅĮS

65 ”­īĉȭĮЭĮďĊæī­ĮĮÐĮīÐĪķðīЭĴăЭĮĴǤǟɦĮķĊăðæìĴȘ ɭ}ďĉqďĴĴÐīťÐăÌș9ăðÆāīS Indiangrass

CHEROKEE NAME: wÐă­æœĻȾĴĮóķĮÌòȭæ­ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Sorghastrum nutans

LOCATION 7XMV_WWLTIVL[IVLÅMTL[QV GROWTH FORM exposed areas. Grass SOIL Wide variety from rocky to clay; moderate to well-drained.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High High

66 PLANTS OF PINE-OAK HEATH

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

Indiangrass is a native, perennial, Soil organic matter from root biomass palatable and a source of protein for warm-season bunchgrass with short XZWUW\M[[WQT[\IJQTQ\aÅT\MZ[\W`QK herbivores until mid-summer. rhizomes, characterized by robust and KWUXW]VL[NIKQTQ\I\M[_I\MZQVÅT\ZI\QWV  Native grasses with similar attributes  WT]UMJa^ٺupright growth over 6 feet. It features IVLKIVZML]KMZ]VW OWTLMVQVÆWZM[KMVKMIVLÆI\TMI^M[]X compared with turfgrasses. that often co-occur with indiangrass to 2 feet narrowing at the base. include: big bluestem, little bluestem, Many species of grasshoppers and broomsedge bluestem, switchgrass, Mineral soil contact is important caterpillars eat the foliage. Grassland eastern gamagrass and sideoats grama. for seed germination. Mature plants birds and small mammals consume (See appendix for additional species.) begin growing from rhizomes in the seeds in autumn. Indiangrass is nesting early growing season, peak mid- material and cover for wild turkey, summer and mature by late growing grasshopper sparrow, indigo bunting AĊÌð­Ċæī­ĮĮðĊŦďœÐīȘɭLďĮìķ­T­řÐīș9ăðÆāīT season. Woody competition limits the and prairie warbler. production of side shoots (tillering). Bunchgrass structure allows for Native grasslands are among the mobility for small wildlife such as most threatened ecosystems in the quail and young turkeys. Dense woody southern U.S. The roots of native vegetation limits movement and the grasses are resilient to drought, with IJQTQ\a\WÅVL[MML[IVLQV^MZ\MJZI\M[# root systems that can reach 16 feet contributing to population decline. below the surface. Fresh growth of indiangrass is highly

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FIRE AND REPRODUCTION WOODY STEMS WINTER BURNS Mature plants sprout from rhizomes

67 PLANTS OF PINE-OAK HEATH

}ìðÆāÐĴĮăðĉðĴăðæìĴ­Œ­ðă­ÅăÐĴďķĊÌÐīĮĴďīřĨă­ĊĴĮȘ ɭT­ĴĴìÐœ“­ķæì­ĊS Mountain Laurel

CHEROKEE NAME: #ķĮĸň­ĴĮķĊÌòȭæ­ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Kalmia latifolia

LOCATION GROWTH FORM South-facing upper slopes ridges and Shrub hillsides with sparse tree canopy. SOIL Acidic, dry and well-drained.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Moderate Moderate

68 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

This species is a native, perennial, Primary reproduction is vegetative some of the oldest individuals ericaceous shrub that can reach through basal sprouting, layering and _MZMM[\IJTQ[PML[WWVIN\MZ\PMÅZM 14 feet tall and is found in varied suckering. Rhizomes can extend close []XXZM[[QWVMZIJMOIV#Å^M\W\MVNWW\ environments throughout eastern to 3 feet below ground, insulated tall plants can be up to 75 years old. North America. NZWUÅZM The tannic, low-nutrient leaves acidify Laurel is moderately shade tolerant A thicket is multiple individuals in soil as they accumulate and slowly and optimal growth occurs under full close proximity with intersecting decompose. Litter quality is reduced sunlight. However, it grows only from branches, sometimes with thousands and the nitrogen and phosphorous is April through June with each stem of stems per acre. decreasingly available to other plants. adding only 5 inches in height and 3.5 inches in width each year. It has Fire exclusion, as well as pest and Bears den in laurel thickets. Deer KQMV\TaLZW]OP\ disease-related tree mortality, have may browse leaves only when food isٻPQOP_I\MZ][MQ[M tolerant, and dense stands compete contributed to laurel abundance scarce. Bumblebees are the primary for water on dry, exposed sites. today. One study revealed that means of insect pollination.

Cultural Uses

AĊÌðæÐĊďķĮĨĨ­ă­Æìð­ĊĨÐďĨăÐœďķăÌĊďĴ ÅķīĊ­ĊřĨ­īĴďåÌķĮĸň­ĴĮķĊÌòȭæ­ÅÐÆ­ķĮÐ ðĴœďķăÌÌÐĮĴīďřĴìÐĮĨÐÆðÐĮɹĉÐÌðÆðĊ­ă Īķ­ăðĴðÐĮ­ĊÌÅīðĊæ­ĊЭīăřœðĊĴÐīȘ

ĊÐăðŘðīÐŘĴī­ÆĴåīďĉĉďķĊĴ­ðĊă­ķīÐăș īìďÌďÌÐĊÌīďĊ­ĊÌÌďæìďÅÅăÐœ­Į­ĨĨăðÐÌ ĴďĮāðĊåďīīìÐķĉ­ĴðĮĉďåĴìÐāĊÐÐȘO­ķīÐă œ­Į­ăĮďāĊďœĊ­ĮȵĮĨďďĊœďďÌȶ­ĊÌœ­Į ķĮÐÌĴďĉ­āÐЭĴðĊæķĴÐĊĮðăĮȘ

O­ķīÐăðĮ­ĨďĨķă­īă­ĊÌĮÆ­ĨÐĨă­ĊĴĴďÌ­řș œðĴìĉďīÐĴì­ĊǠǟǟŒ­īðÐĴðÐĮȘLďìĊ­īĴī­ĉ ĮÐĊĴĨă­ĊĴĮÅ­ÆāĴď'Ċæă­ĊÌðĊǠǦǣǟåďī ďīĊ­ĉÐĊĴ­ăķĮÐȘ

wìďœřĨðĊā­ĊÌœìðĴÐŦďœÐīĮðĊĉðÌȭĮķĉĉÐīȘɭT­ĴĴìÐœ“­ķæì­ĊS

69 FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS HISTORIC FIRE SPROUTS FOLLOWING FIRE 0Q[\WZQKITTaXMZQWLQK[]ZNIKMÅZM[ The vigor of mature root systems would have routinely consumed low- is a challenge to managers. Laurel branch layering and topkilled shrubs; [XZW]\[XZWTQÅKITTaNZWUJI[ITJ]ZT[ dense, expansive thickets would have and rhizomes, seemingly regardless of been a more limited occurrence. ÅZM[MI[WVWZ[M^MZQ\a0W_M^MZ[PWW\[ are slow to develop, allowing oaks and BURN, REPEAT pines the chance to compete. Fire limits the establishment and spread of laurel; coverage can be FLAMMABLE LEAVES reduced if it is burned about once Laurel leaves have relatively low every three years. moisture content. Older leaves are driest in early summer, whereas new OAK AND PINE REGENERATION leaves in spring have more moisture; Reducing laurel cover to less than but overall the leaves of plants on 30% may be necessary for oak and dry sites have less moisture. Dead pine regeneration. No technique twigs and leaves can remain attached KPMUQKITUMKPIVQKITÅZMPI[ for some time, and terpene content ]\MK\Q^MNWZKWV\ZWTTQVOTI]ZMT KWV\ZQJ]\M[\WÆIUUIJQTQ\a ALTERNATIVES TO FIRE? herbicides that both kill laurel and Slopes greater than 40% and prevent redevelopment of thickets exposed rock can make mastication is unclear. It is unknown whether challenging. August has been an QV\MV[MÅZMKIVSQTTTI]ZMTKWUXTM\MTa optimal time for chemical treatment. nor which season of burning is most ]MK\Q^M

O­ķīÐăĴìðÆāÐĴÅķīĊÐÌ­Ĵìðæì ðĊĴÐĊĮðĴř­ĊÌÅ­Į­ăĮĨīďķĴðĊæȘ ɭT­ĴĴìÐœ“­ķæì­ĊX

70 PLANTS OF PINE-OAK HEATH

71 PLANTS OF PINE-OAK HEATH

OÐæķĉÐĮďåĴÐĊŦďœÐīĨīďăðťÆ­ăăřåďăăďœðĊæťīÐșœìðÆì­ĴĴī­ÆĴĮĨďăăðĊ­ĴďīĮȘ ɭTȘȘ­īĊì­īĴșTðĮĮďķīðwĴ­ĴЀĊðŒÐīĮðĴřS :ď­ĴɹĮtķÐ CHEROKEE NAME: #ðĮĴ­òřóȭďīȭĮķ­ìĮæð SCIENTIFIC NAME: Tephrosia virginiana

LOCATION Abundant sunlight in open woods GROWTH FORM and steep terrain including glades Forb and barrens. SOIL Sandy, rocky, well-drained and acidic.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High Moderate

72 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

/WI\ӊ[Z]MQ[IPMZJIKMW][TWVOTQ^ML perennial legume up to 2 feet tall and characteristic of pine-oak woodlands.

Dissected leaves on a hairy stem with JQKWTWZMLQZZMO]TIZTa[PIXMLÆW_MZ[ (yellow base and pink wings) in []UUMZ

The long, thin, and tough roots help ZM[Q[\LZW]OP\¹,M^QTӊ[[PWM[\ZQVOºQ[ LMZQ^MLNZWU\PMVQ\ZWOMVÅ`QVOZWW\[

Germination occurs from March to June, and fruiting occurs from July to October. Seeds can remain viable for several years.

Northern bobwhites, wild turkeys, JZW_V\PZI[PMZ[IVLÅMTLUQKMITT depend on seeds of wild legumes like OWI\ӊ[Z]MIVLXIZ\ZQLOMXMII[NITT and winter food.

Cultural Uses }ìÐăÐæķĉÐďåæď­ĴɹĮīķÐÆďĊĴ­ðĊĮĉķăĴðĨăÐĮÐÐÌĮșœìðÆìðĮåďďÌåďīÅðīÌĮ­ĊÌĮĉ­ăăĉ­ĉĉ­ăĮȘ #ķīðĊæĴìÐă­ĴÐȭĮķĉĉÐī­ĊÌЭīăřå­ăă ɭt­ĊÌřwìďĊāœðăÐīșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴS ÌīřĨÐīðďÌĮșĉďķĊĴ­ðĊĮĴīЭĉŦďœĮ­īÐ æÐĊÐī­ăăřăďœ­ĊÌÆďĊÆÐĊĴī­ĴÐťĮìðĊĨďďăĮȘ AĊÌðæÐĊďķĮĨÐďĨăÐæīďķĊÌķĨæď­ĴɹĮīķÐș FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS ďīĴìÐȵťĮìðĊæĨă­ĊĴșȶ­ĊÌÅķÆāÐřÐĊķĴĮďĊ ĨďĮĴĮȘ}ìÐĨďðĮďĊÐŘĴī­ÆĴĮșīďĴÐĊďĊЭĊÌ ­ÐĮÆķăðĊșīÐĮĨÐÆĴðŒÐăřșœďķăÌÌðĮĨÐīĮÐðĊĴìÐ FRUIT FROM FIRE MIX IT UP MK\[\PML]ZI\QWVIVL\QUQVOٺœ­ĴÐī­ĊÌĨ­ī­ăřšÐťĮìșœìðÆìœďķăÌŦď­Ĵ Fire topkills leguminous forbs but .QZMI ĴďĴìÐĮķīå­ÆÐȘ:ď­ĴɹĮīķÐăЭŒÐĮœÐīÐķĮÐÌ stimulates fruit production and WN ÆW_MZQVOQVTMO]UM[IVLW\PMZ ðĊÌÐÆďÆĴðďĊĮĴďœ­ĮìȘ encourages shoot growth from forbs, but timing varies considerably wăðŒÐīĮďåìðÆāďīřďīď­āœÐīÐĴðĨĨÐÌœðĴì dormant buds. Mid-winter and early ZMOIZLTM[[WN ÅZM1N UI`QU]UÆWZIT īďĴÐĊďĊЭĊÌķĮÐÌ­ĮÅăďœæķĊÌ­īĴĮȘtďĴÐȭ spring burning are ideal timing to diversity is a management goal, ĊďĊÐœ­ĮķĮÐÌðĊ”ďīăÌ”­īAAĴďāðăăăðÆÐðĊ promote the growth of legumes. varying burn season avoids favoring ĴīÐĊÆìÐĮȘ}ďÌ­řðĴðĮķĮÐÌ­Į­ĊðĊĮÐÆĴðÆðÌÐ ðĊìďĉÐĮ­ĊÌæ­īÌÐĊĮș­ĊÌ­ĨĨăðÐÌĴďĨðÆ­ăăř [XMKQÅK[XMKQM[WZOZW]X[>IZQI\QWV ĴďĨÐĴĮåďīŦЭ­ĊÌĴðÆāÆďĊĴīďăȘ FLOWERING enhances wildlife food availability Flowering is subdued during years over a greater period of time. _Q\PW]\ÅZMIVLJ]ZVQVOKIVLMKZMI[M the percentage of seeds that germinate QV\PMaMIZOWI\ӊ[Z]MQ[J]ZVML

73 :ďăÌÐĊīďÌ­ĊÌĉðŘÐÌìÐīÅĮðĊ­ìðæìăðæìĴÐĊŒðīďĊĉÐĊĴȘ ɭ}ďĉqďĴĴÐīťÐăÌș9ăðÆāīS Fragrant Goldenrod CHEROKEE NAME: U­ȾĴĮðřĸĮĴóĸĴ­Ċ­ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Solidago odora

LOCATION Full sun to light shade of woodlands, GROWTH FORM WXMVNWZM[\[WTLÅMTL[IVLOZI[[TIVL[ Forb SOIL Well-drained, loamy, acidic to neutral soil.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High Moderate

74 PLANTS OF PINE-OAK HEATH

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

This clonal herbaceous perennial is Over 50 goldenrod species in the composed of several smooth stems, 2 southern U.S. provide an important to 4 feet tall and rising from rhizomes source of nectar for native bees as well to form loose clumps. It has dark as moths and beetles, which draws green anise-scented leaves. predators like the praying mantis. Larval insects feed on the stem. Goldenrod reproduces by rhizomes and wind-dispersed seed. Plume-like Deer, rabbits, grouse and turkeys aMTTW_KT][\MZ[WN ÆW_MZ[JTWWUNZWU may eat the leaves, while American middle to late summer. Ramets die OWTLÅVKPM[LIZSMaMLR]VKW[IVL back to the rhizome each winter. song sparrows eat the seeds. Downy woodpeckers and chickadees forage Allelopathic chemicals in goldenrod insects from the plant. suppress competition from other plants, which creates patches.

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS RESPONSE TO FIRE MORE TO LEARN MK\[WN [MI[WVNZMY]MVKaIVLٺ- MKW^MZaNWTTW_QVOÅZMQ[^MOM\I\Q^M: via clonal spread and rapid resprout- QV\MV[Q\aWN ÅZMWVNZIOZIV\OWTLMV- ing from rhizomes and stem crowns. rod and other forbs and ferns need Spring burns favor taller growth. further research. WAITING FOR AN OPPORTUNITY Flowering declines over time if there is shade from woody stem encroach- Cultural Uses ment. Individuals can persist in a :ďăÌÐĊīďÌœ­ĮðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴĴďĴìÐìÐīďāÐÐ suppressed state storing resources for ­Į­ÆďăÌīÐĉÐÌřșÆďķæìĉÐÌðÆðĊÐș XW[\ÅZM[XZW]\QVO Ìð­ĨìďīÐĴðÆș­ĊĴðĨřīÐĴðÆș­ĊÌīÐĉÐÌřåďī ĴķÅÐīÆķăďĮðĮșĉЭĮăÐĮ­ĊÌĊÐķī­ăæð­Ș FIRE IMPROVES VIGOR }ďÌ­řșÆìÐĉðÆ­ăĮÌÐīðŒÐÌåīďĉĨă­ĊĴĮ­īÐ ­ĊðĊæīÐÌðÐĊĴðĊǡǤɦďå­ăăĨīÐĮÆīðĨĴðďĊ .WTTW_QVOÅZMKTWVITTaXZWL]KML ĉÐÌðÆ­ĴðďĊĮðĊĴìЀȘwȘ individuals are larger and likely to ÆW_MZMIZTQMZIVLXZWL]KMUWZM[MML[ #ÐĮĨðĴЭÅăďďĉďåĮðĉðă­īÆďăďī­ĊÌĴðĉðĊæ ­Įī­æœÐÐÌșæďăÌÐĊīďÌÌďÐĮĊďĴæÐĊÐī­ăăř than seedlings. Æ­ķĮÐĴìÐðĴÆìðĊæ­ĊÌĮĊÐКðĊæ­ĮĮďÆð­ĴÐÌ œðĴìì­řåÐŒÐīȘ:ďăÌÐĊīďÌĨďăăÐĊðĮĴďďìЭŒř FORBS CARRY FIRE ĴďÅÐÆ­īīðÐÌðĊĴìЭðīȘ Green summer growth is generally unlikely to ignite. Senesced, cured late-summer fall foliage will contribute \WÅZMQV\MV[Q\a\PZW]OP_QV\MZIVL into the following spring. ­ĴÐīĨðăă­īĮåÐÐÌďĊæďăÌÐĊīďÌ ăЭŒÐĮȘɭ}ďĉqďĴĴÐīťÐăÌș9ăðÆāīX

75 PLANTS OF PINE-OAK HEATH

O­ĴÐT­řĴďЭīăřLķĊÐðĮ­æďďÌĴðĉÐĴďťĊÌĴķīāÐřÅЭīÌŦďœÐīðĊæȘ ɭ}ďĉqďĴĴÐīťÐăÌș9ăðÆāīS Eastern Turkeybeard

CHEROKEE NAME: Unknown SCIENTIFIC NAME:™ÐīďĨìřăăķĉ­ĮĨìďÌÐăďðÌÐĮ

LOCATION Generally western aspects and ridge I[_MTT]ٺ[GROWTH FORM \WXXQVM_WWLTIVL[IVLJT Forb as pine heath balds. SOIL Rocky, coarse texture, well-drained acidic and infertile. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High High

76 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

This uncommon grass-like lily is in depend on soil temperature, largely the same family as trilliums. It is a as a function of disturbance, light clump-forming perennial that occurs transmission, elevation and aspect. in areas with historically frequent ÅZMIVLQ[IUWVO\PMLMÅVQ\Q^MÅZM Turkeybeard is long-lived and it may Cultural Uses adapted forbs of the Blue Ridge. be several years before an individual }ķīāÐřÅЭīÌì­ĮÅÐÐĊķĮÐÌÅřĴìÐìÐīȭ ÆW_MZ[ķĨ­șÅķīĊĴďĉ­ðĊĴ­ðĊÅЭīæī­ĮĮȘAĴðĮķĮÐÌ ÐŘĴÐĊĮðŒÐăřðĊÅ­ĮāÐĴīř­ĊÌīÐæ­ăð­­ĊÌðĮ­Ċ North American species in the genus. Eastern turkeybeard phenology ÐÌðÅăÐÌÐăðÆ­ÆřȘ ]\MKٺWestern turkeybeard is commonly OZW_\PLM^MTWXUMV\ÅZMM known as beargrass and it has been climate change response) is not ­ĮāÐĴīřðĮ­Ċ­īĴ­ĊÌ­ĉÐÌðķĉĴìīďķæì studied more extensively. well understood. It is threatened œìðÆìðÌÐĊĴðĴř­ĊÌÆķăĴķī­ăāĊďœăÐÌæЭīÐ Ĩ­ĮĮÐÌÌďœĊĴìīďķæìæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊĮȘ­ĮāÐĴĮ in Tennessee and rare in Georgia. ­īÐȵĮřĉÅďăĮďåðÌÐĊĴðĴřȶåďīå­ĉðăðÐĮ­ĊÌ Reproduction is both via sprouting Threats include development or ĴīðÅÐĮȘÅ­ĮāÐĴĮìďœÆ­ĮÐĮĴìÐĮāðăăďåĴìÐ NZWUZPQbWUM[IVLÆW_MZQVO5Ia habitat conversion to pine plantation, œÐ­ŒÐī­ĊÌďåĴÐĊĨďīĴī­řĮĴīðÅ­ăìðĮĴďīř 2]VMÆW_MZ[LWVW\XZWL]KMVMK\IZ KIVWXaKTW[]ZMÅZMM`KT][QWVIVL ­ĊÌĉřĴìďăďæřȘ but the pollen is consumed by a subsequent shrub encroachment as a ^IZQM\aWN ÆQM[KMZIUJaKQLJMM\TM[ ZM[]T\WN ÅZMM`KT][QWV and bees. Reproduction appears to

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FIRE INDICATOR WHEN IS THE BEST TIME? Turkeybeard is representative of While ideal burn season is not well MI[\MZVUWV\IVMÅZMILIX\ML understood, not burning is more natural communities. LM\ZQUMV\IT\PIVÅZMQVIVa[XMKQÅK season. Spring sprouts invariably REPRODUCTION NEEDS LIGHT follow dormant-season burns. Fire manages shrub encroachment, /ZW_QVO[MI[WVÅZMJM\\MZUIVIOM[ .IVLTMIN TQ\\MZIVL hardwoods to enhance light for forbsٺ[ZML]KM[L increases sunlight. Synchronous ÆW_MZQVOIVL[MMLXZWL]K\QWVIZM HOT FIRE...NO PROBLEM MZ[ZPQbWUM[NZWUPMI\?PQTMٺ[QOVQÅKIV\TaZML]KMLQV[PILM ;WQTJ] PQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZMKIVLIUIOM\PM FIRE ADAPTED meristematic tissue situated between Basal leaves protect the apical organic matter and mineral soil, UMZQ[\MUNZWUÅZM[QUQTIZ\WOZI[[ seedlings can germinate and establish stage longleaf pine. Roots can survive in areas with exposed mineral soil. high heat and leaves sprout within Vigorous populations can be found in Å^MUWV\P[WN PQOP[M^MZQ\aÅZM IZMI[J]ZVMLJa_QTLÅZM

wĉ­ăăĨ­ĴÆìÐĮďåĴķīāÐřÅЭīÌÆ­ĊĮķīŒðŒÐșÅķĴ æīďœĴì­ĊÌŦďœÐīðĊæðĮæīЭĴăřīÐÌķÆÐÌ­Į ĮìīķÅĮÐĊÆīď­ÆìȘ ɭ'īðÆ€ĊæÅÐīæșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴW

77 ECOLOGICAL ZONE wìďīĴăЭå qðĊÐȭZ­ā

RESTORATION-FIRE MAINTENANCE-FIRE ECOZONE FREQUENCY FREQUENCY

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN LOW-ELEVATION 2-3 3-5 YEARS YEARS PINE

EXTENT SOIL 626,000 acres Well-drained, acidic and low to moderate fertility. ELEVATION :ī­ĮĮīÐĮĨďĊĮÐåďăăďœðĊæĴìðĊĊðĊæ­ĊÌÅķīĊðĊæ ðĊwìďīĴăЭåqðĊÐȭZ­āȘ9ďďĴìðăăĮ”ðăÌăðåÐ Below 2,400 feet NATURAL DISTURBANCE T­Ċ­æÐĉÐĊĴīЭș}ÐĊĊÐĮĮÐÐȘS ?QVLQKMNZMY]MV\ÅZMIVLKW LANDFORM occurrence of drought. Lower, middle and upper convex slopes, exposed or sheltered; low hills EMBEDDED COMMUNITIES TW_MTM^I\QWVOZIVQ\QK]ٺand ridges. ;XZIaKTQ domes, seeps, bogs and fens, CONTEXT canebrakes, and glades.

Blends with acidic and rich cove, Dry and Dry-Mesic Oak, Pine-Oak 0MI\PIVLITT]^QITÆWWLXTIQV

78 wìďīĴăЭåqðĊÐȯZ­āÆ­Ċă­īæÐăř ÅÐåďķĊÌĴìīďķæìďķĴĴìÐăķÐ tðÌæÐșÅķĴĴďĴìÐæīЭĴÐĮĴÐŘĴÐĊĴ ðĊĴìÐÐĮÆ­īĨĉÐĊĴă­ĊÌĮÆ­ĨÐĮ ȧ:Ðďīæð­șwďķĴìÐīĊ­ĊÌÐĊĴī­ă ăķÐtðÌæÐȨ­ĊÌœÐĮĴÐīĊĮăďĨÐĮ ďå:īЭĴwĉďāř€Ċ­ā­TďķĊĴ­ðĊĮ ă­ĊÌĮÆ­ĨÐȘX

79 ECOLOGY 17% SHRUBS

SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK COMPOSITION The understory is composed of various forbs characteristic of dry sites with grasses, mountain laurel and blueberry in the understory. Shortleaf Pine-Oak sites are conducive to agriculture and timber management, so land-use history PI[QVÆ]MVKML\PMKWUXW[Q\QWVWN UW[\[Q\M[

=VLMZ[\WZa[\Z]K\]ZMOZMI\TaQVÆ]MVKM[\PMJQZL[XMKQM[ present. Since 1970, no bird guild in North America has experienced a greater decline (53%) than grassland birds L]MQVXIZ\\WÅZMM`KT][QWVIVLTW[[WN VM[\QVOIVLNWZIOQVO habitat; 74% of grassland birds are declining. The range of red-cockaded woodpeckers once included the Blue Ridge, but it has not been seen there since the 1970s. Northern bobwhite have nearly disappeared from the mountains in large part due to the loss of brood-rearing and nesting habitat in open pine woodlands; historical presence suggests an open landscape of diverse forbs and grasses with patches of shrubs and bare ground.

-I[\MZV_PQXXWWZ_QTTIVLKP]KS_QTTӊ[_QLW_PI^M declined precipitously since 1960. Both species prefer open ground for nesting and uncluttered forest to provide KQMV\NWZIOQVONWZUW\P[IVLJMM\TM[;QUQTIZTaٻNWZM an open midstory under mature pines and hardwoods \KQMVٻXZW^QLM[PWIZaJI\[IVLW\PMZTIZOMJWLQMLJI\[M maneuverability. Both species richness and density of [UITTUIUUIT[IVL[WVOJQZL[IZMOZMI\MZQVUI\]ZMÅZM maintained shortleaf woodlands, compared with closed- canopy forest.

Beetle outbreaks and mortality events are likely more widespread than what occurred historically. Trees stressed NZWUKWUXM\Q\QWVQVÅZMM`KT]LMLNWZM[\IVLW^MZ[\WKSML wìďīĴăЭåqðĊÐȭZ­ā œďďÌă­ĊÌĮ­īÐŒÐīř pine plantations are vulnerable to drought, pests and disease. ī­īÐðĊĴìÐăķÐ tðÌæÐȘqðĊÐTďķĊĴ­ðĊș wķĉĴÐīU­ĴðďĊ­ă 9ďīÐĮĴșwďķĴì ­īďăðĊ­ȘX

80 CULTURAL IMPORTANCE

Q\]I\MLIJW^MZQ^MZÆWWLXTIQV[VMIZPQ[\WZQKIT Indigenous burning promoted disturbance-dependent]]ٺ[T* villages are largely shortleaf and white oak, which would XTIV\[NWZNWWLIVLW\PMZ][M[

81 CONSERVATION CHALLENGES VANISHING WOODLANDS FIRE RECEPTIVITY DECLINING Prior to European settlement, pure and mixed shortleaf Leaves of the common mesophytic trees absorb and hold forests covered 70 to 80 million acres of the South, but only more moisture and require longer to dry and become 6 million acres, or about 10%, remain. available to burn. Minimal sunlight and diminished air ÆW__Q\PQVLMV[MNWZM[\N]Z\PMZQVPQJQ\[QOVQ\IJQTQ\a\PMZMJa DENSE WOODY VEGETATION limiting the number of burn days. 0QOP[\MULMV[Q\aQ[KPIZIK\MZQ[\QKWN ÅZMM`KT]LML[Q\M[ with white pine, Virginia pine and red maple in all layers NO REFERENCES — NOVEL FIRE and extensive shrubs; relict small patches of sun-loving The Blue Ridge contains very few high-quality sites where grasses, legumes, asters and other pollinator-friendly forbs an open canopy and understory have been maintained with are scattered and relegated to mowed rights of way. frequent burning. Departure from the historic vegetation

OUT OF WHACK Models suggest that currently more than 90% of Shortleaf Pine-Oak is closed canopy forest and historically just 3% was closed canopy.

wķĊȭăďŒðĊæĨă­ĊĴĮ­īÐă­īæÐăř­ÅĮÐĊĴķĊÌÐī­ÆăďĮÐÌÆ­ĊďĨřȘS

82 [\Z]K\]ZMIVLKWUXW[Q\QWVPI[IT\MZMLM`XMK\MLÅZM IQZÆW_QVLMV[M[\IVL[KIVITTW_JMM\TM[\WLM\MK\W\PMZ JMPI^QWZ?PMZMÅZMQ[QVNZMY]MV\TQ^MIVLLMIL^MOM\I\QWV feeding beetles, which facilitates spread. However, better IKK]U]TI\MIVLLZW]OP\QVL]KML_QTLÅZMKIVZM[]T\QV ZM[QVÆW_PI[JMMVWJ[MZ^MLQV\PM^QOWZW][\ZMM[_Q\PQV [QOVQÅKIV\UWZITQ\aWN ^IT]IJTMUI\]ZM\ZMM[ appropriately stocked stands, which helps trees expel beetles and lessen the likelihood of stand mortality. PINE BEETLES Outbreaks in the 1990s decimated large swaths of PATIENCE shortleaf across the range. Beetle defense and stand 5IVaKaKTM[WN ÅZMPI^MJMMVUQ[[ML:M[\WZI\QWV resilience are often compromised in overstocked stands. M[XMKQITTa][QVOÅZMITWVM_QTTZMY]QZMU]T\QXTMJ]ZV[ MK\[WN UQTL_QV\MZ[LZW]OP\QKMIVL to transition from closed to open structure and speciesٺPMKWUXW]VLQVOM> wind events are exacerbated in such stands. Diminished composition characteristic of open forest or woodland.

FREQUENT FIRE Fire is needed in shortleaf pine oak once M^MZa\PZMM\WÅ^MaMIZ[ to maintain adequate sunlight that promotes ground cover diversity and pine regeneration.

ZĨÐĊÆ­ĊďĨřș­ÅķĊÌ­ĊĴăðæìĴșì­īÌœďďÌĴīÐÐīÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊ­ĊÌìÐīÅæīďķĊÌÆďŒÐīȘwķĉĴÐīU­ĴðďĊ­ă9ďīÐĮĴșwďķĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘS

83 OďœȭðĊĴÐĊĮðĴřșœðĊĴÐīÅķīĊðĊæÆ­ĊìÐăĨīÐÌķÆÐåķÐăĮÅÐåďīÐ ìðæìÐīðĊĴÐĊĮðĴřșæīďœðĊæȭĮЭĮďĊÅķīĊðĊæÆ­ĊÅÐðĊÆďīĨďī­ĴÐÌ ĴďīÐĮĴďīÐæīďķĊÌÆďŒÐī­ĊÌðĉĨīďŒÐÆďĊÌðĴðďĊĮåďīĮìďīĴăЭå īÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊȘwķĉĴÐīU­ĴðďĊ­ă9ďīÐĮĴșwďķĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘS FIRE MANAGEMENT OPENING UP WITH FIRE AND CUTTING CONDUCIVE TO THINNING Restore open conditions by removing plantation pines and The terrain where Shortleaf Pine-Oak often occurs is ZMM[\IJTQ[PQVONZMY]MV\UQ`ML[M^MZQ\aÅZMIKZW[[^IZaQVO gentler, so sites are generally accessible relative to Blue seasons. Herbaceous ground cover responds favorably to Ridge topography. Mechanical stand improvement can stand improvements that allow sunlight to penetrate the JMXZWÅ\IJTMIVL[PWZ\TMIN KIVJMJ]ZVMLNZMY]MV\Ta\W KIVWXa:MK]ZZMV\ÅZM[\MILQTaZML]KM[_WWLa[\MULMV[Q\a promote forbs integral to breeding and brood-rearing over time and maintains high ground cover productivity habitat for northern bobwhite and songbirds that require _Q\POWTLMVJIVVMZI[\MZ[KWVMÆW_MZ[TQ\\TMJT]M[\MU similar vegetation structure. TM[XMLMbI[]VÆW_MZ[IVLTMO]UM[ MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE SUNLIGHT AND WILDLIFE Midstory mastication can cost anywhere from $300 to A variety of plants enhances pollinator habitat, deer $1,400 per acre and may be feasible for up to a 45% browse, and attracts small mammals and their predators. slope. A small saw crew can greatly improve the light :MK]ZZQVONZMY]MV\ÅZMUIQV\IQV[PIJQ\I\NWZOZI[[TIVL MV^QZWVUMV\NWZ]X\WIJW]\Å^MIKZM[WN NWZM[\I\\PMKW[\ birds, in addition to mid- and late-successional species. of around $3,000 per day. 1VKZMI[MLI^IQTIJTMVQ\ZWOMVNWTTW_QVOÅZMWN\MV[\QU]TI\M[ IÆ][PWN NWZJ[IVLOZI[[M[M^MV]VLMZKTW[MLKIVWXa# FREQUENCY long-term maintenance of diverse herb ground cover 7VMTW_QV\MV[Q\aZM[\WZI\QWVJ]ZVNWTTW_QVOM`\MVLMLÅZM will be limited unless at least 20% to 30% of full sunlight exclusion often does little to reduce the shrub and sapling reaches the ground. competition. A minor increase in light should be expected.

84 ÅķĊÌ­ĊĴĮìďīĴăЭåĮÐÐÌăðĊæĮ ķĊÌÐīĉ­ĴķīÐĴīÐЭĊÌåķăăĮķĊȘ ZĊÐÅķīĊÐŒÐīřĴìīÐÐĴďťŒÐřЭīĮȘ tðŦÐt­ĊæÐșwķĉĴÐīU­ĴðďĊ­ă 9ďīÐĮĴșwďķĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘW

Shortleaf seedling establishment is improved by burning Two or more winter burns may be needed to reduce heavy once every three to four years. Annual and biennial burning N]MTTWIL[QVÅZMM`KT]LML[Q\M[UWZMWZTM[[LMXMVLQVOWV favors grasses over forbs and generally results in fewer the fuel consumption of burns. []Z^Q^QVO[MMLTQVO[)J]ZVQVOPQI\][WN WVMÅZMW^MZMQOP\ to 12 years may be necessary, if management goals are to If relatively frequent and repeated, spring and summer MK\Q^MNWZUIVIOQVO[PZ]JIVLٺincrease seedling survival and/or overstory recruitment. J]ZV[PI^MJMMVM hardwood sprouting. Carbohydrate reserves in the roots of INTENSITY woody plants decrease during active growth, from spring Fuel moisture, composition and arrangement determine to midsummer; then recover until the following spring. ÅZMQV\MV[Q\aITWVO_Q\P_MI\PMZIVL\WXWOZIXPa,]ZQVOI ;XZW]\QVOIN\MZOZW_QVO[MI[WVÅZMQ[WN\MVTM[[^QOWZW][ burn, the ignition strategy is the only variable that can be because there are fewer available resources. ILR][\ML\WIT\MZ\PMÅZMQV\MV[Q\aNWZLM[QZMLWJRMK\Q^M[ In spring, consideration is given to the potential for rapid JMKI][M\ZIV[XQZI\QWVQ[PQOP#ÅVMZWW\[KIVٺ[UI\]ZM[PWZ\TMIN XQVMQ[I\TMI[\I[ÅZMZM[Q[\IV\I[I LZaQVOWN L( longleaf. Pitch pine is also highly resistant, so frequent be killed by high heat and result in tree death. Fine roots UWLMZI\M\WPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZMQV_QTTNI^WZ[PWZ\TMIN IVL generally grow farther down through mineral soil during XQ\KPXQVMW^MZWIS[4W_MZQV\MV[Q\aJ]ZVQVOÆIUMTMVO\P[ \PM[]UUMZLZaXMZQWL[

+IVWXaWXMVQVO[KZMI\MLJaPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZMIZMUWZM Historically, open forests and woodlands would have likely to occur on dry, sun- and wind-exposed sites. Dense facilitated fuel drying. But modern Appalachian forest XQVMZMOMVMZI\QWVWN\MVZM[]T\[NZWUPW\\MZÅZM[ conditions of closed canopy and dense evergreen shrubs limit ignitability and the intensity of spring and summer SEASONALITY burns. Slow-drying fuels lead to fewer burn days per year, MK\WV\PMOZW_\PWZUWZ\ITQ\a and the shade from dense woody vegetation diminishes theٺMI[WVIT\QUQVOPI[TM[[M; of yellow pines and overall vegetation structure, compared TQSMTQPWWLWN WJ\IQVQVOLM[QZMLÅZMJMPI^QWZ\PZW]OPW]\ with the frequency of burning. Burning every three to the year. Å^MaMIZ[^IZaQVOQV\MV[Q\aIVL\QUQVOUIQV\IQV[[]Q\IJTM conditions for shortleaf and herb ground cover.

85 wìďīĴăЭåÆì­ī­ÆĴÐīðĮĴðÆĮȚĮìďīĴĊÐÐÌăÐĮǢĴď ǤðĊÆìÐĮăďĊæðĊÅķĊÌăÐĮďåĴœďďīĴìīÐÐțĴìðÆāș īÐÌÌðĮìȭÅīďœĊșĨă­ĴřÅ­īāœðĴìīÐĮðĊĨďÆāÐĴĮ­ĊÌ Įĉ­ăăÆďĊÐĮĴì­Ĵĉ­ĴķīÐðĊĴìÐĮÐÆďĊÌřЭīȘS

PLANTS OF Shortleaf Pine-Oak

KM[]Z^Ma[LM[KZQJMXQVMLWUQVI\MLIVLٻIZTa[M\\TMZ[IVLOW^MZVUMV\TIVLW- UQ`MLXQVMWISNWZM[\[I[WXMV_WWLTIVL[_PMZM[]VTQOP\ZMIKPML\PMOZW]VL IVLILQ^MZ[MI[[WZ\UMV\WN VI\Q^M_QTLTQNMÆW]ZQ[PML

— The Shortleaf Pine Restoration Initiative

86 Shortleaf Pine CHEROKEE NAME: U­ĴĮóȾ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Pinus echinata

LOCATION Dry, rolling hills below 2,500 feet elevation; preference for south- and GROWTH FORM west-facing slopes. Tree SOIL Deep, well-drained, coarse to loam texture is best, but widely variable; tolerant of wet environments. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High High

87 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

This slow-growing conifer can reach 130 feet tall and 36 inches in diameter. Fossilized charcoal and pollen supports co-evolution of [PWZ\TMIN _Q\PUQ`ML[M^MZQ\aÅZM once every two to 18 years.

Shortleaf has the broadest range of the southern pines, but pure stands are not nearly as common as those codominated by oaks and pines.

Early foresters recorded old-growth shortleaf stands with various age classes and numerous canopy gaps. )ZMI[_Q\POZMI\MZÅZMNZMY]MVKaPIL fewer trees and were more open.

A few months after germination, :M[QVW][VMMLTM[NIKQTQ\I\MÅZM Suitable sites for shortleaf have been shortleaf and pitch pine form “J”- [XZMILIVL\PMUIQV\MVIVKMWN ÅZM TW[\\WLM^MTWXUMV\ÅZMM`KT][QWV shaped crooks just below ground. adapted ecosystems. Thick, platy conversion to loblolly plantation, and Dormant buds are protected from bark insulates the cambium from pine beetle and disease outbreaks in ÆIUM[_PQKPITTW_[ZIXQL[XZW]\QVO ÅZM;PWZ\TMIN KWVM[IZM\aXQKITTaVW\ poorly managed stands. IN\MZÅZM;XZW]\QVOZMK]Z[]V\QTQ\ produced until the tree is 20 years reaches 8 inches in diameter or about old. Abundant seed in autumn can Shortleaf in appropriately managed 30 years old. disperse about 150 feet. stands are better able to repel pests;

88 PLANTS OF SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK

Cultural Uses

wìďīĴăЭåðĮ­īÐĮðĊďķĮì­īÌĨðĊÐȘ}ìÐ ĮĴīďĊæșĮĴī­ðæìĴȭæī­ðĊÐÌœďďÌœ­Į ðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴĴďAĊÌðæÐĊďķĮĨÐďĨăÐåďīÆ­ĊďÐ ­ĊÌìďĉÐÆďĊĮĴīķÆĴðďĊ­ĮœÐăă­ĮÆ­īŒðĊæ œďďÌȘ}ķīĨÐĊĴðĊÐœ­ĮķĮÐÌ­Į­œďķĊÌ ďðĊĴĉÐĊĴ­ĊÌīðÆìȵĨðĊÐāĊďĴĮȶœÐīÐķĮÐÌ ­ĮĴďīÆìÐĮȘ}ķīĨÐĊĴðĊÐœ­Įă­ĴÐīķĮÐÌĴď ĮЭăīďďåĮďåìďĉÐĮ­ĊÌœ­ĴÐīĨīďďåĮìðĨĮ ­ĊÌīďĨÐĮș­ĮĨðĊÐĮœÐīÐðĊĴÐæī­ăĴďЭīăř 'ķīďĨЭĊĮÐĴĴăÐĉÐĊĴȘ

řĴìÐǠǦǦǟĮșĊ­Œ­ăĮĴďīÐĮȧĨīďÌķÆĴĮÌÐīðŒÐÌ åīďĉĨðĊÐīÐĮðĊȨœÐīÐUďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȸĮĉďĮĴ ðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴðĊÌķĮĴīř­ĊÌīÐĮĨďĊĮðÅăÐåďī ǦǟɦďåĴìÐĴ­ī­ĊÌǤǟɦďåĴìÐĴķīĨÐĊĴðĊÐ ÐŘĨďīĴÐÌåīďĉUďīĴìĉÐīðÆ­Ș}ďÌ­řșĴìÐ Ĩīðĉ­īřķĮÐďåĮìďīĴăЭåðĮðĊăďæìďĉÐ ÆďĊĮĴīķÆĴðďĊȘ

šďķĊæĮìďīĴăЭåÐĊÌķīÐåīÐĪķÐĊĴ ťīÐșĮďăðæìĴȭăďŒðĊæìÐīÅæīďķĊÌ ÆďŒÐīðĮĉ­ðĊĴ­ðĊÐÌȘ ɭ}ďÅř:ī­řW

ZM[Q[\_QTLÅZMQKMIVL_QVLLIUIOM# Patches of bare ground in herbaceous IVLMVL]ZMLZW]OP\IVLÆWWLQVO vegetation make seed available to No wildlife species require shortleaf JQZL[/ZW]VLVM[\QVOJMM[JMVMÅ\ XQVM[XMKQÅKITTaJ]\UIVa_QTLTQNM from the close proximity of nesting species depend on pines. An open tree and foraging habitat. Open ground canopy with herb-dominated ground PMI\[]XÅZ[\QV\PMUWZVQVOIVL cover, meets habitat requirements for provides warming areas for lizards several breeding birds. and snakes.

89 PLANTS OF SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS SUNLIGHT: THE LIMITING FACTOR FIRE-EXCLUDED SITES IKK]U]TI\MLNZWUÅZMM`KT][QWVٺ[, Young shortleaf trees have ended up surviving up to 50 years shaded by a can smolder under dry conditions — KIVJMٺ[KTW[MLKIVWXaJ]\_Q\PW]\ÅZMIVL ZWW\[IVKPWZMLQV\W\PML sunlight they cannot compete with killed, as can the cambium near the shade-tolerant hardwoods. Anything root collar. less than 50% full sunlight is generally inadequate for seedling growth and VULNERABLE TO BEETLES development. Sites that support con- Shortleaf pine is susceptible to pine tinuous recruitment have abundant bark beetle infestation. Stressors TQOP\UIQV\IQVML_Q\PÅZMLZa[WQT QVKT]LMÅZMM`KT][QWVIVLKWV[MY]MV\ scattered shrubs and copious grasses competition in dense forest, and and forbs. drought predisposes forests to infestations that can result in stand- MINERAL SOIL level mortality. Fire exposes bare ground critical for pine seedling establishment. Good STARTING OVER survival results with sunlight and 2 to If shortleaf establishment is a goal PMZILQKTMWN IXQVM in a site where few mature shortleaf\#ٺ[QVKPM[WN L [MMLKIVVW\QVÅT\ZI\MLMMXTQ\\MZ\W exist, a hot burn about six months mineral soil. after tree removal consumes slash, exposes soil and topkills hardwood HOW OFTEN? HOW HOT? sprouts to provide a good conditions To restore and maintain diverse for planted trees. Young shortleaf can herbaceous vegetation under mature resprout several times after topkill [PWZ\TMIN\PMÅZMZM\]ZVQV\MZ^IT JaÅZMIVLI\ZMMVMMLWVTaJM should be at least one burn every QVKPM[QVLQIUM\MZ\W[]Z^Q^MÅZM \PZMM\WÅ^MaMIZ[5WLMZI\M\W and topkill is often minimal for trees PQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZMUIaJMVMMLML\W over 3 inches in diameter. Once a topkill larger hardwoods. Shortleaf stem reaches four inches in diameter, KIVMVL]ZMPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZM#Q\Q[ sprouting potential begins to decline. less susceptible to wounding than )PQI\][NZWUÅZMNWZMQOP\\WaMIZ[ longleaf pine. may be warranted for recruitment, but may be necessary only once every THE TOOLBOX 150 years. Management goals to expedite restoration of open conditions and YOUNG SHORTLEAF encourage regeneration for shortleaf- Fire topkills most shortleaf seedlings, pitch-oak sites often require canopy- but survival is good even if the crown thinning basal area to around 60 is scorched. Repeated topkill can square feet per acre. Retaining oak prevent maturation to sapling stage. IVLPQKSWZaJMVMÅ\[_QTLTQNMIVL\PM Improved survival of one- to three- TQ\\MZNIKQTQ\I\M[ÅZM[XZMIL0MZJQKQLM year-old seedlings has been observed application to undesirable trees is after spring and late-summer burns, helpful for expediting restoration of a compared with mid-summer. good light environment.

90 wĉďāÐĨīďÌķÆĴðďĊåīďĉťīĮĴȭÐĊĴīřÅķīĊĮðĊăďĊæťīÐȭÐŘÆăķÌÐÌĮðĴÐĮðĮ­ĊðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴÆďĊĮðÌÐī­ĴðďĊȘĴĉďĮĴșĮĉďāÐÆ­ĊăðĊæÐīďĊÐĴďĴœďÌ­řĮåďăăďœðĊæș ÅķĴÐĉðĮĮðďĊĮÌÐÆīЭĮÐďŒÐīĮķÆÆÐĮĮðŒÐÅķīĊĮȘ”ìÐīЭĮœðăÌťīÐĮÆ­ĊÅķīĊåďīœÐÐāĮďīĉďĊĴìĮ­ĊÌì­ŒÐĮÐīðďķĮðĉĨăðÆ­ĴðďĊĮåďīìķĉ­ĊìЭăĴìȘ }­ăăķă­ì:ďīæÐwĴ­ĴÐq­īāș:Ðďīæð­ȘS

91 ĴăЭĮĴǤǟɦďååķăăĮķĊðĮīÐĪķðīÐÌåďīĉ­ŘðĉķĉÅÐīīřĨīďÌķÆĴðďĊȘS Hillside Blueberry & Hairy Blueberry CHEROKEE NAME: Nķœ®ř­Ⱦ CHEROKEE NAME: Nķœ®ř­Ⱦ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Vaccinium pallidum SCIENTIFIC NAME: Vaccinium hirsutum

LOCATION Wide variety of elevation, solar GROWTH FORM exposure and water availability. Shrub SOIL Widely tolerant but commonly shallow, acidic and well-drained.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High Moderate

92 PLANTS OF SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

Ericaceous shrubs of hillside blue- Blueberry plants reproduce by seed, buds begin growing. Black bear repro- berry are widespread throughout but clonal expansion via rhizomes is L]K\QWVQ[QVÆ]MVKMLJaJMZZaKZWX[# MLOZW][MVWZ\PMZVJWJ_PQ\Mٺ[eastern pine and dry oak woods. the primary mode of regeneration, Z Hairy blueberry is endemic to the especially in the absence of distur- black-capped chickadees, red foxes, Southern Blue Ridge. bance. Individuals sprout from the red-backed voles, skunks and mice base of burned (or unburned) stems. consume berries; and rabbits and deer Hillside blueberry grows up to around browse the leaves. 21 inches in height; hairy blueberry Flowers were historically pollinated UIaZMIKP QVKPM[;PITTW_ÅJZW][ by wild bumble bees (*WUJ][) and Additional blueberry species of the roots form extensive colonies to max- mining bees (Andrena). European hon- Southern Blue Ridge include: southern imize water absorption. The taproot eybees (Apis) are most common today, mountain cranberry (V. erythrocarpum), MK\Q^MI\ deerberry (V. stamineum), highbushٺcan be 3 feet below ground. J]\IJW]\NW]Z\QUM[TM[[M pollination than wild bees. blueberry (>KWZaUJW[]U), mountain Blueberries are pioneer plants that highbush blueberry (V. simulatum) and establish after major disturbance but .Z]Q\XZWL]K\QWVQ[QVÆ]MVKMLJa[]V- southern blueberry (V. tenellum). persist through late-successional stages light, weather, pollinator availability, of forests and woodlands. genetics and available nutrients when

Cultural Uses

īďĨÌðŒÐīĮðĴřœ­ĮðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴĴďAĊÌðæÐĊďķĮ ­æī­īð­ĊĮďÆðÐĴřȘŒ­īðÐĴřďåĮìīķÅĮ ­ĊÌåďīÅĮå­ÆðăðĴ­ĴÐÌÆīďĮĮȭĨďăăðĊ­ĴðďĊ ÅÐĴœÐÐĊÆķăĴðŒ­ĴÐÌ­ĊÌðÌăÐťÐăÌĮ­ĊÌ æ­īÌÐĊĮȘÌðŒÐīĮÐÅăÐĊÌďåĨă­ĊĴĮœðĴì ÆďĉĨăÐĉÐĊĴ­īřŦďœÐīðĊæĴðĉÐĮĨīďĉďĴÐĮ ­ÌðŒÐīĮðĴřďåÅÐĊÐťÆð­ăðĊĮÐÆĴĮ­ĊÌ ÐĊì­ĊÆÐĮåīķðĴĨīďÌķÆĴðďĊȘ

wķĊȭÌīðÐÌÅăķÐÅÐīīðÐĮœÐīÐķĮÐÌðĊÅīЭÌ ­ĊÌŒ­īðďķĮĮĴÐœĮȘOЭŒÐĮșĮĴÐĉĮșŦďœÐīĮ ­ĊÌīďďĴĮì­ÌĉÐÌðÆðĊ­ăķĮÐĮ­ĊÌœÐīÐ ĮĴÐÐĨÐÌåďīĴЭȘĨĨăðÆ­ĴðďĊĮðĊÆăķÌÐÌ ÅăďďÌĨķīðťÆ­ĴðďĊșĴīЭĴðĊæðĊå­ĊĴÆďăðÆ­ĊÌ ðĊÌķÆðĊæă­ÅďīȘ

}ďĨāðăăÅřťīÐďīÆķĴĴðĊæ ĮĴðĉķă­ĴÐĮŒðæďīďķĮĮĨīďķĴðĊæ­Į ÐŘĨ­ĊĮðŒÐīďďĴĮřĮĴÐĉĮ­ăăďÆ­ĴÐ ­ÅķĊÌ­ĊĴÅÐăďœæīďķĊÌīÐĮďķīÆÐĮ ĴďĮĴÐĉæīďœĴìȘW

93 PLANTS OF SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FIRE ADAPTED INTENSITY SPRING BURNING >IKKQVQ]U[IZM_MTTILIX\ML\WÅZM 4W_\WUWLMZI\MQV\MV[Q\aÅZM Long-term, repeated burning +TWVM[IZMZMR]^MVI\MLJaÅZMIVL enhances fruit production with little promotes blueberry, regardless of following topkill, plants will readily mortality. High-intensity summer season. Native Appalachians burned regenerate from rhizomes and ÅZM_PM\PMZXZM[KZQJMLJ]ZVQVOWZ in the late winter or early spring to root crowns. Young, healthy plants LZW]OP\QVL]KML_QTLÅZMTQUQ\[NZ]Q\ promote soft mast. Greater coverage _M`XW[ML IVLUWZM[XZW]\[IVLÆW_MZ[NWTTWٺ[regenerate more successfully than XZWL]K\QWV:PQbWUM[QVL older plants. to high heat produce shoots, but [XZQVOÅZMKWUXIZML_Q\P_QV\MZIVL mortality increases with depth of heat summer burning. penetration into the soil.

94 OďœÅķĮì­ĊÌďĴìÐīÅăķÐÅÐīīřĮĨÐÆðÐĮĴìīðŒÐðĊì­īĮì ÐĊŒðīďĊĉÐĊĴĮȘɭUðÆìďă­ĮȘ}ďĊÐăăðș9ăðÆāīS

FREQUENT FIRE LEAVES AND SUNLIGHT NEW PLANTS FIND GAPS Annual burning limits the number .ZM[PTMIN OZW_\PNWTTW_QVOÅZM Timber removal or thinning can of plants and inhibits fruiting. For is high in nitrogen and phosphorus, result in vigorous expansion of maximum berry production, commer- and thus more nutritious for browsers. blueberry into open areas. Survival cial growers burn in late winter every Fruit growth is determined by the improves if plants grow and increase other year. New growth is stimulated daily production of carbohydrates by in vigor before burning. from dormant buds on the rhizome in leaves. For optimum fruit production the months that follow, and peak ber- and growth, greater than 50% of full ry production comes the next growing sun is required. season, then declines over time.

95 ”ðĊÌȭÌðĮĨÐīĮÐÌĮÐÐÌ­ăăďœĮÆďăďĊðš­ĴðďĊďåÅķīĊÐÌ­īЭȘ ɭLďĮìķ­T­řÐīș9ăðÆāīS Little Bluestem CHEROKEE NAME: Kanéska (grasses) SCIENTIFIC NAME: wÆìðš­ÆìřīðķĉĮÆďĨ­īðķĉ

LOCATION GROWTH FORM Wide variety of sites exposed to full sun. Grass SOIL Wide variety, but best growth on acidic, well-drained and infertile.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS High High

96 PLANTS OF SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

The tufted, warm-season perennial grass grows up to 2 feet tall; blue-green leaves turn to a rust color in autumn.

Growth begins in late spring. Length IVLKWTWZWN TMI^M[ÆW_MZQVOIVL clump diameter vary widely.

Little bluestem can be a dominant understory species in open pine forest and woodlands, and it may occur from early to late-successional stages if sunlight remains plentiful.

Wind can disperse seeds 5 to 6 feet, and best germination occurs when they deposit on mineral soil. Seed- bank persistence is uncertain.

The root system of little bluestem is LMMXIVLÅJZW][6I\Q^MOZI[[M[KIV root down to 5 feet and below-ground biomass can be twice that above ground. Ecosystem services include NIKQTQ\I\QVO_I\MZQVÅT\ZI\QWVIVL UQ\QOI\QVOÆWWLQVOIVLMZW[QWV

ăķÐĮĴÐĉðĮďåĴÐĊåďķĊÌðĊŒÐīřÌīřșĊķĴīðÐĊĴȭĨďďīĮðĴÐĮȘɭq­ĴīðÆāăÐŘ­ĊÌÐīș9ăðÆāīS Bluestem is among the plants grassland birds prefer for nesting: Small mammals and game birds consume seeds. Grazers prefer FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS early spring growth, but palatability decreases as the grasses cure. BURN TOO OFTEN? EARLY GROWING SEASON Little bluestem can tolerate annual While winter burning helps maintain burning. Fire enhances available light open conditions, optimal timing is in and increases soil temperature as \PM[XZQVO\WJWT[\MZÆW_MZQVOIVL Cultural Uses well as available nitrogen to improve productivity. Mid- to late-summer growth rate. ÅZM[UIaSQTTXTIV\[QN LZW]OP\XZMKQX- }ìÐìÐīďāÐÐķĮÐÌæī­ĮĮÐĮ­ĊÌÅăķÐĮĴÐĉ ĮœðĴÆìÐĮðĊÆÐīÐĉďĊð­ăĮœÐ­ĴăďÌæÐĮȘ#īðÐÌ Q\I\M[QV\MV[MÅZM\PI\KWV[]UM[\PM ăЭŒÐĮ­ĊÌĮĴÐĉĮœÐīЭăĮďīķÅÅÐÌðĊĴďĮďåĴ FULL SUN crowns and injures basal buds and ťÅÐīåďīăðĊðĊæĉďÆÆ­ĮðĊĮ­ĊÌðĊĮķă­ĴðďĊȘ Succession rapidly reduces understory meristems just below the soil surface. light. Bluestem declines in the absence WN ÅZMIVL_QTT^IVQ[PNZWUITTJ]\ CLUMPS OFFER PROTECTION mowed areas and rights of way if Bunch grasses form tussocks that resist more than 10 years elapses between UWLMZI\MOZW]VLÅZMIVLXZW\MK\\PM ÅZMWZLQ[\]ZJIVKM base of the clumps.

97 PLANTS OF SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK

ŦďœÐī­ĨĨЭīĮ­ĮĮĉ­ăăœìðĴÐșĨðĊāďīĨķīĨăÐĴķÅÐœðĴìĴìīÐÐĮÐĨ­ăĮåīďĉT­řĴďLķăřȘ ɭ”ðăăð­ĉTďřÐș9ăðÆāīS Appalachian Small Spreading Pogonia CHEROKEE NAME: Unknown SCIENTIFIC NAME: Cleistesiopsis bifaria

LOCATION Seasonally wet open bogs and GROWTH FORM meadows within pine and oak Other forest; rocky pine oak heath. SOIL Wet-dry, acidic, well-drained.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Moderate Moderate

98 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

It features a large network of tough ÅJZW][ZWW\[IVLI[QVOTMVIZZW_ PM\ٺTIVKMWTI\MTMIN \PI\KWUM[W upper half of the stem, topped by WVMTIZOMÆW_MZ

Bumble bee (*WUJ][) species are I\\ZIK\ML\W\PMaMTTW_WV\PMÆW_MZ J]\Q\Q[IUQUQKWN XWTTMV

Cultural Uses

}ìðĮĮĨÐÆðÐĮÆďĊĴīðÅķĴÐĮĴďăķÐtðÌæÐ ÅðďÌðŒÐīĮðĴř­ĊÌĨīďŒðÌÐĮÐÆďĮřĮĴÐĉ ĮÐīŒðÆÐĮȘwďķĴìÐīĊĨĨ­ă­Æìð­ĊÅďæĮ쭌РÌÐÆăðĊÐÌÅřǨǟɦȘtÐĉĊ­ĊĴĮďåĴìÐĮÐķĊðĪķÐ ÆďĉĉķĊðĴðÐĮ­īÐĮďĉÐĴðĉÐĮÐĉÅÐÌÌÐÌ œðĴìðĊťīÐȭ­Ì­ĨĴÐÌÐÆďšďĊÐĮȘ€ĊðĪķÐĨă­ĊĴ }ìīЭĴĮðĊÆăķÌÐÆďăăÐÆĴðďĊșì­ÅðĴ­ĴăďĮĮȧťīÐÐŘÆăķĮðďĊȨ­ĊÌ ­ĮĮÐĉÅă­æÐĮ­īðĮÐœðĴìĮĨÐÆðÐĮ­Ì­ĨĴÐÌĴď ďŒÐīÅīďœĮðĊæȘɭīķÆÐtďÅÐīĴĮS œÐĴĮďðăĮÅķĴīÐĪķðīðĊæÌðĮĴķīÅ­ĊÆÐȘ

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

RESEARCH NEEDED LOCAL MANAGEMENT OBSERVATIONS responds to spring burning with MK\[WN ÅZM[MI[WVQV\MV[Q\aIVL This plant can be found anywhere XZWTQÅKÆW_MZQVOQV\PMNWTTW_QVOٺ- frequency are not well understood. from dry sites in the vicinity of months and expanded through Linville Gorge to small bogs, such the adjacent stream corridor. An POSITIVE RESPONSE TO FIRE as some on the Chattahoochee WJ[MZ^IJTMLMKTQVMMIKPaMIZ[QVKMÅZM Observations suggest that pogonia National Forest; there it occurs slightly suggests some reliance on disturbance. responds favorably to increased light mounded above the surrounding IVLV]\ZQMV\[NWTTW_QVOÅZMIVLWZ wet depressions and sphagnum. The mechanical clearing. shade-suppressed bog population

99 >ðăăÆ­ĊÐīÐĮĨďĊĮÐĴďĴìðĊĊðĊæ­ĊÌÅķīĊðĊæďĊÆÐÐŒÐīřåďķīĴďťŒÐřЭīĮȘ wķĉĴÐīU­ĴðďĊ­ă9ďīÐĮĴșwďķĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘS Appalachian Hillcane & Rivercane CHEROKEE NAME:AȾř­ CHEROKEE NAME: AȾř­ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Arundinaria appalachiana SCIENTIFIC NAME: Arundinaria gingantea

LOCATION Rivercane 6I\]ZITTM^MM[QVITT]^QITÆWWLXTIQV[ Hillcane GROWTH FORM Oak and pine forests on dry hillsides below 3,000 feet elevation. Grass SOIL Rivercane >MZa_M\#XZWVM\WNZMY]MV\ÆWWLQVO Hillcane FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Shallow, acidic and well-drained. High High

100 PLANTS OF SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK

Cultural Uses

AĊÌðæÐĊďķĮĮÐĴĴăÐĉÐĊĴĮœÐīÐďåĴÐĊĮĨīЭÌ ­ăďĊæīðŒÐīŦďďÌĨă­ðĊĮœìÐīÐÆ­ĊÐœ­Į ­ÅķĊÌ­ĊĴȘ­ĊÐÅī­āÐĮœÐīÐðĊÌðÆ­ĴðŒÐďå åÐīĴðăÐĮďðă­ĊÌЭĮðăřÆăЭīÐÌåďī­æīðÆķăĴķīÐȘ

­ĊÐÅī­āÐĮœÐīÐìðæìăřÆďŒÐĴÐÌåďīĨ­ĮĴķīÐȘ }ìÐåďăð­æÐÆďĊĴ­ðĊĮ­ÅďķĴǠǤɦÆīķÌÐĨīďȭ ĴÐðĊ­ĊÌðĮīðÆìðĊÆ­ăÆðķĉ­ĊÌĨìďĮĨìďīďķĮȘ }ìÐĮìďďĴĮ­īÐĨīÐåÐīīÐÌș­ĊÌÆ­ĊÐĨ­ĴÆìÐĮ œÐīÐķĊðĪķÐăřŒ­ăķ­ÅăÐðĊĨīďŒðÌðĊæåďďÌ­ĊÌ ÆďŒÐīĴìīďķæìďķĴœðĊĴÐīȘ'ķīďĨЭĊĮÐĴĴăÐīĮ ­ĊÌAĊÌðæÐĊďķĮĨÐďĨăÐåďķæìĴďŒÐīæī­šðĊæ īðæìĴĮ­ĊÌĴìÐÆďĉÅðĊÐÌĨīÐĮĮķīÐăÐÌĴď­ īÐæðďĊȭœðÌÐÌÐÆăðĊÐďåÆ­ĊÐÅī­āÐĮȘ

­ĊÐȧðȾř­Ȩ­īīďœĮì­ÌťīÐȭì­īÌÐĊÐÌÅ­īÅÐÌ ĨďðĊĴĮĉ­ÌÐďåæ­īĮÆ­ăÐĮșĮì­īĨÐĊÐÌ ­ĊĴăÐīĮďīĴķīāÐřĮĨķīĮțÆ­ĊÐťĮìðĊæĮĨЭīĮ ÌďķÅăÐÌ­ĮœÐ­ĨďĊĮț­ĊÌāĊðŒÐĮșÅăďœæķĊĮ ­ĊÌÅðīÌĴī­ĨĮœÐīÐĉ­ÌÐďåÆ­ĊÐȘ

tðŒÐīÆ­ĊÐɭÌ­ĉ:īðååðĴìW ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

These are perennial, evergreen are known to have laid dormant for +IVMJZISM[ÆW]ZQ[PIN\MZJ]ZVQVO grasses. Arundinaria is a genus of decades until a canopy disturbance These communities once provided three temperate bamboos endemic to provided light for growth. Rivercane extensive food and cover for mammals, the eastern U.S. ÆW_MZQVOQ[]VKWUUWVJ]\IXXMIZ[ birds, reptiles and invertebrates. \WJM[\QU]TI\MLJaÅZMWZW\PMZ Hillcane is a southern Appalachian LQ[\]ZJIVKM#W\PMZ_Q[MÅZMUIaJ]ZV Bears denned in this “inner chamber endemic with poorly understood range QV\WÆWWLXTIQV[WVTaIJW]\WVKMM^MZa of the great hunting ground.” From and ecology. Rivercane has been stud- 50 to 60 years. Entire canebrakes dense canebrakes mountain lions ied extensively throughout its range out often die after seedset. could stalk elk and deer herds drawn to Kansas and north to Ohio. to the nutritious leaves and shoots. .TWWLQVOIVLÅZMIZMLQ[\]ZJIVKM[ -MK\ZQ^MZKIVM While the historical scale of disturٺEuropean explorers described \PI\KWUUWVTaI rivercane up to 40 feet tall with stems 0QTTKIVM\PZQ^M[NWTTW_QVOÅZMWZI JIVKMNZWUUI[[Q^MÆWKS[WN XI[[MVOMZ (culms) 4 inches in diameter. disturbance that creates a light gap. pigeons is uncertain, fecal deposits below roosts reportedly covered thou- QV sands of acres. A tremendous nutrientٺCanebrakes are clones connected by 8IXMZTQSMPQTTKIVMTMI^M[NITTW a network of large rhizomes, which autumn, whereas the subcoriaceous QVÆ]`LMILMVMLVMIZTaITT^MOM\I\QWV grow laterally before turning up to or “leather-like” leaves of rivercane to allow for canebrake expansion. form a new culm. Some rhizomes remain attached throughout the year.

101 PLANTS OF SHORTLEAF PINE-OAK

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FIRE FOR MANAGING CANE

102 Cultural Uses

­ĊÐÅī­āÐĮĨīďŒðÌÐÌ­ĉÅķĮìÆďŒÐī­ĊÌ ìðÌĴìÐĉďŒÐĉÐĊĴĮď圭īĨ­īĴðÐĮȘĊ ðĊÆÐĊÌð­īř­īīďœœ­Įĉ­ÌÐÅřœī­ĨĨðĊæ ÌīðÐÌĉďĮĮ­īďķĊÌ­Æ­ĊÐĮì­åĴ­ĊÌķĮÐÌĴď ðæĊðĴÐĮĴīķÆĴķīÐĮȘ

­ĊÐœ­ĮĴìÐĨīðĉ­īřĉ­ĴÐīð­ăķĮÐÌĴď ĉ­āÐī­åĴĮåďīÆīďĮĮðĊæă­īæÐīðŒÐīĮȘðīȭ ťăăÐÌðĊĴÐīĊďÌÐĮĉ­ÌÐī­åĴĮŒÐīřÅķďř­ĊĴȘ

TķĮðÆ­ăðĊĮĴīķĉÐĊĴĮœÐīЭăĮďĉ­ÌÐ åīďĉÆ­ĊÐȘ

ķăĉĮœÐīÐķĮÐÌĴďĮķĨĨďīĴÅЭĊĮ­ĊÌ ďĴìÐīÆăðĉÅðĊæŒÐæÐĴ­ÅăÐĮȘďĴìðĊĴÐīðďī ­ĊÌÐŘĴÐīðďīœ­ăăĮœÐīÐĉ­ÌÐďåÆ­ĊÐș ÆďăďīÐÌœðĴìĨă­ĊĴÌřÐĮș­ĊÌœďŒÐĊĴðæìĴăř ­ĊÌðĉĨÐĊÐĴī­ÅăÐĴďœ­ĴÐīȘÐÌĮșŦďďīĮ­ĊÌ Ĩ­ăðĮ­ÌÐĮœÐīЭăăĉ­ÌÐďåÆ­ĊÐȘ

}ìÐœÐðæìĴȭĴďȭĴÐĊĮðăÐĮĴīÐĊæĴìī­Ĵðďĉ­āÐĮ Å­ĉÅďďĮĴīďĊæÐī­ĊÌăðæìĴÐīĴì­ĊĉďĮĴœďďÌ ķĮÐÌðĊÆďĊĮĴīķÆĴðďĊĴďÌ­řȘ}ďÌ­řșÅ­ĉÅďď ŦďďīðĊæðĮķĮķ­ăăřðĉĨďīĴÐÌåīďĉĮð­Ș

O'9}ȚĨĨ­ă­Æìð­ĊìðăăÆ­ĊÐÆ­ĊÅЭĨīďĉðĊÐĊĴ ķĊÌÐīĮĴďīřæī­ĮĮðĊĴìÐwďķĴìÐīĊăķÐtðÌæÐ ÐĮÆ­īĨĉÐĊĴĮȘW

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HOW OFTEN WAS CANE BURNED? FIRE EXCLUSION INTENSITY Canebrakes are reported to have Fire exclusion results in low-vigor Fire intensity in canebrakes was histori- been burned once every seven to cane stands, culm death and succes- cally greater than in adjacent forest, MK\[_MZMOMVMZITTaٺyears. Fire kills aboveground sion by other plant species exceeding IT\PW]OPÅZMM 10 plant parts but maintains canebrakes KIVMӊ[ZI\MWN ZMOMVMZI\QWV low-severity except during drought. by stimulating sprouting and sup- pressing competition. Fire can have HILLCANE FIRE EFFECTS MK\[QN I[\IVLTIKS[ There is little or no published evidenceٺLMTM\MZQW][M -\MK\[WVPQTTKIVM)VMKLWٺvigor. Annual or semiannual burning WN ÅZMM is detrimental to cane stands because al observations suggest that canopy the continual removal of the stems opening or managing competition and leaves depletes reserves in the increases culm production. Regional rhizomes and limits sprout growth. monitoring has found hillcane to be among the most frequently encoun- \MZMLXTIV\[QVÅZMILIX\MLMKWbWVM[

103 ECOLOGICAL ZONE >ðæìȭ'ăÐŒ­ĴðďĊ Red Oak

RESTORATION-FIRE MAINTENANCE-FIRE ECOZONE FREQUENCY FREQUENCY

HIGH- ELEVATION 5-10 20-25 RED OAK YEARS YEARS

EXTENT SOIL 124,000 acres Shallow and well-drained, but mesic with cool, wet conditions; often rich ELEVATION and fertile but variable and low in organic matter. 3,500 – 5,900 feet LANDFORM NATURAL DISTURBANCE Freezing temperatures, ice and/or Broad primary ridges and spur ridges, PQOP_QVLM^MV\[WKKI[QWVIT_QTLÅZM[ south- and west-facing convex slopes. and recently gypsy moth outbreaks. CONTEXT EMBEDDED COMMUNITIES Lower elevation or intermixed with Heath and grass balds generally on [XZ]KMÅZIVLVWZ\PMZVPIZL_WWL[# ]ٺ[W]\PI[XMK\[#+IZWTQVIPMUTWKSJT] blending with Mesic Oak and cove granitic domes, seeps, fens, and rocky forest. Many are on south and west outcrops and summits. aspects, although some cooler and wetter aspects are at lower elevations.

OķĮìåďīÅæīďœĴìðĊīðÆì>ðæìȭ'ăÐŒ­ĴðďĊtÐÌZ­āåďīÐĮĴȘ ăķååTďķĊĴ­ðĊqīÐĮÐīŒÐșUďīĴì­īďăðĊ­ȘX

104 >ðæìȭ'ăÐŒ­ĴðďĊtÐÌZ­āåďīÐĮĴðĮ Ĩ­ĴÆìðăřÌðĮĴīðÅķĴÐÌĴìīďķæìďķĴ ĴìÐwďķĴìÐīĊăķÐtðÌæÐ TďķĊĴ­ðĊĮȘAĴðĮĉďĮĴĨīÐŒ­ăÐĊĴ ðĊU­ĊĴ­ì­ă­ȭ­ăĮ­ĉșìðæì ÆďķĊĴīřș­ĊÌ:īЭĴwĉďāřȭ€Ċ­ā­ TďķĊĴ­ðĊĮă­ĊÌĮÆ­ĨÐĮȘX

105 }ZqO'9}Ț#ðŒÐīĮÐìÐīÅīÐĮĨďĊĮÐ ðĊ>ðæìȭ'ăÐŒ­ĴðďĊtÐÌZ­ā œďďÌă­ĊÌȘɭĊÌīÐœNďīĊřă­āX  Z}}ZTO'9}ȚtďķæìÅă­šðĊæĮĴ­ī ðĮďĊÐďåĉ­ĊřĮķĊȭăďŒðĊæåďīÅĮ ­Ì­ĨĴÐÌĴďÆďăÌÐīìðæìȭÐăÐŒ­ĴðďĊ Æăðĉ­ĴÐȘT tA:>}ȚLķŒÐĊðăÐ'­ĮĴÐīĊĊÐœĴȘ ɭNÐăăřă­ĉĨðĴĴX

ECOLOGY

The structure and composition of present-day, high- high winds and icing on such sites may create stunted, elevation oak forests can, in part, be attributed to the windswept trees, partial canopy gaps of various sizes, and loss of American chestnut. Northern red oak typically canopy height of less than 25 feet. comprises over half of the canopy on most sites, along with a variable mix of red spruce, white oak, sugar maple, sweet Nearly half of the rare boreal relict plants in high-elevation birch and yellow birch. Understory species richness can sites require open ground such as wet meadows and fens, ٺ[NIKM[IVLOZI[[aJITL[)NMVMUJMLLML_Q\PQV*Tٺrange from a dozen species in the shrub-dominated sites to KTQ more than 100 species in rich, herb-dominated sites. 5W]V\IQVӊ[PQOPMTM^I\QWVWISNWZM[\KWV\IQV[WVMWN \PM highest densities of rare species in the southern U.S. ;PZ]J[XMKQM[[]KPI[ÆIUMIbITMIPQOPJ][PJT]MJMZZa highbush cranberry and mountain laurel can dominate ;WUMPQOPNWZM[\[PI^MIPQ[\WZaWN TQOP\VQVOKI][MLÅZM[ sites with acidic soils. Base-rich sites tend to support a IJW]\WVKMM^MZa\WaMIZ[1V\PMIJ[MVKMWN ÅZM greater proportion of forbs and some are dominated by IVLQVÆ]MVKMWN KPM[\V]\ITTMTWXI\PaQ\Q[IKKMX\ML\PI\ oak sedge. Other sites are similar in composition to Rich ericaceous shrubs are likely more abundant today than Cove ecozones, but for red oak on exposed, convex slopes, JMNWZMKPM[\V]\JTQOP\IVL\PMÅZM[]XXZM[[QWVMZI

106 13% SHRUBS

73% GRASSESș 9Ztwș VINES AND FERNS 320-350 wq'A'w 14% TREES

HIGH-ELEVATION RED OAK COMPOSITION

CULTURAL IMPORTANCE

The cultural history of Blue Ridge high-elevation oak forests is not well understood. Indigenous Appalachians traveled ridgelines and used them as hunting trails. Some experts conjecture that people traveled to the high elevations for summer hunting and autumn nut harvests. Records indicate that the Cherokee managed Mount Sterling Bald to promote herbaceous plants and draw game into the open where they could harvest from the surrounding forest. Minimal mast is produced in northern hardwood and [XZ]KMÅZNWZM[\7ISMKWbWVM[XZW^QLMPIZLUI[\IVL American chestnut could have made up as much as 70% natural cavities for rare, high-elevation endemics: Carolina of the trees in high-elevation forests. It was the single most VWZ\PMZVÆaQVO[Y]QZZMT[aMTTW_JMTTQML[IX[]KSMZ[JTIKS important plant for humans and wildlife in the eastern U.S. capped chickadees and northern sawwhet owls. Forest pasturing of livestock was introduced in the 19th Hard mast and diverse vegetation structure understory KMV\]ZaIVLOZIbQVOPI[QVÆ]MVKML\PMLM^MTWXUMV\ MLOZW][MKPQKS[NWZIOMNWZIZ\PZWXWL[ of many high forests. Broad, rounded summits wereٺ[:JMVMÅ\OZW][M among rich herb cover in high-elevation forest. High- conducive to pasture, and herdsmen cleared forests by elevation shrubland and early successional vegetation are girdling trees and burning the understory. important for golden-winged warblers and Appalachian cottontail rabbits. Most of the Southern Blue Ridge balds and high-elevation ecozones are permanently protected and attract thousands of people each year for hiking and backpacking, birding, camping and photography.

107 }ìÐÆ­ĊďĨřďåĉďĮĴĨĨ­ă­Æìð­Ċ ď­āÐÆďĮřĮĴÐĉĮðĮÆăďĮÐÌș ðĊìðÅðĴðĊæĮķĊăðæìĴĨÐĊÐĴī­ĴðďĊȘX

CONSERVATION CHALLENGES CLOSED CANOPY Models suggest the proportion of closed canopy High- Elevation Red Oak forest 300 years ago to be less than 50%. Shade- and acid-loving plants are favored in present-day forests, 90% of which have been modeled to be closed canopy. MISSING A FIRE FACILITATOR 0Q[\WZQKITTa\PQ[MKWbWVM_I[TQSMTaUWZMZMKMX\Q^M\WÅZM 4W[[WN KPM[\V]\IVLÅZMM`KT][QWVJMOQVVQVOQV\PMMIZTa 1900s has altered the structure and composition of the natural communities. High shrub density and northern hardwood subcanopy increasingly characterize a greater proportion of the forest. Fire-maintained examples are very rare. WEATHER LIMITS WINDOWS Annual precipitation ranges from 60 to 90 inches. Frequent heavy snow compacts oak litter, so opportunities for spring K]T\\WKWUMJaNWZ\PQ[MKWbWVMٻJ]ZVQVOKIVJMLQ TO MANAGE OR NOT Passive management may favor an overstory increasingly composed of beech, yellow birch and maple species. It appears that these species will largely displace oaks, which are increasingly stressed by pests and disease. MECHANICAL TREATMENTS Financial return for timber from high elevations is generally low because of terrain and inaccessibility, as well as poor form and commercial value. The deleterious MK\[WN PQOPOZILQVOTWOOQVO\PI\TMI^M[JMPQVLQVNMZQWZٺM or defective individuals for genetically superior trees) are K]T\\WW^MZKWUMQVZM[\WZQVOWIS_WWLTIVL[0QOPٻLQ grading has favored red maple proliferation, especially on sites where strongly acidic soil stymies the growth of oaks. CLIMATE CHANGE Warmer summer temperatures favor the growth of northern red oak, and it could begin to supplant northern hardwoods. Late-summer droughts that extend into autumn leaf often QVKZMI[M\PM_QTLÅZMXW\MV\QIT/ZMI\MZ[\ZM[[_QTTTQSMTaJM imposed on the rare plants adapted to cooler conditions.

108 Æ­ĊďĨřæ­Ĩ­ăăďœĮăðæìĴĴď å­ÆðăðĴ­ĴÐď­āīÐæÐĊÐī­ĴðďĊ­ĊÌ ìÐīÅ­ÆÐďķĮæīďœĴìȘW

109 FIRE MANAGEMENT HOW OFTEN? FREQUENCY MK\[WN I[XMK\WVÅZMNZMY]MVKaQVPQOPMTM^I\QWVWISٺ- Fire likely occurred in High-Elevation Red Oak as NZMY]MV\TaI[WVKMM^MZa\WaMIZ[J]\\PMÅZMZMOQUM NWZM[\KIVJMXZWVW]VKMLJ]\\PMPQ[\WZQKÅZMZM\]ZV is the least understood of the ecozones. interval is not well understood. An initial low-intensity J]ZVNWTTW_QVOM`\MVLMLÅZMM`KT][QWVUIaPI^MTQ\\TM THE CURL impact on shrub and sapling competition. Curl is the leaf height lying horizontally on the ground. Air movement is facilitated around curled leaves, which is the Maintenance burning done about once every 20 years, primary determinant of how quickly leaf litter will dry and varying seasonality and intensity, can restore and PW_UIVaLIa[XMZaMIZI[Q\M_QTTJMZMKMX\Q^M\WÅZM maintain diversity. DEAD LEAVES MATTER INTENSITY MK\[WN ÅZMQV\MV[Q\aWVٺKK]U]TI\MLTMIN TQ\\MZ]VLMZKTW[MLKIVWXaNWZM[\IKQLQÅM[ 4Q\\TMQ[SVW_VIJW]\\PMM( soil and leaches aluminum that is toxic to plants. Acid high-elevation natural communities. Fuel structure and deposition limits available calcium and magnesium, and KWUXW[Q\QWV[]OOM[\ZMO]TIZTW_QV\MV[Q\aÅZM_Q\PXMZQWLQK thus the establishment and growth of forbs, grasses and PQOPQV\MV[Q\a[\IVLZMXTIKMUMV\ÅZMWVKMM^MZaaMIZ[ trees. Moisture retained by mesophytic leaf litter reduces or more. \PMXZWJIJQTQ\aWN QOVQ\QWVJ]\IT[W[]XXZM[[M[ÅZM[XZMIL IVLQV\MV[Q\a_PMVÅZM[LWWKK]Z SEASONALITY Leaf abcision occurs earlier in high-elevation forests, so FLAMMABLE CHESTNUT LEAVES? freshly fallen leaves and senesced herbs facilitate October +PM[\V]\TMI^M[IZM^MZaÆIUUIJTMIVLKPM[\V]\ӊ[PQ[\WZQKIT and November burning — optimal timing to avoid winter presence among oak ecozones suggests at least moderately litter compaction by snow. Frequent, overnight freezes inhibit MZNM_J]ZVLIa[QV_QV\MZٺNZMY]MV\ÅZM#\PMLQ[IXXMIZIVKMPI[TQSMTaKWV\ZQJ]\ML\W\PM LZaQVOWN ÅVMN]MT[IVL\P][W QUXIK\[WN ÅZMI[IKZ]KQITMKWTWOQKITXZWKM[[ .ITTJ]ZVQVOITQOV[_Q\P\PMXZM[]UMLPQ[\WZQKITÅZMZMOQUM

GROUND COVER RESTORATION In most years, snow compacts leaf litter in high-elevation Burning generally increases the vigor of herbaceous forests and may not be burnable until May. Compared to MZ[[XZQVOJ]ZVQVOٺXTIV\[IVL[MVM[KML^MOM\I\QWVKWV\ZQJ]\M[\WÅZM[XZMIL TW_MZMTM^I\QWV[\PMTI\MZOZMMV]XW Restoration of forb ground cover to shrub-dominated oak conditions into June, but this burn timing has rarely been NWZM[\[WKK]Z[[TW_TaW^MZUIVaÅZMKaKTM[+WUXIZML_Q\P attempted in high-elevation oak forests by contemporary unmanaged stands, thinning and repeated burning have ÅZMXZIK\Q\QWVMZ[[WN]Z\PMZ[\]LaQ[_IZZIV\ML been found to restore 100 times the forb cover and 20 times the herbaceous diversity in oak ecosystems.

110 ZĨÐĊď­āåďīÐĮĴ­Ĵ”­īĉwĨīðĊæĮqīÐĮÐīŒÐș“ðīæðĊð­ȘɭUðāďăÐwðĉĉďĊĮS

111 }ZqO'9}Ț9­ăăÆďăďīďåĊďīĴìÐīĊīÐÌď­āȘ ɭLďД­ăÐœĮāðșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴX

Z}}ZTO'9}Țwĉ­ăăȭĉ­ĉĉ­ăĨďĨķă­ĴðďĊ ŦķÆĴķ­ĴðďĊÆďðĊÆðÌÐĮœðĴì­ĊĊķ­ă­ÆďīĊ ĨīďÌķÆĴðďĊȘɭT­īŒ'ăăðďĴĴșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴT

tA:>}ȚUďīĴìÐīĊīÐÌď­āæīďœĮĴī­ðæìĴ­ĊÌ Ĵ­ăăķĨĴď­īďķĊÌǠǡǟåÐÐĴðĊæďďÌĮďðăȘX

PLANTS OF High-Elevation Red Oak

?MSVW_TM[[IJW]\\PMPQ[\WZQKITÅZMZMOQUMWN 0QOP-TM^I\QWV:ML7IS \PIVIVaWN \PMW\PMZ[a[\MU[LQ[K][[MLQV\PQ[JWWS?PI\_MLWSVW_Q[\PI\ _PMZM^MZWIS[IZMNW]VL\PMZMQ[IZMTI\QWV[PQX\WÅZM?MIT[W[MM[QUQTIZ\ZMVL[WN  QVKZMI[QVOKIVWXaKTW[]ZM[PZ]JKW^MZIVLUIXTMMVKZWIKPUMV\QV\PQ[IVLW\PMZ ÅZMLMXMVLMV\[a[\MU[1\Q[^MZaTQSMTa\PI\\PMJW]VLIZQM[WN W\PMZPQOPMTM^I\QWV [a[\MU[IZMLM\MZUQVMLJa\PMQV\MZIK\QWVWN XPa[QKIT[M\\QVOIVLÅZM?Q\PW]\ÅZM [WUMWTLOZW_\PPQOPMTM^I\QWVNWZM[\[IZM\ZIV[Q\QWVQVO\WZML[XZ]KMIVLVWZ\PMZV hardwoods dominance, such as Noland Divide and Thomas Divide in Great ;UWSa5W]V\IQV[6I\QWVIT8IZS?Q\PÅZM\PQ[MKWbWVMUIaUIQV\IQV_WWLTIVL KWVLQ\QWV[_Q\PZMTI\Q^MTaQVNZMY]MV\ÅZM_PQTMIT[WJMVMÅ\QVO[WUMPQOPMTM^I\QWV wildlife species.

– Josh Kelly, MountainTrue

112 Northern Red Oak CHEROKEE NAME: }ĮķæœĻȾĊĮĴ¯ĴĮ¶Ⱦăó SCIENTIFIC NAME: Quercus rubra

LOCATION Low cove forest and mesic slopes to GROWTH FORM high-elevation ridges. Tree SOIL Widely tolerant; moist, rich and well- drained is optimal.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Moderate Moderate

113 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

This large tree has alternate, simple leaves with seven to 11 lobes, each with a bristle tip. It is widely distrib- uted in both pure and mixed stands throughout the eastern U.S. and ranges the farthest north of any oak. It occupies the highest elevations rela- tive to the Appalachian oaks.

Flowering is from April to May, and acorns ripen August through October. The stout egg-shaped acorn is rich in tannins and contains high fat and pro- tein, relative to plant foods. Northern red oak produces a good to excellent UI[\KZWXM^MZa\_W\WÅ^MaMIZ[IVL an excellent mast year can produce over 200,000 acorns per acre.

Northern red oak is the fastest- growing Blue Ridge oak and allocates more biomass to stem growth, relative to oaks. It is also the most susceptible to drought and potentially vulnerable in a warming climate.

6WZ\PMZVZMLWISӊ[L]ZIJQTQ\aITTW_[Q\ to grow well in an urban environment. Carbon is sequestered as trees grow, and the shade reduces ground surface temperatures, decreasing the energy demand for cooling homes and busi- nesses. Additional ecosystem services include soil protection and stabilization as well as cover and food for wildlife.

The wood has large pores and is decay resistant. However, the red oak borer, oak wilt and combinations of stressors (oak decline), including gypsy moth, damage and kill trees.

The striped caterpillar of the oakworm moth feeds on red oak leaves. Many species of caterpillars feed on oak foli- age, but damage is usually not severe.

114 PLANTS OF HIGH-ELEVATION RED OAK

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS FAILURE TO REGENERATE GOOD SOIL — MORE COMPETITION Common impediments to oak regen- It is less likely that a red oak seedling eration are shade, deer depredation, will eventually become a dominant drought and competition from shrubs canopy tree on higher-quality sites and herbaceous plants. The leading (with greater soil depth and better cause of failure is inadequate sun- nutrient and water availability). light reaching the understory. Mesophytic hardwoods, like poplar, grow faster than oaks on better sites. LIGHT REQUIREMENT Prescriptions that have successfully Northern red oak can survive with promoted red oak regeneration on less than 5% sunlight — a condition rich sites have integrated chemical prevalent in contemporary Blue Ridge and mechanical hardwood manage- forests. It tolerates shade better than ment between burns. chestnut oak and nearly as well as white oak. At least 20% full sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis and growth. Diameter and height growth Cultural Uses increase proportionately up to about }­ĊĊðÆ­ÆðÌì­ÌĴďÅÐăЭÆìÐÌåīďĉ­ÆďīĊ 70% full sunlight. ŦďķīșœìðÆ윭ĮĴī­ÌðĴðďĊ­ăăřÌďĊÐÅř ÌðææðĊæ­Įì­ăăďœĨðĴĊЭī­ÆīÐÐāȘ}ìÐŦďķī SEASON AND SEEDLINGS œ­ĮĴìÐĊĮĨīЭÌðĊĴìÐÅďĴĴďĉďå­Å­ĮāÐĴðĊ Large oak seedlings 1 to 5 feet tall are ĴìÐĨðĴ­ĊÌœ­ĴÐīœ­ĮÆďĊĴðĊķďķĮăřĨďķīÐÌ ďŒÐīðĴåďīìďķīĮķĊĴðăðĴĴķīĊÐÌĮœÐÐĴȘ MZMV\TaJaٺMK\MLLQٺOMVMZITTaVW\I the season of burning. wĴīďĊæșÆď­īĮÐȭæī­ðĊÐÌœďďÌĉ­āÐĮīÐÌď­ā ­ĊðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴĮďķīÆÐďåì­īÌœďďÌăķĉÅÐīȘ t­ðăīď­ÌĴðÐĮșåÐĊÆÐĨďĮĴĮșŒÐĊÐÐīșåķīĊðĴķīÐș THIN BARK Æ­ÅðĊÐĴĮșĨ­ĊÐăðĊæșŦďďīðĊæșÆ­ĮāÐĴĮ­ĊÌ Mature northern red oak have tight, ĨķăĨœďďÌ­īЭĉďĊæðĴĮĉ­ĊřķĮÐĮȘ thin bark, thus the cambium is less wřĉĉÐĴīðÆ­ăæīďœĴì­ĊÌ­ĴĴī­ÆĴðŒÐăЭŒÐĮ insulated from heat relative to Blue ĉ­āÐĊďīĴìÐīĊīÐÌď­ā­Œ­ăķÐÌďīĊ­ĉÐĊĴ­ă Ridge oaks. The species presence sug- ĴīÐÐðĊĨ­īāĮ­ĊÌ­ăďĊæĮĴīÐÐĴĮȘ gests a historical regime of generally TM[[NZMY]MV\TW_QV\MV[Q\aÅZM FIRE FREQUENCY :MO]TIZÅZMQ[^IT]IJTMNWZXZWUW\QVO red oak regeneration, but the optimal frequency varies by site. Hardwood competition management may often be required between burns if maximiz- ing oak reproduction is an objective.

UďīĴìÐīĊīÐÌď­āðĮ­ĊðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴ ĴīÐÐðĊĴìÐķīÅ­Ċă­ĊÌĮÆ­ĨÐȘW

115 PLANTS OF HIGH-ELEVATION RED OAK

ìÐĮĴĊķĴĮåďīĉðĊĮðÌÐÅķīĮȘ ɭt­ÆìðÌwȘ>ďĉĮ­Ċřș9ăðÆāīS American Chestnut

CHEROKEE NAME: }ðăóɹ SCIENTIFIC NAME: Castanea dentata

LOCATION Wide variety, from coves to dry GROWTH FORM ridges up to 5,500-foot elevation; Tree intermediate shade tolerance. SOIL Variable, dry to mesic but commonly acidic and well-drained. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Uncertain Moderate

116 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

Chestnut was once a widespread, dominant tree throughout eastern North America; it grew up to 10 feet in diameter, 120 feet in height, and is reported to have made up 30% to 70% of the Appalachian forest canopy.

Growing about one inch in diameter each season, chestnut reportedly grew faster than any of the commercially valuable species in the southern Appalachians.

Chestnut was also present on dry ridges with chestnut oak, hickory and yellow pines. Its drought tolerance suggests chestnut grew well across a wide range of moisture regimes. ?PQ\\ISMZKPIZIK\MZQbMLÅ^M\aXM[WN  sites where chestnut occurred in the western Smoky Mountains: chestnut oak-chestnut, chestnut oak-chestnut heath, white oak-chestnut and high- elevation red oak-chestnut. T­ĴķīÐÆìÐĮĴĊķĴ ĴīÐÐĮ­īÐŒÐīřī­īÐȘ Some trees could produce over 600 ɭUðÆìďă­ĮȘ}ďĊÐăăðș XW]VL[WN V]\[IVLINWZM[\ÆWWZ 9ăðÆāīW of chestnuts 4 inches deep each season. Chestnut made forest food around 8,000 acorns per square meter Today, some mature relicts exist, and production more stable historically, each year. younger trees may grow up to 40 feet QVXIZ\JMKI][MKPM[\V]\ÆW_MZ[QV tall before dying, but they are most late spring, so frost damage is less Chestnut can survive in a shaded commonly found in shrub form. likely. Also, it is pollinated by both understory for many years. Most wind and insects. sprouts are from either mature trees The American Chestnut Foundation cut before blight or seedlings that develops blight-tolerant, genetically Two to three nuts develop within a repeatedly sprout following infection. engineered trees. “Darling 58” is a prickly bur, maturing from September Reproduction starts earlier and more hybrid undergoing federal review for to October. Of all Appalachian nuts are produced by copious, fast- release into the wild. Researchers are hard mast produced, chestnuts are growing sprouts, compared with trees also developing trees that can donate among the highest in protein and that grow from seed. hypovirulent strains of the blight carbohydrates and are relatively low fungus to weaken and/or halt the in tannins, which reduce digestibility. Cryphonectria parasitica is a fungal fungus in infected trees. A mature tree could produce around disease that causes chestnut blight; in 70,000 nuts per square meter every combination with industrial logging, year. Collectively, northern red oak, mature trees were largely eliminated white oak and chestnut oak produce from the eastern U.S. by 1950.

117 FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS INDICATIONS OF FIRE RELATIONSHIP DRY SITES Sediment pollen has indicated Chestnut was reported to have been ÅZMXZMKMLMLIJZ]X\QVKZMI[M[QV largely absent from Pine-Oak Heath the proportion of chestnut in pre- and sites that burn most often. European forests. Early foresters However, sprouts are often abundant described chestnut occurring on dry WVLZaÅZMXZWVM[TWXM[IVLZQLOM[ sites and southern aspects alongside Soil-inhabiting pathogens (Phytophora, chestnut oak, shortleaf and pitch pine or root rot) are less likely to infect []OOM[\QVOÅZM\WTMZIVKM chestnut on dry sites. FIRE: CHESTNUT VS. OAKS SPROUTING AND GROWTH STRATEGY Physiology suggests a lower tolerance Chestnut sprouts emerge soon after NWZNZMY]MV\ÅZMKWUXIZML_Q\PWIS[ \WXSQTTIVLKPM[\V]\ӊ[KIXIKQ\aNWZ yet chestnut leaves dry quickly and are sprouting and energy investment in [QUQTIZ\WWISTMI^M[QVÅZMZMKMX\Q^Q\a aboveground growth over roots is Dormant buds are positioned near the similar to red maple. But it may lack ground surface and more susceptible the carbohydrate reserves needed to \WÅZMLIUIOMMZaTQ\\TMQ[SVW_VIJW]\\PMM trees is comparable to that northern WN ÅZM[MI[WVQV\MV[Q\aIVLNZMY]MVKa red oak, suggesting limited tolerance on chestnut. NWZUWLMZI\M\WPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZM

Cultural Uses

9Ðœșðå­ĊřșĨă­ĊĴĮì­ŒÐĨīďŒðÌÐÌæīЭĴÐī OЭåÐŘĴī­ÆĴĮì­ŒÐÅÐÐĊķĮÐÌĴďĴīЭĴ ÐÆďĮřĮĴÐĉĮÐīŒðÆÐĮĴì­ĊĴìÐĉÐīðÆ­Ċ ìЭīĴÆďĊÌðĴðďĊĮș­ĊÌĴìÐĮĨīďķĴĮœÐīÐ ÆìÐĮĴĊķĴȘAĴœ­Į­ŒðĴ­ăĴďAĊÌðæÐĊďķĮ ĮďĉÐĴðĉÐĮĉ­ÌÐðĊĴď­Ċ­ĮĴīðĊæÐĊĴĴЭĴď ĨĨ­ă­Æìð­ĊĮ­ĮĉÐÌðÆðĊÐșÆďĊĮĴīķÆĴðďĊ ìЭăœďķĊÌĮȘ}­ĊÅ­īāȧĴ­ĊĊðÆ­ÆðÌÌÐīðŒÐÌ ĉ­ĴÐīð­ă­ĊÌÌřÐȘAĴœ­Į­ÌðÐĴ­īřĮĴ­ĨăÐș åīďĉÆìÐĮĴĊķĴÅ­īāȨœ­ĮðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴåďī ­ĊÌåďīÐĮĴĮœÐīÐÅķīĊÐÌðĊЭīăřå­ăăĴď ĴīЭĴðĊæăЭĴìÐīȘ å­ÆðăðĴ­ĴÐÆìÐĮĴĊķĴì­īŒÐĮĴȘ ìÐĮĴĊķĴœ­ĮďĊÐďåĴìÐĉďĮĴŒ­ăķÐÌ qÐďĨăÐì­ŒÐÆďĊĮķĉÐÌÆìÐĮĴĊķĴĮī­œș ì­īÌœďďÌĴðĉÅÐīĴīÐÐĮȘ}ìÐœďďÌðĮ ÅďðăÐÌșÅ­āÐÌďīīď­ĮĴÐÌș­ĊÌďåĴÐĊ­ÌÌÐÌ ķĊðåďīĉÌÐĊĮðĴřșīďĴīÐĮðĮĴ­ĊĴșĮĴī­ðæìĴ ĊķĴĮĴďÆďīĊĉЭăÌďķæìȘ>ďæĮœÐīÐĴķīĊÐÌ æī­ðĊÐÌ­ĊÌĮďķæìĴ­åĴÐīåďīăķĉÅÐīș ăďďĮÐðĊĴìÐå­ăăĴďåÐÐÌďĊÆìÐĮĴĊķĴĮț ĮìðĊæăÐĮșī­ðăðĊæșåķÐăœďďÌșĨð­ĊďĮșÅīðÌæÐĮ Į­ķĮ­æÐåīďĉÆìÐĮĴĊķĴȭåÐÌìďæĮì­Ì­ ­ĊÌÆ­ÅðĊÐĴĮȘ ĮķĨÐīðďīĴ­ĮĴЭĊÌœ­ĮìðæìăřĮďķæìĴȭ­åĴÐīȘ UķĴĮœÐīÐĮìðĨĨÐÌ­ÆīďĮĮĴìÐЭĮĴÐīĊ€ȘwȘ

118 PLANTS OF HIGH-ELEVATION RED OAK

AĊĮÐÆĴĮ­īЭĴĴī­ÆĴÐÌĴďÆìÐĮĴĊķĴŦďœÐīĮ­ĊÌ å­ÆðăðĴ­ĴÐĨďăăðĊ­ĴðďĊðĊ­ÌÌðĴðďĊĴďœðĊÌȘ ɭNÐīīř”ďďÌĮș9ăðÆāīS

119 PLANTS OF HIGH-ELEVATION RED OAK

wĉ­ăăĨ­ĴÆìďåťĊÐȭĴÐŘĴķīÐÌď­āĮÐÌæЭĊÌĉðŘÐÌåďīÅĮðĊìðæìȭÐăÐŒ­ĴðďĊď­āåďīÐĮĴȘS Oak Sedge

CHEROKEE NAME: :­Ċ®æ­ĴĮ¯ĊðĊ­ìðĴ­ɪā­ĊÑĮā­ĴĮ¯ĊðĊ­ìðĴ­ SCIENTIFIC NAME: ­īÐŘĨÐĊĊĮřăŒ­ĊðÆ­

LOCATION Medium- to high-elevation deciduous GROWTH FORM forest. Grass SOIL Widely tolerant, but prefers well- drained, rocky, loamy and acidic.

FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Moderate-High Moderate

120 ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

This is a low-growing, shade-tolerant, cool-season sedge that occurs in dense, clustered tufts with leaves 4 to 18 inches in length. It is commonly found in woodlands and prairies of the Midwest with big and little bluestem.

1\ӊ[_QVLXWTTQVI\MLJ]\XZQUIZa reproduction is vegetatively. Long rhizomes facilitate spread and rapid colonization of cleared areas. In some cases, this species can be an aggressive competitor often found as pure stands inhibiting the establishment of trees, shrubs and forbs.

Short rhizomes form tufts. Shoots form in autumn-winter, and growth begins during the late winter, before most grasses. Oak sedge completes its life cycle before summer.

=X\W[XMKQM[WN J]\\MZÆaIVL moth larvae and a variety of grass- hopper species feed on this sedge. It supplies nesting habitat for such birds -MLOZW][M>IZٺ[I[_QTL\]ZSMaIVLZ ăķĮĴÐīĮďåÅīďœĊĮÐÐÌÆ­ĨĮķăÐĮÆăðĊæĴďďĊĴìÐ ious sparrows will eat the seeds and ĮĴÐĉď­āĮÐÌæÐŦďœÐīȘɭ€ăīðÆìOďīðĉÐīș9ăðÆāīS voles will feed on foliage. FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Cultural Uses TOPKILL AND SPROUT diversity by topkill of sedge mats, but '­īăřďÅĮÐīŒ­ĴðďĊĮðĊÆăķÌÐÌĮÐÌæÐăЭŒÐĮ Fires typically topkill this plant, but this has not been well studied. ķĮÐÌðĊĉ­āðĊæīďĨЭĊÌīìðšďĉÐĮķĮÐÌðĊ the majority of individuals sprout Å­ĮāÐĴĮșĉ­ĴĮ­ĊÌÆăďĴìðĊæȘ quickly to colonize gaps. Shallow LATE GROWING SEASON roots and rhizomes make the plant 5QL\WTI\M[]UUMZÅZMKIVJMVMÅ\ wÐÌæÐĮ­īÐðĉĨďīĴ­ĊĴåďīĮĴ­ÅðăðšðĊæ īðĨ­īð­ĊĮďðăĮș­ĊÌĉ­ĊřĮĨÐÆðÐĮ­īÐķĮÐÌ [][KMX\QJTM\WPQOPQV\MV[Q\aÅZM grasses and sedges that grow during ðĊďīĊ­ĉÐĊĴ­ăæ­īÌÐĊĮȘwĨÐÆðÐĮĴì­Ĵæīďœ the cool seasons. ­ĴìðæìÐăÐŒ­ĴðďĊĮĨīďŒðÌÐăðŒÐĮĴďÆāåďī­æÐ MATS LIMIT DIVERSITY ðĊĮķĉĉÐīȘ Sedge-dominated understories FRESH FOLIAGE typically support lower plant diversity, 6M_OZW_\PNWTTW_QVOÅZMQ[XITI\- forb cover, and seedling and sapling able to herbivores because it contains densities than those with small, less lignin, silicates and tannins. New [KI\\MZML\]N\[1V\PM5QL_M[\ÅZM shoots have more crude protein than PI[JMMV][ML\WQVKZMI[MÆWZIT mature leaves.

121 ”ìďīăÐÌOďďĮÐĮĴīðåÐɭ}ďĉqďĴĴÐīťÐăÌș9ăðÆāīS 9ī­ĮÐīȾĮOďďĮÐĮĴīðåÐɭLďÐřwì­œșðU­Ĵķī­ăðĮĴS Whorled Loosestrife & Fraser’s Loosestrife

CHEROKEE NAME::ðæ­ĴĮĸř­ȭìó CHEROKEE NAME: :ðæ­ĴĮķř®ðřĸĮĴó SCIENTIFIC NAME:OřĮðĉ­Æìð­Īķ­Ìīðåďăð­ SCIENTIFIC NAME:OřĮðĉ­Æìð­åī­ĮÐīð

LOCATION Fraser's Loosestrife Dry Oak and High-Elevation Oak; GROWTH FORM scoured river edges and mowed areas. Forb Whorled Loosestrife Dry Oak, Dry-Mesic Oak, and High- Elevation Oak. SOIL Moist; poor to moderate drainage. FIRE TOLERANCE FIRE ADAPTEDNESS Moderate-High Moderate

122 PLANTS OF HIGH-ELEVATION RED OAK

ECOLOGY & LIFE HISTORY

Fraser’s loosestrife is a globally pollen and nectar are rewards for Lysimachia#WVTa[XMKQM[_PW[MÆW_MZ[ imperiled, herbaceous perennial that ^Q[Q\QVO7VMWN \PM_WZTLӊ[[XMKQITQbML produce oil are visited. Female bees is endangered in North Carolina plant-insect relationships is that of collect oil and pollen from specialized and Tennessee. The gorges of the oil-collecting bees (Macropis) and PIQZ[WV.ZI[MZӊ[IVL_PWZTML Southern Blue Ridge Escarpment oil-secreting plants. Four species loosestrife. Larvae are fed from a are the center of the range. Whorled of Macropis bees occur in the Blue ball the bee forms by mixing oil and loosestrife ranges from southern Ridge, but all are very rare and pollen. The bees also line nest walls Georgia to Canada. depend entirely on plants of the genus with oil to regulate the humidity.

Stems 2 to 5 feet tall, and whorls of lance-shaped leaves characterize both [XMKQM[J]\.ZI[MZӊ[Q[WN\MV_PWZT[WN  three, rather than four to six. Yellow ÆW_MZ[IXXMIZNZWUUQL2]VM\W2]Ta in a loosely branched cluster that can reach 10 inches high.

.ZI[MZӊ[PI[JMMVLWK]UMV\MLQV rocky streamsides and rock outcrop seepages, but is also found in open oak forest. Whorled loosestrife is commonly encountered in pine and dry oak forest. Pollinators are I\\ZIK\ML\WNZIOZIV\KWTWZN]TÆW_MZ[#

Cultural Uses

OďďĮÐĮĴīðåÐœ­ĮÌīðÐÌ­ĊÌ­ĴĴ­ÆìÐÌĴďì­īȭ Macropis patellata. ĊÐĮĮÐÌ­Ċðĉ­ăĮåďīÆ­ăĉðĊæ­ĊÌīÐĨÐăăðĊæ ɭ'īðÆā>ÐīĊ­ĊÌКș ŦðÐĮ­ĊÌÅðĴðĊæðĊĮÐÆĴĮȘOďďĮÐĮĴīðåÐÅķīĊÐÌ €w:wÐÐAĊŒÐĊĴďīř ðĊìďĉÐĮīÐĨÐăĮðĊĮÐÆĴĮȘ ­ĊÌTďĊðĴďīðĊæO­ÅW

FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS POSITIVE RESPONSE DECLINE WITHOUT DISTURBANCE MORE TO LEARN Whorled loosestrife responds favorably Shrub encroachment suppresses Both species appear to prefer moist \WÅZMIVLLQ[\]ZJIVKM#\PMZM[XWV[MWN  ÆW_MZQVOIVL\PZMI\MV[UIVa soil and recurrent disturbance. .ZI[MZ¼[\W^IZaQVOÅZMZMOQUM[Q[VW\ remaining Blue Ridge populations. If However, responses of these plants to well understood. Ramet production, succession progresses without routine ÅZMIZMVW\_MTT]VLMZ[\WWL OZW_\PIVLÆW_MZQVOQVKZMI[M ÅZMWZTQOP\LQ[\]ZJIVKM.ZI[MZ[ NWTTW_QVOXZM[KZQJMLÅZMIVLQ\IXXMIZ[ abundance declines with increasing to thrive with routine disturbance. competition and diminished sunlight.

123 PLANTS OF Fire-Adapted Ecozones

Nearly 2,500 plant species are known from the southern Appalachian Mountains. This list includes over 350 species known to grow in ÅZMILIX\MLMKWbWVM[

ECOZONES

POH SLPO DOAK DMOAK HERO

Dry-Mesic Oak High-Elevation Pine-Oak Heath Shortleaf Pine-Oak Dry Oak Mesic Oak Red Oak

124 TABLE KEY

KEY STRATEGY DESCRIPTION LIGHT REPRODUCTION EXAMPLES

8TIV\[\PI\MVL]ZMÅZMJa Oaks, pines, mountain EN ENDURER sprouting from below ground Shade intolerant Vegetative laurel, shrubs, forbs IN\MZÅZM and grasses

Legumes with large Plants that evade high protected seed coat EV temperatures to germinate Shade intolerant Seed EVADER and pines with sero- NZWU[MML[PWZ\TaIN\MZÅZM tinous cones

Mature plants that can resist Shade inolerant Thick protective bark RE ÅZMIVLKWV\QV]M\WOZW_ Vegetative RESISTER Shade tolerant of oaks and pines ^MOM\I\Q^MTaNWTTW_QVOÅZM

Pioneers or early successional Indiangrass, little IN INVADER plants with wind-dispersed Shade intolerant Seed bluestem, annual forbs seed. and grasses

Late-successional species Red maple, rhodo- _Q\PNM_ILIX\I\QWV[\WÅZM# AV Shade tolerant Seed dendron and AVOIDER can slowly (re)invade burned Canadian hemlock areas.

Species whose response to UN UNCERTAIN ÅZMQ[VW\_MTT]VLMZ[\WWL and requires further research.

FIRE TOLERANT FIRE ADAPTED 8TIV\[\PI\KIV_Q\P[\IVLÅZMIVL Plants that have adaptive traits are generally not completely killed. WZKWM^WT^ML_Q\PÅZM

NATURAL COMMUNITIES

ROCK GLADE FEN GRASS CARO HEATH

Southern Rock Glades and Grassy Carolina Heath Appalachian Bogs Outcrop Barrens Bald Hemlock Bald and Fens

125 TREES

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

POH DOAK DMOAK EN Acer pensylvanicum Striped Maple GA NC SC TN HERO POH SLPO DOAK 'UșAUșt' )KMZZ]JZ]U Red Maple GA NC SC TN DMOAK HERO

EN Acer saccharum Sugar Maple DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN )UMTIVKPQMZIZJWZMI Downy Serviceberry GA NC SC TN DMOAK

UN Amelanchier laevis Allegheny Serviceberry POH GA NC SC TN

“șAU Betula allegheniensis Yellow Birch DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK 'UșAU Betula lenta Sweet Birch GA NC SC TN HERO

EN Carya cordiformis Bitternut Hickory DMOAK GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' +IZaIOTIJZI Pignut Hickory POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK 'Ușt' Carya ovalis Red Hickory GA NC SC TN DMOAK HERO

EN Carya pallida Sand Hickory POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' Carya tomentosa Mockernut Hickory POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' Castanea dentata American Chestnut POH DOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Castanea pumila Allegheny Chinquapin POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Cercis canadensis Eastern Redbud DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Chionanthus virginiana Fringetree ROCK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN +WZV][ÆWZQLI Flowering Dogwood POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Diospyros virginiana American Persimmon POH DOAK GA NC SC TN

Fraxinus americana/ EN White Ash DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN JQT\UWZMIVI

“ș'U Ilex opaca American Holly SLPO DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Juglans nigra Black Walnut DMOAK GA NC SC TN

AV Juniperus virginiana Eastern Red Cedar ROCK GLADE GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK 'Uș'“șt' Liriodendron tulipifera Yellow Poplar GA NC SC TN DMOAK POH SLPO DOAK EN Magnolia fraseri Fraser’s Magnolia GA NC SC TN DMOAK

126 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN Nyssa sylvatica Black Gum POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

DOAK DMOAK HERO EN Ostrya virginiana Hop-hornbeam GA NC SC TN GLADE POH SLPO DOAK EN 7`aLMVLZ]UIZJWZM]U Sourwood GA NC SC TN DMOAK

AV 8QKMIZ]JMV[ Red Spruce HERO NC TN

'Uș'“șt'șAU Pinus echinata Shortleaf Pine SLPO DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

'Uș'“șt'șAU Pinus pungens Table Mountain Pine POH SLPO CARO GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK 'Uș'“șt'șAU Pinus rigida Pitch Pine GA NC SC TN DMOAK POH SLPO DOAK AUșt' 8QV][[\ZWJ][ Eastern White Pine GA NC SC TN DMOAK

AUșt' Pinus virginiana Virginia Pine POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

AUșt' Prunus pensylvanica Fire Cherry HERO GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Prunus serotina Black Cherry DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' 9]MZK][ITJI White Oak SLPO DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' Quercus coccinea Scarlet Oak POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' Quercus falcata Southern Red Oak SLPO DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' Quercus marilandica Blackjack Oak POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK 'Ușt' Quercus montana Chestnut Oak GA NC SC TN HERO

'Ușt' 9]MZK][Z]JZI Red Oak DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' Quercus stellata Post Oak SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

'Ușt' Quercus velutina Black Oak POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK EN :WJQVQIX[M]LWIKIKQI Black Locust GA NC SC TN HERO

EN ;I[[INZI[ITJQL]U Sassafras POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

Tilia americana var. “ș'U American Basswood HERO GA NC SC TN heterophylla

“ș'UșAU Tsuga canadensis Canada Hemlock POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

“ș'UșAU Tsuga caroliniana Carolina Hemlock POH DOAK CARO NC SC TN

127 SHRUBS

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN )UWZXPIOTIJZI Appalachian Indigo-bush POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Aralia spinosa Devil’s Walking Stick SLPO DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Aronia sp. Chokeberry POH ROCK FEN HEATH GA NC SC TN

EN +ITaKIV\P][ÆWZQL][ Carolina Allspice POH DMOAK GA NC SC TN

SLPO DOAK DMOAK EN Ceanothus americanus New Jersey Tea GA NC SC TN ROCK GLADE POH SLPO DOAK EN Chimaphila maculata Striped Wintergreen GA NC SC TN DMOAK Mountain Sweet- “ș'U Clethra acuminata POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN pepperbush

EN Corylus cornuta Beaked Hazelnut DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

SLPO DOAK DMOAK EN Crataegus spp. Hawthorn GA NC SC TN GRASS

EN Diervilla lonicera Northern Bush Honeysuckle DOAK ROCK GA NC TN

Smooth Southern Bush- EN Diervilla sessilifolia HERO ROCK HEATH NC SC TN honeysuckle

EN Epigaea repens Trailing Arbutus POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN -]JW\Za[ZMK]Z^][ Redtwig Doghobble POH DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Euonymus americanus Heart’s a’bustin’ POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Frangula caroliniana Carolina Buckthorn DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN /I]T\PMZQIXZWK]UJMV[ Eastern Teaberry POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN /IaT][[IKQIJIKKI\I Black Huckleberry POH SLPO DOAK ROCK GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK EN Gaylussacia ursina Bear Huckleberry GA NC SC TN HERO

“ș'U Hamamelis virginiana Witchhazel POH DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN 0aLZIVOMIIZJWZM[KMV[ Wild Hydrangea DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Hypericum stragulum St. Andrew’s Cross DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 1TM`IUJQO]I Carolina Holly SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK “ș'U Ilex montana Mountain Holly GA NC SC TN HERO

EN 3ITUQIJ]`QNWTQI Sand Myrtle POH ROCK HEATH GA NC TN

128 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

POH SLPO DOAK EN Kalmia latifolia Mountain Laurel GA NC SC TN DMOAK HERO CARO

EN Leucothoe fontanesiana Doghobble DMOAK FEN GA NC SC TN

Lyonia ligustrina var. EN Maleberry POH DOAK FEN HEATH GA NC SC TN ligustrina

EN Malus angustifolia Wild Crabapple POH SLPO DOAK ROCK GA NC SC TN

ITW6]\ POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TNٺ[* EN 8aZ]TIZQIX]JMZI

“ș'U :PWLWLMVLZWVIZJWZM[K]U Sweet Azalea HEATH GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK EN Rhododendron calendulaceum Flame Azalea GA NC SC TN HERO

EN Rhododendron carolinianum Carolina Rhododendron POH DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH HERO FEN CARO “ș'U :PWLWLMVLZWVKI\I_JQMV[M Catawba Rhododendron GA NC SC TN HEATH POH SLPO DOAK “ș'U Rhododendron maximum Great Rhododendron GA NC SC TN DMOAK HERO

EN Rhododendron minus Gorge Rhododendron POH ROCK CARO GA NC SC

“ș'U Rhododendron viscosum Swamp Azalea HERO HEATH GA NC SC TN

AUș'U Rhus aromatica Fragrant Sumac SLPO GA NC SC TN

EN Rhus copallinum Winged Sumac POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN :P][OTIJZI Smooth Sumac GA NC SC TN DMOAK ROCK

EN :WJQVQIPQ[XQLI^IZPQ[XQLI Bristly Locust POH DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Rosa caroliniana Carolina Rose DOAK DMOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN :]J][[XX Blackberry GA NC SC TN DMOAK HERO ROCK POH SLPO DOAK EN Symplocos tinctoria Horsesugar GA NC SC TN DMOAK

EN Vaccinium altomontanum Blue Ridge Blueberry ROCK HEATH GA NC SC TN

EN >IKKQVQ]UIZJWZM]U Farkleberry SLPO DOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN >IKKQVQ]UKWZaUJW[]U Highbush Blueberry POH FEN GA NC SC TN

EN Vaccinium erythrocarpum Highbush Cranberry DMOAK HERO HEATH GA NC TN

EN Vaccinium fuscatum Hairy Highbush Blueberry FEN GA NC SC TN

129 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN Vaccinium hirsutum Hairy Blueberry POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN Vaccinium pallidum Hillside Blueberry GA NC SC TN DMOAK

EN Vaccinium simulatum Upland Highbush Blueberry DMOAK HERO HEATH GA NC SC TN

EN Vaccinium stamineum Appalachian Deerberry POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

“ș'U >QJ]ZV]UIKMZQNWTQ]U Mapleleaf Viburnum DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

FORBS

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN Actaea podocarpa Yellow Cohosh HERO GA NC TN

EN Actaea racemosa Black Cohosh DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN, IN Ageratina altissima White Snakeroot DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Aletris farinosa Colicroot POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN )UXPQKIZXIMIJZIK\MI\I Hog-peanut DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Antennaria plantaginea Plantain Pussytoes POH DOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Arisaema triphyllum Jack in the Pulpit DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Asclepias amplexicaulis Clasping Milkweed SLPO GA NC SC TN

EN Asclepias variegata White Milkweed DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Asclepias verticillata Whorled Milkweed GLADE GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK EN Aureolaria laevigata Appalachian Oak-leech GA NC SC TN HERO

EN Aureolaria pectinata Southern Oak-leech DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Aureolaria virginica Downy Oak-leech DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Baptisia tinctoria 0WZ[MÆa?MML POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Campanula divaricata Southern Harebell POH SLPO DOAK ROCK GA NC SC TN

130 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

UN Castilleja coccinea Indian Paintbrush DMOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Caulophyllum thalictroides Blue Cohosh DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Chamaelirium luteum Fairywand DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Chrysopsis mariana Maryland Golden Aster DOAK GA NC SC TN

AV Claytonia caroliniana Carolina Springbeauty HERO GA NC TN

“ș'U +TQV\WVQI]UJMTT]TI\I Speckled Wood-lily HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Clitoria mariana *]\\MZÆa8MI POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Collinsonia canadensis Stoneroot or Richweed DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Conopholis americana Squaw-root DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK IN +WVabIKIVILMV[Q[ Horseweed GA NC SC TN DMOAK POH SLPO DOAK MIN 

EN Cynoglossum virginianum Wild Comfrey DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Cypripedium acaule Pink Lady’s Slipper POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

+aXZQXMLQ]UXIZ^QÆWZ]U^IZ EN Yellow Lady’s Slipper DMOAK GA NC SC TN X]JM[KMV[

EN Desmodium rotundifolium Roundleaf Ticktrefoil DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Dioscorea villosa Wild Yam DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Endodeca serpentaria Virginia Snakeroot SLPO DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK IN Erechtites hieracifolia Fireweed GA NC SC TN DMOAK

EN Erigeron pulchellus :WJQVӊ[8TIV\IQV DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Eryngium yuccifolium Rattlesnake Master SLPO GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Eupatorium sessilifolium Sessile-leaved Eupatorium DOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Eupatorium vaseyi Vasey’s Eupatorium DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN -]XPWZJQIKWZWTTI\I Eastern Flowering Spurge DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

Blue Ridge White Heart EN -]ZaJQIKPTWZWTMXQ[ HERO GA NC SC TN Leaved Aster

131 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

?PQ\MÆW_MZML0MIZ\ EN -]ZaJQILQ^IZQKI\I DMOAK GA NC SC TN leaved Aster

EN -]ZaJQI[]ZK]TW[I Creeping Aster POH DOAK ROCK GA NC SC

EN Eutrochium purpureum Sweet Joe Pye Weed DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK EN Galax urceolata Galax GA NC SC TN HERO

UN /ITQ]UKQZKIMbIV[ Licorice Bedstraw DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK EN Gentiana decora Appalachian Gentian GA NC SC TN HERO

EN Gillenia trifoliata Bowman’s Root DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

AV /WWLaMZIX]JM[KMV[ Downy Rattlesnake Plantain POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 0MTQIV\P][I\ZWZ]JMV[ )XXITIKPQIV;]VÆW_MZ DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Helianthus microcephalus ;UITTPMILML;]VÆW_MZ DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Hexastylis arifolia Arrowleaf Heartleaf DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Hexastylis heterophylla Variable-leaf Heartleaf POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Hexastylis shuttleworthii 4IZOMÆW_MZ0MIZ\TMIN DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 0QMZIKQ]U[KIJZ]U Rough Hawkweed DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Hieracium venosum Veiny Hawkweed POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Houstonia purpurea Summer Bluet DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Hylodesmum glutinosum Pointedleaf Ticktrefoil DMOAK GA NC SC TN

6ISMLÆW_MZML

EN Hypopithys monotropa Pinesap DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Hypoxis hirsuta Yellow Star Grass POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Ionactis linariifolia Narrowleaf Aster POH SLPO GA NC SC TN

EN Iris verna Dwarf Violet Iris POH DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 4IK\]KIÆWZQLIVI Woodland Lettuce DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Lechea racemulosa Pinweed POH SLPO GA NC SC TN

132 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN 4M[XMLMbIPQZ\I Hairy Lespedeza POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 4M[XMLMbIXZWK]UJMV[ Downy Trailing Lespedeza POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 4M[XMLMbIZMXMV[ Creeping Lespedeza SLPO POH GA NC SC TN

EN 4M[XMLMbI^QWTIKMI Violet Lespedeza DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Liatris spicata Dense Blazing Star ROCK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Ligusticum canadense Canadian Licorice-root DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK 'UșAU Lilium michauxii Carolina Lily GA NC SC TN GLADE

EN Linum virginianum Woodland Flax POH SLPO GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN 4a[QUIKPQIY]ILZQNWTQI Whorled Yellow Loosestrife GA NC SC TN DMOAK HERO DOAK DMOAK HERO “ș'U Maianthemum racemosum .IT[M;WTWUWVӊ[;MIT GA NC SC TN GLADE

AV Medeola virginica Indian Cucumber DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Melampyrum lineare Narrowleaf Cowwheat POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Mimosa microphylla Eastern Sensitive Brier POH SLPO DOAK GA NC TN SC

EN Mitchella repens Partridge Berry DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 5WVW\ZWXI]VQÆWZI Indian Pipes DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 6IJIT][[XMKQM[ Rattlesnake Root DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Parthenium integrifolium Wild Quinine DOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

UN Phryma leptostachya Lopseed DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

DOAK DMOAK ROCK 'UșAU Phytolacca americana Pokeweed GA NC SC TN GLADE POH SLPO DOAK 'UșAU Pityopsis graminifolia Grass-leaved Golden Aster GA NC SC TN DMOAK

EN Platanthera ciliaris Yellow-fringed Orchid DOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

AV Podophyllum peltatum Mayapple DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 8WTaOWVI\]UJQÆWZ]U Smooth Solomon’s Seal DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN Potentilla canadensis Dwarf Cinquefoil GA NC SC TN DMOAK

133 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN Potentilla simplex Common Cinquefoil DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Prosartes lanuginosum Yellow Mandarin DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Prosartes maculata Spotted Mandarin DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

Pseudognaphalium EN Rabbit Tobacco SLPO DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN WJ\][QNWTQ]U

EN Pycnanthemum montanum Thin-leaf Mountainmint DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

“ș'U Sanguinaria canadensis Bloodroot DMOAK GA NC SC TN

Toothed White-topped EN Sericocarpus asteroides POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN Aster Narrowleaf White-topped EN Sericocarpus linifolius SLPO GLADE GA NC SC TN Aster DOAK DMOAK ROCK EN Silene virginica Fire Pink GA NC SC TN GLADE

EN Silphium compositum Rosinweed POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK DMOAK EN ;WTQLIOWJQKWTWZ Silverrod GA NC SC TN GLADE

EN Solidago curtisii +]Z\Q[ӊ/WTLMVZWL DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Solidago erecta Slender Goldenrod POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK ROCK 'UșAU Solidago nemoralis Grey Goldenrod GA NC SC TN GLADE

EN Solidago odora Fragrant Goldenrod POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN ;WTQLIOWX]JMZ]TI Downy Goldenrod POH DOAK ROCK GA NC SC TN

EN Spiranthes cernua Nodding Ladies’-tresses POH DOAK GA NC SC TN

AV ;\MTTIZQIX]JMZI Star Chickweed DMOAK GA NC SC TN

POH DOAK HERO EN Stenanthium gramineum Eastern Featherbells GA NC SC TN GLADE

'UșAU ;\aTW[IV\PM[JQÆWZI Pencil Flower POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Symphyotrichum cordifolium Heartleaf Aster DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN Symphyotrichum patens Clasping-stem Aster GA NC SC TN GLADE POH DOAK HERO EN Symphyotrichum undulatum Wavyleaf Aster GA NC SC TN GLADE

'UșAU Tephrosia spicata Spiked Hoary-pea SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

134 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

'UșAU Tephrosia virginiana Goat’s Rue POH SLPO DMOAK GA NC SC TN

AV Thalictrum dioicum Meadowrue DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN

EN Trillium undulatum Painted Trillium HERO GA NC SC TN

EN =^]TIZQIX]JMZ]TI Appalachian Bellwort POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Vicia caroliniana Carolina Vetch DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN Viola hastata Halberd-leaf Violet GA NC SC TN DMOAK

EN Viola pedata var. pedata *QZL[NWW\>QWTM\ POH SLPO GA NC SC TN

EN Viola sagittata Arrow-leaf Violet POH SLPO GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Xerophyllum asphodeloides Eastern Turkeybeard POH DOAK GA NC SC TN

GRASSES-SEDGES

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

POH SLPO DOAK ROCK EN Andropogon gerardii Big Bluestem GA NC SC TN GLADE

EN Andropogon ternarius Bluestem SLPO GA NC SC TN

EN Andropogon ternarius Broomsedge POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN Arundinaria appalachiana Appalachian Hillcane GA NC SC TN DMOAK

EN Arundinaria gigantea Rivercane SLPO DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Aristida oligantha Three-awn Grass SLPO GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Aristida purpurascens Arrowfeather SLPO GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Brachyelytrum erectum Bearded Shorthusk DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN *ZWU][X]JM[KMV[ Hairy Woodland Brome DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

'Uș'“ Carex nigromarginata Black-edged Sedge SLPO DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

135 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

DOAK DMOAK HERO 'UșAU Carex pensylvanica Pennsylvania Sedge GA NC SC TN GLADE

'UșAU Carex virescens Ribbed Sedge DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Chasmanthium laxum Slender Spikegrass POH DMOAK FEN GA NC SC TN

EN Danthonia compressa Flattened Oatgrass HERO GRASS GA NC SC TN

EN Danthonia sericea Silky Oatgrass POH DOAK ROCK GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Danthonia spicata Poverty Oatgrass POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN ,QKPIV\PMTQ]UJW[KQQ Bosc’s Panicgrass GA NC SC TN DMOAK HERO POH SLPO DOAK 'UșAU Dichanthelium commutatum Variable Panicgrass GA NC SC TN DMOAK

'UșAU Dichanthelium depauperatum Starved Witchgrass POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

Dichanthelium dichotomum POH SLPO DOAK EN Forked Witchgrass GA NC SC TN var. dichotomum DMOAK ROCK

EN Dichanthelium latifolium Broadleaf Witchgrass SLPO DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

UN ,QKPIV\PMTQ]UTI`QÆWZ]U 7XMVÆW_MZ?Q\KPOZI[[ POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

Low White-haired EN Dichanthelium linearifolium POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN Witchgrass Dichanthelium villosissimum POH SLPO DOAK 'UșAU White-haired Witchgrass GA NC SC TN var. villosissimum GLADE

'UșAU Erianthus alopecuroides Silver Plume Grass SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Elymus hystrix Bottlebrush Grass DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

'UșAUșt' .M[\]KI[]J^MZ\QKQTTI\I Nodding Fescue DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Melica mutica <_WÆW_MZ5MTQK DOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Piptochaetium avenaceum Black Needle Grass POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Poa autumnalis Early Bluegrass DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN ;KPQbIKPaZQ]U[KWXIZQ]U Little Bluestem GA NC SC TN GLADE

'UșAUșt' Scleria ciliata var. ciliata Hairy Nutrush POH SLPO GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Scleria nitida Shining Nutrush POH SLPO DOAK NC SC

POH SLPO DOAK EN Scleria oligantha Littlehead Nutrush GA NC SC TN DMOAK

136 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN ;KTMZQIXI]KQÆWZI Carolina Nutrush POH SLPO GLADE GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Sorghastrum nutans Indiangrass POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

FERNS

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

“ș'U Athyrium asplenioides Southern Lady’s Fern DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Asplenium platyneuron Ebony Spleenwort DMOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

“ș'U Botrypus virginianus Rattlesnake Fern DMOAK GA NC SC TN

IN Diphastriastrum digitatum Running Cedar POH SLPO DMOAK GA NC SC TN

SLPO DOAK DMOAK EN ,MVV[\IML\QIX]VK\QTWJ]TI Hay-scented Fern GA NC SC TN HERO

EN Myriopteris lanosa Hairy Lip Fern ROCK GA NC SC TN

EN Myriopteris tomentosa Wooly Lip Fern ROCK GA NC SC TN

EN Claytosmunda claytoniana Interrupted Fern DMOAK HERO HEATH GA NC SC TN

EN 8IZI\PMTaX\MZQ[VW^MJWZIKMV[Q[ New York Fern DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

Pteridium latiusculum var. EN Bracken Fern POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN latiusculum

“ș'U Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas Fern DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Phegopteris hexagonoptera Broad Beech Fern DMOAK GA NC SC TN

VINES

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN Bignonia capreolata Crossvine DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Clematis viorna Leather Flower HERO GA NC SC TN

137 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

DOAK DMOAK HERO EN Clematis virginiana Virgin’s Bower GA NC SC TN ROCK FEN

EN Lathyrus venosus Smooth Veiny Peavine DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

EN Muscadinia rotundifolia Muscadine Grape SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN 8IZ\PMVWKQ[[][Y]QVY]MNWTQI Virginia Creeper DOAK DMOAK ROCK GA NC SC TN

EN ;UQTI`JWVIVW` Saw Greenbrier SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

POH SLPO DOAK EN Smilax glauca Whiteleaf Greenbrier GA NC SC TN DMOAK POH SLPO DOAK EN Smilax rotundifolia Common Greenbrier GA NC SC TN DMOAK DOAK DMOAK ROCK 'Uș'“ Toxicodendron radicans Poison Ivy GA NC SC TN GLADE

EN Vicia caroliniana Carolina Vetch DMOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Vitis spp. Wild Grapevine DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

UNCOMMON SHRUBS

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN Amelanchier sanguinea Roundleaf Shadbush ROCK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Comptonia peregrina Sweet Fern POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Fothergilla major Large Witch Alder POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Hudsonia montana Mountain Golden Heather ROCK NC

EN 6M[\ZWVQI]UJMTT]TI Nestronia POH GA NC SC TN

EN 8QMZQ[ÆWZQJ]VLI Mountain Fetterbush HEATH NC TN

AV Pyrola elliptica ?I`ÆW_MZ;PQVTMIN DMOAK NC

Rhododendron EN Cumberland Azalea HERO GA NC SC TN K]UJMZTIVLMV[M

EN Rhododendron vaseyi Pinkshell Azalea DMOAK HERO NC

EN :WJQVQIPIZ\_QOQQ Hartwig’s Locust ROCK NC SC

138 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

UN :WJQVQIPQ[XQLI^IZNMZ\QTQ[ Fruitful Locust DMOAK NC TN

EN :WJQVQIPQ[XQLI^IZSMT[MaQ 3MT[Maӊ[4WK][\ POH GA NC SC TN

EN ;WZJ][IUMZQKIVI Mountain Ash POH HEATH GRASS GA NC SC TN

“ș'U Stewartia ovata Mountain Camelia DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UNCOMMON FORBS

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

UN Adlumia fungosa Allegheny Vine DMOAK ROCK NC TN

AUș'U Cirsium carolinianum Soft Thistle SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

EN +TMQ[\M[JQNIZQI Spreading Pogonia POH SLPO GA NC SC TN

UN +WTTQV[WVQI\]JMZW[I Deepwoods Horsebalm DMOAK GA SC TN

EN Collinsonia verticillata Whorled Horsebalm DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Convallaria pseudomajalis American Lily of the Valley DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

UN Coreopsis delphiniifolia Larkspur-leaved Coreopsis POH DOAK GA TN

UN +ZWKIV\PMU]UJQKSVMTTQQ Hoary Frostweed ROCK GLADE FEN GA NC TN

UN +ZWKIV\PMU]UXZWXQVY]]U Creeping Sunrose SLPO ROCK GLADE NC TN

+aXZQXMLQ]UXIZ^QÆWZ]U^IZ EN Small Yellow Lady’s Slipper DOAK DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN XIZ^QÆWZ]U

“ș'U ,ZIJIZIUW[Q[[QUI Branching Whitlowgrass ROCK NC TN

'Uș'“ Echinacea laevigata ;UWW\P+WVMÆW_MZ SLPO GLADE GA NC SC

'Uș'“ Echinacea purpurea 8]ZXTM+WVMÆW_MZ GLADE GA NC SC TN

UN -]XPWZJQIX]ZX]ZMI Glade Spurge DMOAK NC

UN Fleischmannia incarnata Pink Thoroughwort DOAK ROCK GA NC SC TN

EN Gillenia stipulata American Ipecac DOAK DMOAK GA NC TN

139 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

'UșAU Hackelia virginiana Virginia Stickseed DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UN 0M]KPMZIX]JM[KMV[ Downy Alumroot ROCK NC SC TN

UN Hexastylis contracta Mountain Heartleaf DMOAK NC TN

EN Isotria medeoloides Small Whorled Pogonia DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Isotria verticillata Large Whorled Pogonia DMOAK GA NC SC TN

EN Liatris aspera Rough Blazing Star DMOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

EN Liatris helleri Heller’s Blazing Star ROCK NC

EN Liatris microcephala Appalachian Blazing Star DOAK GLADE GA NC SC GA

EN 4QI\ZQ[[Y]IZZ]TW[I -IZTMӊ[*TIbQVO;\IZ SLPO GLADE GA NC SC TN

Turgid Blazing Star UN Liatris turgida POH DOAK DMOAK NC Shale Barren Blazing Star

'UșAU Lysimachia fraseri .ZI[MZӊ[AMTTW_4WW[M[\ZQNM DMOAK ROCK NC TN

UN Lysimachia tonsa Appalachian Loosestrife DMOAK ROCK GA NC SC TN

'UșAU Monotropsis odorata Sweet Pinesap POH SLPO DOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Polygala senega Seneca Snakeroot DOAK GLADE GA NC SC TN

UN 8aKVIV\PMU]UJMILTMQ *MILTMӊ[5W]V\IQVUQV\ DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC TN

UN Pycnanthemum torrei

UN Pyrola americana American Wintergreen DMOAK HERO NC TN

UN Ranunculus fascicularis Early Buttercup GLADE GA NC SC TN

UN :]LJMKSQIPMTQWX[QLQ[ ;]VNIKQVO+WVMÆW_MZ GLADE GA SC

EN Sarracenia oreophila Green Pitcher Plant SLPO FEN GA NC

€UșAU Silene ovata *T]M:QLOM+I\KPÆa DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

IN Sisyrinchium dichotomum White Irisette DOAK NC

UN ;UQTI`JQT\UWZMIVI *QT\UWZMӊ[+IZZQWVÆW_MZ POH DOAK DMOAK GA NC SC

UN Solidago ptarmicoides White Goldenrod GLADE GA NC TN

140 FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

'Uș'“ Stenanthium leimanthoides Pine Barren Death Camas POH ROCK NC

UN Symphyotrichum ericoides Heath Aster GLADE GA TN

EN Symphyotrichum georgianum Georgia Aster SLPO GA SC

EN Symphyotrichum laeve Smooth Blue Aster DMOAK ROCK GLADE GA NC SC TN

UNCOMMON GRASSES-SEDGES

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

EN Calamagrostis porteri Porter’s Reed Grass POH GLADE NC SC

UN Carex hitchcockiana Hitchcock’s Sedge DMOAK NC TN

EN Carex purpurifera Purple Sedge DOAK DMOAK GA NC TN

EN Carex roanensis Roan Mountain Sedge DMOAK HERO GA NC TN

EN Carex woodii Wood’s Sedge DMOAK HERO GA NC SC TN

Deschampsia cespitosa ssp. 'Uș'“șt' Tufted Hairgrass DOAK GLADE NC glauca Elymus trachycaulus ssp. EN Slender Wheatgrass DOAK GLADE NC trachycaulus

EN Melica nitens

EN 5]PTMVJMZOQIOTWUMZI\I Muhly GLADE FEN NC

EN ;XWZWJWT][PM\MZWTMXQ[ Dropseed GLADE NC

UNCOMMON VINES

FIRE SCIENTIFIC COMMON ECOZONES AND NATURAL STRATEGY LOCATION ADAPTEDNESS NAME NAME COMMUNITIES

Clematis occidentalis EN Purple Clematis DOAK DMOAK NC var. occidentalis

141 Acknowledgments

142 The Southern Blue Ridge Fire Learning Network (SBRFLN) supported the development of this book; special thanks to the leadership of Margit Bucher and Beth Buchanan. The Nature Conservancy of North Carolina and Membership Development Program allowed Chelsea and me the time and creative space to explore this important project.

Special thanks to the folks who gave their time to discuss management successes and setbacks so Ma,MIV;QUWV:aIV2IKWJ[?ITTa)SQV8M\M*I\M[

6I\]ZITZM[W]ZKMKWV[MZ^I\QWVIVLKWV\MUXWZIZaTIVLUIVIOMUMV\JMVMÅ\[OZMI\TaNZWU ]VLMZ[\IVLQVOPW_\PM+PMZWSMMTQ^ML_Q\PÅZM?MKWV\QV]M\WTMIZVNZWU\PM\ZILQ\QWVITÅZM XZIK\QKM[WN 1VLQOMVW][)XXITIKPQIVXMWXTM\PI\][MLÅZM\WKIZMNWZ\PM[MTIVL[

Special thanks to Mike Schafale that provided both content review and authored important publications provided by the North Carolina Natural Heritage Guides to Natural Communities. The UIV_I[QV^IT]IJTMQVMV[]ZQVOٺ[JW\IVQKITM`XMZ\Q[MWN -L;KP_IZ\bUIV2W[P3MTTaIVL/IZa3I accuracy and plant table. The SBRFLN is fortunate to have them among the membership. Others who WZ\_Q\P\PMQZ\QUMIVL\PMQVNWZUI\QWV\PMaXZW^QLMLQVKT]LM"5IZS8Q[\ZIVO/ZMOٺXXWZ\ML\PQ[M[] M*ZWL2MVVQNMZ4IUJ/ZMO+WWXMZ*ZQIV8IZZٺ8PQTQXX:WJQV5IKSQM.MTQ`;\Q\P+IZZQM:ILKTQ Jessica Wells, Steve Simon, Pat Cloninger, Mike Black, Rob Klein, Matthew Keyes and Rachel Dickson.

T]M:QLOMUW]V\IQVJ]ZVQVOQ[QUUMV[M*]ZVLIa[IZMTWVOIVL*ٺWZ\ZMY]QZML\WX]TTWٺPMM> preparation time measured in weeks and months. Without the dedication, blood and sweat of KWV[MZ^I\QWVQ[\[)XXITIKPQIVÅZMUIVIOMUMV\KW]TLVW\PI^MJMMV[][\IQVMLIVL_M_W]TLVW\PI^M UWLMT[Q\M[\W[\]LaIVL\IQTWZÅZMUIVIOMUMV\XZWOZIU[.WZ\PQ[_MIZMOZI\MN]T\W\PMNWTTW_QVO 6WZ\P+IZWTQVI?QTLTQNM:M[W]ZKM[+WUUQ[[QWV":aIV2IKWJ[2QU3MMXNMZ"ٺWZOIVQbI\QWV[IVL[\I Dean Simon, Gordon Warburton, among others; USDA Forest Service Fire Management: Greg Philipp, Forrest Sutton and Chase Frisbee (Pisgah National Forest); Brian Browning (Nantahala National Forest); Marty Bentley, Ben Ingram, Brian Matoy, Amy McClave and Greg Salansky (Cherokee National Forest); Wes Bentley (Sumter National Forest); Mike Brod and Mike Davis (Chattahoochee National Forest); Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency: Wally Akins, Aubrey Deck, Bill Smith and others. We also thank Malcolm Hodges from The Nature Conservancy in Georgia and Mark Hall from South Carolina Department of Natural Resources who have dedicated their KIZMMZ[\W)XXITIKPQIVÅZMUIVIOMUMV\)TTIZM\Z]TaLMLQKI\MLXZWNM[[QWVIT[IVLTMILMZ[QVVI\]ZIT resource conservation.

Personally, I am especially thankful for the guidance provided by supervisor and mentor, Megan Sutton. Megan and Margit Bucher inspire creativity, and their support helped provide the energy to produce this book. This book was also inspired by the work of Craig Harper and Joint Fire Science Program leaders like Helen Mohr and Joe Marschal — conservationists as well as gifted communicators that \WZٺZIV[TI\MKWUXTM`[KQMV\QÅKKWVKMX\[[W\PI\KWV[MZ^I\QWVKIV\Z]TaJMIKWTTMK\Q^MM\

143 References & Recommended Reading

For help with gaining access to any of the articles referenced, please reach out to the Southern Blue Ridge Fire Learning Network.

144 )JMTTI;:>*;PMTJ]ZVMIVL6?5IK,WVITL5]T\QNIK\WZKTI[[QÅKI\QWVWN NWZM[\TIVL[KIXMMKW[a[\MU[WN 2WKI[[MM/WZOM[[W]\PMZV Appalachian Mountains, South Carolina. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33(10): 1933–1946.

Abrams, M.D. 1992. Fire and the development of oak forests. BioScience 42(5): 346–353.

Abrams, M.D. 1998. The red maple paradox. BioScience 48(5): 355–364.

Abrams, M.D. 2003. Where has all the white oak gone? BioScience 53(10): 927–939.

! IVLXZM[MV\NWZM[\KW^MZ\PZW]OPVWZ\P · 8Pa[QWOZIXPQKIVITa[Q[WN _Q\VM[[\ZMMLQ[\ZQJ]\QWVVMZ!!ٺ[:JZIU[5,IVL+5( central Pennsylvania. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 25(4): 659–668.

)JZIU[5,IVL/26W_IKSQ-`XTWZQVO\PMMIZTaIV\PZWXWKMVMJ]ZVQVOPaXW\PM[Q[IVLKTQUI\MÅZMIVWUITQM[NWZ\PMMI[\MZV=; Journal of Sustainable Forestry 34(1-2): 30–48.

Alexander, H.D., and M.A. Arthur. 2010. Implications of a predicted shift from upland oaks to red maple on forest hydrology and nutrient availability. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 40: 716–726.

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