Strengthening Independent Media Initiative

Special Report Arguments for Media Development: A Survey of Literature and References

Media Development Achievements and Obstacles Media Development is a general term that refers Media development programs have helped expand to the various assistance programs provided by and strengthen independent media enterprises international donors and actors that offer economic, around the world, especially in the past two decades. financial, technical and educational assistance to These programs have helped establish independent build and strengthen independent media—non- media outlets and improve professional standards state media enterprises owned by individuals, for journalism, make independent media outlets corporations, and non-profit organizations. Often economically more viable, reform legal and guided by the belief that independent media regulatory regimes governing media, and promote are crucial in building a functioning democratic media organizations and associations committed system, international media development programs to fostering a free press and democracy. However, aim to facilitate the free flow of information, media projects have not always been effective and transparency, government accountability, and they have often faced political and operational economic growth. problems, including unrealistic targets, failures to meet deadlines, undue reliance on expatriate staff, The US government and American foundations cost overruns, and limited focus on sustainability. have provided the bulk of funding for media development programs, followed by European and A New Paradigm? international sources such as the World Bank and Traditional media development approaches have the UN. The slow but steady increase in funding focused on training journalists and professionals, over the past two decades has exceeded $1B by building media business capacity, supporting the some estimates—reaching in 2006 around $142M development of a legal enabling environment, from the US, evenly split between government creating associations and professional organizations and private sources, and $100M from other and, more recently, advancing media literacy. countries and international organizations. The Today, many donors, implementers, and scholars level and structure of this funding is widely seen as ask if the time is ripe for a new media development insufficient, uncoordinated, unevenly distributed paradigm—one that builds on past efforts and across regions, and lacking in long-term strategy encourages more innovative approaches to funding and scope. 1 Arguments for Media Development and sustaining independent media. • Cross-platform training helps get buy- The following points highlight leading arguments in from media owners and managers and and recommendations for media development: legitimizes mid-career education in many regions.

Localized Planning and Implementation • The low cost, portability, and anonymity Some media development programs have been of new technologies offer journalists criticized as being donor-prescribed and ignoring better mobility, more protection from the core challenges facing media in a particular government oppression, and a better locale. While there may be advantages to chance for sustainability. centralized strategic planning, media development strategies are increasingly focusing on projects • New technologies also support distance organically built from the ground up and not learning for journalists, news production simply packaged for export. online and other operational changes.

• Media development programs are more • In some regions, SoJos or solo journalists successful when tailored to local needs are slowly moving into the mainstream. and designed according to a region’s In others, computer and video gaming requirements. There is no one-size-fits-all are growing more popular as a form of approach. political, social, and artistic expression, and are embraced as a platform for critique, • A media operation can only thrive training, and education. when it achieves local buy-in and is run by indigenous journalists and media • In some regions—especially in “leapfrog” professionals. development countries, new media offer a viable substitute for state-controlled or non-existent traditional media

• The digital divide remains a problem. New Media Strategy at the Center While physical access to devices and Media development programs have been slow to connectivity slowly closes, the digital skills fully realize the potential of new digital technologies. divide persists or widens in some places. Many who do utilize new technologies tend to In regions where the digital divide has do so in the background, rather than incorporate considerably narrowed—including the US them strategically. and Europe—information overload may be the problem. • New media are having an immense impact on news—including the impact of citizen journalism, cell phones as news devices, bloggers as journalists, social networking sites, viral news distribution, growing online censorship, and shifting business models.

2 Arguments for Media Development

Media Literacy as a Catalyst document success, assess transferability A public educated about the roles and responsibilities across regions, and understand causes of of media and their function in society can offer failure. a powerful reinforcement to independent media. Media literacy and media education, however, • Rigorous, independent research is needed are often overlooked components of media to provide policy and operational guidance development. to decision-makers in donor agencies, and to suggest areas where donor collaboration • The Internet, satellite television, cell could accelerate progress. phones, MP3 players, and email have injected more choices into the information • Examples of needed research include: landscape, and media literacy programs impact of media development programs are means to help audiences to make sense on political participation, access to health of them and put them to best use. services, business formation, income distribution and other development indices; • Strengthening media literacy (K12 to comparative analysis of various legal and college and beyond) may further public regulatory systems on media growth support for independent media and help and journalistic independence; effects commit government officials to more open of privatization of state-owned media policies. on public interest programming; factors essential to economic viability of newly established media outlets in transition and • Media literacy includes learning how to post-conflict societies. create media messages and to utilize new media technologies to foster political, economic and social development. A Legally-Enabling Environment • Many university programs in developing Despite the centrality of the legally-enabling countries suffer from entrenched faculty, environment, work in this area has been outdated curricula and teaching methods, challenging, investment has been episodic, and and offer little practical experience to results have been mixed. journalists or students generally. • Donors have encountered numerous obstacles in promoting legal and regulatory Research and Independent Evaluations reforms. Governments are reluctant to introduce reforms that undermine their Donors and implementers have published very few control over the media. The process to independent evaluations on media development. revise legislation requires time and political The academic community has also largely ignored capital. Firms that own broadcasting the topic—perhaps due to prevailing ignorance licenses oppose change that could erode about the field and to the perceived difficulty in their dominance. accessing relevant data. • Even when reforms occur, poor • Effective research methods are needed implementation often limits the impact. to evaluate media development projects,

3 Arguments for Media Development

• The media law profession is weak in many • New media may lower costs and offer countries. opportunities to serve niche audiences as part of bundled or pay services. • Donors and implementers lack access to information on media laws, relevant • Private investment plays a critical role NGOs, and expert assistance. in the development of satellite and conventional broadcasting, newspapers and • Pooled resources for the legal defense of periodicals, internet and cellular services, journalists and media organizations is yet connections to public investment are needed, as is a global network of media often absent or problematic. defense lawyers. • Commercial constraints can limit media freedom as acutely as political interference. Patient Capital for Sustainability Most media start-ups in emerging or transitional societies require more than short-term support to achieve sustainability, often several stages of Cross-Cultural Capacity-Building coordinated capital infusion. Capacity building and training should incorporate non-traditional media, news products and • Most donor funding, however, is short- producers, and seek non-news participants, term and uncoordinated. especially in conflict regions.

• There is no one-size-fits-all formula for • Insufficient training is available for local sustainability. watchdog groups that monitor press freedom and provide protection for journalists. • Not every worthwhile media project can achieve sustainability. • Although many donors are interested in niches such as investigative, health or • Development of business skills alongside business reporting, the need for general journalistic training is an essential part of reporting and basic skills remains central. a sustainability strategy.

• Public service values and ethics training • Advertising support is only one model for are more effective when combined with reaching sustainability. Weak economies, practical and technical training, rather unfavorable tax laws and government than taught separately. interference may impede viability from advertising revenue. • Media with a well-defined political viewpoints and narrowcasters who validate • Aggregation of audiences across markets group prejudices are increasingly popular may be one way to increase advertising in many regions. potential, but many regions lack mechanism for such strategies. • Initiatives are needed that educate 4 Arguments for Media Development

journalists on covering stories that More Effectiveness, Less Redundancy may incite religious, ethnic, or national Coordination and greater efficiency are needed conflict. among government and private donors to enhance effectiveness. • Music and talk show hosts, among • Agreement on information reporting others, who have provided the greatest standards and greater transparency on opportunities for hate speech in some goals and grant recipients can reduce situations, should be included in training redundancy and increase cooperation and on conflict reporting. effectiveness.

• Greater disclosure of strategic plans Maintaining Integrity and Credibility and regional concentrations can offer Conscious strategies are needed to enhance the better targeting of resources and accurate credibility of donors and media development evaluation. professionals in the eyes of the served communities and countries.

• Media assistance programs often encounter doubts and outright hostility in recipient countries. Absence of transparency on the identity and purposes of donors makes gaining trust and credibility more difficult.

• Media development assistance is often confused with propaganda or efforts to sway public opinion to favor a particular political outcome.

• There is a risk that media development becomes synonymous with political warfare.

• Media donors should do all they can to support the independence of local partners and media voices and avoid political bias that undermines long-term credibility.

5 Arguments for Media Development

References Abdi, Jamal, & Deane, James. (2008). The US_Public_and_Private_Funding_of_Media_ Kenyan 2007 Elections and their Aftermath: the Development.pdf Role of Media and Communication. An Analysis. Retrieved from http://www.salzburgseminar.org/ Hume, Ellen. (2002, May). The Media Missionaries: mediafiles/MEDIA38971.pdf American Support for International Journalism. Retrieved from http://www.ellenhume.com/ Barker, Michael J. (2008). Democracy or articles/missionaries1_contents.html polyarchy? US-funded media developments in Afghanistan and Iraq post 9/11. Media, Culture Hyman, Gerald, F. (2008). Assessing Secretary of & Society, 30(1), 109-130. State Rice`s Reform of U.S. Foreign Assistance. The Salzburg Global Seminar. Retrieved from Blau, Andrew. (2004). The Future of Independent http://www.salzburgseminar.org/mediafiles/ Media. Deeper News, 10(1), 1-48. Global MEDIA38970.pdf Business Network. Retrieved from http://www. gbn.com/GBNDocumentDisplayServlet.srv?aid= IJNet.org launches sophisticated social networking 34045&url=%2FUploadDocumentDisplayServle tools and new media-development platform. t.srv%3Fid%3D29752 (2008). International Center for Journalists. Retrieved from http://www.icfj.org/PressBox/ Brooten, Lisa. (2006). Political Violence and PressReleases/IJNetorgReleasesNewSite/ Journalism in a Multiethnic State: A Case Study tabid/962/Default.aspx of Burma (Myanmar). Journal of Communication Inquiry 30(4), 354-373. Independent Media Development Abroad: Challenges Exist in Implementing U.S. Efforts Emerging Journalism. (2007, Sept. 15). The and Measuring Results. (2005, July). United States Economist, 384(8546). Government Accountability Office (GAO).

Empowering Independent Media: U.S. Efforts Kalathil, Shanthi. (2008). Scaling a Changing Foster Free and Independent News Around the Curve: Traditional Media Development and the World. (2008). Center for International Media New Media. Center for International Media Assistance (CIMA). Retrieved from http:// Assistance (CIMA). Retrieved from http://www. www.ned.org/cima/CIMA-Empowering_ ned.org/cima/CIMA-New_Media-Report.pdf Independent_Media.pdf Kaplan, David E. (2007). Global Investigative Graves, Peter. (2007a). Independent Media’s Vital Journalism: Strategies for Support. Center Role in Development. Center for International for International Media Assistance (CIMA). Media Assistance (CIMA). Retrieved from http:// Retrieved from http://www.ned.org/cima/CIMA- www.ned.org/cima/CIMA-Media’s_Vital_Role_ Investigative_Journalism_Report.pdf in_Development-Report.pdf Kumar, Krishna. (2006). International Assistance Graves, Peter. (2007b). US Public and Private to Promote Independent Media in Transition and Funding of Independent Media Abroad. Center Post-conflict Societies. Democratization, 13(4), for International Media Assistance (CIMA). 652-667. Retrieved from http://www.ned.org/cima/CIMA-

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Media Law Assistance: Establishing an Enabling Toward Economic Sustainability of the Media Environment for Free Media to Flourish. (2007). in Developing Countries. (2007). Center for Center for International Media Assistance International Media Assistance (CIMA). (CIMA). Retrieved from http://www.ned.org/ Retrieved from http://www.ned.org/cima/CIMA- cima/CIMA-Legal_Enabling_Environment- Economic_Sustainability-Working_Group_ Working_Group_Report.pdf Report.pdf

Myers, Mary. (2008). Local Radio: Fostering Van Dijk, Jan. A.G.M. (2006). Digital divide Community Development or Ethnic Hatred. research, achievements and shortcomings. Science. The Salzburg Global Seminar. Retrieved from Poetics, 34, 221-235. http://www.salzburgseminar.org/mediafiles/ MEDIA38990.pdf

Myers, Mary. (2007a). Stock-take of Media and Information for Accountability. The Salzburg Global Seminar. Retrieved from http://www. salzburgseminar.org/mediafiles/MEDIA37988. pdf

Myers, Mary. (2007b). Donor Support for Media Development: The Demand for Accountability. The Salzburg Global Seminar. Retrieved from http://www.salzburgseminar.org/mediafiles/ MEDIA37989.pdf

Odugbemi, Sina, and Jacobson, Thomas. Strengthening Independent Media is an inititiave (2008). Governance Reform Under Real-World of the Salzurg Global Seminar, an international, Conditions: Citizens, Stakeholders, and Voice. non-governmental organization that convenes World Bank Publications. imaginative thinkers from different cultures and institutions, organizes problem-focused initia- Olson, Ann C. (2008). The Role of Media tives, supports leadership development, and en- Support Organizations and Public Literacy in gages opinion-makers in partnership with leading Strengthening Independent Media Worldwide. institutions from around the world. Center for International Media Assistance www.SalzburgGlobal.org (CIMA). Retrieved from http://www.ned.org/ cima/CIMA-Media_Support_Organizations_ For more information on the SIM, please contact: and_Media_Literacy-Report.pdf Benjamin Glahn Deputy Chief Program Officer Sparks, Colin. (2008). Globalization, Development Salzburg Global Seminar and the Mass Media. SAGE Publications. [email protected]

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