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Macroalgae Biorefinery from Kappaphycus Alvarezii: Conversion Modeling and Performance Prediction for India and Philippines As Examples

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Macroalgae Biorefinery from Kappaphycus Alvarezii: Conversion Modeling and Performance Prediction for India and Philippines As Examples Bioenerg. Res. DOI 10.1007/s12155-017-9874-z Macroalgae Biorefinery from Kappaphycus alvarezii: Conversion Modeling and Performance Prediction for India and Philippines as Examples Kapilkumar Ingle1 & Edward Vitkin2 & Arthur Robin1 & Zohar Yakhini2,3 & Daniel Mishori1,4 & Alexander Golberg 1 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2017 Abstract Marine macroalgae are potential sustainable feed- Keywords Energy system design . Exergy . Fermentation stock for biorefinery. However, this use of macroalgae is lim- modeling . Macroalgal biorefinery . Philippines . India . ited today mostly because macroalgae farming takes place in Bioethanol . Global justice . Kappaphycus alvarezii rural areas in medium- and low-income countries, where tech- nologies to convert this biomass to chemicals and biofuels are not available. The goal of this work is to develop models to Introduction enable optimization of material and exergy flows in macroalgal biorefineries. We developed models for the cur- Our civilization today is based on fossil fuel consumption. rently widely cultivated red macroalgae Kappaphycus Fossil resources and their derivatives are used in all productive alvarezii being biorefined for the production of bioethanol, sectors of the economy. In addition to being a non-renewable carrageenan, fertilizer, and biogas. Using flux balance analy- resource, fossil fuel extraction, processing, and end product sis, we developed a computational model that allows the pre- uses are involved in numerous negative environmental im- diction of various fermentation scenarios and the identifica- pacts including climate change, water quality degradation, tion of the most efficient conversion of K. alvarezii to and pollution of air and land [1]. Moreover, the unequal dis- bioethanol. Furthermore, we propose the potential implemen- tribution of fossil fuel is known to be a source of geopolitical tation of these models in rural farms that currently cultivate tensions [1]. Such impacts are driving and will continue to Kappaphycus in Philippines and in India. drive changes to economies, notably by moving the global economy out of fossil-based energy, long before the full de- pletion of fossil resources [2–5]. Societies need to develop new sources of energy and materials, which will support long-term development of a human civilization while preserv- ing ecosystems and their biodiversity [1, 6]. The bioeconomy Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article provides a possible solution for the demand on the resources (https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-017-9874-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. by substitution of the non-renewable resources with resources derived from renewable biomass [7–9]. * Alexander Golberg A fundamental unit that will enable the bioeconomy [email protected] implementations is the biorefinery [10]; this is a collective term for the complex system that includes biomass produc- 1 Porter School of Environmental Studies, Tel Aviv University, Tel tion, transportation, conversion into products, and distribution Aviv, Israel of the latter [11–14]. Current strategies for food production 2 Computer Science Department, Technion, Haifa, Israel and renewable energy generation rely mostly on the classic 3 School of Computer Science, Interdisciplinary Center, agriculture. However, a key issue for biomass for energy pro- Herzeliya, Israel duction is land availability [15, 16]. At the same time, an 4 Department of Geography and the Human Environment, Tel Aviv expanding body of evidence has demonstrated that marine University, Tel Aviv, Israel macroalgae (seaweeds), cultivated offshore, can provide a Bioenerg. Res. sustainable alternative source of biomass for the sustainable However, to the best our knowledge, there has been no generation of food, fuel, and chemicals [17–24]. Macroalgal analysis on the integration of the multiple products from biorefineries can contribute to regeneration in a circular econ- K. alvarezii so far. In this work, we developed and optimized omy and thus play a role in environmental restoration [23]and a model of the integrated K. alvarezii-based biorefinery, which in mitigating climate change [25]. produces carrageenan, ethanol, fertilizer, and biogas for the Design of a sustainable macroalgal biorefinery process, local coastal communities in developing countries. To demon- which will generate sustainable food, fuels, and chemicals, strate the potential of Kappaphycus biomass biorefinery, we is a complex task and is largely influenced by local consider the production scenario in existing small farms in raw material availability, advances in multiple technolo- India and the Philippines, countries with dynamic seaweed gies, and socio-economic conditions [10, 26]. The key markets that support national bioethanol production with rel- biorefinery design questions relate to the location of the evant policies (Philippines’ Biofuel Act in 2006 and India’s systems and to how to choose the feedstock and processing National Policy on Biofuels from 2009). and conversion technologies [16, 27]. Economically effi- cient and socially and environmentally sustainable conver- sion of biomass into valuable products is a major contem- porary challenge for science, governments, and businesses Methods worldwide [5, 12, 28]. A key challenge is to determine the products and the process that will maximize the value of the Flux Balance Analysis Model of Seaweed Biomass biomass. Biorefinery models, which include materials, en- Fermentation for Biorefinery Exergy Optimization ergy, and information fluxes, are essential for the optimiza- tion and implementation of this approach in economy Optimization of energy and mass flow efficiency is essential [29–31]. Even though modeling for biorefineries is an ac- in sustainable management of any process [45, 46]. Early tive field of research [11, 23, 31–33], very few models have works on optimizing systems for producing energy and been applied to marine macroalgae biomass [34]. chemicals focused on optimizing energy flows using the first Moreover, models developed for other types of biomass law of thermodynamics. This direction led to the development are rarely applicable to marinemacroalgaebiomasssetup of one of the more widely used methods in resources account- due to carbohydrate differences [35], cell wall composition, ing—life cycle assessment (LCA). However, LCA and its and absence or low contents of lignin. These limitations variations do not take into account all the energy carriers emphasize the importance of the development of dedicated and the inevitable irreversibility of processes [47]. These irre- models for macroalgae biorefineries. versibility effects are addressed in the context of the second The goal of this work is to develop models to enable opti- lawofthermodynamics[48]. Studies addressing the irrevers- mization of material and exergy flows in macroalgae ibility of the process that occurs in anthropic energy conver- biorefineries. In this study, we specifically focus on the poten- sion systems led to the concept of “energy available to do a tial of the red commercial species Kappaphycus alvarezii. work,” [49]coined“exergy” [50]. The goal of the optimiza- This species is of particular interest as it is currently one of tion is to maximize the exergy produced by the system per the most widely cultivated macroalgae species [36]. invested exergy, as was shown for energy, chemical, and met- K. alvarezii shows relatively higher growth rate compared to allurgical processes [51]. In the biorefinery field, the goal of a other Kappaphycus macroalgae with biomass yield ranging process designer is to reduce the exergy losses during biomass − − from 12 to 45 dry tons ha 1 year 1 [37, 38]. Carrageenan processing, increasing the efficiency ηmbr of the process derived from this macroalgae makes K. alvarezii highly valu- (Eq. 1)[13, 52, 53]. able so its cultivation provides jobs and commercial opportu- nities to numerous poor communities in coastal areas of de- e f þ ee þ ec veloping countries [39]. After carrageenan extraction, approx- ηmbr ¼ ð1Þ es e þ em e þ em þ ek þ el þ eeco imately 60 to 70% resultant solid fraction is considered today as waste [40]. However, this waste contains high concentra- where the inputs to the process are represented by an exergy tions of carbohydrates, which can be hydrolyzed to monosac- stream of solar energy supply (es_e), mechanical energy sup- charides and then converted into biofuels [41–43]. In addition, ply, (em_e), materials (em), capital inflow (ek), and human labor the production of liquid biofertilizer (sap) from fresh (el), and ecosystem services represented by eco-exergy (eeco). K. alvarezii prior to drying and processing for carrageenan The outputs are the delivered exergy contained in food prod- production has been reported [44]. This biofertilizer has prov- ucts such as carrageenan (ef), useful energy such as biofuels en to have many benefits on local crop yield and resistance (ee), and chemicals, such as fertilizers (ec). The irreversibly and is easy to produce and use allowing the consideration of destroyed exergy in this process includes the streams of such process for rural applications. exergy rejection to the environment (een), material waste Bioenerg. Res. (ew), and eco-exergy information loss (or gain) (eeco-c). This constituents into units of biomass and Eqs. 2 and 3 are the ! section describes a computational approach to reduce the constrains. A metabolite flux v that attains a
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