Odisha Review ISSN 0970-8669

Maritime Culture and Heritage of Ancient

Pradeep Kumar Panda

From ancient times to the mid twentieth century, However, traces of evidence are found reflected the size and structure of the land of Odia speaking in the works of literature like and poems; people frequently varied owing to repeated novels and short stories of various traditional, changes in its polity. Nevertheless, its location on contemporary and subsequent writers. the coast of the Bay of and adventurous The present name ‘Odisha’ or Odisha has enterprise of the Odia’s immensely contributed got its genesis in the Greek “Oretes” of Pliny and to the growth and development of the overseas the Sanskrit ‘Odras’ of the . trade and maritime activities of India in general According to Dr. N.K.Sahu the two terms seem and that of Odisha in particular. The paucity of to have been suggested by the term ‘Or’ or suitable roads and the existence of a number of ‘Orua’, meaning rice. In fact, the word ‘Orua’ rivers and villages on their banks had further prevalent in Odisha since early times seems to be motivated, rather compelled the people of Odisha the same as the Greek ‘Oruza’, meaning rice. The to take resort to the riverine routes for internal Oxford Dictionary states that ‘Oruza’ is a loan transport of goods and passengers as well. word in Greek derived from some Oriental Consequently a number of port towns on the coast source. The ‘Oretes’ or ‘Or’ (Odra) people may, of the Bay of Bengal developed under the control therefore, mean either the ‘rice eating’ or the ‘rice and patronage of the people of Odisha. Various growing’ people. The people of the geographical places of the land assumed greater importance division between the river Ganges and the river owing to their direct or indirect association with Godavari identified themselves with the names like the maritime activities. These places were noted ‘’, ‘Odra Desa’, ‘Utkala’, ‘Urshin’, for production and marketing of goods, and for ‘Udravisau’, ‘Jajnagar-Udisa’, ‘’, given by their ship building and repairing industries. Their different authors of different places and times. importance gradually decreased when their Evidences of the extent of ancient Odisha are indulgence in maritime activities ceased for reasons found in ‘Matsya purana’ and ‘Kurma purana’. what-so-ever, which are discussed separately. In the words of Sri Patnaik, "the rich Sources of the history of ancient Odisha are not exuberance of the alluvial soil of the coastal region as vocal as expected, towards expressing the created by multiple streams and rivers with a long glorious maritime aspects of such places. sea-base, washed by the swirling waters of the

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Bay of Bengal as well as a vast hinterland and Mahameghvahana Aira which is known highlands with all the beauties and bounties of from his famous . In one nature constituted Odisha in the hoary past. It was of his welfare works he renovated and extended then stretched from the Ganges to the Godavari the aqueduct, which the Nanda King had and from Amarkantak hills to the Bay of Bengal”. constructed three centuries ago. The capital of The puranas describe Amarkantak hill as situated Kalinga under Kharavela was Kalinganagari; (also in the west of Kalinga. The political geography of mentioned as 'Nagar' in the Hathigumpha this glorious land underwent remarkable changes Inscription), which is identified with modern in the subsequent periods of history depending Sishupalagarh near . The upon the prevalent political conditions. construction of the aqueduct in the heart of the The whole of the coastal tract of Kalinga Kingdom by Mahapadmananda in fourth century was under the suzereignty of Mahapadmananda, B.C. and its renovation and extension by during 4th century B.C., when he excavated an Kharavela in the first century B.C. can be aqueduct in the centre of that region, which was considered as one of the primary steps of royal renovated and extended up to Kalinganagari by patronage for internal riverine trade, transport and Kharavela, after three hundred years. This has irrigation in ancient Odisha. ’s missionary been inferred by many historians like zeal and use of seaports on the coast of Kalinga Dr. N.K.Sahu and others from the Hathigumpha for the despatch of convoys for the propagation Inscription of Kharavela. The fact that of might have indirectly contributed to Mahapadmananda conquered situated the enhancement of the status of the ports. This to the south west of Kalinga beyond the river might have paved the way for the extension of Godavari, is an indirect evidence of the fact that attention and the patronage of feudal chiefs, at that time the territory of Kalinga was extended Amatyas, Sresthis and the ministers of Ashoka, at least up to the river Godavari. in the subsequent years. But the steps taken by Mahapadmananda and Kharavela were directly In 261 B.C. Kalinga became a province intended for the patronization of internal maritime of the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka, Toshali (modern in District) being its capital. activities and development of agriculture. The Somapa, near modern Jaugarh in Chedi power was extended up to the Andhra District, subsequently developed as the secondary country even after Kharavela. headquarters of the Mauryan Kalinga. One of the Maritime Culture and Heritage of Odisha basic factors that motivated Ashoka to conquer Located on the eastern coast of India, Kalinga was to capture the sea coast with its rich the ancient state of Odisha extended from the ports for the expansion of the maritime activities Ganges to the Godavari River, including parts of of the Magadhan Empire, which was kept in modern , Odisha, and Andhra narrow limits as the entire sea coast from Ganges Pradesh. The navigable rivers, including the downwards remained under the control of Ganges, , Vamsadhara and Godavari Kalinga. provided access to the interior, where precious In the first century B.C. Kalinga became and semi-precious stones were found, and their a strong power under the Chedi King deltas provided natural harbours. From these

40 NOVEMBER - 2020 Odisha Review ISSN 0970-8669 harbours, the people of the region traded by sea Early historical sources record that with Ceylon in the south, with Burma in the east, Kalinga became subject to in 362 BC, and further afield with the states of the Maritime regained independence during a civil war in Southeast Asia, Indochina and China. The Magadha around 320 BC, but around 261 BC maritime activity of Kalinga was so extensive that was conquered by the Maurya emperor Ashoka what is now called the Bay of Bengal was once (269 BC to 232 BC). The site at Sisupalagarh, called the Sea of Kalinga. The coastline is occupied from the 3rd century BC to the 4th unstable. The southwest monsoon carries sediment century AD, has been identified with , the along the coast, at times forming bars and spits provincial capital of Ashoka, and with that protect the harbours, at other times eroding Kalinganagari, the capital city of Kalinga after it the protective breakwaters. The rivers carry silt, regained independence early in the 1st century BC. extending their deltas and filling the former The history of the following centuries is complex. harbours. For this reason, some of the ports named At times the north and south of Kalinga were in ancient times are no longer in existence, or have separate states, at times united. Sometimes greatly declined. For example, was Kalinga was independent, sometimes it was an important harbour, but later became unusable tributary to a more powerful neighbour. by deep water vessels due to silting. Some of the The Bhauma-Kara dynasty ruled over ports mentioned by the geographer Ptolemy in Utkal, as the northern and eastern part of Odisha the 2nd century AD were Nanigaina (Puri), was then known, from the 8th to 10th centuries Katikardama (Kataka) and Kannagara AD. These rulers paid tribute to Devapala (810– (Konarak). Ptolemy did not refer to the important 850 AD), ruler of the of Bengal, but ports of Manikapatna, Palur, Chelitalo, Utkal regained its independence from his Kalingapatnam, Pithunda and Khalkatapatna. successors. For a period, the rulers of Utkal were Writing later in the 9th and 10th centuries CE, forced to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Tamil Arab sources mention Odisha, Ganjam, Kalinganagar, Keylkan, Al- and Nubin. After under their king Rajendra Chola I the 15th century, ports included , Pipili, (1012–1044), with whom they became allied by Ganjam, Harishapur, Chandabali and Dhamra. marriage. After regaining independence, Anantavarman Chodagangadeva (1078–1191) Excavations at Golbai Sasan have shown established control over a wide region from the a Neolithic culture dating to as early as ca. 2300 Ganges to the Godavari, moving his capital from BC, followed by a (copper age) Kalinganagar to . The power of Odisha culture and then an Iron age culture starting around waxed and waned over the following centuries, 900 BC. Tools found at this site indicate boat but it was not until 1586 that Odisha finally lost building, perhaps for coastal trade. Fish bones, its independence. Rules and regulations regarding fishing hooks, barbed spears and harpoons show construction of ships were recorded in the that fishing was an important part of the economy. Sanskrit Juktikalpataru. The Madalapanji records Some artefacts of the Chalcolithic period are that king Bhoja built many ships with local wood. similar to artefacts found in Vietnam, indicating The recovery of many woodworking adzes and possible contact with Indochina at a very early other artefacts from Chilika Lake shows that period. Golabai was a boat-building centre.

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Terracotta seals from Bangarh and Palur, near the Rushikulya River in the Chandraketugarh (400 BC to 100 BC) depict , was an important port in the 2nd seagoing vessels carrying containing corn. The century AD. Archaeological exploration has ships have a single mast with a square sail. The unearthed fragments of Chinese celadon ware, earliest depiction of ships in Odisha is in a Roman rouletted pottery and amphora pieces, sculptured frieze showing two ships, found near showing that the port carried out significant the Brahmeswar temple, Bhubaneswar, and now international trade. An unusual medallion has a preserved in the Odisha State Museum. The first Kushana-style king with a Brahmi inscription on ship has standing elephants in the front part, two one side, and a Roman head with a Roman people seated in the centre and two sailor with inscription on the other. A Roman coin of the oars at the rear steering the ship. emperor Tiberius has been found at Salihundam, and other Roman coins have been found at other From June to September the summer sites, giving further evidence of trade with the monsoons blow from the southwest, from Ceylon Roman Empire. towards Kalinga. From December to early Trade with Southeast Asia was March, the retreating monsoons blow in the established by the 1st century AD, and may have reverse direction. Southeast Asia has similar much earlier origins. Later findings include 12th seasonal wind patterns. Over , in July century Ceylonese coins and 14th century Chinese and August the winds blow from Australia in a coins. Similar coins from Kotchina in Sumatra northwesterly direction, shifting towards a point to a triangular trade between Odisha, Ceylon northeasterly direction as they cross the equator. and Sumatra. Trading was not without risks. The The pattern reverses during January and February. kings of Kalinga, Siam and Java had to Early navigators would have exploited these periodically mount expeditions to put down Malay seasonal winds, navigating by the stars, the color and Bugis pirates operating in the Strait of of the water, the presence of sea snakes, and Malacca and throughout Maritime Southeast observation of the flights of sea crows and other Asia. homing birds. Manikapatna was a port on the banks of The ships of Kalinga were not able to Chilika that flourished from early historical times make long sea voyages without stopping along until the 19th century AD. Excavations have found the way for food and water. Ships outbound from many types of pottery from different parts of India, Tamralipta would have followed the Burmese and coins from Ceylon and China. The more coast, stopping at the Nicobar islands, a one modern levels contain Chinese celadon and month journey. From there, they continued to the porcelain, and Arabic glazed pottery. An 18th- southeast, then sailed down the Malay Peninsula century Mosque has an inscription saying sailors and through the strait of Malacca, and onward to and traders prayed there before setting out on Java or Bali, or headed northeast to Indochina or their voyages. China. An alternative route was southward down According to a 6th century AD source, the coast of India, perhaps stopping in Ceylon, Kalinga was famous for its elephants, for which it then southeast to Sumatra. found a market in Ceylon, along with precious

42 NOVEMBER - 2020 Odisha Review ISSN 0970-8669 stones, ivory, pepper, betel nuts and fine textiles. India such as Ganjam, Kalingapatnam and others In return, Kalinga imported pearl and silver from are protected by spits. The ports owe their Ceylon. Corn and rice were also exported. existence to the projection afforded by bars and Traders imported spices and sandalwood from spits. The beach features work as natural the east, some if it destined for onward transport breakwaters, providing relatively sheltered to the Mediterranean market. A boat depicted in anchorage to these ports (Ahmad 1972). Further, the Sun Temple of Konarak in the 13th century the rivers of Odisha have created large deltas at contains a giraffe, indicating trade with Africa, their confluence with the Bay of Bengal. The presumably carried on Arab vessels. Mahanadi delta starts its projection on north east Between the 11th and 16th centuries CE, of Chilika lake. The sediments brought by the name Kalinga was gradually replaced by Odra longshore drifting from the southwest during the Desa, Uddisa and eventually Odisha. During the Southwest monsoon, and currents or drifts are rule of Kapilendradeva (1435–1466 AD) the arrested in the Chilika lake. Starting from east independent Oriya state established political there is a straight shoreline for about 120 km supremacy over a vast territory outside the limits between the Mahanadi delta and Srikakulam. of geographical Odisha, ruling from the Ganges There are only two marine inlets within these long to Arcot in the south. His successors retained their stretches, one at the narrow mouth (400-600 m) hold over an extensive territory. During the rule of the Chilika lake and the other on the mouth of of Prataprudradeva, from 1497 AD to 1541 AD, the Rushikulya river. Chilika lake is located on the kingdom extended from the Hooghly and the southwest corner of the Mahanadi delta and districts of West Bengal to the Guntur connected with the sea through a tidal inlet. It has district of . Arabian sailors began wide sandy beach ridges and barrier spits which to intrude into the Bay of Bengal as early as the separates it from the Bay of Bengal. 8th century, and later Portuguese, Dutch, English Ptolemy’s Geography of Ancient India, and French ships became dominant, reducing the (2nd Century A.D.), mentions that major and sailors of Odisha to the coastal trade. In 1586, prosperous ports of Odisha such as Nanigaina the Muslim ruler of Bengal, Sulaiman Khan (Puri), Katikardama (Kataka or Cuttack), Karrani succeeded in conquering the land, ending Kannagara (Konarak), and river mouths Manada its independence. Odisha was subsequently ceded (Mahanadi), Tyndis (Brahmani), Dosaron to the Marathas in 1751, and came under British (Baitarani), Adams (Subarnarekha), Minagara rule during the Second Anglo- War () and Kosamba (Pipili or Balasore) had (1803–1805). overseas trade relations (McCrindle 1985). The physical features of the coastal However, Ptolemy did not refer to the other ports regions of India are a sort of terra incognita. The of Odisha namely Manikapatna, Palur, Che-li-ta- coastal plains of Odisha are narrow in the north, lo, Kalingapatnam, Pithunda, Khalkatapatna, wide in the middle, and narrow in the south (Sinha which also played a dominant role in the maritime 1971). Coastal Odisha is characterised by wide history of Odisha. Subsequently, Arab and deltas. The monsoons are a great force in shaping Persian writers of the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. the shore features. The ports on the east coast of throw valuable light on the sea borne trade and

NOVEMBER - 2020 43 ISSN 0970-8669 Odisha Review seaports of Odisha. Ibn Khurdahbin, Ibn Rasta This ware was manufactured at Salihundam, and the anonymous author of the Hadud-al- Alam Satanikota, and Kesarapalle of Andhra Pradesh mention the main places and ports of Odisha under and distributed to the places located on the west the Bhaumakara dynasty namely Mahisya and northeast of Andhra Pradesh. The presence (Midnapore), Jharkharo (hilly tracts), Odisha of Rouletted Ware in Bali, Anuradhapura and Java (Odisha proper) and Ganjam (South Odisha). In indicates that it might have come from Arikamedu the Andhra region (a part of the Telugu speaking or some other sites of Andhra Pradesh (Nigam territory) the main ports were Kalinganagar, 2001). Begley (1983) has suggested that Keylkan, Al-Lava and Nubin of which last three Arikamedu was the main centre for the production have not been identified (Panigrahi 1981). The of the Rouletted pottery in large quantity for trade other post 15th century ports were Balasore, Pipili, and domestic uses. Ganjam, Harishapur, Chandabali and Dhamra It is believed that the Rouletted Ware is which are worth mentioning here due to their role the evidence of Indo-Roman trade, and was in the maritime activities of Odisha during the imported from the Roman Empire. The coarser colonial period (Tripati 1997). Out of all these varieties were made in India. The XRD diffraction ports, some were active and continued to be so analysis (Gogte 2000) of Rouletted ware of South for long periods. Some ports became prominent India and Southeast Asia shows that the during a particular period and perished or lost mineralogical contents and the soil samples from their significance subsequently. Many ports were coastal Bengal are the same. Rouletted Ware of used for export of commodities to far off countries, Manikapatna is similar to that of and while some ports were meant only for internal Arikamedu as far as the mineral content is trade and transport by boats. concerned. Knobbed Ware has been reported The archaeological excavations at for the first time from Sisupalgarh in Odisha, then Sisupalgarh, , Tamralipti, Palur, at Jaugada, Lalitagiri, Manikapatna, and Manikapatna, Khalkatapatna, Kalingapatnam Radhanagar (Mishra 2000). Subsequently, have yielded evidences of foreign contacts during knobbed vessels have been reported from early centuries of the Christian era. The northern Andhra Pradesh, coastal Bengal and excavations at Sisupalgarh Manikapatna, Assam (Glover 1990). This ceramic is Radhanagar of Odisha, Chandraketugarh and concentrated in the Early Historic Period. Further Tamralipti in West Bengal, Salihundam and Glover (1996) has emphasised that this pottery Dharanikota in Andhra Pradesh, and Arikamedu, is associated with Buddhist rituals. Knobbed Poompuhar, Korkai and Algankulam in Tamil vessels occur in different fabrics such as fine grey Nadu have brought to light the evidence of ware, Red and Black ware. Knobbed ware has Rouletted Ware which is datable to 2nd-lst a boss or a projection at the centre of the base. century B.C. Moreover, Rouletted Ware is also The time range of this ware is early centuries of reported from Buni Complex in North Java, Christian era. Similarly, the finding of Northern Sembiran in north coast of Bali, Buu Chau Hill Black Polished (NBP) ware at the port sites and and Tra-Kieu in central Vietnam, Kantarodai and some other sites along the coastal Odisha, Andhra Jaffna in and Mahastan in . Pradesh and Tamil Nadu has provided evidence

44 NOVEMBER - 2020 Odisha Review ISSN 0970-8669 of coastal trade on the eastern Indian littoral. The rulers had issued bronze coins with high tin content occurrence of Punch Marked Coins (PMC) and (23%) and it appears that the tin was imported the NBP at Gedige and Anuradhapura came to from Thailand. light during the Mauryan period. The recent The finding of coins along with other excavation at Anuradhapura and Mantai in Sri archaeological artefacts indicate trade contacts Lanka (Sarma 1990-91) shows the contact of between one region and another. A unique type Odisha with Sri Lanka during early centuries of of punch-marked coins with ship symbol are Christian era. found from the earliest levels at Chandraketugarh Semi-precious stone beads have been in West Bengal which are similar to boat symbol reported from various excavation sites of Odisha coins issued by the Satavahana kings. Such coins and Southeast Asia. About 180 beads of carnelian, were also found on the Andhra coast. In Northern agate, chalcedony, glass and terracotta have been Sri Lanka a single mast boat coin in conjunction reported from Sisupalgarh (Lal 1984). Evidences with a donatory inscription of 1st century B.C. is of manufacturing of beads have been reported found. The ship symbol is noticed on the terracotta from Jaugada and Asurgada in Odisha sealings and in the graffiti on pottery found from (Mohapatra 1986). Further, Ban Don Ta Phet, the coastal regions, as well as the trade centres Ban Chiang, Karbi, Khao Sam Kao of Thailand, along the Ganga. Similar types of objects from Tanjong Pawa, Kalum Pong in Malaysia, Vaisali depict a boat with a prow, stern, oar, Salebabu island in Indonesia, Beikthano in Burma, passenger decks and a female standing in the boat and Palawan island of Philippines have reported (Ray 1991). The Satavahana coins depict both semiprecious stone beads (Glover 1990). The single and double mast ships anchored in mid sea. earliest site to have yielded evidence of Indian Gautamiputra Yajnasri (A.D. 184-213) issued contact is the Ban Don Ta Phet in Thailand where these type of coins prominently. The ‘ship’ coins a number of agate and carnelian beads have been have been found at Buddham, Vidyadharapuram, reported. These beads belonging to 2nd to 3rd Guntur, Chebrolu and other places on the east century B.C. appear to be introduced from India coast of India (Sarma 1980). The double mast (Higham 1989). The bronze bowls with a knob ship type coins were also issued by the in the centre of the base found in the burials of Salankayanas (Vijaya Devavarman, circa 280- Thailand give an indication of Indian contact. The 293 A.D.) who succeeded the Satavahanas in the shape of these bowls is similar to those found in Vengi country (Sarma 1989). The Roman coins coastal Odisha and Bengal (Ray 1989). India has of Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) were found during plentiful source of carnelian (Glover 1996) so that excavations at Salihundam (Subramanyam 1964). this semi precious stone and glass were imported Similarly the excavations conducted at Bavikonda from India to Southeast Asian countries in order and Thotlakonda in the district of to manufacture beads, and the same were reveal Roman coins of Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. exported again after the final production. Further 14) and Tiberius (A.D. 14-37) (Sree Padma there is evidence that bronze bowls with a high 1993). The Roman gold coins of Gordian, tin content found at Ban Don Ta Phet were Constantine and other rulers found at Bamanghati certainly exported from Thailand. The Satavahana and Tamralipti show evidence of contact with the

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Romans (Warmington 1974). Four denarii, three Rock Edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada suggests the of Augustus and one Tiberius coins were reported existence of coastal route from Tamralipti to the from Kotppad, and 23 gold coins from Gumada present Andhra coast, which formerly constituted of Odisha (Turner 1989). One complete and two the southern part of the Kalingan Empire. It is fragmentary copper coins with square perforation known from the Hathigumpha inscription (1st in the centre with Chinese legend were found from century B.C.), that king Kharavela defeated the Khalkatapatna, belonging to the 14th century. southern confederacy and “caused the Manikapatna excavation has yielded a Sri Lankan procurement of pearls, precious stones and jewels copper coin datable to 12th century with the from the Pandya king”. He had developed his legend Simad Sahasamalla (Pradhan et al. 2000). territory far and wide (Jayaswal 1983). The Similar coins have been reported from Kotchina excavation at Sembiran has brought to light in Indonesia which prove the maritime network Kharosthi inscriptions on the pot sherds which linking coastal Odisha, Sumatra, and Sri Lanka shows the maritime trade contacts between (Behera 1994). Odisha and Bali (Ardika and Bellwood 1991). The epigraphic sources of the Malayo- Indonesian The excavations at Chandraketugarh, region frequently mention people called “Kling” Bangarh and Hadipur in West Bengal have which evidently derived from Kalinga and scholars yielded Kharosthi inscriptions on seals, plaques generally agree that it denotes the people of and pots. The terracotta seals from Bangarh and Kalinga. The early legends of Java mention Chandraketugarh depict sea going vessels “twenty thousand families were sent to Java by containing corn flanked by symbols like conch the prince of Kling. These people prospered and and taurine. Such vessel types are known as multiplied”. Java was styled as “Ho-ling” in the Sasyadidhrta Sthali, a bowl shaped vessel filled Annals of the T’ang period (A.D. 618- 906). with corn. Another such vessel has legend in Scholars usually believe that Ho-ling is the Chinese Kharosthi-Brahmi script referring to Tridesayatra, or old Javanese equivalent of Kalinga. This would meaning a voyage to three countries or directions. suggest that Central Java was so much dominated Yet another seal from Chandraketugarh reveals a by the people of Kalinga that the region was type of vessel called Trapyaka belonging to the named as Kalinga or Ho-ling. The Telaga Batu wealth earning Tasvadaja family. It may be noted (A.D. 686) inscription of Indonesia mentions the that Trapyaka is a type of ship mentioned also in special skill of the people such as Puhawang the Periplus and the Angavijja. The above vessel (ships captain), Vaniyaga (long distance or sea types as well as flanking symbols recall the faring merchants), and sthapaka (sculptors). The Satavahana ships. It appears that the Kharosthi Kaladi (909 A.D.) inscription mentions wagga script was used by tradesmen settled in the lower kilalan, meaning a group of foreigners which Ganga valley of Bengal in good numbers during include Kalingas, Aryas, Sinhalese, Dravidians, the third to first centuries B.C. and was mixed up and Pandikiras. The term banigrama (Sanskrit with the Brahmi used by local merchants, Vanigrama) means a merchant guild, which have developing a mixture type Kharosthi-Brahmi been mentioned in several East Javanese and writing with North-western Prakrit expressions Balinese inscriptions. Similarly the old Balinese (Sarma 1991). The location of Asoka’s Major inscriptions of Semibiran B (915 A.D.) and

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Sembiran A II (975 A.D.) also mention the term Chinese trade and commerce (Kar 1973). The banigrama (Ardika 1999). The Indonesian Buddhist texts mention the contact of ancient inscriptions refer to foreign traders as (banyaga) Odisha with Sri Lanka from about the 5th century which includes the Kalingas, Aryas, Singhalese, B.C. onwards. Trade between Odisha and Sri Dravidians, etc. and a merchant guild as Lanka must have continued in the later period banigrama. The Bhaumakara inscription (8th-10th which resulted in the strong political and cultural century A.D.) refers to samudra kara bandha (sea links between two countries. The contact of tax gate) on the bank of Chilika, where taxes were Odisha with China is known from the accounts collected from the sea traders of Odisha. of Hiuen Tsang who refers to commercial activities of the people. Subhakara Simha, son of the king The people of Odisha dominated the of Odisha, (Wu-ta (Odra) country), went to overseas trade and continued their links to far off China carrying with him many Tantric texts in A.D. countries since the remote past. It was so 790, who may be identified with Sivakara or prominent in maritime trade that Kalidasa referred Subhakara of the Bhaumakara dynasty who had in the Raghuvamsa to the king of Kalinga as sent a Buddhist text for the great Tang emperor Mahodadhipati or the Lord of Ocean of China. The Chu-fan-chi of Chau Ju-Kua written (Nandargikar 1948). In connection with the in A.D. 1225-26, refers to Kia-ling sea going seashore of Kalinga, the Raghuvamsa further vessels (i.e. Kalingaships) and their system of mentions dvipantara (Indonesian Archipelago) trade organisation. Chau Ju-Kua mentions two from which breezes, filled with the scent of cloves, types of ships plying between Kalinga and Canton. blew: anena sardham viharamburaseh tiresu Buddhism played a significant cultural talivanamarmarresu dvipantaranvita lavanga role in the relations between Odisha and puspeih apakrtasveda lavamarudbhih. Further, the Southeast Asia. Comparative studies of Buddhist Aiyamanjusrimulakalpa narrates to “all islands of art of Odisha and Southeast Asia show several the Kalinga sea” (Kalingodresu) from which common elements and resemblances. The appears that in the past the present Bay of Bengal archaeological excavations at Ratnagiri, was known as the “Kalinga Sea” being dominated Udayagiri, and Lalitagiri in Odisha have brought by the ships of Kalinga (Sastri 1920-25). The to light the remains of Buddhist art. The Buddha Sankha Jataka, the Samudra Jataka and the heads from these centres and those from central Mahajanaka Jataka, mention that the traders from Java share common characteristic features of central India used to come from Benaras to massive form, modelling affinities and facial Tamralipti, from where they sailed to Southeast expressions. Similarly the Buddha and Asian countries (Law 1967). The Mahavamsa Boddhisattva images of Borobudur, Indonesia, mentions that Asoka sent his missionaries to Sri and Odisha have common traits. The Javanese Lanka from Tamralipti. The Vassentara Jataka Boddhisattvas from Chandi Mendut have their mentions Kalinga as a great commercial and attributes placed on long lotuses in the style industrial country, from which rice, fine cloth, ivory, distinctive of the Lalitagiri figures of Odisha diamonds and other goods were exported even (Tripati 2000). The presence of the giraffe, an to foreign countries. The Kathasaritsagara African animal in the temple of Konark (13th indicates that Tamralipti was the main port for century) suggests contact with Arab merchants

NOVEMBER - 2020 47 ISSN 0970-8669 Odisha Review who might have been commissioned to bring this Sri Lanka and other ports on the east coast of animal from Africa to the eastern coast. In the India. Further, these ships took a course to the early 15th century the Chinese Admiral Chang Ho, northeast from Java to reach Canton. This was who visited East Africa is known to have brought the route followed by the merchants who traded a giraffe to the Ming court of China (Behera with the West and the East (Prasad 1977). There 1977). Further the maritime pride of Odisha is was a regular coastal voyage from the mouth of also reflected in sculptural representation of boats the Ganga along the eastern coast of India to Sri in the temples of Puri and Bhubaneswar. Lanka. People from all ports of India came by In early times, long distance overseas land or river route to the nearest sea port and trade was not possible without making a halt at then made a coastal voyage to Tamralipti, Palur intermediate places for water and food. The ships or to one of the ports near Masulipatnam, from of Odisha bound for Southeast Asian countries where ships made a direct voyage to the Far East passed via the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. across the Bay of Bengal. The sailors and Sailors voyaging from Tamralipti, Palur and merchants of Kalinga had landed at various places Kalingapatnam to foreign countries used the including Srikshetra in Burma, Takkola, Nicobar Islands as a halting station. I-Tsing Kokkonagara, Kataha Kadharam in Malaya mentioned that it was a month’s sail from Peninsula, Sri Vijaya in Sumatra, Purva Kalinga Tamralipti to Nicobar Islands, and China from in Java, Tonking in Cambodia and Kwang-fu in Sri-Vijaya was twenty days sail (Syamchaudhuri China (Tripati 2000). 1977). From Tamralipti there was regular sailing The available sources such as the epics, of vessels which either proceeded along the coast Jataka stories, Raghuvamsa, Kathasaritasagar, of Bengal and Burma, or crossed the Bay of inscriptions, and excavated antiquities bring to light Bengal and made a direct voyage to the Malaya the trade and cultural contact of Odisha with Peninsula and then to the and Indo- distant overseas countries through the ages. In China and beyond it. In making their voyages to spite of several hazards and the problem of Southeast Asia, the sailors and merchants of the Odisha seafarers undertook maritime trade Odisha may have sailed around the Malay for the sake of wealth. The archaeological findings Peninsula through the Strait of Malacca. The other at Sisupalgarh, Manikapatna, Palur shows that route must have been from Odisha to South India trade was flourishing till the Gupta period. As where one sailed through the area between the archaeological evidence is not found during the Andaman and the Nicobar Islands or between post Gupta period (6th -7th century A.D.) it Nicobar Islands and Achin, the northern tip of appears that there was a decline of maritime trade Sumatra, disembarking on the peninsula around through Odisha in this time. However, maritime Takuapa or at Kedah. The ports of embarkation trade revived during the Bhaumakara period and were Palur, Poompuhar, Arikamedu, Sopatma, it flourished again after 10th and 11th century. The and Masulipatnam from where ships sailed across excavation at Manikapatna has brought to light the Bay of Bengal to the coasts of the Southeast pottery of both indigenous and foreign origin. Asia and the far East. Ships used to go to Java Along the east coast of India Manikapatna is the from the ports of Odisha and return directly to only site from where varieties of ceramics have

48 NOVEMBER - 2020 Odisha Review ISSN 0970-8669 so far been reported. The presence of pottery, away from the seashore respectively. Ahmed coins, and art evidence indicates the impact of (1972) states that this is due to the uplift of land. early sea trade between Odisha and the Chilika was a busy port in the historical times and Mediterranean world. The discovery of Rouletted sedimentation caused the disuse of the port. The Ware all along the east coast of India and diversion of river course due to the formation of Kharoshthi scripts and semiprecious stone beads sand dunes made the Palur port non-operational. suggests that the internal contact between Odisha, To understand in detail the geological processes Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu had already begun from archaeological point of view no systematic by about 2000 years ago. The evidence from studies have been carried out along the coast of Manikapatna proves the East and West maritime Odisha. The coastal survey and offshore trade relations. With the increase of Roman explorations at strategic locations, excavations at influence along the Indian coast, the Indian traders new sites, and comparative study of art evidence left for, Southeast Asia countries in search of of Odisha may shed new light on the maritime spices and sandalwood. Based on the available activity of Odisha with the outside world. references and archaeological findings at Odisha, The overseas trade and maritime activities Southeast Asian countries, and other places, it is in ancient Odisha catalyzed the creation, growth clear that the sailors knew about these lands and and development of various ports for overseas the products. It is worth mentioning here that and inland trade. The process was based upon historians have believed the weak successors, the need of the system and its evolution took place economy under the feudatories, attack by in commensuration with historical development of neighbouring kingdoms, imposition of taxes, and socio-political and religious systems and unskilled navigation contributed to the decline of organizations. Until the advent of the Europeans maritime activities of Odisha. In addition to this it the people of ancient Odisha had their involvement is noticed that the geological processes such as in the overseas maritime activities with an the coastal erosion, sea level changes, tectonic adventurous zeal and commercial motive. activities, natural hazards, sedimentation, and Gradually the oceanic trade of the traditional form formation of sand bars and dunes in the declined owing to natural and political causes. navigational channels are equally responsible for the decline of ports of Odisha (Tripati 1992-93). It is known that Balasore and Konark were the Pradeep Kumar Panda, Programme Officer, International ancient ports, which are presently 15 and 4.8 km Youth Centre, New Delhi.

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