Social, Humanitarian, and
Cultural Committee
Topic A: Inequality of Education in Developing Nations Topic B: Child Labor
MUNUC 32
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Letter from the Chair………………………………………………………….. 3
Overview of the Committee………………………………………………... 4
Topic A: Inequality of Education Within Developing Nations……....… 5 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………….. 5 History of the Problem………………………………………………… 12 Past Actions…………………………………………………………….. 15 Possible Solutions………………………………………………………. 19 Bloc Positions…………………………………………………………… 24 Glossary…………………………………………………………………. 26 Bibliography……………………………………………………………. 28
Topic B: Child Labor…………………………………………………………. 32 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………….32 History of the Problem………………………………………………… 40 Past Actions…………………………………………………………….. 44 Possible Solutions………………………………………………………. 49 Bloc Positions…………………………………………………………… 53 Glossary…………………………………………………………………. 56 Bibliography……………………………………………………………. 58
2 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 LETTER FROM THE CHAIR
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Dear Delegates, welcome to the Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee of MUNUC XXXII. My name is Jenny Ni, I am a second year in college, and I will be your committee executive for this conference. My first MUNUC experience dates back to the winter of 2016 at MUNUC XXVIII, when I was a high school sophomore, just like many of you right now. The time I spent with my amazing committee is still fresh in my mind. I am extremely excited to be back here after 4 years, playing a brand-new role at the conference that I have long ago been a part of.
This year, you will be engaging with two important topics, inequality of education within developing nations, and child labor. I chose these two topics not only because I have been heavily involved in volunteer work related to child education and children welfare since high school, but also because children represent the hope for the future of our world. Delving into child-related issues will be critical for understanding human rights, pressing issues in our world, and sustainable development for the future.
I am aware that this committee might be challenging for you, either because the committee size is large or because you need to do the work of two as a single delegate. However, these challenges present an opportunity to engage more deeply with the topics and material, and I hope that you can overcome these challenges and truly learn through this committee experience. You are surely able to succeed, learn, and grow in the committee as long as you put your best effort into it. Best of luck for your preparations, and I am sincerely looking forward to seeing you at the conference.
Best,
Jenny Ni
3 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 OVERVIEW OF THE COMMITTEE
SOCHUM, more formally known as the Third Committee of the General Assembly of the
United Nations, is a UN committee tasked with addressing social, humanitarian, cultural and human
rights issues across the world. The purview of this committee is broad, dealing with “questions relating
to the advancement of women, the protection of children, indigenous issues, the treatment of refugees,
the promotion of fundamental freedoms through the elimination of racism and racial discrimination,
and the right to self- determination, [as well as] issues related to youth, family, ageing, persons with
disabilities, crime prevention, criminal justice, and international drug control”.1 Thus, the two topics at
this conference are well within the boundaries of what SOCHUM is equipped to handle.
The General Assembly of the United Nations, of which SOCHUM is one of six constituent
committees, acts as the legislative body of the UN, but unlike other legislative bodies, it cannot compel
countries to act in a certain way. Instead, its resolutions take the form of a list of recommendations for
member states in order to address the given topic. Member states are free to either follow the
recommendations or not, but nonetheless, this approach can be a powerful tool to unite the world in
confronting pressing issues.
1 “Social, Humanitarian & Cultural Issues (Third Committee)”. The United Nations General Assembly, 2019. https://www.un.org/en/ga/third/
4 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 TOPIC A: INEQUALITY OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING NATIONS
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Statement of the Problem
Introduction
The international community has put a great emphasis on improving education around the world. Among the eight Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030 as the successor for the Millennium Development Goals, the fourth
Sustainable Development Goal is Quality Education.2 While significant achievements have been made in the past 10 years with respect to improving equality of education with an enrollment rate in primary education in developing countries reaching 91 percent, 57 million children remain out of
school worldwide.3 Inequality of education in developing nations is significantly pressing since long- term inequalities of education will leave “a large proportion of young people without any skills to find
well-paid, secure work”,4 which significantly hinders sustainable economic and social development. Therefore, it is important for this committee to create solutions to improve education equality within developing nations.
According to the World Inequality Database on Education, education inequality is worst in low-
income regions including Sub-Saharan Africa and central and southern Asia.5 These regions are especially lagged behind in terms of economic and social development, and without sufficient governmental funding, educational inequality is especially pressing for such countries. Causes of
2 UNDP, “Goal 4 Targets”, Text, Accessed June 22, 2019. https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable- development-goals/goal-4-quality-education/targets.html 3 Sustainable Development, “Quality Education”, Text, Accessed June 22, 2019. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/education/ 4 UNESCO, “Inequalities in Education”, Text, Accessed June 22, 2019. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220440?posInSet=2&queryId=5adacdf2-0446-4a0a-833c-0414ae12dfc5 5 Global Education Monitoring Report, “Less than 4 years of schooling”, Text, Accessed June 22, 2019. https://www.education- inequalities.org/indicators/edu4#?sort=mean&dimension=all&group=all&age_group=edu4_2024&countries=all
5 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 educational inequality include political conflict areas and regions, gender discrimination resulting
from indigenous religions or beliefs, and extreme wealth gaps present in many developing nations.6
Case study: Democratic Republic of Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) belongs to the Sub-Saharan region, where regional inequality is the worst among the world. The DRC education system has a low coverage and poor
quality, with an astounding 3.5 million, or 26.7% children of primary school age not in school.7 Even
among those who attend school, 44 percent start school late after the age of 6.8 In addition, according to the country’s national data, even among those who matriculate at first grade, only 67%
complete sixth grade.9
The inequalities existing in the DRC educational system result from multiple factors. The following graph shows the differences between percentage of children who have never been to primary school by gender, wealth, and region, which are three important factors influencing inequality of education in developing nations such as DRC.
6 UNESCO, “Inequalities in Education”, Text, Accessed June 22, 2019. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220440?posInSet=2&queryId=5adacdf2-0446-4a0a-833c-0414ae12dfc5 7 “Education in Democratic Republic of Congo”, Global Partnership for Education, https://www.globalpartnership.org/country/democratic-republic-congo 8 USAID, “Education in the Democratic Republic of Congo”, Text, Accessed June 22, 2019. https://www.usaid.gov/democratic-republic-congo/education 9 Ibid.
6 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32
Most significantly, the rate of children going to school in the DRC is strongly correlated with whether they live in a conflicting area and whether the area is rich or poor. The chart compares Kinshasa, the capital city, with Katanga, the region affected by conflicts with the Republic of Congo. Looking at the overall difference, we can see a strong correlation between region, with more than 20 percent of the population never having been to primary school (higher than national average) in Katanga, and
less than 10 percent in the capital Kinshasa.10 Conflicting region is thus an important reason for educational inequality in DRC and many developing nations.
Next, when the variable of wealth is accounted for, “the richest children have a similar chance of
attending primary school compared to those in Kinshasa,”11 but the poorest children in Katanga have a much lower matriculation rate than either wealthy kids in Katanga or the poorest kids in Kinshasa. Wealth gaps are a common factor leading to educational inequality in developing nations, which makes this problem difficult to eradicate thoroughly without economic development.
In addition to conflict zones and wealth gaps, gender inequality is another issue that worsens the situation of educational inequality in developing nations. The poorest girls in Katanga are worst off
with 44% of them never been in school, while the figure for poor male in Katanga is 17%.12 The
10 UNESCO, “Inequalities in Education”, Text, Accessed June 22, 2019. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220440?posInSet=2&queryId=5adacdf2-0446-4a0a-833c-0414ae12dfc5 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid.
7 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 alarming figure shows that gender inequality is especially severe in regions already under poverty, which makes it urgent for actions taken to lessen the gender gap and eradicate abject poverty. Gender inequality in education might derive from local beliefs that women do not deserve education, yet the issue itself is still tightly correlated with economic development, since the gender inequality in education is much less significant in wealthier regions than in poorer rural areas. Delegates thus need to be aware of the relationship between gender inequality and education as well as their combined effects with economic factors.
The rate of people who have not completed primary school is an even worse figure, as seen in the following figure. In the group of poorest women in the conflict zone Katanga, 9 out of 10 have never completed primary school education, which creates a lack of basic skills necessary for even the simplest types of work.
Overlapping inequalities with certain demographic features create larger disparities in educational inequality in DRC, and solutions for addressing this problem rests not merely on education itself but also on other socioeconomic issues in developing nations.
8 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Defining the Problem
There are four socioeconomic attributes correlated with inequality of education, including the three factors previously discussed in the case study. Wealth gaps, gender inequality, conflicting and war zones, and natural disasters are all responsible for educational inequality in developing nations and will be discussed in further detail in the following pages.
Wealth Gap
Wealth gaps are the most prevalent factor for educational inequality in developing nations.13 Bangladesh has worked on its poverty issue in educational inequality in the past decades, which has achieved significant progress. For example, the successful cash stipend program for girls initiated by the government has made the country one of only a few low-income countries to have more girls in
school than boys.14 There were significant decreases in percentage of children never been to school for the poor girls and boys, with the figure for the region Sylhet dropping from 38% in 2004 to 17% in 2011. However, there still exists a relatively large gap in terms of education between the poor and the rich. In Bangladesh in 2011, 56% of the poorest youth did not complete primary school, while the
figure is only 10% for the richest.15
Gender
Ethiopia has also made progress over the decade from 2001-2011, yet policies still need to reach
poor girls and pastoralists (farmers concerned with raising livestock).16 In Afar, a predominantly pastoralist region, educational inequality for girls and boys is astounding. Almost 100% of girls among the poor in Afar have never completed primary school aged 15-24, in contrast to around 85%
for boys.17 In addition, twice the number of young women than young men have not completed
13 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid.
9 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 primary school even in the capital of Ethiopia,18 which calls attention to an investment into girl’s education.
War-torn Regions and Conflict Zones
Democratic Republic of Congo, as discussed earlier, has a huge educational inequality between regions subject to border conflicts and the unaffected capital. Research on ethnic and other armed conflicts shows that these conditions worsen educational attainment and worsen pre-existing
educational inequalities.19 The neglected children subject to armed conflicts are worse off in terms of education, which requires policymakers to increase awareness of education in war areas.
Natural Disaster
Haiti has undergone a severe earthquake in 2005 where countless buildings, including educational
facilities, were destroyed.20 Prior to the devastating earthquake in Haiti, the poorest children had the lowest rate of school attendance, yet gender gaps were not as significant as in countries such as
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).21 Natural disaster is another important factor that might influence educational infrastructure and worsen educational inequality, which requires unique solutions to be put forward to solve past problems and prevent huge loss in cases of natural disasters.
Effects of Educational Inequalities
Research derived from data in Malaysia suggests that education is important for enhancing human capital in the economy, yet merely providing education is not enough for improving the economy. More importantly, improvements in educational equality is beneficial for a country’s economic growth, which corroborates the claim that educational inequality harms economic development. Lack of education for the most underprivileged population in developing nation would result in a massive group of uneducated workforces without the essential skills necessary for employment,
18 Ibid. 19 Omoeva, Carina, Rachel Hatch, and Wael Moussa, "The Effects of Armed Conflict on Educational Attainment and Inequality." (Education Policy and Data Center Working Paper,2016). 20 UNESCO, Inequalities in Education 21 Ibid.
10 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 which further weakens the long-term sustainable development of these nations.22 Thus, it is important to address the issue of educational inequality in developing nations.
Education as a Human Right for Children
Quoted from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted in 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly, in Article 26, "Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at
least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory…”23 Education as a basic human rights for children has been recognized by the international community and multiple international organizations, which elevates inequalities in education in developing nations to a human rights issue for all children around the world. Solutions need to be taken not only to address educational inequality in developing nations, but also protect the fundamental human rights for children.
22 Rao, Ramesh, "School Quality, Educational Inequality and Economic Growth", (International Education Studies 1.2, 2008), 135-141. 23 United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” Text, June 22, 2019. https://www.un.org/en/universal- declaration-human-rights/
11 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 History of Problem
Education is widely accepted by the public as a fundamental resource for individuals and societies. Basic education has been deemed as a right, but also a duty in most countries. Governments are expected to ensure access to basic education, and citizens are usually required by state laws to
receive education for at least a certain number of years.24
Looking through the lens of history, the world has greatly expanded on education in the past two centuries, which can be readily seen across various measures. Global literacy rates have been continuously increasing in the past 200 years, especially through increasing rates of primary school enrollment. There has also been a drastic growth in secondary and tertiary education, and average years of schooling in the world has been much higher now than that one hundred years ago. Despite all these improvements made in global education, there are still countries lagging behind, especially
countries in sub-Saharan Africa where countries have literacy rates below 50% among the youth.25
Education is a by-product of human language and civilization, which emerged when ancient technologies and common knowledge became increasingly sophisticated. While the earliest forms of writing systems date back to about 3,500-3,000 BCE, basic education and literacy remained a very restricted privilege closely related to bureaucracy and power for many centuries. Literacy rates among the general population remained extremely low for a long time in history, and it was not until the Middle Ages did book production started growing and literacy rates became increasingly
important in the West.26 In the pre-industrialized era, education aimed at cultivating priests and governmental officials, which was mostly restricted to the privileged. Apprenticeship was the major mode of education for specialists such as doctors and lawyers before the mid-19th century. In fact, while achieving universal literacy constituted an important part of the fundamental reform stemming from the Enlightenment, the process took centuries to complete. Even in countries that
24 Max Roser, “Global Rise of Education.” Our World in Data (2019) https://ourworldindata.org/global-rise-of- education#note-1 25 Ibid. 26 Easton, P. (2014). Sustaining Literacy in Africa: Developing a Literate Environment. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Paris, France. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002252/225258e.pdf
12 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 were industrialized first, rates of literacy didn’t approach universality until the 19th and 20th
centuries.27
The formal universal public education for children didn’t emerge until 150-200 years ago in the 19th century, and some developing nations have only 50 years of history. In the late 19th century, most of West and Central Europe began providing elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Such education was usually more secular, as opposed to the previous religious education. Jules Ferry, who held the office of the Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s in France, created the modern Republican school (l'école républicaine) through requiring all children under 15, both boys and girls, to attend. The public schools were free of charge and secular, and challenged the old traditions that
girls were not entitled to education.28 As literacy rates drop after the introduction of public elementary schools, emphasis was put on making secondary education available to the public in
addition to elementary education by World War I.29
Global Literacy Rates
Through the following picture, we are able to see the world estimates of world literacy rates from
1800 to 2014.30
27 Max Roser, “Global Rise of Education.” Our World in Data (2019) 28 Barnett B. Singer, "Jules Ferry and the laic revolution in French primary education." Paedagogica Historica (1975) 15#2 pp: 406-425. 29 Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, Frank M Turner. Western Heritage: Since 1300 (AP Edition). Pearson Education, Inc. (2007). 30 Max Roser, “Global Rise of Education.” Our World in Data (2019)
13 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Through the graph, we can see that literacy rates grew constantly yet relatively slowly in the 19th century. The rate of growth reached its peak in the mid-20th century, and has kept growing at a relatively slowed rate since 2000. The global society’s emphasis on expanding basic education around the world has positively contributed to the global growth in literacy rates, and the rate of growth climbed significantly “after the middle of the 20th century, when the expansion of basic
education became a global priority.”31
With the huge improvement in global literacy rates and basic education, literacy rate, as an index of educational quality, has alarming inequalities arcoss the globe.
Usually, countries with low overall literacy rates tend to have more inequalities within these countries. Through this map, you will be able to get a clearer sense of educational inequalities across the world and focus on areas that have alarming low rate of literacy rates, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, Central America, and South Asia.
31 Ibid.
14 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Past Actions
Education was officially recognized as a human right in international law in the Universal Declaration
of Human rights in 1948 during the United Nations General Assembly 183rd session.32 Quoted from the Article 26, "Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally
accessible to all on the basis of merit.”33 The article establishes the basis for promoting education around the world as well as eradicating inequalities of education, especially in developing nations.
Promoting educational equality thus became an important target of the UN in the ensuing decades to protect global human rights of children, where the right to education has been reaffirmed in 1960
UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, 34 the 1981 Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women35, and the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities. 36 The 1981 convention Article 10 also affirms that it is necessary to provide equal opportunity in education for female students, encouraging coeducation, providing equal access to
grants, scholarships, and athletics. In addition, “reduction in female students' dropout rates”37 is also among its requirements.
The international community has worked collectively on the issue of promoting educational equality around the world. UNESCO (the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) has established the Program for the Education of Children in need in 1992 in an effort to provide education for vulnerable children. Since its creation, over US$40 million has been raised through private funds, which “has been directly invested into immediate support for over 400 projects in 97
32 "Universal Declaration Of Human Rights". 2019. Un.Org. https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. 33 "The Universal Declaration Of Human Rights". 2019. Claiming Human Rights. Accessed June 23. http://www.claiminghumanrights.org/udhr_article_26.html#at28. 34 "Convention Against Discrimination In Education". 2019. UNESCO. Accessed June 23. http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=12949&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. 35 "Convention On The Elimination Of All Forms Of Discrimination Against Women". 2019. UN Women. Accessed June 23. https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/. 36 "Convention On The Rights Of Persons With Disabilities (CRPD) ". 2019. CRPD. Accessed June 23. https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html. 37 "Convention Against Discrimination In Education". 2019. UNESCO. Accessed June 23.
15 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 countries worldwide.” 38 Such efforts have contributed greatly to the increase of education for children worldwide, but there is still a long way to go.
The Millennium Development goals were set in the year 2000 for the year 2015, and this list includes a goal for education. While there have been great improvements made in terms of educational equality, the world did not reach the Millennium Development Goal of achieving universal primary education by 2015. Specifically, while the number of out-of-school children of primary school age has decreased from 100 million to 61 million from 2000 to 2015 globally,
the progress has almost stopped since 2007. The graphs below show this trend. 39
According to the above statistics from UNICEF, gender inequality in primary school enrollment has remained a pressing phenomenon that needs to be addressed immediately.
38 "Programme For The Education Of Children In Need". 2019. UNESCO. Accessed June 23. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/fight-against-discrimination/education-of-children- in-need/. 39 "Primary School Age Education - UNICEF DATA". 2019. UNICEF DATA. https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/primary-education/.
16 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32
In 2015, the new Sustainable Development Goal were set by the UN General Assembly for the year
2030; these goals encompasses 10 targets of global education. The 1st goal states that by 2030, the international community needs to “ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning
outcomes. ”40 Among the remaining 9 targets, the article addresses issues such as gender inequality, skills for young adults for work, upgraded educational facilities, qualified teachers, etc. For example, target 5 stipulates that the international community should “eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous
peoples and children in vulnerable situations”.41 Such targets were important for constructing a framework as well as a guideline of action for the international community to work on eliminating educational inequality.
40 "Goal 4 Targets". 2019. UNDP. https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4- quality-education/targets.html. 41 Ibid.
17 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 While there has been significant improvement in terms of promoting educational equality around the world, there is still a long way to go before achieving universal primary education and further eradicating inequalities in developing nations. Specific attention should also be put on the various aspects that influence global educational outcome, including funding, gender disparity, underprivileged social groups, and socioeconomic development.
18 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Possible Solutions
Two case studies will be first presented to show how the two countries have improved domestic education and lowered the gaps between the privileged and underprivileged social groups, which would be insightful for creating solutions for educational inequality.
Case Study: India
India, as one of the fastest growing economies in the current world, is home to more than a
billion people. In 2004, about 29% of its overall population lived on less than 1 US Dollar per day. 42 Its gross enrollment ratio was about 94% in elementary education (Grades 1-8), 40% in secondary education (Grades 9-12), and 10% in tertiary education, with the net enrollment in primary education
reaching 89% in 2006.43 India accounted for nearly one quarter of the world’s out-of-school children around 2000, yet by 2005, the number of out-of-school 6-to-13year-old children declined from roughly 25 million (approximately 13% of the age group) to about 13 million (approximately 6% of
the age group).44 India’s rapid progress in the first decade in the 21th century has greatly contributed to the worldwide progress of increasing primary school enrollment.
In addition, the magnitude of increase in enrollment rates of traditionally underprivileged groups such as girls, scheduled castes (formerly known as the “untouchables”, those of the lowest caste)
and scheduled tribes was greater than that of boys.45 More children entered school earlier and received education for a longer period regardless of the social groups that they are in. Education for children from the poorest quintile were gradually catching up with those from the top quintile, the
same with rural children and urban children.46
With a federal government structure, the Indian state governments have the main responsibilities for the public provision and financing of education. State educational status varied according to the
42 Bing, Wu Kin. "Education and inequality in the developing world", (Inequality in Education. Springer, Dordrecht, 2008), 86-127. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid.
19 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 varying economic and social conditions of different states in India, which lead to inequalities in
education.47 Historical indigenous values created further barriers for girls and the lowest castes to receive education, resulting in greater inequalities. Social movements in India since the 1980s have successfully helped advocate for policy interventions to address domestic educational inequality. The increasingly large-scale successful governmental interventions in India in the 1980sculminated in
the National Program for Universal Elementary Education of the 21st century.48 Launched in 2001, the program aims to enable all children aged 6-14 to complete at least eight years of elementary education of satisfactory quality. The Constitution was also amended to make this education a right
of every child.49 The Indian Central Government also provides additional funding above the existing
public spending on education, which amounts to about 10% of public spending on education.50
Specifically, the program funds school construction, establishment of alternative learning centers, grants for maintenance and supplies, grants to teachers for teaching and learning materials, teacher training, salaries of new teachers, funds for innovations, grants to support children with special
needs, management, monitoring and evaluation.51 In addition, it “provides free textbooks to all girls, scheduled castes, and scheduled tribe students to offset the household cost of schooling; building
toilets in schools for girls; hiring female teachers to provide role models.”52 Public education campaigns, community mobilization are important strategies to change social attitude, which is especially important in eliminating educational inequalities among historically underprivileged social groups. India’s campaign is successful in increasing overall enrollment rates, eliminating regional financial gaps through funding, as well as increasing educational opportunities for underprivileged groups through campaigns and law. With great improvements made, India now faces more challenges such as low attendance and high dropouts, which needs to be further addressed in the future.
Case Study: China
47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid. 50 Ibid. 51 Government of India, “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Framework for Implementation.” New Delhi: Government of India. (2001) 52 Bing, Wu Kin. "Education and inequality in the developing world", (Inequality in Education. Springer, Dordrecht, 2008), 86-127.
20 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 With a sustained annual total GDP growth rate of about 10 percent for several decades from the 1980s to the 2000s, China has moved millions of its population out of poverty. China’s Gross National
Product per capita in 2004 was over four times than that in the early 1980s,53 but its focus on growth has led to uneven development and increasing income inequality between coastal and western regions, across provinces, within province, and between rural and urban areas. Rising income inequality led to inequalities in education in China, which necessitated governmental policy and intervention.
Nine years of basic education was made compulsory in 1985 by the Chinese government, and later in 2006, compulsory education was made free to all children, including those in the wealthy urban areas. The policy successfully increased the net enrollment ratio of China to 99 percent in primary
education and 97 percent in junior secondary education.54 However, the high enrollment rates didn’t present the full pictures, since there were still severe inequalities in access, dropouts, and completion. Part of this resulted from the 1986 policy to decentralize education finance and provision, where provincial governments were assigned the responsibility to formulate development plans for basic education, municipal governments to finance basic education in urban areas, and the lowest-level township governments to finance and provide education in rural areas. Since the capacity of local governments to finance basic education varied heavily, educational inequality was especially significant, with the budget for each primary school student ranging from around 610 USD
in Shanghai to 72 USD in Guizhou, an inland province.55
To tackle severe inequalities in educational finance, the Chinese government introduced the Rural Compulsory Education Finance Reform in 2006, which was one of the most significant large-scale interventions in the 21st century to address inequality in education. The reform increased fiscal transfers from the central government to provincial governments to finance rural compulsory education, which would greatly help with abolishing fees in compulsory education in the rural areas
and increasing salaries for rural schoolteachers.56 The government also continuously increased its educational budget, committing US$29 billion during the period 2006-2010, with a great emphasis
53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid.
21 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 on rural education.57 The financial reforms greatly contributed to eliminating educational inequalities within the nation, which could bring insight into combatting inequalities in education in developing nations around the world.
While the above two case studies mostly contain domestic measures, they are able to reflect the varying causes of educational inequality in different developing nations and provide insight into setting guidelines of action for developing nations. SOCHUM’s cooperation with funds, governmental ministries of education, and other UN sub-bodies might be feasible solutions that increase investment in education in developing nations and thus reduce educational inequalities.
With the relatively flexible mandate of SOCHUM as a General Assembly, delegates are encouraged to find creative solutions to tackle educational inequalities across the world and take into account both direct measures and solutions that resolve its underlying causes. Increasing the number of teachers, teaching supplies, and construction of teaching infrastructure are immediate measures directly correlated with improving education in vulnerable regions, which could be enforced by either Non-Profit Organizations or local educational programs under the surveillance of SOCHUM.
It would also be helpful for SOCHUM to penetrate into local areas with quality educational programs such as the Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) — defined as “education that encourages changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for
all.”58 The reiteration of global educational policies and cooperation with local educational programs would be promising for enforcing quality education in vulnerable regions. Localized institutions would be better able to adapt to local conditions for education, ensuring that the measures could be fully carried.
In addition to the abovementioned solutions, delegates are encouraged to seek innovative solutions that addresses educational inequality from varying perspectives, including but not restricted to increasing awareness of the importance of education, protecting children in conflict regions, educational programs reducing gender inequality, online educational platforms, and so on.
57 Ibid. 58 “Education for Sustainable Development,” UNESO, https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development
22 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Delegates are encouraged to reflect on the different issues underlying educational inequality as mentioned in the statement of problem and think about solutions accordingly—funding, gender disparity, underprivileged social groups, and socioeconomic development. Through a detailed reflection on these issues, well thought out comprehensive solutions would be helpful for thoroughly addressing educational inequality around the world.
23 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Bloc Positions
Countries with well-developed educational systems
Most of the North American, European, and Central and East Asian countries have well-developed educational systems, and these countries are usually expected to assist the international community in dealing with educational inequalities. It must be noted that some East Asian countries had not fully developed their educational systems until the past few decades, and their achievements were primarily based on heavy domestic governmental investment into the educational sector instead of foreign assistance. Thus, while these countries will probably support most of the resolution of European developed nations, they will more likely support those that do not require them to heavily provide direct monetary assistance for other developing nations.
Countries with improvements in educational systems
South Asian, Northern Africa, and Latin American countries have been making great progress in their school attendance rates through both global initiatives and domestic governmental policies. However, the quality of education is not satisfactory compared to the rapid increase in primary school enrollment rates. The 2009 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) results revealed that students in Latin America performed poorer and had a greater level of inequality
compared to many countries.59 48% of Latin American students had difficulty performing rudimentary reading tasks and did not possess skills that are essential for a productive participation
in modern society,60 and the percentage was even more pronounced for low-income students in the
region, where 62% didn’t demonstrate these essential skills.61 For these countries, it is important for both domestic actions and international assistance to be implemented to ensure the effects of these solutions, and emphasis also needs to be put on improving quality of education especially for poorer regions.
59 "PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary", OECD, https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/46619703.pdf 60 Ibid. 61 Ibid.
24 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Countries in need of assistance
Sub-Saharan regions have alarming school enrollment rates, and the persistence of natural disasters and warfare worsens their situations. Problems such as child labor and poverty are significant barriers that prevent children from receiving the education that they deserve. For these countries, it would be important for the international community to provide assistance in addition to their changes in domestic policies. Reallocation of domestic resources on education will be insufficient for these countries, as many governments are severely lacking in funding.
25 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Glossary
Basic Education
Basic education refers to primary school level education, which typically stands for education for children with age ranging from around 6 to 12. Basic education is deemed as both a right and a duty for the governments of most countries around the world.
Developing Nations
Developing nations are countries with average income much lower than in industrialized nations. The term has no exact definition, but it is always used to contrast with developed nations. The Sustainable Development Goals by the UN were set up mostly to help overcome problems in developing nations. Most African countries, South and Southeast Asian, and South American countries are developing nations.
Developed Nations
“A developed country is defined as a sovereign state that has a developed economy and technologically advanced infrastructure when compared to other nations. Several factors that determine whether or not a country is developed, such as the Human Development Index, political
stability, gross domestic product (GDP), industrialization and freedom.”62 Most European, North American, and Central Asian countries are developed nations.
Enrollment Rate
Enrollment rate is the ratio of number of children enrolled in schools divided by the total number of children, usually measured within a nation or a region. Enrollment rate is critical for measuring educational levels in different regions.
Literacy Rate
62 “Developed Countries List 2019”, World Population Review, http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/developed- countries/
26 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Literacy is the ability to read and write. Literacy rate refers to the ratio of number of people able to read and write divided by the whole population of a given region or nation, which usually reflects their corresponding educational levels.
Millennium Development Goals
The Millennium Development Goals were set in the year 2000 for the year 2015 by the United Nations, which encompasses topics critical to human development in the world. The second goal was achieving universal primary education by 2015, but the target was unable to be accomplished. The Millennium Development Goals were succeeded by Sustainable Development Goals.
Primary (Elementary) School
Primary school is a school for children in the first four or five years of their education, usually starting from ages of 6 or 7. Primary school enrollment rate is an important criterion for measuring the educational level in different regions.
Secondary School
Secondary school is a school for children usually aged between eleven and nineteen. Secondary education is an important focus for countries that have achieved great progress increasing primary school enrollment rates.
Sustainable Development Goals
Eight Sustainable Development Goals were set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030. The fourth Sustainable Development Goal is Quality Education, including ensuring that all girls and boys complete free primary and secondary schooling by 2040, “providing equal
access to affordable vocational training, and eliminating gender and wealth disparities”63 with the
aim of achieving universal access to a quality higher education.64
63 “Goal 4: Quality education”, Sustainable Development Goal Fund, https://www.sdgfund.org/goal-4-quality-education 64 Ibid.
27 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Bibliography
Barnett B. Singer, "Jules Ferry and the laic revolution in French primary education." Paedagogica Historica (1975) 15#2 pp: 406-425.
Bing, Wu Kin. "Education and inequality in the developing world", (Inequality in Education. Springer, Dordrecht, 2008), 86-127.
Cable News Network. “Obama inaugurated as President.” CNN.com. http://www.cnn.com/POLITICS/01/21/obama_inaugurated/index.html (accessed February 1, 2009).
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. "Convention On The Rights Of Persons With Disabilities." CRPD. https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html. (accessed June 23, 2019).
“Developed Countries List 2019.” World Population Review. http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/developed-countries/ (accessed June 23, 2019).
Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, Frank M Turner. Western Heritage: Since 1300 (AP Edition). Pearson Education, Inc. (2007).
Easton, P. (2014). “Sustaining Literacy in Africa: Developing a Literate Environment. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.” UNESDOC. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002252/225258e.pdf (accessed June 22, 2019).
“Education in Democratic Republic of Congo.” Global Partnership for Education. https://www.globalpartnership.org/country/democratic-republic-congo (accessed June 22, 2019).
28 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 “Education in the Democratic Republic of Congo.” USAID. https://www.usaid.gov/democratic republic-congo/education (accessed June 22, 2019).
Global Education Monitoring Report. “Less than 4 years of schooling.” UNSCO. https://www.education inequalities.org/indicators/edu4#?sort=mean&dimension=all&group=all&age_group=edu4_2 24&countries=all (accessed June 22, 2019).
Government of India, “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Framework for Implementation.” New Delhi: Government of India. (2001)
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Education for Sustainable Development.” UNESCO. https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development
Max Roser. “Global Rise of Education.” Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/global-rise-of education#note-1 (accessed June 22, 2019).
Omoeva, Carina, Rachel Hatch, and Wael Moussa. "The Effects of Armed Conflict on Educational Attainment and Inequality." (Education Policy and Data Center Working Paper, 2016).
"PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary." OECD. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/46619703.pdf (accessed June 23, 2019).
Rao, Ramesh, "School Quality, Educational Inequality and Economic Growth", (International Education Studies 1.2, 2008), 135-141.
Sustainable Development Goal Fund. “Goal 4: Quality education.” sdgfund. https://www.sdgfund.org/goal-4-quality-education (accessed June 23, 2019).
29 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Sustainable Development. “Quality Education”, Text, Accessed June 22, 2019. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/education/
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. "Convention Against Discrimination In Education". UNESCO. http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php URL_ID=12949&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. (accessed June 23, 2019).
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Inequalities in Education.” UNESDOC. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220440?posInSet=2&queryId=5adacdf2-0446 4a0a-833c-0414ae12dfc5 (accessed June 22, 2019).
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization."Programme For The Education Of Children In Need." UNESCO. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human sciences/themes/fight-against-discrimination/education-of-children-in-need/. (accessed June 23, 2019).
The United Nations General Assembly. “Social, Humanitarian & Cultural Issues (Third Committee)”. UN. https://www.un.org/en/ga/third/ (accessed June 22, 2019).
United Nations Children’s Fund. "Primary School Age Education - UNICEF DATA." UNICEF. https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/primary-education/. (accessed June 23, 2019).
United Nations Development Program. “Goal 4 Targets.” UNDP. https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality education/targets.html
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30 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 United Nations. "The Universal Declaration Of Human Rights". Claiming Human Rights. http://www.claiminghumanrights.org/udhr_article_26.html#at28. (accessed June 23, 2019).
United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” UN. https://www.un.org/en/universal declaration-human-rights/ (accessed June 22, 2019).
31 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 TOPIC B: CHILD LABOR
______
Statement of the Problem
Definition and Statistics
According to the definition by the International Labor Organization, child labor is work that children should not be doing due to their age and which potentially prevents them from attending
compulsory schooling.65 This definition also includes occupational work performed by children that that affects their moral safety or dignity even if they are old enough to work and have reached the
minimum age.66 Such work performed by child laborers is “mentally, physically, socially or morally
dangerous”67 to children, and interferes with their schooling by depriving them of educational opportunities, “obliging them to leave school prematurely, or requiring them to attempt to combine
school attendance with excessively long and heavy work.”68
Statistics by the UNICEF suggests that an estimated 246 million children are engaged in child labor around the world today, and nearly 70 per cent (171 million) of these children work in hazardous conditions – “including working in mines, working with chemicals and pesticides in agriculture or
with dangerous machinery.”69 Child labor is everywhere, but usually invisible, since it may exist in the forms of domestic servants in homes, labor behind the walls of workshops, and agricultural work hidden from view in plantations.
Among the population of working children, around 70 percent work in the agriculture sector.70 Millions of girls work as domestic servants performing unpaid household work and are especially vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. Other children work under horrific circumstances, where they are under the threat of being “trafficked (1.2 million), forced into debt bondage or other forms of
65 “Child Labor”, Decent Work for Domestic Workers, http://courses.itcilo.org/A906119/glossary/child-labour 66 Ibid. 67 “Child Labor Facts”, Compassion International, https://www.compassion.com/poverty/child-labor-quick-facts.htm 68 Ibid. 69 “FACTSHEET: CHILD LABOUR”, UNICEF, https://www.unicef.org/protection/files/child_labour.pdf 70 Ibid.
32 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 slavery (5.7 million), forced into prostitution or pornography (1.8 million), or recruited as child
soldiers in armed conflict (300 thousand).”71
“Worst forms of child labor”
“The worst forms of child labor” is defined by article 3 of ILO Convention No. 182, which includes all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, including “sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labor, compulsory recruitment of children for use in
armed conflict.” 72 In addition, this type of labor also contains the use of a child for prostitution and pornographic production, the use of child for illicit activities, especially the production and trafficking
of drugs, and work by nature that will likely harm the health, safety, or morals of children.73
The worst forms of child labor involve “children being enslaved, separated from their families,
exposed to serious hazards and illnesses, or left to fend for themselves on the streets of large cities,”
74 usually at a very early age. The worst forms of child labor are the types that need to be most urgently addressed since they most severely hinder the well-being of children and violate the rights
of children. As stated in Article 32(1) of the Convention on the Rights of a Child,75 the United Nations General Assembly resolution ratified on November 1989, “States Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical,
mental, spiritual, moral or social development”.76
It is important to note that “whether or not particular forms of “work” can be called “child labor” depends on the child’s age, the type and hours of work performed, the conditions under which it is
performed, and the objectives pursued by individual countries.”77 The answer varies from country to country, as well as among labor sectors within countries. Regardless, while child labor takes on many
71 Ibid. 72 “What is child labor”, ILO, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--en/index.htm 73 Ibid. 74 Ibid. 75 “Convention on the Rights of the Child”, UNHRC, https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx 76 “FACTSHEET: CHILD LABOUR”, UNICEF, https://www.unicef.org/protection/files/child_labour.pdf 77 “What is child labor”, ILO, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--en/index.htm
33 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 different forms, the first priority should be put to eliminate without delay the worst forms of child labor.
Hazardous child labor is a broader category of child labor which contains all types of work that exposes children to dangerous environments such as underground, underwater, dangerous heights, violence and abuse, dangerous machinery unhealthy environment, or extremely long hours of
work.78
Again, whether or not a given job is considered child labor depends on the details of the actual context, including age, number of hours worked, and the type of tasks performed. The following
chart describes the basic classification of child labor standards by age.79
80
The above chart was published by the International Labor Office in 2004. It can be seen from the chart that children above the minimum age in employment in permissible light work, or non-
78 Ibid. 79 Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban, and Max Roser. "Child Labor." Our World in Data (2016). https://ourworldindata.org/child-labor 80 Hilowitz, Janet. Child Labour: A textbook for university students. International Labour Office, 2004.
34 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 hazardous work by children of less than 14 hours a week, is not classified as child labor for abolition. In addition, differences in laws among countries provide difficulty for providing accurate child labor data suitable for countries around the world. However, an approximated way for estimating child labor counts around the world is still useful for comparing child labor conditions across different regions around the world.
Child labor around the world
According to ILO’s latest World Report on Child Labor, Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where child
labor is most prevalent.81 “The Asia and Pacific region harbors the largest number of child workers in the 5 to 14 age group, 127.3 million in total, which means that 19 per cent of children are working in the region. Sub-Saharan Africa has an estimated 48 million child workers, with 29% of children below the age of 15 being economically active. Latin America and the Caribbean has approximately 17.4 million child workers, with 16 per cent of children in the region working, and 15 per cent of children in the Middle East and North Africa are working with approximately 2.5 million and 2.4
million children working in developed and transitioning economies respectively.”82
The visualization below shows the share of children (7-14 years) in employment for a number of countries, based on publicly available dataset from World Bank.
81 Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban, and Max Roser. "Child Labor." Our World in Data (2016). https://ourworldindata.org/child-labor 82 Ibid.
35 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 As can be seen from the map, the prevalence of child labor varies widely from country to country. The worst conditions of child labor is concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as some parts of central America. In addition, the share of children in employment, defined in this map as children being economically active for at least one hour a week, was 15 times larger in Uganda than in Turkey according to the 2006 figures, where Turkey has a relatively normal child employment rate under
5%.83 Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where child labor is most prevalent, “and also the region
where progress has been slowest and least consistent.”84
Economic and social outcomes
Cross-country data on child labor and economic growth suggests “a strong negative correlation
between economic status and child labor,”85 which makes child labor another alarming problem that might negatively affect long-term economic growth of developing nations. The following visualization depicts the cross-country incidence of child labor (share of children ages 7-14 involved in economic activity) against GDP per capita (PPP adjusted GDP per capita in international dollars).
On the chart, the population aged 5-14 in each country is pictured as a circle with differing sizes.86
83 Ibid. 84 Ibid. 85 Ibid. 86 Ibid.
36 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 In general, countries with higher percentage of child labor cluster at the lower end of GDP per capita, below $5000 a year. It is thus important to address child labor, especially the worst forms of child labor and hazardous child labor, for the future sustainable economic growth of many nations.
In the majority of countries, boys are more likely than girls to be engaged in economic activity and child labor. The following graph depicts the incidence of child employment for boys vs. girls by
country, according to estimates from the data published by the World Bank.87 The diagonal line marks equal values for boys and girls, and the fact that most countries lie below the diagonal line suggests that usually more boys are engaged in child employment than girls, which also reflects the manual nature of child labor.
With the existence of child labor, children are usually kept out of school and deprived of the right to receive education. It is important to understand the correlation between these two issues, since both are detrimental to child development and are violations of children’s human rights. The following
87 Ibid.
37 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 map shows the fraction of children “in employment who work only—those who are economically
active and do not attend school.”88
The variation of percentage of children who work only among all working children is also large across the globe. While the majority of economically active children go to school in Latin America, it is the opposite in sub-Saharan Africa, which once again reflects the severity of child labor in sub-Saharan Africa.
Child labor is an extremely severe humanitarian abuse as children are usually forced to commit long- hour manual labor in hostile environments. Since children undergoing child labor are usually not given the chance to receive education, child labor leads to similar negative social-economic impacts as does lack of education. A huge shortage in skilled workforce necessary for a modern society would thus negatively affect long-term economic growth of many developing nations. Therefore, actions
88 Ibid.
38 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 need to be taken to combat the worst forms of labor, but also child labor in general to ensure the human rights of children.
39 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 History of problem
Child labor has existed throughout human history. Before the Industrial Revolution, child labor was not as controversial, but rather an important part of the self-sufficient economies composed of agriculture and handicraft. In addition to working on family farms, children may also be hired to work
in other farms. Boys usually started apprenticeship around ages 10 to 14.89
The abovementioned two types of child labor significantly decreased by the start of the 19th century, when factories arose. However, these factories provided a new place for child labor. Children previously working in the textile industry were replaced by immigrants and young women, yet
children continued to work in other industries, especially in dangerous environments.90
While child labor has prevailed long before the Industrial Revolution in the forms of apprenticeship and domestic servants, the intensity of child labor peaked during the Industrial Revolution. It was common for children to work in hazardous conditions in factories for long hours with very little pay. Factory owners preferred hiring children because while they were useful laborers, their small size also allowed them to move through narrow spaces in mines and factories. In addition, children were easier to control and manage, they could be paid less than adults, and they would be very difficult for labor unions to organize. Child laborers “often worked to help support their families and were forced
to forgo an education.”91
Children, in addition to skilled workers, were working in the glass industry in the late 19th and early
20th century.92 With the lack of technology at that time, glassmaking was a dangerous and tough job, which includes the processes of intense heating to melt glass, which posed a more severe threat
to children’s health. Many more similar hazardous tasks were performed by children 100 years ago.93
89 “Child Labor”, history.com, https://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/child-labor 90 Ibid, 91 Ibid. 92 “Batch, Blow, and Boys: The Glass Industry in the United States, 1820s-1900.” Utoledo.edu. https://www.utoledo.edu/library/canaday/exhibits/oi/OIExhibit/Batch%2CBlow.htm 93 Freedman, Russell. Kids at work: Lewis Hine and the crusade against child labor. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1994.
40 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Though child labor was widespread in Europe and North America in the 19th century, it decreased very rapidly at the turn of the 20th century. Industrialization in “western countries initially increased
the demand for child labor, but eventually contributed towards its elimination.”94 For both boys and
girls, the incidence of child labor has been higher in rural populations in the early 20th century.
The following charts depicts the decrease of child labor in Italy, the United States, and UK. Italy had a higher rate of child labor than UK and the US, and decreased at a slower pace because of heavy demand for labor in wartime industries. In 1918, over 70,000 boys aged up to sixteen labored in
wartime industries in Italy.95 Child labor has been reduced to under 5% in the US by 1930, but this level was not reached in Italy until around 30 years later, in 1960, which was more than a decade after
the end of World War II.96
The following graph is based on a report by the International Labor Organization, which presents the
recent changes in the world-wide share of children (ages 5-17) in employment.97
94 Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban, and Max Roser. "Child Labor." Our World in Data (2016). https://ourworldindata.org/child-labor 95 Bianchi, Bruna: Crescere in tempo di guerra. Il lavoro e la protesta dei ragazzi in Italia. 1915-1918, Venice 1995, pp. 60- 61. 96 Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban, and Max Roser. "Child Labor." Our World in Data (2016). 97 Ibid.
41 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32
The result is consistent with the fact that child labor is going down in recent decades, and the share of economically active children in the world has also been going down for decades, as shown in the
following graph.98
Regardless, it is still important to keep in mind the fact that millions of children are working under hazardous environment, and that child labor is still prominent in some regions such as Sub-Saharan
98 Ibid.
42 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Africa in the world today. A case study in Pakistan will be provided to further illustrate the issue of child labor, and delegates are encouraged to seek innovative solutions to eliminate child labor.
Case study: Child Labor in Pakistan
Pakistan had a per-capita income of $1,900 per year in 2010, meaning that a typical person survived
on only $5 a day.99 With the necessity of feeding large families for one working person and the high rate of inflation in the country, it became even more difficult for a low-income population to survive.
As an important center for the production of goods for export into international markets, Pakistan is home to millions of manual laborers. Manual labor, especially child labor, is most prevalent in the northwest of Punjab province, Sialkot. In 1994, exports from Sialkot injected almost US$ 385 million into the Pakistan economy, making it one of the world’s most important centers for production of
sporting goods. 100
Child labor exists in Sialkot both in the export sector and the domestic sector. While Pakistan has laws against child labor and slavery, the government has taken very little action to combat it. Very low priority is given to education in the national budgets, where education receives only around 3% of the total gross domestic product, compared to 30% spent on Pakistan’s military.
Nike has been accused of using child labor in the production of its soccer balls in Pakistan.101 Nike operates its child-labor production line based on subcontracts with the local firm, SAGA sports. With aims of minimizing cost and maximizing profit, the international firm works with local factories that
employs child laborers, who are most likely paid only cents per day.102 A crucial fact is that the critical issue lying in front of these child laborers is poverty—without enough money to keep them alive, children are forced to work to help sustain the family and forgo education. Therefore, it is important to think of ways of addressing extreme poverty when considering child labor regulations.
99 “TED Case Study: NIKE: Nike Shoes and Child Labor in Pakistan”, China Labor Watch (2010), http://www.chinalaborwatch.org/newscast/66 100 Ibid. 101 Ibid. 102 Ibid.
43 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 When thinking of a rapid and complete abolition of child labor, it is important to remember that a categorical ban on child labor might be a theoretically ideal solution, but it is in fact poorly-thought, as it ignores the real-world consequences of a direct ban. For extremely low-income families without sufficient sources of income, a direct ban of child labor would be devastating, as these families either have to struggle in extreme poverty or earn money from non-affected activities—meaning underground illegal jobs like prostitution. Therefore, children would benefit neither from a lack of
law enforcement and nor from an efficiently implemented ban on child labor.103
In addition, “the involvement of children in economic activities is also subject to intercultural differences. Many societies see children working as perfectly acceptable, especially in the context of family business. The Forum for African Investigative Reporters, for instance, quoted a Cameroonian farmer and father who said of his own family: ‘[child labour] is considered as part of the household chores children do to help their parents. I do not consider this child abuse because we are making
money that is used to pay their school fees.’104 Imposing a complete ban on foreign producers is a
way of imposing a contemporary western mindset.”105 A more sensible policy would thus be to apply some basic rules of humane working conditions in conjunction with a targeted, evolving approach
that considers the actual outcomes of implemented measures.106
Past Actions
The international community has worked hard on eliminating child labor, which we are able to tell through the decreasing rate of child labor in the following graph and as discussed in the previous
section.107
103 The Guardian, “Banning child labour imposes naive western ideals on complex problems.” https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2015/aug/26/ban-child-labour-developing-countries-imposes-naive- western-ideals-complex-problems 104 Ibid. 105 Ibid. 106 Ibid. 107 Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban, and Max Roser. "Child Labor." Our World in Data (2016). https://ourworldindata.org/child-labor
44 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32
UNICEF
The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) supports the adoption of International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention No. 182 to immediately end the worst forms of child labor and work
for its ratification and implementation.108 In response to the 246 million children who are engaged in child labor, UNICEF’S work focuses on “building a protective environment for children that
safeguards them from exploitation and abuse.”109
UNICEF has been responding to child labor through child-centered policies – viewing children as resilient, capable, and active individuals despite their inevitable vulnerability, inexperience, and passiveness in their development. Thus, a protective environment for children must include
strategies aimed at getting and keeping vulnerable children in school.110 It also aims at achieving the following guidelines surrounding children:
108 “FACTSHEET: CHILD LABOUR”, UNICEF, https://www.unicef.org/protection/files/child_labour.pdf 109 Ibid. 110 Ibid.
45 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 preventing all forms of child labor detrimental to children; 111
using the Convention on the rights of the Child – as a guiding force behind its work; supporting other
key areas of the child's development, including health, nutrition and sanitation;112
working for the ratification and implementation of ILO Convention No.182 to immediately end the
worst forms of child labor.113
In addition, it is fortunate that child labor laws have been strengthened in many countries, and
several international corporations have adopted codes of conduct concerning child labor.114
The International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC)
With the goal overall goal of the progressive elimination of child labor, the International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC) of ILO was created in 1992. The goal was set to be achieved through “strengthening the capacity of countries to deal with the problem and promoting a
worldwide movement to combat child labor.”115 The number and range of IPEC’s partners have expanded over the years and now include “employers’ and workers’ organizations, other international and government agencies, private businesses, community-based organizations, NGOs, the media, parliamentarians, the judiciary, universities, religious groups and finally, children and
their families.”116 The program currently has operations in 88 countries, with an annual expenditure on technical cooperation projects of over US$61 million in 2008, making it the largest program of its
kind globally and the largest single operational program of the ILO.117
IPEC’s aim is the progressive elimination of child labor worldwide, with the eradication of the worst forms as an urgent priority. Since its start of operations in 1992, IPEC has worked to achieve the goal
111 Ibid. 112 Ibid. 113 Ibid. 114 Ibid. 115 “About the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC)”, ILO, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/programme/lang--en/index.htm 116 Ibid. 117 Ibid.
46 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 through several ways: starting country-based programs promoting policy reform, building institutional capacity, changing negative social attitudes, and promoting effective implementation
of ILO child labor Conventions.118 These efforts have successfully lifted thousands of children out of hazardous work environments and prevented them from re-entering the workforce. The additional efforts that underly direct action throughout included quantitative and qualitative research, policy and legal analysis, program evaluation, and child labor monitor, which have allowed accumulation of
knowledge, methods, case studies, guidelines, and training materials.119
IPEC's work to eliminate child labor is an important facet of the ILO's Decent Work Agenda. Child labor not only prevents children from acquiring the skills and education they need for a better future, but it also perpetuates poverty and affects national economies through loss in competitiveness,
productivity and potential income.120 In addition to withdrawing children from child labor, it is important to also provide children with education and assist their families with training and employment opportunities, which would greatly help the children secure a decent job when they
grow up to be adults.121
Case Studies
IPEC also works with governments at the national level, developing time-limited national plans of
action required by the convention that effectively decreased child labor.122 To illustrate some effective measures, some short case studies of international intervention of child labor are provided so as to give insight into the intervention of these issues, including Bangladesh, Brazil, Nepal, and the United Republic of Tanzania. Most required the cooperation between state government and the international society, and solutions should take into account the differing social dynamics of different countries.
118 “Action against child labor”, ILO, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Action/lang--en/index.htm 119 Ibid. 120 Business Communication. “Child Labor Long Report.” Scribd.com. https://www.scribd.com/doc/28347999/Child- Labor-Long-Report 121 “About the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC)”, ILO 122 Ibid.
47 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 “In Bangladesh, UNICEF, ILO and the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association concluded an agreement to end child labor in the country’s garment factories. Freed child workers were given stipends to attend school, through funds provided by the Association, UNICEF and ILO. By 1998, 10,500 children had been removed from work under the program, and about 80 per cent were enrolled in community-based schools organized by two NGOs. A follow-up agreement was
designed to keep these children in school beyond the age of 14.”123
In Brazil, UNICEF partners with various organizations to send children back to school from labor, introduce extracurricular activities in addition to school education, organize citizenship courses for not only children and adolescents but also their families, and promote the participation of communities and families into children’s education. In addition, UNICEF supported “the creation of the Parliamentarian Front for the Rights of Children and Adolescents, which monitors legislation
affecting children”124 in Brazil.
In Nepal, UNICEF is making an effort on increasing parental awareness of the negative effects of child labor by constructing a Parenting Education initiative. The initiative also provides an encouraging and safe place for children aged 3 to 5 in community-based centers for child development. There were 50,000 parents and caregivers who participated in the Parenting Education initiative in 1999, which has achieved significant results in increasing public awareness of
child labor.125
In Tanzania, UNICEF together with the International Labor Organization have also worked to raise societal awareness of child labor through supporting training for trade union representatives, non- governmental organizations, and other institutions and groups. In addition, with improvements in the country’s birth registration systems, children’s enrollment in school is now being monitored
more efficiently,126 which contributes to the reduction of child labor and increases enrollment rates.
123 “FACTSHEET: CHILD LABOUR”, UNICEF 124 Ibid. 125 Ibid. 126 Ibid.
48 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Possible Solutions
Given the complexity of child labor, the issue should be addressed through multiple ways. The UNICEF has outlined several suggestions to the intervention of child labor, which are centered around building a protective environment for children.
Children need to be removed immediately from the worst forms of child labor and provided with care and education. Education services need to exist and they must be free, compulsory, relevant and attractive. Children and parents must be made to see school as a better option than work. In addition, governments also need to ensure that all children have access to compulsory education as
a front-line response to child labor.127
In addition, laws and regulations that prohibit child labor need to be improved and rigorously enforced. National governments need to commit themselves to international standards such as the International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention No.182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, which has been ratified by 132 governments. They also need to make sure that laws are in place to
prosecute employers who exploit children.128
Resources for this struggle should be made available. Child labor should be at the top of the agenda of national and state-level finance ministries, as well as those of the traditional social ministries
associated with children’s welfare.129 UN could incorporate suggestions for developing nations to increase budget for education and prevention of child labor, while its subcommittees could also offer monetary support for governments incapable of investing enough money into child labor prevention. Governments and other relevant organizations need to estimate the approximate number of children working in various forms of labor and information on gender, age and ethnicity of the children to understand what made them vulnerable in the first place, which would allow them to devise effective responses accordingly. Developing countries can demonstrate the seriousness of their commitment by allocating more resources to basic-level social services, while other nations “can show their commitment by increasing the proportion of assistance they allocate to basic social
127 Ibid. 128 Ibid. 129 “FACTSHEET: CHILD LABOUR”, UNICEF
49 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 services and by supporting soft loans and lowering debts.”130 Since SOCHUM doesn’t have directly affiliated funds targeted at specific global issues, delegates can think of creative ways that support implementation of state-level solutions to child labor under SOCHUM’s flexible mandate. Cooperation with UNICEF, or the creation of affiliating funds by SOCHUM for the enhancement of child education could both be possible solutions that bolster the implementation of child-labor- related policies.
In addition to resources needed to address the issue, attitudes and practices should also improve. In regions where child labor is prevalent, it is common for children working to receive little objection from families and communities, especially in rural families and regions, where adults deem work to be a better activity for girls than studying. For forced and bonded labor, families and communities are often unable to acknowledge the nature of such agreements, which leads children to be bound by their employers. The lack of social disapproval against landowners and employers exploiting children in work arrangements have failed to protect children and have worsened the issue, which is
another aspect that policymakers should focus on addressing.131 Delegates might consider solutions such as establishing educational initiatives, social-awareness campaigns, and local media promotion.
Lastly, children’s views need to be considered in programs aimed at helping child laborers. If children are provided with feasible alternatives to hazardous labor after the implementation of anti-child- labor programs, it is essential to make children and parents active partners in identifying these
alternatives.132 SOCHUM can support the development of independent human rights institutions around the world for children globally through enforcing guidelines from the ILO, assigning specific roles, and providing suggestions. Establishing research offices that maximize the efficiency of these institutions would be a great example of how the UN could enhance its cooperation with independent agencies across the world and accordingly increase their functionality.
130 Ibid. 131 Ibid. 132 Ibid.
50 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 An ongoing recent project developed by IPEC may also provide insight into possible solutions helpful for combatting child labor, especially in places in the world where child labor is still widespread across communities.
Accelerating action for the elimination of child labor in supply chains in Africa (ACCEL Africa)
A recent project launched in 2018 in Africa, “Accelerating action for the elimination of child labor in
supply chains in Africa”133 (ACCEL Africa), is developed by IPEC and partnered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, with a budget of 23, 500, 000 Euros. ACCEL Africa started from
mid-November 2018 and had a duration of 4 years, spanning from November 15th 2018 to November
15th 2022.134 In its initial stage, ACCEL Africa was holding national consultations in its beneficiary countries to help develop plans of action for countries. According to the priority actions stipulated in the plans, the project will “work with different stakeholders and partners to accelerate action against child labor in order to achieve Target 8.7 of Sustainable Development Goals on the elimination of
child labor by 2025.”135
ACCEL Africa is a regional project focusing specifically on several supply chain industries, including
Cacao, Coffee, Cotton, Gold and Tea.136 With the experience accumulated over the 25 years through work by the IPEC (International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor) and the ILO, the project ACCEL Africa will focus on:
public policy and good governance;137
133 “Accelerating action for the elimination of child labor in supply chains in Africa (ACCEL Africa), ILO, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/projects/global/WCMS_698536/lang--en/index.htm” 134 Ibid. 135 Ibid. 136 Ibid. 137 Ibid.
51 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 empowerment and representation, and138
partnership and knowledge sharing among global supply chain actors working in Africa.139
ACCEL Africa will also be maintained by ongoing research and stipulation of good practices both from the implementation the project itself and outside sources.
The ACCEL Africa project is now happening in 6 countries, namely Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Mali, Malawi,
Nigeria, and Uganda.140 Several proposed outcomes of the program are listed as follows:
Policy, legal and institutional frameworks are improved and enforced to address child labor in global
supply chains141
Innovative and evidence-based solutions that address the root causes of child labor in supply chains
are institutionalized142
Strengthening partnership and knowledge sharing among global supply chain actors working in
Africa.143
ACCEL Africa is a great example that helps delegates create their own resolutions, since the program not only devises guiding principles from the UN, but it also targets directly at the local level, making these principles feasible and adaptable to specific situations in different regions. Such localized programs will enable efficient implementation of solutions in regions most vulnerable to the problem of child labor. The localized institutions would thus be able to perform duties according to the varying situations of varying nations and regions.
Feasible solutions to child labor will not only include solutions oriented globally, but also those that adapt to and penetrate local regions. Possible solutions might include creating a fund for improving
138 Ibid. 139 Ibid. 140 Ibid. 141 Ibid. 142 Ibid. 143 Ibid.
52 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 education and reducing extreme poverty, punishments for factories unable to ensure safe environment for child labor, social awareness campaigns and local educational programs, establishment of research offices enhancing current Non-Profit Organizations and independent human rights institutions, and cooperation with other UN funds and sub-bodies. It would also be important for delegates to consider the possible social-economic consequences of their solutions, since the issue involves multiple levels of action from multiple differing areas.
Bloc Positions
Africa
The 2016 Global Estimates of Child Labor indicate that one-fifth of all African children are involved in child labor, a proportion more than twice as high as in any other region. “Nine per cent of African
children are in hazardous work, again highest of all the world’s regions.”144 “72.1 million African
children are estimated to be in child labor and 31.5 million in hazardous work.”145
With conditions generally worrying in Africa, the situation is especially pressing in Sub-Saharan African countries. Countries with available data and relatively high share of child labor rates include Algeria, Tunisia, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone,
Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Gabon, Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, Malawi.146 Many more neighboring countries in Central Africa with missing child labor data are also suffering high rates of child labor, which makes it important for these countries to receive international assistance to help reduce worst forms of child labor. Countries will more likely support resolutions that involve economic assistance, local projects, and introduction of non-profit organizations that help address their domestic issues.
144 “Child Labor in Africa” International Labor Organization, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Regionsandcountries/Africa/lang-- en/index.htm 145 Ibid. 146 Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban, and Max Roser. "Child Labor." Our World in Data (2016). https://ourworldindata.org/child-labor
53 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 Arab States
“In the Arab States, children and young adults make up half the population of 280 million.”147 “An
estimated 13.4 million, or about 15 per cent, of all children in the region are child laborers.”148 However, the real level of child labor may be much higher, since the predominance of underground and informal child labor is difficult to measure. Work in seasonal agriculture, street work, and domestic labor are of particular concern. Gender inequality affecting the enrollment of girls in school
is also an important issue influencing child labor.149
Asia-Pacific
According to the latest ILO Global report on Child Labor, the number of working children under the
age fifteen in Asia and the Pacific decreased by 5 million to 122.3 million from 2000 to 2004.150 Despite the achievement, the region still faces major challenges. The number of children working in
Asia Pacific consists by far 18.8 per cent of the 650 million 5-14-year-olds in the region.151 Furthermore, progress in the elimination of child labor is still “modest compared to progress in Latin
America and the Caribbean.”152 Clauses on raising awareness and governmental funding may be effective measures to reduce child labor for countries in these regions.
Europe Central Asia, and North America
According to the 2006 Global Report by International Labor Organization on child labor, there has been a decrease in the number of children working in the countries with transitional economy mostly
in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.153 As the countries’ commitment to combat child labor was
147 International Labor Organization. “Child labour in Arab States.” ILO. https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Regionsandcountries/arab-states/lang--en/index.htm 148 Ibid. 149“Regions and countries”, International Labor Organization, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Regionsandcountries/lang-- en/index.htm 150 Ibid. 151 Ibid. 152 Ibid. 153 International Labor Organization, “Child labour in Europe and Central Asia.” ILO. https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Regionsandcountries/europe-and-central-asia/lang--en/index.htm
54 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 backed up by poverty reduction and economic growth, the policies have reached significant progress. In addition, the rate of ratification of the two Child Labor Conventions under ILO has also been optimistic in Europe. Out of the 40 countries, only 3 of them are yet to ratify the “ILO Minimum
Age Convention No. 138”154 and 3 of them yet to ratify the “Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention
No. 182.”155 These nations are the earliest industrialized nations that have resolved child labor in the
20th century, which would make their experience invaluable for the eradication of child labor today.
Latin America and the Caribbean
While child labor has reached substantial progress in Latin America and the Caribbean in recent years, there are still “5.7 million working girls and boys who are under the minimum age for employment or are engaged in work that must be abolished according to ILO Worst Forms of Child
Labor Convention No. 182.”156 “The majority of these children work in agriculture, but there are also many thousands of girls and boys working in other high-risk sectors such as mining, dumpsites,
domestic labor, fireworks manufacturing and fishing.”157 Again, it would be important for both domestic governmental intervention as well as international assistance to help address the issue in this region. Regional cooperation might also be an effective way for addressing child labor in Latin America and the Caribbean such as through the UN regional body Organization of American States (OAS).
154 Ibid. 155 Ibid. 156 “Regions and countries”, International Labor Organization, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/Regionsandcountries/lang-- en/index.htm 157 Ibid.
55 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32
Glossary
Child work
“Children’s or adolescents’ participation in work – economic activity – that does not negatively affect
their health and development or interfere with their education, is often positive.”158 “Light work (that does not interfere with education) is permitted from the age of 12 years under ILO Convention
No.138.”159 In other words, the international community is not opposed to children working.
Child labor
Child labor is a much narrower concept than child work, which “refers to children working in contravention of ILO standards contained in Conventions 138 and 182. This means all children below 12 years of age working in any economic activities, those aged between 12 and 14 engaged in more
than light work, and all children engaged in the worst forms of child labor.”160
Worst forms of child labor
These forms of labor involve “children being enslaved, forcibly recruited, prostituted, trafficked,
forced into illegal activities or exposed to hazards.”161
Hazardous Child Labor
158 “FACTSHEET: CHILD LABOR”, UNICEF, https://www.unicef.org/protection/files/child_labor.pdf 159 Ibid. 160 Ibid. 161 Ibid.
56 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32 All types of work that exposes children to dangerous environments such as underground, underwater, dangerous heights, violence and abuse, dangerous machinery, or extremely long hours
of work.162
International Labor Organization
“The International Labor Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency whose mandate is to
advance social justice and promote decent work by setting international labor standards.”163 It was
the first specialized agency of the UN with 187 member states.164
162 “What is child labor”, ILO, https://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--en/index.htm 163 "Mission and impact of the ILO", ilo.org. https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/mission-and-objectives/lang-- en/index.htm 164 Ibid.
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60 Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee | MUNUC 32