Organizational Culture of Broadcasting in Asia วัฒนธรรมองค์กรกจการกระจายเสิ ียงและกิจการโทรทัศนในเอเช์ ีย

Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

The Organizational Culture of Broadcasting in Asia วัฒนธรรมองค์กรกจการกระจายเสิ ียงและกิจการโทรทัศนในเอเช์ ีย

Drew McDaniel1 Chalisa Magpanthong2

Abstract This study examined the industry-wide organizational culture of broadcasting in 14 nations of Asia, analyzing values held by 233 senior radio and television staff members. Participants ranked a set of core values related to ideational organizational culture. Spearman correlation coefficients indicated that a few values were considered important across all nations, but other values varied sharply from country to country. A factor analysis identified three distinct groupings of value orientations: 1) socialist and former socialist nations, 2) Islamic and Roman Catholic nations, and 3) a single democratic monarchial Buddhist nation, this diversity indicating an absence of a common organizational culture in the region’s broadcasting field while suggesting the predominant role of politics and religions in shaping the region’s professional culture. Thus values held industry-wide appeared to interact with local cultures within nations producing sub-regional patterns.

Keywords: Asia, Broadcasting, Radio, Television, Organizational Culture

บทคัดย่อ การศึกษาครั้งนี้สํารวจวัฒนธรรมองค์กรการกระจายเสียงจํานวน 14 ประเทศในภูมิภาคเอเชีย โดยการ วิเคราะห์ค่านิยมที่ผู้ปฏิบัติงานวิทยุกระจายเสียงและวิทยุโทรทัศน์ระดับอาวุโสให้ความสําคัญ ทั้งนี้ ผู้เข้าร่วม การวิจัยจํานวน 233 คน ได้จัดเรียงอันดับชุดค่านิยมหลักที่เกี่ยวข้องกับวัฒนธรรมองค์กรในอุดมคติการ วิเคราะห์ค่าสัมประสิทธิ์สหสัมพันธ์แบบสเปียร์แมนระบุว่า มีค่านิยมหลักบางประการที่ทุกประเทศจัดลําดับ ว่าสําคัญ และมีค่านิยมบางประการที่แต่ละประเทศให้ลําดับความสําคัญแตกต่างกันไป การวิเคราะห์ องค์ประกอบบ่งชี้ว่า ชุดค่านิยมที่ได้รับการจัดเรียงลําดับเหล่านี้สามารถแบ่งเป็นสามกลุ่มหลักๆ คือ 1) กลุ่ม ประเทศสังคมนิยมและประเทศที่เคยใช้ระบบสังคมนิยม 2) กลุ่มประเทศนับถืออิสลามและโรมันแคทอลิก เป็นหลัก และ 3) กลุ่มประเทศประชาธิปไตยอันมีพระมหากษัตริย์ทรงเป็นประมุขและนับถือศาสนาพุทธ ซึ่ง สะท้อนให้เห็นว่า แท้จริงแล้วไม่มีวัฒนธรรมองค์กรกิจการกระจายเสียงและกิจการโทรทัศน์หนึ่งเดียวใน ภูมิภาคเอเชีย และยังชี้ให้เห็นว่า การเมืองและศาสนาหลักมีบทบาทต่อการให้ความสําคัญในค่านิยม ดังนั้น อาจเป็นได้ว่าการที่ผู้ปฏิบัติงานให้ความสําคัญค่านิยมแตกต่างกันนั้น เป็นผลจากวัฒนธรรมท้องถิ่นนั้นๆ อัน นําไปสู่การสร้างรูปแบบค่านิยมในระดับอนุภูมิภาค

คําสําคัญ: เอเชีย กิจการกระจายเสียง วิทยกระจายเสุ ียง วทยิ ุโทรทัศน์ วัฒนธรรมองค์กร

1 School of Media Arts & Studies, Ohio University, USA, E-mail: [email protected] 2 Bangkok University International, Bangkok University, Thailand, E-mail: [email protected]

83 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

Introduction gain as much as one or two hours of productive In the 1980s, interest in the concept of work per employee per day” (p. 15). Application organizational culture grew among scholars and of such principles led to excesses. Kunda (1991, researchers, chiefly because of its power to p. 219) reported on efforts to manipulate explain complex human interactions in the corporate culture within a high-tech company, workplace. Martin (2002) examined different where he found a “pervasive, comprehensive, ways of defining organizational culture and and demanding system of normative control found they fell into two types—ideational and based on the use of symbolic power.” Parker materialistic approaches, the former based on (2000, p. 1) criticized early work on organizational patterns of thinking and the latter on the culture as “unreflexive about its core material aspect of work environments. The assumptions” and proposed a more complex following reports on a study of the ideational formulation that defined these cultures “as organizational cultures present in the field of ―fragmented unities‖ in which members identify broadcasting in Asia, analyzing values held by themselves as collective at some times and radio and television professionals in 14 nations. divided at others.” Later studies have turned Data for this study were drawn from archival more toward understanding and accommodating data collected over more than a decade in organizational cultures rather than focusing on workshops conducted for mid-level and senior its manipulation. radio and television managers. The viewpoints and “rules of the game” found within particular fields have been the Organizational Culture interest of a number of researchers. According While culture is seen as “the set of to Reynolds (1986, pp. 333-334), organizational important understandings (often unstated) that cultures develop within industries so that members of a community share in common” “relative success in a given industry may be (Sathe, 1985, p. 6), Davis (1984) defined associated with a distinctive organizational organizational culture as the “pattern of shared culture, but may be quite different from the beliefs and values that give members of an culture found in successful organizations in institution meaning, and provide them with the other industries.” A number of studies have rules for behavior in their organization” (p. 1). examined, for instance, the organizational culture Additionally, Shein (1992) described organizational of banking (Aksoy, Apak, Eren, & Korkmaz, 2014; culture as the “shared basic assumptions” that Liao, Chang, Hu, & Yueh, 2012). Ovidiu-Iliuta (2014) are employed to respond to external forces looked at the link between organizational culture and to bring about internal integration. These and management practices in Romanian IT are “taught to new members as the correct way companies, and Acar and Acar (2014) examined to perceive, think, and feel . . .” (p. 12). the performance of hospitals having different Much early research was aimed at controlling organizational cultures in Turkey. organizational culture so as to enhance work Radio and television demand specific sets performance. Deal and Kennedy (1982) proposed of technical skills and specialized problem- that with the proper culture, a “company can solving abilities, and over time, these

84 Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

Introduction gain as much as one or two hours of productive “approaches” could become the basis of an studies have attempted to ascertain whether In the 1980s, interest in the concept of work per employee per day” (p. 15). Application industry-wide organizational culture for broadcasting‖s organizational culture spans organizational culture grew among scholars and of such principles led to excesses. Kunda (1991, broadcasting. Alvesson (2002) attributed the multiple nations. researchers, chiefly because of its power to p. 219) reported on efforts to manipulate recent interest in organizational culture to the A central problem of the concept of explain complex human interactions in the corporate culture within a high-tech company, “expansion of high-tech and other knowledge- organizational cultures is how they interact with workplace. Martin (2002) examined different where he found a “pervasive, comprehensive, intensive companies employing a large number surrounding social cultures. Enterprises do not ways of defining organizational culture and and demanding system of normative control of professionals” (p. 7). However, Martin (2002) exist within a vacuum, but are enclosed within found they fell into two types—ideational and based on the use of symbolic power.” Parker has emphasized that cultural boundaries are external social systems that offer separate sets materialistic approaches, the former based on (2000, p. 1) criticized early work on organizational “moveable, fluctuating, permeable, blurred, and of values and sustain different behavior patterns. patterns of thinking and the latter on the culture as “unreflexive about its core dangerous” (p. 315), thus suggesting that cultures Scholars have studied the interplay between material aspect of work environments. The assumptions” and proposed a more complex within an industry may vary according to these two sets of norms—one operating within following reports on a study of the ideational formulation that defined these cultures “as geographic location and across time. Garner et an industry and another within society—in organizational cultures present in the field of ―fragmented unities‖ in which members identify al. (2016) in a meta-analysis of organizational various ways over the years. Examples include broadcasting in Asia, analyzing values held by themselves as collective at some times and communication, noted that over the decades the study of public sector organizations in India radio and television professionals in 14 nations. divided at others.” Later studies have turned of research on organizational culture, there (Nayak & Barik, 2013), the business process Data for this study were drawn from archival more toward understanding and accommodating had been a decline in field studies in actual outsourcing sector in India (Dwivedi, Kaushik, & data collected over more than a decade in organizational cultures rather than focusing on organizational settings. Luxmi, 2014), as well as various organizations in workshops conducted for mid-level and senior its manipulation. A number of studies have reported on Canada (Marchand, Haines, & Dextras-Gauthier, radio and television managers. The viewpoints and “rules of the game” aspects of organizational cultures within 2013) and Nigeria (Ezirim, Nwebere, & Emecheta, found within particular fields have been the broadcasting. For example, Phelan (2000) studied 2010). In one early essay on this matter, Wilkins Organizational Culture interest of a number of researchers. According the particular experiences of women in coping and Ouchi (1983, p. 468) proposed that “the While culture is seen as “the set of to Reynolds (1986, pp. 333-334), organizational with the field‖s culture; Wahl berg (2017) studied existence of local organizational cultures that important understandings (often unstated) that cultures develop within industries so that Swedish broadcasting‖s organizational culture are distinct from more generally shared members of a community share in common” “relative success in a given industry may be that promoted programming sympathetic to background cultures occurs relatively (Sathe, 1985, p. 6), Davis (1984) defined associated with a distinctive organizational Vietnam during the late 1960s and early 1970s; infrequently.” If this were so, then a number of organizational culture as the “pattern of shared culture, but may be quite different from the Lauzen and Dozier (2002) looked at the influence important implications would follow. For beliefs and values that give members of an culture found in successful organizations in of television networks‖ corporate culture on example, multinational organizations could not institution meaning, and provide them with the other industries.” A number of studies have scheduling of programs featuring female enjoy a single corporate culture, but one for rules for behavior in their organization” (p. 1). examined, for instance, the organizational culture characters; Hollifield, Kosicki, and Becker (2001) each of the individual societies in which they Additionally, Shein (1992) described organizational of banking (Aksoy, Apak, Eren, & Korkmaz, 2014; examined tensions between organizational and operated, something that might interfere with culture as the “shared basic assumptions” that Liao, Chang, Hu, & Yueh, 2012). Ovidiu-Iliuta (2014) professional culture in newsrooms; and Stavitsky their coordination at an international level. are employed to respond to external forces looked at the link between organizational culture (1995) analyzed the implications of public Scheffknecht (2011) studied this very problem and to bring about internal integration. These and management practices in Romanian IT broadcasting‖s culture on audience research. and concluded that even if multinational are “taught to new members as the correct way companies, and Acar and Acar (2014) examined Within the past decade, technology change organizations put in place extensive training to perceive, think, and feel . . .” (p. 12). the performance of hospitals having different and its impact on broadcasting‖s organizational programs, “national cultural influences cannot Much early research was aimed at controlling organizational cultures in Turkey. culture has emerged as a dominant research be avoided” (p. 77). More importantly, if organizational culture so as to enhance work Radio and television demand specific sets interest (Larson & Pepper, 2011; Moyo, 2013; national cultures tend to be superimposed on performance. Deal and Kennedy (1982) proposed of technical skills and specialized problem- Nassanga, Manyozo, & Lopes, 2013; Salehi, an organization, this would decrease the that with the proper culture, a “company can solving abilities, and over time, these Mirsepasi, & Farhangi, 2015). None of the previous likelihood that organizational cultural norms

85 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

could operate within an industry across national with political figures seeking to maintain their boundaries. What is not clear is whether the control over broadcast outlets and activists background culture simply overwhelms the seeking reforms providing greater diversity of organizational culture as suggested by Wilkins opinion and public openness (McDaniel, 2002). and Ouchi, or whether a system of contention While operating as public service and negotiation with local cultures operates. broadcasters, very few were non-commercial, Thus, our study posed its first research question and advertising has played an important role in as follows. funding most Asian radio and television RQ1: Operating together, does industry- services. There were a few exceptions to this wide organizational culture tend to general outline: the Philippines‖ broadcasting act in concert with or in opposition system has remained largely privately owned to key local values held by broad- and commercial in nature, though owners tend casting managers of Asia? to have close ties to politically influential individuals (Rosales, 2006). In Thailand, Broadcasting’s Organizational Values in an though either the government or military own Asian Context frequencies, actual broadcasting is conducted Throughout history, broadcasting in Asia by corporations that hold concessions for use has tended to be carried out under strict of those frequencies (Magpanthong, 2007). governmental supervision. In many cases, Beginning in the late 1990s, this pattern national broadcasting organizations were actually began to change as satellite and Internet departments within governmental ministries. technologies began to break governments‖ hold One example is Radio Television Malaysia which on information channels. Spurred by neo-liberal functions as a division of the Ministry of economic policies, restrictions prohibiting or Information, Communication, and Culture. These limiting private broadcasting organizations were national organizations were often the only loosened across the region, though in nearly authorized broadcasters in the nation and every case strict government oversight was were, in effect, media monopolies operated by maintained (McDaniel, 2002). In the process of their governments of the day. This gave this change, broadcasting became more authorities in these countries effective control localized, moving away from nationwide over information disseminated within their broadcasting to regional and local outlets, and borders (McDaniel, 1994, 2002). in countries such as Thailand, highly localized Because of these conditions, broadcasting community radio stations (Magpanthong, 2007). in Asian countries has tended to be politicized, In recent decades some Asian social with political leaders drawing their authority theorists have advanced the notion that Asian from ideology and religion. In countries such as cultures share a single set of common core China, Marxist principles were applied as guides values, ones that are fundamentally at odds for control of information, whereas in Brunei with those from cultures of other world regions, and Afghanistan guidance came from Islamic especially the West. Several Asian political principles. In most countries, this led to tensions, leaders have championed this idea, using it to

86 Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

could operate within an industry across national with political figures seeking to maintain their explain their governments‖ practices in areas family life; 4) friendship patterns; and 5) normative boundaries. What is not clear is whether the control over broadcast outlets and activists such as media regulation, censoring, electoral ideology and value concepts (pp. 30-38). Chen background culture simply overwhelms the seeking reforms providing greater diversity of rules, and especially in information policies. stressed that his findings were restricted only organizational culture as suggested by Wilkins opinion and public openness (McDaniel, 2002). They argued that tendencies in these fields to “those [values] of the East Asian culture, and Ouchi, or whether a system of contention While operating as public service reflect a special Asian cultural sensibility, and mainly Chinese and Japanese cultures, which and negotiation with local cultures operates. broadcasters, very few were non-commercial, although they may conflict with values held are familiar to me” (p. 29). Thus, our study posed its first research question and advertising has played an important role in elsewhere, they are broadly accepted and The proposition that a single set of values as follows. funding most Asian radio and television should be respected by the rest of the world. could be shared by peoples of such a broad RQ1: Operating together, does industry- services. There were a few exceptions to this In particular, former Malaysian Prime Minister geographic expanse, making up a huge wide organizational culture tend to general outline: the Philippines‖ broadcasting Dr. Mahathir Mohammad led a drive to validate proportion of the world‖s population, has been act in concert with or in opposition system has remained largely privately owned the Asian values concept, speaking frequently dismissed by many scholars. Ho (1976) termed to key local values held by broad- and commercial in nature, though owners tend on the subject (“Rely on Asian Values,” 2000). the Asian values proposition “stereotypical,” casting managers of Asia? to have close ties to politically influential A vigorous debate has surrounded the “Asian and at a University of Singapore faculty seminar individuals (Rosales, 2006). In Thailand, values” thesis from the outset, however, and specifically suggested that the supposed “non- Broadcasting’s Organizational Values in an though either the government or military own experts have been unable to agree on which aggressive, non-violent and non-militant” core Asian Context frequencies, actual broadcasting is conducted values are peculiar to the region. In 2000, at a Asian value was “false” and pointed out that Throughout history, broadcasting in Asia by corporations that hold concessions for use conference on “Sustainable Urban Development “non-violence is hardly a national trait of any has tended to be carried out under strict of those frequencies (Magpanthong, 2007). in the New Millennium” in Kuala Lumpur, the nation in Asia when its interests are at stake” governmental supervision. In many cases, Beginning in the late 1990s, this pattern then Prime Minister Mahathir advocated Asian (p. 11). Chandra Muzaffar, a prominent Malaysian national broadcasting organizations were actually began to change as satellite and Internet values as an antidote to economic problems intellectual, pointed out that values believed departments within governmental ministries. technologies began to break governments‖ hold experienced in Asia beginning in 1997. According to distinguish Asia were actually widely held, One example is Radio Television Malaysia which on information channels. Spurred by neo-liberal to him, cultural value characteristics of the noting that “even in the West, values such functions as a division of the Ministry of economic policies, restrictions prohibiting or region included “an absence of extreme as hard work continue to be cherished by Information, Communication, and Culture. These limiting private broadcasting organizations were individualism, a sense of responsibility for the important segments of society” and suggesting national organizations were often the only loosened across the region, though in nearly community, belief in strong family, reverence that “Asian values are as diverse and as complex authorized broadcasters in the nation and every case strict government oversight was for education, frugality, hard work, national as Asia itself.” Consequently, he rejected Asian were, in effect, media monopolies operated by maintained (McDaniel, 2002). In the process of teamwork, a social contract between the cultural values as a basis for the political their governments of the day. This gave this change, broadcasting became more people and the state, moral wholesomeness, a systems found in the region (Chandra, 1997, 6). authorities in these countries effective control localized, moving away from nationwide free but responsible press, a belief in citizens Finally, Rošker (2016) has found that despite over information disseminated within their broadcasting to regional and local outlets, and as stake holders, and last but not least respect commonly held assumptions to the contrary, borders (McDaniel, 1994, 2002). in countries such as Thailand, highly localized for the environment” (Hollis, 2008). Chen (1977) the notion of Asian values has almost no Because of these conditions, broadcasting community radio stations (Magpanthong, 2007). was among the first scholars to critically examine connection with modern Confucian philosophy. in Asian countries has tended to be politicized, In recent decades some Asian social the theory when he attempted to identify the Much discussion on this subject has focused with political leaders drawing their authority theorists have advanced the notion that Asian cultural attributes that promoted rapid economic on the media, because national leaders on from ideology and religion. In countries such as cultures share a single set of common core growth in certain Asian countries during the grounds of their fit with Asian values have China, Marxist principles were applied as guides values, ones that are fundamentally at odds 1970s. His list of attributes included: 1) group justified contentious media policies in countries for control of information, whereas in Brunei with those from cultures of other world regions, spirit and paternalistic employer-employee such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. and Afghanistan guidance came from Islamic especially the West. Several Asian political relationship; 2) mutual assistance and community Rigorous media censorship, licensing, and codes principles. In most countries, this led to tensions, leaders have championed this idea, using it to life; 3) parent-child relationship and cohesive of conduct for journalists have been defended

87 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

as “natural” and “appropriate” in the Asian In each course, participants were instructed cultural context (Masterton, 1996). The key to choose from a list the single cultural value concept cited by many authorities was Asian they considered most important and to give it values‖ adherence to the principles of a “free a ranking of 1. Then they were asked to select and responsible press,” although exactly what the second most important, giving it a rank of was meant by these terms was not clear 2, and continuing until all 18 values on the list (McDaniel, 2002). Therefore, a second research were ranked. Ties in ranking were not permitted. question was posed as the following. The values included the following: Informality, RQ2: Do broadcasting workers from different Equality/Egalitarianism, Personal control over portions of Asia express a common the environment, Security/Safety and freedom set of values? If agreement does from threats, Action/Work orientation, Time and exist among personnel from different its control, Materialism/Acquisitiveness, Familism/ nations on the values important in Close kinship ties, Practicality/Efficiency, Religion/ their national societies, then either Spiritualism, Change/Mobility, Self-help, the universal pattern proposed by Knowledge/Wisdom/Understanding of nature, the Asian values thesis or the presence Directness/Openness/Honesty, Individualism/ of a powerful organizational culture Privacy/Independence, Competition/Free spanning the region would be enterprise, Future orientation/Optimism, and suggested. Conformity/Harmony with group norms. After collection, the data were aggregated Methods within each country group to produce a Cultural Measures. From 2000 to 2012, composite ranking for all persons attending more than twenty training seminars and each workshop. This was done by simply workshops organized by the authors were summing all the participants‖ rankings of hosted by the Asia-Pacific Institute for Broadcasting individual values and then ranking these sums. Development and the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting It is important to note again that the composite Union. As part of each training activity, rankings did not examine materialistic participants were asked to rank-order 18 cultural organizational culture from the narrow values according the importance of each “to professional perspective of issues related to your society.” The 18 items were adapted from their jobs or radio and television, but rather the work of Kohl sand Knight (1994) and they summarized the worldviews of the represented fundamental values that are known individuals in the field of broadcasting within to provide contrasting cultural judgments. The their nation, or in other words what Martin resulting rankings were useful in raising cultural (2002) would term an ideational summary of awareness, sensitizing training participants to organizational culture. differing cultural perspectives, and in providing Composite rankings from each workshop them an opportunity to discuss and analyze were archived for use in subsequent training their own organizations‖ cultures. courses and were later made available for use

88 Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

as “natural” and “appropriate” in the Asian In each course, participants were instructed in this study. By exploratory comparative significant at the p <. 01 level. The fact that cultural context (Masterton, 1996). The key to choose from a list the single cultural value analysis, we sought to capture the contrasting rankings in these countries among different concept cited by many authorities was Asian they considered most important and to give it basic cultural values expressed among broadcast groups of senior broadcast staff and in different values‖ adherence to the principles of a “free a ranking of 1. Then they were asked to select managers of various countries. As noted earlier, years exhibited a high degree of correlation and responsible press,” although exactly what the second most important, giving it a rank of organizational culture can be described as suggest not only that rankings are reliable over was meant by these terms was not clear 2, and continuing until all 18 values on the list focusing on the material aspects of work or it time but that variations resulting from the mix (McDaniel, 2002). Therefore, a second research were ranked. Ties in ranking were not permitted. can focus on the ideas and values that are of different participants did not cloud the question was posed as the following. The values included the following: Informality, accepted within an organization. This study was underlying cultural value structures, thus RQ2: Do broadcasting workers from different Equality/Egalitarianism, Personal control over based on the latter perspective in which the validating methods employed in the study. portions of Asia express a common the environment, Security/Safety and freedom list of core social values could be used as a Data Collection. This was a longitudinal set of values? If agreement does from threats, Action/Work orientation, Time and tool to assess the ideational organizational research project in which data were collected exist among personnel from different its control, Materialism/Acquisitiveness, Familism/ culture of broadcasting within each participant during the period of 2000-2012. From among nations on the values important in Close kinship ties, Practicality/Efficiency, Religion/ group. many training courses conducted during this their national societies, then either Spiritualism, Change/Mobility, Self-help, To evaluate the reliability of our ranking period, we selected fourteen for our study. the universal pattern proposed by Knowledge/Wisdom/Understanding of nature, procedures, we compared rankings within the These were chosen based on providing a suitable the Asian values thesis or the presence Directness/Openness/Honesty, Individualism/ same country in workshops presented at representation of East, Southeast, and South of a powerful organizational culture Privacy/Independence, Competition/Free different times but not included in our sample. Asian regions while including the most recent spanning the region would be enterprise, Future orientation/Optimism, and For example, rankings made by broadcast workshop in each country. Each of these offered suggested. Conformity/Harmony with group norms. workers in Vietnam in 2002 which we used in a sample within a different Asian nation and in After collection, the data were aggregated this study were compared with those made in total included 233 participants. The number of Methods within each country group to produce a 1993 when the methodology was being pretested persons participating varied from location to Cultural Measures. From 2000 to 2012, composite ranking for all persons attending but was in its final form. (Arguably, this country location, from a high of 27 in Indonesia to a more than twenty training seminars and each workshop. This was done by simply experienced the most dramatic social and low of 9 in Malaysia, but most groups were in workshops organized by the authors were summing all the participants‖ rankings of economic changes in all of Asia during the the range of 14 to 25 participants. hosted by the Asia-Pacific Institute for Broadcasting individual values and then ranking these sums. 1990s). It was reasoned that a comparison of These seminars and workshops covered Development and the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting It is important to note again that the composite these two samplings would indicate how varied topics, but focused mainly on issues Union. As part of each training activity, rankings did not examine materialistic consistent values remained over an extended facing broadcasting organizations of the region. participants were asked to rank-order 18 cultural organizational culture from the narrow time in a period of social transition, and to Such issues included technological change, values according the importance of each “to professional perspective of issues related to what extent individual variation would affect mounting revenue pressures from privatization your society.” The 18 items were adapted from their jobs or radio and television, but rather composite rankings. The Spearman rank order of radio and television, changes in the structures the work of Kohl sand Knight (1994) and they summarized the worldviews of the correlation coefficient was 0.802. The same of organizations, the changing workforce character, represented fundamental values that are known individuals in the field of broadcasting within comparison was made of 2012 rankings of and so on. to provide contrasting cultural judgments. The their nation, or in other words what Martin groups of Malaysian broadcast staff that were The enterprises from which study participants resulting rankings were useful in raising cultural (2002) would term an ideational summary of used in this study with ones made in 2000. This were drawn were all public service broadcasting awareness, sensitizing training participants to organizational culture. analysis produced a Spearman rho value of organizations, with the exception of the differing cultural perspectives, and in providing Composite rankings from each workshop 0.858. In addition, the 2003 rankings in the Philippines where, as previously noted, there them an opportunity to discuss and analyze were archived for use in subsequent training Philippines used in this study were compared was a mix of private commercial and public their own organizations‖ cultures. courses and were later made available for use with those of 2000, producing a Spearman service broadcasters. In some cases—for example coefficient of 0.695. All three coefficients were Malaysia—all participants were from the same

89 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

organization (Radio Television Malaysia), whereas three days to a week, thus the creation of a in others there were multiple organizations group “culture” was unlikely to be a confounding represented (for instance, separate organizations issue in this study. Table 1 presents a summary for radio and television, or separate national of the training courses from which data were and provincial broadcasters as in Vietnam). All collected. workshops were of short duration, ranging from

Table 1 Data Collection Details Country Year Host Organization Bangladesh 2004 National Institute for Mass Communication Brunei 2000 Radio Television Brunei Cambodia 2005 National Television of Cambodia TVK China 2004 Guangdong Television Indonesia 2003 Radio Republic Indonesia Lao PDR 2010 Lao National Radio Malaysia 2012 Institute Penyarian Tun Abdul Razak Maldives 2009 Maldives Broadcasting Corporation Nepal 2000 Radio Nepal Pakistan 2007 Pakistan Television Philippines 2003 Philippine Broadcasting Service Sri Lanka 2005 Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation Thailand 2005 Public Relations Department of Thailand Vietnam 2002 Vietnam Television

Data Analysis. In order to explore identical sum within a group, and were resolved correspondence among values sets more by giving the two sums the same mean ranking. closely, Spearman rank correlation coefficients An explanation of the computation and were computed for participants from all interpretation of the Spearman rho coefficient countries. Spearman rho correlation coefficients can be found in Siegel & Castellan (1988). showed the degree of agreement between To determine the underlying structure of pairs of national groups‖ sets of ranked items the cultural judgments, a factor analysis was and can be interpreted in roughly the same performed on the matrix of Spearman rank way as Pearson product-moment correlation correlation coefficients. Normally, a factor coefficients. Coefficients were calculated by analysis utilizes matrices of Pearson product the use of SPSS, which employs procedures that moment correlation coefficients, but recent make corrections required for computations work shown that the technique can be when there are ties in composite rankings, extended to rank order coefficients. According something that arose on a few occasions. Ties to Raghavachari & Richie (2001) analyses using occurred when two ranked values produced an ranked data “produced results that are

90 Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

organization (Radio Television Malaysia), whereas three days to a week, thus the creation of a similar to the ones obtained by the classical Table 2 presents the composite rankings in others there were multiple organizations group “culture” was unlikely to be a confounding methodology of using the Pearson correlation for the groups of broadcasters in countries represented (for instance, separate organizations issue in this study. Table 1 presents a summary matrices.” included in this study. Perhaps the most for radio and television, or separate national of the training courses from which data were striking pattern that emerges from figures in and provincial broadcasters as in Vietnam). All collected. Findings Table 2 is that knowledge and education never workshops were of short duration, ranging from Because our first research question required ranked lower than fifth and the majority ranked an understanding of which values shared a it first among cultural values held by broadcasters Table 1 Data Collection Details similar importance among broadcasters from of different nations. All other values fluctuated Country Year Host Organization different nations, we began analysis with the in rankings from country to country—in some Bangladesh 2004 National Institute for Mass Communication second of our research questions: Do broadcasting cases quite markedly. The value of materialism Brunei 2000 Radio Television Brunei workers from different portions of Asia express tended to be ranked near the bottom, and the Cambodia 2005 National Television of Cambodia TVK a common set of values? If agreement does same was generally true of individualism. Future China 2004 Guangdong Television exist among personnel from different nations orientation and religion were values that showed Indonesia 2003 Radio Republic Indonesia on the values important in their national societies, wide variation; both had rankings from near the Lao PDR 2010 Lao National Radio then either the universal pattern proposed by top to near the bottom. Malaysia 2012 Institute Penyarian Tun Abdul Razak the Asian values thesis or the presence of a Maldives 2009 Maldives Broadcasting Corporation powerful organizational culture spanning the Nepal 2000 Radio Nepal region would be suggested. Pakistan 2007 Pakistan Television Philippines 2003 Philippine Broadcasting Service Sri Lanka 2005 Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation Thailand 2005 Public Relations Department of Thailand Vietnam 2002 Vietnam Television

91 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

4 2 7 6 1 5 3 12 18 11 16 10 17 15 14 13 ry. 8.5 8.5 Malaysia

1 2 5 7 6 4 3 18 10 13 17 11 12 14 8.5 8.5 15.5 15.5 China

3 1 5 6 8 9 2 4 7 13 10 12 11 18 15 16 14 17 Maldives

1 9 2 3 4 8 6 5 7 17 12 18 15 13 16 11 10 14 Nepal

2 6 1 7 3 5 9 4 8 16 17 18 12 15 13 10 14 11 Sri Lanka

1 7 6 3 5 2 4 8 9 17 13 16 18 11 12 10 15 14 Pakistan

1 4 9 2 3 5 8 7 6 14 12 16 10 18 13 17 15 11 Laos

1 6 4 2 3 5 9 7 8 18 17 12 15 13 11 16 10 14

Cambodia

4 2 7 3 1 5 9 8 Country 18 13 16 14 10 12 11 15 17 6.5 Indonesia

1 8 5 4 9 6 2 3 7 15 13 17 10 12 14 16 13 11 Brunei

4 9 1 2 5 3 7 8 5 18 10 16 12 15 13 17 14 10 Bangladesh

1 3 6 7 2 5 4 8 9 17 15 13 10 16 18 11 14 12 Vietnam

2 3 7 1 9 4 6 8 5 17 16 13 18 15 10 11 12 14 Philippines

2 6 4 7 9 8 5 1 3 18 17 14 15 16 10.5 10.5 12.5 12.5 Thailand

Ranking ofStaff Members‖ Asian Broadcast Cultural Values by

A rank ofrepresents 1 the most important value and a rank the of 18 least important value among participants fromeach count reliance - Informality Equality Control Security Work orientation control Time Materialism orientation Family Practicality Religion Change Self Knowledge/ education Honesty Individualism Competition orientation Future Conformity Table 2 Note.

92 Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

The Spearman rho correlation coefficients participants from these two countries. Significance

2 7 6 1 4 5 3 12 18 11 16 10 17 15 14 13 ry. 8.5 8.5 are presented in Table 3. At the intersection of is noted in two levels: p < .05 and p < .01. Of Malaysia

columns and rows are the coefficients for the the 91 comparisons, 37 yielded correlation

2 5 7 6 1 4 3 18 10 13 17 11 12 14 8.5 8.5 rankings of pairs of participant groups from each coefficients significant at the p < .01 level of 15.5 15.5 China

nation. For example, a correlation coefficient significance, and another 25 were significant at

1 5 6 8 9 2 3 4 7 of 0.510 was found between Thailand and the the p < .05 level. Several broad consistencies 13 10 12 11 18 15 16 14 17

Maldives Philippines, indicating a moderate but statistically seem to emerge from the matrix, though

significant similarity in cultural values among careful inspection is required to uncover these. 9 2 3 4 8 6 5 1 7 17 12 18 15 13 16 11 10 14

Nepal

6 1 7 3 5 9 2 4 8 16 17 18 12 15 13 10 14 11 Sri

Lanka

7 6 3 5 2 1 4 8 9 17 13 16 18 11 12 10 15 14 Pakistan

4 9 2 3 5 8 1 7 6 14 12 16 10 18 13 17 15 11 Laos

6 4 2 3 5 9 1 7 8 18 17 12 15 13 11 16 10 14

Cambodia

2 7 3 1 4 5 9 8 Country 18 13 16 14 10 12 11 15 17 6.5 Indonesia

8 5 4 9 6 2 1 3 7

15 13 17 10 12 14 16 13 11 Brunei

9 1 2 5 3 7 8 4 5 18 10 16 12 15 13 17 14 10

Bangladesh

3 6 7 2 5 1 4 8 9 17 15 13 10 16 18 11 14 12 Vietnam

2 3 7 1 9 4 5 6 8 17 16 13 18 15 10 11 12 14 Philippines

2 6 4 7 9 8 5 1 3 18 17 14 15 16 10.5 10.5 12.5 12.5

Thailand

Ranking ofStaff Members‖ Asian Broadcast Cultural Values by

A rank ofrepresents 1 the most important value and a rank the of 18 least important value among participants fromeach count

reliance -

Informality Equality Control Security Work orientation control Time Materialism orientation Family Practicality Religion Change Self Knowledge/ education Honesty Individualism Competition orientation Future Conformity Table 2 Note.

93 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

Malaysia 0.356 0.715** 0.251 0.558* 0.885** 0.760** 0.185 0.265 0.585* 0.490* 0.347 0.481* 0.203 1.000

China 0.535* 0.245 0.731** 0.483* 0.445 0.363 0.789** 0.590** 0.456 0.606** 0.743** 0.193 1.000

Maldives 0.533* 0.674** 0.030 0.599** 0.585* 0.643** 0.131 0.261 0.529* 0.404 0.317 1.000

Nepal

0.732** 0.519* 0.812** 0.758** 0.601** 0.434 0.771** 0.841** 0.626** 0.841** 1.000

Sri Lanka 0.701** 0.538* 0.695** 0.638** 0.624** 0.420 0.583* 0.789** 0.715** 1.000

Pakistan 0.367 0.519* 0.564* 0.651** 0.752** 0.525* 0.571* 0.484 1.000

Laos 0.773** 0.350 0.785** 0.554* 0.537* 0.298 0.633** 1.000

0.452 0.055 0.719** 0.505* 0.495* 0.185 1.000 Cambodia

0.435 0.851** 0.267 0.743** 0.786** 1.000 Indonesia

Brunei 0.556* 0.718** 0.487* 0.707** 1.000

Bangladesh 0.603* 0.760** 0.522* 1.000

0.560* 0.294 1.000 Vietnam

Correlation Coefficients: Staff Members‖ Asian Broadcast Cultural Values by Country 0.510* 1.000 Philippines rho

Thailand 1.000

Spearman

. *= p < .05 .01. .05 and **= < p . *= p

Thailand Philippines Vietnam Bangladesh Brunei Indonesia Cambodia Laos Pakistan Lanka Sri Nepal Maldives China Malaysia Table 3 Note

94 Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

As previously noted, to more clearly bring and a Varimax rotation of the factors was

forth patterns within the cultural values, factor employed. Reagan (2000) offers some prudent

analyses were conducted of the rank order advice on the use and interpretation of factor Malaysia 0.356 0.715** 0.251 0.558* 0.885** 0.760** 0.185 0.265 0.585* 0.490* 0.347 0.481* 0.203 1.000 correlation matrix. This also allowed us to analyses, cautioning that the approach is

address the project‖s first research question: “amorphous” and proposing that the best China 0.535* 0.245 0.731** 0.483* 0.445 0.363 0.789** 0.590** 0.456 0.606** 0.743** 0.193 1.000 Operating together, does an industry-wide solution is the one that “predicts best.”

organizational culture tend to act in concert Following this suggestion, and based upon an with or in opposition to key local values held examination of scree plots, a three factor Maldives 0.533* 0.674** 0.030 0.599** 0.585* 0.643** 0.131 0.261 0.529* 0.404 0.317 1.000

by broadcasting managers of Asia? Factors were solution was selected. Table 4 shows the

extracted using a principal components solution, results. Nepal

0.732** 0.519* 0.812** 0.758** 0.601** 0.434 0.771** 0.841** 0.626** 0.841** 1.000

Sri Table 4 Rotated Factor Matrix: Asian Broadcasters‖ Values Lanka 0.701** 0.538* 0.695** 0.638** 0.624** 0.420 0.583* 0.789** 0.715** 1.000

Factor

Country 1 2 3 Pakistan 0.367 0.519* 0.564* 0.651** 0.752** 0.525* 0.571* 0.484 1.000 Thailand .769

Philippines .830 Laos 0.773** 0.350 0.785** 0.554* 0.537* 0.298 0.633** 1.000 Vietnam .892

Bangladesh .660

Brunei .847 Cambodia 0.452 0.055 0.719** 0.505* 0.495* 0.185 1.000

Indonesia .882

Cambodia .916

Indonesia 0.435 0.851** 0.267 0.743** 0.786** 1.000 Laos .750

Pakistan .658

Sri Lanka .695 Brunei 0.556* 0.718** 0.487* 0.707** 1.000

Nepal .824

Maldives .676

China .822 Bangladesh 0.603* 0.760** 0.522* 1.000

Malaysia .895

Vietnam 0.560* 0.294 1.000 In an effort to make the factor structure Sri Lanka, and Nepal. A socialist value orientation

more readily understandable, we attempted to was clearly evident in participants‖ responses

Correlation Coefficients: Staff Members‖ Asian Broadcast Cultural Values by Country identify common national attributes of the to the ranking exercise. For example, in this Philippines 0.510* 1.000 rho

three sets of nations. Among the countries group each country‖s broadcast managers

included in our analysis there are historical and tended to rank religion at or near the bottom.

Thailand 1.000 political similarities that may help explain the The second grouping was made up of Islamic

Spearman

structures of common value patterns. and Roman Catholic nations, including the

. *= p < .05 .01. .05 and **= < p . *= p The first grouping was made up of all predominantly Islamic nations of Maldives, Thailand Philippines Vietnam Bangladesh Brunei Indonesia Cambodia Laos Pakistan Lanka Sri Nepal Maldives China Malaysia

Table 3 Note socialist countries and former socialist nations Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, and Bangladesh, in the study—China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, plus the Roman Catholic Philippines. In these

95 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

societies, religion was rated very important, but consistent agreement occurred in the ranking acquisitiveness received a low ranking. It might of knowledge and understanding, as previously seem odd that Philippines would be included observed. There was also broad agreement on with Muslim nations, but this is perhaps a materialism and individualism, both of which result of that country‖s strong Christian traditions were values placed near the bottom among all the central values of which are quite similar to participant groups. those of Islam. Thailand as a democratic Broadcasting staff from Thailand had value monarchial Buddhist nation stood alone in sets that distanced them from the groupings in the third factor because it is a democratic Factors 1 and 2. Not surprisingly, Thailand‖s constitutional monarchy where the majority of strongest similarity was found with neighboring citizens practice Buddhism. Thailand has never Lao PDR, with which it shares many cultural had a socialist government and its Buddhist and linguistic traditions. Other strong correlation values are quite different from Islam and coefficients for Thai participants were evident Catholicism. Also, its political history is different with Sri Lanka and Nepal. Curiously, Thai from others in that it has never been colonized participants‖ rankings did not correlate significantly or occupied by a foreign power. with those from neighboring Malaysian or In response our first research question, the Indonesian broadcasting workers. One possible factor solution shows that there are three confounding factor was that the Thai group of different sets of values among these broadcast participants was predominantly female, the workers from across the region, not just one. only group having this gender balance. Most What appears to be evident is an interaction groups were male dominated, as much as between local cultures and the organizational three-fourths male in the Maldives and Indonesia. culture of broadcasting, resulting in sub-regional groupings. Similarly, somewhat greater Discussion and Conclusions importance was attached to time control and This study offers three primary findings: future orientation among these staff members. First, the results clearly show that in Asia the As for our second research question, there power of national cultures exceeds that of was some degree of agreement among broadcast broadcasting‖s organizational culture. This is workers from all countries on certain cultural demonstrated by the fact that a large values, even though correlation coefficients proportion of coefficients in Table 3 were not attained significance only in about two-thirds significant, suggesting that organizational culture of the countries compared as just noted. Most within the region was not so important in coefficients were positive, meaning that the shaping the value systems of people working in rankings tended to place values in the same electronic media. This conclusion supports the portions of the ranking scale. A negative value previous work of Scheffknecht (2011) and would indicate that the highly rated values of extends it to the field of radio and television. workers in one country were lowly ranked by Moreover, perhaps the best known example the other, but there were only a handful of of the research into multi-sited organizational these and none achieved significance. The most culture was Hofstadter‖s study of IBM‖s

96 Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

societies, religion was rated very important, but consistent agreement occurred in the ranking organizational culture in 64 countries. Although and the lack of emphasis on materialism, but acquisitiveness received a low ranking. It might of knowledge and understanding, as previously not the principal aim of his study, he found other supposedly common values such as seem odd that Philippines would be included observed. There was also broad agreement on four common problems in the corporation religion, strong family ties, and work orientation with Muslim nations, but this is perhaps a materialism and individualism, both of which across the world. These problems had a range were not at all constant. result of that country‖s strong Christian traditions were values placed near the bottom among all of solutions in different countries (1991, p. 12ff). Whether knowledge and education and the central values of which are quite similar to participant groups. Thus, we should remind ourselves that the low value attached to materialism are those of Islam. Thailand as a democratic Broadcasting staff from Thailand had value Hofstede‖s (2001) finding of differences from unique Asian traits is not known because this monarchial Buddhist nation stood alone in sets that distanced them from the groupings in country to country in IBM‖s organizational study did not compare Asian participants with the third factor because it is a democratic Factors 1 and 2. Not surprisingly, Thailand‖s culture also supports the thesis that those from other regions3. Other researchers constitutional monarchy where the majority of strongest similarity was found with neighboring surrounding cultures triumph over the culture have pointed to large differences in measured citizens practice Buddhism. Thailand has never Lao PDR, with which it shares many cultural of organizations. cultural orientations among Asian nations, and had a socialist government and its Buddhist and linguistic traditions. Other strong correlation Secondly, it appears that ideology and to the fact that the values that are most values are quite different from Islam and coefficients for Thai participants were evident religion play a powerful role in determining the familiar in Asia are also similar to cultural values Catholicism. Also, its political history is different with Sri Lanka and Nepal. Curiously, Thai pattern of values evaluated in this study, even found in other parts of the globe. For example, from others in that it has never been colonized participants‖ rankings did not correlate significantly in a professional setting such as the media. Charles Wolf (1999) reported on his study of or occupied by a foreign power. with those from neighboring Malaysian or Sharp differences from country to country were these cultural questions, noting that “on only In response our first research question, the Indonesian broadcasting workers. One possible observed even though the 233 individuals who two of nine value dimensions did Asians factor solution shows that there are three confounding factor was that the Thai group of did the ranking were all working in the same significantly differ from Westerners. . . . Moreover, different sets of values among these broadcast participants was predominantly female, the field of broadcasting, most had comparable variance within the Asian and Western groups‖ workers from across the region, not just one. only group having this gender balance. Most levels of education, were at middle to senior responses was quite similar,” with just two What appears to be evident is an interaction groups were male dominated, as much as levels in their job responsibilities, were mostly exceptions: “Asian respondents vary more widely between local cultures and the organizational three-fourths male in the Maldives and Indonesia. of an age 35 to 55 years old, were mostly male, among themselves in the importance they assign culture of broadcasting, resulting in sub-regional and enjoyed similar urban lifestyles. People to good relations with ―others,‖ as distinct from groupings. Similarly, somewhat greater Discussion and Conclusions possessing this much similarity in backgrounds families, and in the importance they assign importance was attached to time control and This study offers three primary findings: could be expected to exhibit some degree of to leisure activity than did their Western future orientation among these staff members. First, the results clearly show that in Asia the similarity in value systems, even if they come counterparts.” As for our second research question, there power of national cultures exceeds that of from diverse cultures. Nevertheless, factor In conclusion, one should note that this was some degree of agreement among broadcast broadcasting‖s organizational culture. This is analysis showed that different value orientations study made no effort to compare the individuals workers from all countries on certain cultural demonstrated by the fact that a large existed among these professionals. providing the rankings, nor is there any attempt values, even though correlation coefficients proportion of coefficients in Table 3 were not Finally, because the factor analysis revealed to assess the consistency of ranking among attained significance only in about two-thirds significant, suggesting that organizational culture at least three sets of value systems having persons within groups. This is purely an effort of the countries compared as just noted. Most within the region was not so important in numerous points of contrast, we believe our coefficients were positive, meaning that the shaping the value systems of people working in findings offer little support for the Asian values 3 Although not reported in this study, one of the authors rankings tended to place values in the same electronic media. This conclusion supports the thesis. Although groupings of countries may once collected data among managers of commercial portions of the ranking scale. A negative value previous work of Scheffknecht (2011) and have closely affiliated cultural systems, even broadcasting organizations in Ohio. Their rankings did not would indicate that the highly rated values of extends it to the field of radio and television. within groups their uniformity was not great. significantly correlate with any of the Asian countries and workers in one country were lowly ranked by Moreover, perhaps the best known example There are a few cultural patterns that do seem about half of the comparisons between the US managers the other, but there were only a handful of of the research into multi-sited organizational consistent across Asia, such as the high and participants from Asian countries were negative. This these and none achieved significance. The most culture was Hofstadter‖s study of IBM‖s importance attached to knowledge and education result needs further exploration.

97 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

to compare cultural values as seen in composite Chen, P. S. J. (1977). Asian values and form through the eyes of senior broadcast modernization: A sociological perspective. workers from organizations of different countries. In C. M. Seah (Ed.). Asian values & It is true that among the workshop participants modernization (pp. 21-40). Singapore: of some nations, on some values, there were Singapore University Press. notable differences in their rankings. This Davis, S. M. (1984). Managing corporate culture. potentially could render some of the ratings Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Pub. Co. unstable. Also, since this study employed a Deal, T. E., & Kennedy, A. A. (1982). Corporate convenience sampling method, the question of cultures. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. whether these individuals were representative Dwivedi, S., Kaushik, S., & Luxmi. (2014). Impact of staff members at similar levels in their of organizational culture on commitment stations and networks was raised. In all cases, of employees: An empirical study of BPO there was a vetting process within the sector in India. Vikalpa, 39(3), 77-92. organizations to select employees for training, Ezirim, C. B., Nwibere, B. M., & Emecheta, B. C. but the rationale for selection varied greatly. (2010). Organizational culture and Some participants were chosen on the basis of performance: The Nigerian experience. their strong job performance and others International Journal of Business and were selected due to their need for job Public Administration, 7(1), 40-56. improvement. Garner, J. T., et al. (2016). A long look back: An analysis of 50 years of organizational References communication research (1964-2013). Review Acar, A. Z., & Acar, P. (2014). Organizational of Communication Research, 4(1), 29-64. culture types and their effects on Ho, W. M. (1976). Asian values and modernization: organizational performance in Turkish A critical interpretation. Singapore: University hospitals. Emerging Markets Journal, 3(3), of Singapore. 18-31. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Aksoy, M., Apak, S., Eren, E., & Korkmaz, M. Software of the mind. New York: McGraw- (2014). Analysis of the effect of organizational Hill. learning-based organizational culture on Hofstede, G. (2001). Difference and danger: performance, job satisfaction and efficiency: Cultural profiles of nations and limits to A field study in banking sector. International tolerance. In M. H. Albrecht (Ed.). International Journal of Academic Research, 6(1), 301- HRM: Managing diversity in the workplace 313. (pp. 9-23). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Alvesson, M. (2002). Understanding organizational Hollifield, C. A., Kosicki, G. M., & Becker, L. B. culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (2001). Organizational vs. professional culture Chandra M. (1997). View Asian values in right in the newsroom: Television news directors‖ perspective. New Straits Times (Malaysia), 6. and newspaper editors‖ hiring decisions. Retrieved August 20, 2013, from LexisNexis Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Academic Database. 45(1), 92-117.

98 Vol. 16, No.2, July - December 2017

to compare cultural values as seen in composite Chen, P. S. J. (1977). Asian values and Hollis, C. (2008). Land rights and Asian values. Masterton, M. (1996). Asian values in journalism. form through the eyes of senior broadcast modernization: A sociological perspective. (2008, January 28). Malaysiakini. Retrieved Singapore: AMIC. workers from organizations of different countries. In C. M. Seah (Ed.). Asian values & August 20, 2013, from https://www.malay McDaniel, D. O. (1994). Broadcasting in the It is true that among the workshop participants modernization (pp. 21-40). Singapore: siakini.com/news/2168 Malay World. Norwood, N. J.: Ablex. of some nations, on some values, there were Singapore University Press. Kohls, L. R., & Knight, J. M. (1994). Developing McDaniel, D. O. (2002). Electronic Tigers of notable differences in their rankings. This Davis, S. M. (1984). Managing corporate culture. intercultural awareness. Yarmouth, ME: Southeast Asia: The politics of media, potentially could render some of the ratings Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Pub. Co. Intercultural Press. technology, and national development. unstable. Also, since this study employed a Deal, T. E., & Kennedy, A. A. (1982). Corporate Kunda, G. (1991). Engineering culture. Philadelphia, Ames: Iowa State University Press. convenience sampling method, the question of cultures. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. PA: Temple University Press. Moyo, L. (2013). The digital turn in radio: A whether these individuals were representative Dwivedi, S., Kaushik, S., & Luxmi. (2014). Impact Larson, G. S., & Pepper, G. L. (2011). Organizational critique of institutional and organizational of staff members at similar levels in their of organizational culture on commitment identification and the symbolic shaping of modeling of new radio practices and stations and networks was raised. In all cases, of employees: An empirical study of BPO information communication technology. cultures. Telemetric and Informatics, 30(3), there was a vetting process within the sector in India. Vikalpa, 39(3), 77-92. Qualitative Research Reports in 214-222. organizations to select employees for training, Ezirim, C. B., Nwibere, B. M., & Emecheta, B. C. Communication, 12(1), 1-9. Nassanga , G. L., Manyozo, L., & Lopes, C. (2013). but the rationale for selection varied greatly. (2010). Organizational culture and Lauzen, M. M., & Dozier, D. M. (2002). Equal ICTs and radio in Africa: How the uptake of Some participants were chosen on the basis of performance: The Nigerian experience. time in prime time? Scheduling favoritism ICT has influenced the newsroom culture their strong job performance and others International Journal of Business and and gender on the broadcast networks. among community radio journalists. were selected due to their need for job Public Administration, 7(1), 40-56. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Telemetric and Informatics, 30(3), 258-266. improvement. Garner, J. T., et al. (2016). A long look back: An 46(1), 137-153. Nayak, B., & Barik, A. (2013). Assessment of the analysis of 50 years of organizational Liao, S. H., Chang, W. J., Hu, D. C., & Yueh, Y. L. link between organizational culture and References communication research (1964-2013). Review (2012). Relationships among organizational job satisfaction: Study of an Indian public Acar, A. Z., & Acar, P. (2014). Organizational of Communication Research, 4(1), 29-64. culture, knowledge acquisition, organizational sector. International Journal of Information, culture types and their effects on Ho, W. M. (1976). Asian values and modernization: learning, and organizational innovation in Business and Management, 5(4), 47-61. organizational performance in Turkish A critical interpretation. Singapore: University Taiwan‖s banking and insurance industries. Ovidiu-Iliuta, D. (2014). The link between hospitals. Emerging Markets Journal, 3(3), of Singapore. The International Journal of Human Resource organizational culture and performance 18-31. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Management, 23(1), 52-70. management practices: A case of IT Aksoy, M., Apak, S., Eren, E., & Korkmaz, M. Software of the mind. New York: McGraw- Magpanthong, C. (2007). Participatory community companies from Romania. Annals of the (2014). Analysis of the effect of organizational Hill. media: Three case studies of Thai community University of Oradea, Economic Science learning-based organizational culture on Hofstede, G. (2001). Difference and danger: radio stations. (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio Series, 23(1), 1156-1163. performance, job satisfaction and efficiency: Cultural profiles of nations and limits to University). Parker, M. (2000). Organizational culture and A field study in banking sector. International tolerance. In M. H. Albrecht (Ed.). International Marchland, A., Haines, V. Y., & Dextras- identity. London: Sage. Journal of Academic Research, 6(1), 301- HRM: Managing diversity in the workplace Gauthier, J. (2013). Quantitative analysis of Phelan, P. F. (2000). “Pioneers, girlfriends, 313. (pp. 9-23). Malden, MA: Blackwell. organizational culture in occupational health and wives:” An agenda for research on Alvesson, M. (2002). Understanding organizational Hollifield, C. A., Kosicki, G. M., & Becker, L. B. research: A theory-based validation in 30 women and the organizational culture of culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (2001). Organizational vs. professional culture workplaces of the organizational culture broadcasting. Journal of Broadcasting & Chandra M. (1997). View Asian values in right in the newsroom: Television news directors‖ profile instrument. BMC Public Health, Electronic Media, 44(2), 230-247. perspective. New Straits Times (Malaysia), 6. and newspaper editors‖ hiring decisions. 13(443), 1-11. Retrieved August 20, 2013, from LexisNexis Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Martin, J. (2002). Organizational culture: Mapping Academic Database. 45(1), 92-117. the terrain. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

99 BU ACADEMIC REVIEW

Raghavachari, M., & Richie, J. (2001, March). Sathe, V. (1985). Culture and related corporate Factor analysis of rank order data. In The realities: Text, cases, and readings on Albany Chapter of the American Statistical organizational entry establishment and Association and Rensselaer Polytechnic change. Homewood, IL: Irwin. Institute’s applications in statistics: What’s Scheffknecht, S. (2011). Multinational hot / What’s next VI, Albany, NY.: American enterprises—organizational culture vs. Statistical Association. national culture. International Journal of Reagan, J. (2000). Toward a set of standards for Management Cases, 13(4), 73-78. the use of factor analysis in the Journal of Shein, E. H. (1992). Organizational culture and Broadcasting & Electronic Media. Journal of leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44(2), Siegel, S., & Casetellan, N. J. (1988). Nonparametric 324-328. statistics for the behavioral sciences. New Rely on Asian Values to develop, says Dr York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Mahathir. (2000). Utusan Online. Retrieved Stavitsky, A. G. (1995). “Guys in suits with charts”: November 3, 2017, from http://ww1.utusan. Audience research in U.S. public broadcasting. com.my/utusan/info.asp?y=2000&dt=0321 Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, &pub=Utusan_Express&sec=Front_Page&pg 39(2), 177-189. =fp_07.htm Wahlberg, M. (2017). Vietnam in transition: Reynolds, P. D. (1986). Organizational culture as Documentary film and solidarity programming related to industry, position and performance: in Swedish broadcasting culture (1967-1972). A preliminary report. Journal of Management Journal of Scandinavia Cinema, 7(1), 43-64. Studies, 23(3), 333-345. Wilkins, A. L., & Ouchi, W. G. (1983). Efficient Rosales, R. G. (2006). Shooting the messenger: cultures: Exploring the relationship between Why radio broadcasting is a deadly culture and organizational performance. profession in the Philippines. Journal of Administrative Science Quarterly, 28(3), Radio Studies, 13(1), 146–155. 468-481. Rošker, J. S. (2016). Modern Confucianism and Wolf, C. (1999, November 7). Are “Asian values” the concept of “Asian Values.” Asian Studies, really that unique? Los Angeles Times. 4(1), 153-164. Retrieved March 17, 2013, from http:// Salehi, S. M. R., Mirsepasi, N., & Farhangi, A. A. articles.latimes.com/1999/nov/07/opinion/ (2015). Investigating organizational culture op-30833 adaptability of broadcasting firm in response to environmental changes. Management Science Letters, 5(11), 975-978.

100