POLICY BRIEF 64 | OCTOBER 2014

Political killings in The ultimate intimidation

David Bruce

Summary Recommendations This policy brief provides a summary of current information on the nature and extent of the problem of political killings in South Africa. There remains a need for better understanding of the problem of The province of KwaZulu- accounts for the overwhelming majority political killings in South Africa, of these killings and in recent years these have been increasingly localised which could be enhanced by: to specific areas, such as the Umtshezi (Estcourt) municipal area, Ulundi A comprehensive analysis of and KwaMashu. Though Mpumalanga was also associated with these 1 the criminal justice response killings, there appear not to have been any in the province since early to the problem. 2011. Whereas during the period political killings took place Standardised data collection in a diversity of circumstances, they now tend to be targeted 2 on all possible political killings ‘assassinations’, though some also occur in other circumstances. and ongoing monitoring of the Available information suggests that less than 10% of these killings have criminal justice response to them. resulted in convictions. There is a need for in-depth research and a In-depth studies of specific better understanding both of the obstacles to a more effective criminal 3 localities such as the justice response, as well as why the problem continues. Umtshezi (Estcourt), Ulundi and KwaMashu hostel areas in order to understand the factors contributing to the continuing Political killings continue to be Related to this there is ongoing concern status of these areas as hotspots a feature of political life in South Africa.1 about these killings and why they still for political killings. In the post-apartheid period these killings continue in South Africa. More in-depth analysis have been concentrated in specific 4 into the political culture of provinces, notably KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), Comparison with political KZN and how this differs from and to a lesser extent Mpumalanga. killings during apartheid other provinces. This might Though these killings seem to have During the apartheid period political also provide insight into why declined in Mpumalanga since 2010, violence and killings took multiple forms. the province makes such a there was a pronounced increase in the The circumstances in which deaths took disproportionate contribution number of these killings in KZN over place included numerous open clashes to the problem of political 2011 and 2012. Political killings in the between armed groups, massacres killings in South Africa. province have continued to be reported in which large numbers of people in 2013 and 2014. were killed, as well as killings during

POLICY BRIEF_POL KILL_PROOF 5.indd 3 2014/11/03 5:45 AM policy brief

demonstrations, disappearances (where senior apartheid era government leaders people were killed after being abducted have claimed that they did not authorise and no trace of them could be found), the CCB or units to act as incidents of ‘necklacing’ and others. ‘death squads’ it is clear that these units Violence reached its greatest levels of aimed to promote the government’s intensity during the period from 1990 agenda of suppressing resistance. to the final days before the April 1994 However, most current day political election, with 14 000 deaths in political killings appear to emanate from local violence during this period.2 conflicts and rivalries.

Most current-day political killings appear to emanate from local conflicts and rivalries

In post-apartheid South Africa, particularly There is no evidence that they fit in with from the late 1990s onwards, fatal a more widely shared agenda. political violence generally takes the form of what appears to be targeted killings Defining killings as political of specific individuals, often referred to For a killing to be ‘political’ it must as ‘assassinations’. It may also include be motivated by or connected to incidents where supporters of a political contestation or rivalry, either regarding party are killed not because of any position access to political power, or conflict over that they hold but as a way of intimidating the way in which the individual targeted members of that party in general. Targeted (or a group aligned with that individual), killings were also one dimension of is exercising his or her political power. political violence during the apartheid era In terms of a broad understanding with the full number believed to run to conflict, such as that between unions nearly 4003, more than 90% of which took or even between gangs, may be political place between 1985 and 1994. At that even if it is not linked to political parties. time they included killings outside South Politicians themselves may also be Africa and internally4 and included killings behind the killings of civilians who by members of government security they perceive to threaten their power. forces and by armed groups aligned However in this policy brief the focus is with the South African government. on killings of people who are associated with political parties. Some of the units that were involved in these assassinations, notably the South In some killings of political office bearers, African Defence Force’s Civil Cooperation or others who are linked to political Bureau (CCB) and a police unit based parties, it later emerges that the motive at the farm Vlakplaas, were exposed in for the killing was not political in nature. the early 1990s. Dulcie September, Rick Ultimately a killing cannot be classified Turner, Griffiths and Victoria Mxenge, as political unless one knows the motive , Dr Fabian and Florence behind it. Unless the motive become Ribeiro,and David Webster were some clear (for instance through information of the more well known victims of these revealed at a trial) it would be more 14 000 killings. Forces linked to the liberation accurate to refer to killings of political The number of deaths that movements were also involved in killings office bearers or party members as occurred as a result of of this kind.5 ‘suspected’ or ‘possible’ political killings. political violence between Many of the apartheid era assassinations However the available evidence suggests 1990 and the elections were aligned with a centrally defined that many of the killings of political office in April 1994 common agenda. Thus, even though bearers and individuals associated

2 Political killings in South Africa

POLICY BRIEF_POL KILL_PROOF 5.indd 4 2014/11/03 5:45 AM with political parties are indeed political From a process of scrutinising and Mpumalanga in nature and are not merely random verifying publicly available data on The other province that has been most criminal acts that coincidentally resulted political killings in press reports and strongly associated with political killings in the death of a politically connected other documentary sources it has has been Mpumalanga. Approximately person. There is therefore a substantial been possible to identify 54 incidents 14 people have died in political killings and continuing problem of political of political killings (some involve two in the province since 1998. Although killings in South Africa though every fatalities) in the period from January 2009 the problem has in some respects ‘possible’ political killing is not necessarily to May 2014 in KZN. In the period from been fairly persistent, the total number a political killing. 2006 to 2008 another seven killings were of deaths recorded represents a small identified, bringing the total to 61 fatal The phenomenon of political killings fraction of those recorded in KwaZulu- incidents involving a total of 70 fatalities. overlaps with, but is not synonymous Natal. Three of these killings took place Though the killings are widely distributed with that of the killing of anti-corruption in 2010. This was the highest number in KZN, there are specific localities whistle-blowers. Some political killings recorded in any one year. One killing such as near Estcourt in the may target politicians who are involved was recorded in 2011 and none have northern Midlands that are associated in attempts to expose corruption occurred, or at least have received with a relatively large number of the perhaps authorised by other politicians public attention, since then. killings. The Ulundi and KwaMashu who are threatened by these efforts. Other provinces Hostel areas have accounted for seven However, other killings of whistle-blowers Political killings have also become of the 12 fatal incidents (resulting in do not target people connected to a prominent issue in North West in 14 deaths) in KwaZulu-Natal between political parties. recent years. Killings in North West January 2013 and May 2014. have included that of anti-corruption Distribution of political However information from political whistleblower and Rustenburg ANC killings in post-apartheid parties suggests that this total is not councillor Moss Phakoe in March 2009, South Africa comprehensive and that the total number and that of an ANC regional secretary, During much of the post-apartheid period of deaths in political killings in the period Obuti Chika, in December 2012. there has been no sustained monitoring from 2003 to 2013 numbers over 100 Shortly before Chika’s assassination of this phenomenon of political killings. with over 50% of this number having there was also an attempt on the life of As a result there is no comprehensive occurred over 2011 and 2012. One of the ANC provincial secretary. In June information on the problem. The picture the factors that sparked the increase 2014, there was an apparent attempt of political killings that is presented in in killings was clearly the launch of the on the life of a member of the this policy brief is based on recent research into the phenomenon.6 Other than during 2011 and 2012, the highest KwaZulu-Natal More than 90% of political killings in number of political killings in KwaZulu-Natal since post-apartheid South Africa have been 2003 was in 2009 in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). In KZN these killings have possibly numbered 450 or more since 1994. The majority of these National Freedom Party (NFP), as a provincial legislature. Other than in North killings occurred in the mid- and late breakaway from the Inkatha Freedom West there have been isolated incidents 1990s. From roughly 2000 onwards Party in February 2011. However, the in other provinces. In the Eastern Cape the rate at which these killings occurred period also seems to have involved an there were two killings, one in 2009 appears to have declined substantially. increase in killings of ANC members and and one in 2010, that were believed to But even at the lowest levels at which many of these killings are believed to be political in nature. In July 2013 two they were occurring there is no year have been connected to internal ANC men were convicted for conspiring to kill in which more political killings were rivalries. Other than during 2011 and several prominent ANC politicians in the recorded in any other province. The rate 2012, the highest number of political province. Other provinces which have of political killings increased once again killings in KwaZulu-Natal since 2003 was experienced apparent political killings in KZN in 2009 and particularly over the in 2009, with at least 12 apparent killings, or attempted killings, have included years 2011-2012. seven of those being ANC members. Limpopo, Gauteng and the Free State.

3

POLICY BRIEF_POL KILL_PROOF 5.indd 5 2014/11/03 5:45 AM This may indicate that the South African criminal justice system does not consistently give high priority to these cases

Victims of political killings suggests that less than 10% of these Those killed include at least 22 who were killings may have resulted in a conviction. serving as councillors, as well as one deputy mayor killed in Mpumalanga in Reasons for the killings 2007 and one mayor killed in KwaZulu- Related to the legacy of apartheid, a key Natal in 2005. Of the councillors 18 factor in understanding political killings were in KwaZulu-Natal, three were in is the high value that is attached to Mpumalanga and one was in North political office in South Africa.8 Members West. Some of those killed were people of the emergent political class often holding positions such as regional do not have significant educational secretary, leader, organiser, branch or qualifications. They also generally ‘do ward or youth formation chairperson, or not have historical assets, and they have were members or supporters of political large nuclear and extended families parties such as the ANC, IFP and NFP. to support’.9 There is therefore a very In addition to these some of the deaths high premium on political office and on which may be regarded as political acquiring positions within political parties. have been those of politically aligned Since the ANC has a virtual monopoly of traditional leaders or grass-roots activists power in many parts of South Africa one who may have been killed because they can expect that positions of power (even appeared to threaten the established relatively low-level positions) will be highly political interests.6 It would appear that contested and will result in various forms killings in the latter category have also of ‘intra-elite conflict’ within the ANC most frequently occurred in KwaZulu- and structures of government.10 These Natal, notably in areas surrounding dynamics are manifested in the fact that , with a number of victims having political killings, particularly in the period come from the shack dwellers movement since 2000, take place within the context Abahlali baseMjondolo.7 of both inter-party and intra-party rivalries.

The criminal justice However the high value attached to response political office is a national phenomenon but political killings have consistently There have been at least 10 convictions been concentrated in specific provinces, for apparent political killings, seven for notably KwaZulu-Natal and to a lesser cases in KwaZulu-Natal, two for cases degree Mpumalanga. Part of the in Mpumalanga and one for a case in explanation for the persistence of this North West. Six of these cases (two in phenomenon in KwaZulu-Natal clearly Mpumalanga, one in North West and MORE THAN relates to the growth of paramilitary three in KwaZulu-Natal) have involved forces in the province from the mid- the killings of ANC members. Three of 1980s onwards’11 and the way in which the KwaZulu-Natal cases involve the they were used for establishing and killing of IFP members or supporters and maintaining territorial control.12 90% one involves an NFP aligned Induna. The of political killings convictions are for killings over the years This in turn has fed into an assassination in post-apartheid 2007-2012. If it is estimated that there industry within the province, notably within South Africa have taken have been roughly 120 political killings the taxi industry. This in turn sometimes place in KwaZulu-Natal in the various provinces since 2003, this may enjoy protection from elements within

POLICY BRIEF 64 • OCTOBER 2014 4

POLICY BRIEF_POL KILL_PROOF 5.indd 6 2014/11/03 5:45 AM the police service.13 It may also be that Notes specific aspects of the political culture in 1 This policy brief is based in part on a 2013 8 See for instance Moeletsi Mbeki as quoted in Mpumalanga fed into the phenomenon article by the author titled ‘A provincial Jonny Steinberg, South Africa’s xenophobic concern? Political killings in South Africa’. eruption, Institute for Security Studies, in that province with a high proportion of The article is published in South African 2008, 9, http://www.issafrica.org/uploads/ killings believed to have involved anti- Crime Quarterly No 45 (September 2013) PAPER169.PDF (accessed 29 August 2013). corruption whistleblowers. available at http://www.issafrica.org/uploads/ 9 Joel Netshitenze, Competing identities of a SACQ45_Bruce.pdf. For more information on national liberation movement versus electoral the calculations involved and more detailed Policy implications party politics: challenges of incumbency, references please consult this article Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Due to the fact that political killings have 2 Max Coleman (ed), A crime against humanity Reflection, 2012, 4, http://www.mistra.org. been concentrated in specific provinces, – analysing the repression of the apartheid za/MediaDocs/Competing%20Identities.pdf state, : Human Rights (accessed 28 June 2013). notably KZN, the main responses to Committee, 1998, 226. 10 Karl von Holdt, South Africa: the transition to them have been provincially based. 3 Ibid, 247-258. violent democracy, unpublished paper, 2013. However the problem is one that directly 4 Ibid 11 Rupert Taylor, Justice denied: political undermines South Africa’s democratic violence in KwaZulu-Natal after 1994, 5 See for instance Peter Harris, In a different Johannesburg: Centre for the Study of institutions and status as a democratic time, Cape Town: Umuzi, 2008. Violence and Reconciliation, 2002, 14. http:// state. The continuation of the problem 6 With one or two exceptions, data provided www.csvr.org.za/docs/politicalviolence/ indicates that there is a need for a more generally excludes attempted assassinations justicedenied.pdf (accessed 28 June 2013). of which roughly a dozen involving political or systematic and comprehensive response. 12 Maria Schuld, Voting and violence in party office bearers, supporters or members, KwaZulu-Natal’s no-go areas: Coercive In order to develop such a response it were identified during this research. It also mobilisation and territorial control in post- excludes a couple of other whistleblowers in would be necessary for there to be: conflict elections, African Journal of government departments. Killings in conflict Conflict Resolution, 13(1), (2013), 101- related to industrial strife, and killings by the • A comprehensive analysis of the criminal 123. http://www.accord.org.za/images/ police or private security guards of protesters justice response to the problem. downloads/ajcr/ACCORD-ajcr-2013-1.pdf or striking workers are also excluded. (accessed 23 September 2013). • Standardised data collection on all 7 See for instance Richard Pithouse, The 13 Niren Tolsi, Sanctioned taxi violence poisons assassination surge on those fighting possibly political killings and ongoing KwaZulu-Natal, Mail & Guardian, 19 October corruption, Mail & Guardian online, 3 October 2012, http://mg.co.za/article/2012-10-18- monitoring of the criminal justice 2014, http://mg.co.za/article/2014-10-03- sanctioned-taxi-violence-poisons-kwazulu- the-assassination-surge-on-those-fighting- response to them. natal (accessed 28 June 2013). corruption/ (accessed 16 October 2014). There would also be value in conducting in-depth studies of specific localities such as the Umtshezi (Estcourt), Ulundi and KwaMashu hostel areas in order to understand the factors contributing to the continuing status of these areas as hotspots for political killings.

More in depth analysis into the political culture of KZN and how this differs from other provinces might also provide insight into why the province makes such a disproportionate contribution to the problem of political killings in South Africa.

5 Political killings in South Africa

POLICY BRIEF_POL KILL_PROOF 5.indd 1 2014/11/03 5:45 AM POLICY BRIEF

About the author ISS Pretoria David Bruce is a Johannesburg-based independent researcher and writer Block C, Brooklyn Court 361 Veale Street working in the fields of policing, crime and violence. From 1996 to 2011 New Muckleneuk he worked at the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation Pretoria, South Africa (CSVR). He has a master’s degree in management (public and development Tel: +27 12 346 9500 management) from the School of Public and Development Management at Fax: +27 12 460 0998 the University of the Witwatersrand (2000). [email protected]

ISS Addis Ababa 5th Floor, Get House Building, Africa Avenue About the ISS Addis Ababa, Ethiopia The Institute for Security Studies is an African organisation that aims Tel: +251 11 515 6320 to enhance human security on the continent. It does independent Fax: +251 11 515 6449 and authoritative research, provides expert policy analysis and advice, [email protected] and delivers practical training and technical assistance. ISS Dakar 4th Floor, Immeuble Atryum Route de Ouakam Acknowledgements Dakar, Senegal Tel: +221 33 860 3304/42 The ISS is grateful for support from the members of the ISS Partnership Fax: +221 33 860 3343 Forum: the governments of Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Japan, [email protected] Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the USA. ISS Nairobi Braeside Gardens off Muthangari Road Lavington, Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 20 266 7208 Fax: +254 20 266 7198 [email protected]

www.issafrica.org

© 2014, Institute for Security Studies ISS Policy Brief No 64 Copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Institute for Security Studies and the author, and no part may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission, in writing, of both the authors and the publishers. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the ISS, its trustees, members of the Advisory Council or donors. Authors contribute to ISS publications in their personal capacity.

POLICY BRIEF_POL KILL_PROOF 5.indd 2 2014/11/03 5:45 AM