PAST- PRESENT

Essays on Historicism in Art jrom Donatello to Picasso

Irving Lavin

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

BERKELEY • LOS ANGELES• OXFORD The publisher gratefully acknowledges the generous support of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, and the Una Endowment Fund of the University of California, Berkeley.

University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England

© 1993 by Irving Lavin

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lavin, Irving, 1927- Past-present : essays on historicism in art from Donatello to Picasso / Irving Lavin. p. cm. - (Una's lectures ; 6) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-520-06816-5 (cloth) I. Art and history. 2. Historicism. I. Title. II. Series. N72.H58L38 1992 709-dC20 91-28489

Printed in the United States of America 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences - Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI z39.48-1984. § Fig. 99. Caravaggio, Calling of St. Matthew. San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome (photo: Istituto Centrale de! Restauro, Rome 9779).

Fig. 100. Detail of Fig. 99. CHAPTER FOUR + CARAVAGGIO'S

Calling of Saint Matthew: T H E I D E N T I T Y

OF THE PROTAGONIST

powerful current runs through the entire history of involves a conundrum that is obscured in the King Western art-a complex, imponderable, paradoxical James translation. The glass is a mirror (speculum) Ametaphor that defines in visual terms the relation­ through which we see, and what we perceive "darkly" ship between the world and Christian belief The is an enigma. The point I want to focus on particu­ metaphor occurs in I Corinthians 1p2, where St. larly, however-because I believe Caravaggio did so, Paul explains the understanding that will come in in an unprecedented and utterly devastating way- is the fullness of faith: "For now we see through a the second part of the metaphor. "Face to face" is glass, darkly, but then face to face" (Videmus nunc per also a conundrum: the phrase may be taken both speculum in aenigmate, tune autem Jacie ad jaciem). One of metaphorically and literally-and this is exactly the principal interpretations of the passage was that how Caravaggio took it. Appropriating the Renais­ it alluded to the presence of God in everyday, ordi­ sance understanding of physiognomy as the outward nary, even unworthy things. Paul's dictum was thus manifestation of psychological and moral character related both to the ancient rhetorical tradition of (see pp. 109, 212 below), Caravaggio used the face in rhyparography, the art of portraying lowly and insig­ the second part of Paul's metaphor to portray (the nificant things, and to the Christian devotional tra­ pun is deliberate) the enigma of the first. Justification dition of the sermo humilis, or humble style, both of for Caravaggio's interpretation was provided by Paul's which have important corollaries in the visual arts. use of the same metaphor in 2 Corinthians p8, where These traditions enjoyed a great florescence in the he relates the image in the mirror to the change of face Northern European Renaissance, becoming a veri­ wrought by the spirit of the Lord in those who table mode of thought, as well as of persuasion, believe: "But we all, with open face beholding as in a among the major thinkers of the age, including glass the glory of the Lord, are changed into the same Nicholas of Cusa, Erasmus, and Rabelais. 1 image from glory to glory, even as by the Spirit of the My subject here is really an episode in this Lord" (Nos vero omnes revelata jacie gloriam Domini speculates millennial story, although a significant one, as I in eandem imaginem traniformamur a claritate in claritatem, hope will become clear. Paul's formulation in Latin tanquam a Domini Spiritu ).

85 My immediate purpose is to offer a counterproof tradition universally accepted since the early seven­ to arguments recently made to re-identify the figure teenth century had identified as the publican the of the Jewish tax collector Levi, whom Jesus calls to elegantly dressed bearded man who, bathed in Christ's the apostolate in Caravaggio's painting of that subject light, looks toward the approaching figure of the executed for the left wall of the Contarelli chapel in Lord and points to himself, assenting to the divine San Luigi dei Francesi, the French national church in command "Follow me.''3 Caravaggio's paintings Rome (Figs. 99, 100; Plate IV). Besides the Calling ef created an astonishing three-act religious drama in St. Matthew, Caravaggio painted three other canvases for which-to judge by appearances-the chief pro­ the chapel between 1599 and 1603 at the behest of the tagonist played three completely different and executors of Cardinal Matthieu Cointrel, who had incompatible roles. died in 1585: the Martyrdom ef St. Matthew for the right An alternative suggestion has been made that wall (Figs. IOI, 102) and two versions of the altarpiece Levi-who-became-Matthew should be identified showing Matthew composing his Gospel under the with the youth seated at the left of the counting inspiration of his symbolic angel (Figs. 103, 104 ).2 A table, unaware of Christ's approach, engulfed in

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew Fig. 101 (opposite). Caravaggio, Martrydom ef St. Matthew. San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome (photo: Istituto Centrale de! Restauro, Rome 9773).

Fig. 102 (above). Detail of Fig. 101 (photo: Istituto Centrale per ii Catalogo e la Documentazione, Rome Ez4570 ).

darkness, his head down, grasping a money bag the two figures sit, the so-called Savonarola chair, is close to his chest.4 The main arguments presented identical- in fact, Caravaggio also reused the bench to support this interpretation, though reasonable, do under the youth with the sword (at right) for the not in themselves seem persuasive to me: that the evangelist in the second version of the altarpiece pointing gesture of the seated figure could refer to (Fig. 104 ), and he had already used both props in the his companions at the end of the table - in fact, the London Supper at Emmaus(Fig. 105). The simple, una­ gesture seems clearly self-referential and not at all dorned pieces of furniture were just that, props, like ambiguous; that the physiognomy of the youth is the Capuchin's frock and the pair of wings Caravag­ more readily reconcilable with the Socratic features gio borrowed from the painter Orazio Gentileschi Caravaggio gave the evangelist Matthew composing during the very period he was working on the Con­ his Gospel in the original version of the altarpiece tarelli chapel. 5 In any case, accepting this partial for the chapel-in fact, notwithstanding the differ­ cure for the consistently split personality of Cara­ ence in age, the evangelist's features seem much vaggio's hero would be worse than the disease, for coarser; and that the design of the chairs on which we would then have to confront, without help from

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew Fig. m3 (above). Caravaggio, St. Matthew Composing His Gospel. Destroyed in 1945; formerly Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum, Berlin (photo: Zentralinstitut fur Kunstgeschichte, Munich 120854 ).

Fig. 104 (following plates). Caravaggio, St. Matthew Composing His Gospel. San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome (photo: lstituto Centrale de! Restauro, Rome 9783).

88 Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew Plate IV (above). Caravaggio, Calling of St. Matthew, detail. San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome (photo: courtesy Maurizio Marino).

Plate V (right). Pieter Coecke, Last Supper, detail. Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels.

Plate VI (opposite, above). Jan van Hemessen, Calling of St. Mat­ thew. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Plate VII (opposite, below). Hendrick Terbrugghen, Calling of St. Matthew. Cencraal Museum, Utrecht.

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew Fig. 105 (above) . Caravaggio, Supptr at Emmaus. National Gallery, London.

Fig. 106 (opposite). Piecer Coecke, I.Ast Supper. Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels.

the theory's proponents, the inconsistency of the divine illumination. Indeed, the metaphor has par­ same individual as Matthew in the first two scenes, ticular relevance in the Calling of St. Matthew, as a but another in the third. visual analogue to a passage connecting Matthew's To my mind, however, the alternative identifica­ conversion to his vision of Christ's radiance, in the tion is excluded a priori by other, more fundamental, liturgy for the saint celebrated in the chapel on his considerations. A youthful beardless and hatless feast day. The breviary quotes St. Jerome's luminous publican would contradict the worldly maturity response, in his commentary on this episode in the universally attributed to this government official, first Gospel, to the shadow of doubt cast on the however corrupt. The relative obscurity of the authenticity of the conversion by the pagan philoso­ youth at the side as Levi would contradict the high pher Porphyry and the apostate emperor Julian. drama of the composition as a whole, which focuses They claimed that either the story was false or it on the man in the center who looks toward Christ bespoke the folly of anyone who would follow and points. A Levi oblivious to Christ's appearance without hesitation at a call. Jerome replied that "cer­ would contradict the essential point of the episode, tainly the radiance and the majesty of the hidden the publican's response-not lack of response-to the divinity which shone out from the human face of Call. A benighted Levi would contradict one of the Christ could draw to Him at first sight those who most profound and innovative principles of Cara­ saw Him."6 vaggio's art, the use of light as a visual metaphor for These points are obvious enough, perhaps even

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew self-evident. So too is the simple observation that what distinguished him in a positive way among the the tax collector literally wears the sign of his pro­ Jews came to characterize the Jews themselves in a fession, the gold coin attached to his hat as a brooch.7 negative way among Christians, who attributed Another of Levi's salient features, however, requires David's ruddiness to his lust.9 The extreme case special comment because, although it seems not to of this ironic inversion, in which an unusual and have been discussed heretofore, it is fraught with attractive individual feature becomes an exemplary implications for the ultimate meaning of Caravag­ but repulsive genetic trait, is illustrated in the many gio's painting (Plate IV). I refer to the central figure's works of art in which Judas, the archenemy of auburn hair and beard. Red hair-ruddiness is the Christ and nefarious Jew par excellence, is shown with English term often used for the Latin rufus-is one red hair and beard, often with a money bag. It is of the physical characteristics most commonly, and tempting to think that Caravaggio was particularly opprobriously, associated with Jews, in works of art interested in a Last Supper by Pieter Coecke that has as in every other domain.8 The association is partic­ been described as one of the most popular Flemish ularly significant since ruddiness, far from being a paintings of the sixteenth century, known in more Jewish genetic trait, is relatively rare among Semitic than forty versions and an engraving made in 1585 peoples. Surely one factor above all contributed to (Fig. 106; Plate V). 10 Here the ruddy Judas points the development of the idea: in the Old Testament, in accusation to himself with the index finger of his David is twice referred to as rufus et pulcher, so that right hand while grasping the money bag in his left

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew hand; he seems stupified by Christ's revelation of the turn into another" ( repente vertere in alium) a man truth, overturning his bench in a striking anticipa­ devoted to infamous profit and involved in inex­ tion of the action of Caravaggio's second St. Matthew plicable affairs (inexplicabilibus negotiis) was a more sig­ the Evangelist. nal miracle than to restore the nerves of a paralytic. 14 In turn, the Jewishness of Levi the tax collector Caravaggio's indebtedness to Northern depictions had special, twofold, significance. By virtue of his of the Calling has often been emphasized, and he profession - Jews often served as tax collectors in must surely have been aware of a portrayal like Jan the Middle Ages and after-he was egregiously van Hemessen's of the dandified red-headed and associated with the main negative moral characteris­ red-bearded moneymonger responding to Christ's tic of his race, avariciousness and devotion to usury; sudden command (Fig. 107; Plate VI). 15 Caravag­ this is the case in the Golden Legend, for example, gio's figure, however, is much more sympathetic and, the most popular of all hagiographies. II (Usury did apart from his ruddiness, far less crudely "ethnic" not mean lending at exorbitant rates of interest, but than such predecessors; in this respect he conforms lending at any interest at all. Medieval Jews became to Italian tradition and expresses his underlying (or moneylenders because they were excluded from. nascent) nobility. Two other differences, quite un­ other trades but exempted from the laws against precedented, are especially noteworthy because they usury because they were not Christian.) Levi was reflect Caravaggio's subtle but fundamental rein­ also quintessentially Jewish because his name coin­ terpretation of the story. The changes reflect the cided with that of one of the tribes of Israel. Thus, two salient moral features, both supremely ironic, paradoxically, portraying Levi in all the depravity of attributed to Matthew in popular tradition, as in his Jewishness illustrated the totality of his meta­ the Golden Legend. 16 Matthew was credited with morphosis into Matthew. By heeding the call, even humility, because in his own Gospel (10:3) he says the lowest can attain the highest. The point is made he is a publican, an unsavory fact that the other explicit in the episode of the feast in the house of evangelists who mention him omit. Matthew's self­ Levi, which fopows the Calling in the Gospel narra­ referential humility is expressed in the painting by tives (Mark 2:14, Luke 5:2 7). Asked by the scribes the self-referential gesture of his left hand. Matthew and Pharisees why he ate and drank with publicans places his hand on his breast in certain versions of and sinners, Jesus answered, "I came not to call the the subject that Caravaggio may have known (Fig. righteous, but sinners to repentance." In the well­ 108);17 but these are traditional gestures of devotion known compilation of the lives of the saints by rather than of reference. Normally interpreted as a Domenico Cavalca, Matthew is taken as the model bewildered "Who, me?" the accusatory action of for the conversion of that most depraved of females, Caravaggio's protagonist is better understood as a Mary Magdalene, the prostitute. 12 self-deprecating, "Me, a publican?" Matthew's hum­ Caravaggio was by no means the first to express ble confession - for that is what it was -also had this paradoxical meaning of the subject. He derived another, deeper, implication important for Caravag­ his basic interpretation from Netherlandish artists gio's understanding of the evangelist's role in the of the sixteenth century. Reacting to the phenome­ history of salvation. The idea was formulated as nal growth of trade that made Antwerp the leading follows by St. Jerome, whose text was incorporated commercial center of Europe, the painters of that in the liturgy for St. Matthew: "Out of respect and city in particular had made a specialty of scenes honor for Matthew, the other Evangelists did not depicting banking and money exchange, including wish to give him his usual name. They called him the Calling of St. Matthew. 13 In almost claustropho­ Levi: for he had two names. But Matthew (accord­ bic images of covetous self-interest, these works ing to the saying of Solomon, 'The just man is the gave powerful form to the strictures against the first to accuse himself' and again, 'Confess your sins unrestrained pursuit of material gain that character­ that you may be justified') calls himself Matthew ized the ascetic morality of the Devotio modema, whose and a publican, to show his readers that no one leading protagonist was that archironist Erasmus. need despair of salvation if he is converted to better I· Erasmus was actually rather tolerant of usury as things, since he himself was suddenly changed from such, but he fully grasped the import of Levi's con­ a publican into an Apostle."18 Matthew's reference version to Matthew; he declared that "suddenly to to his sinful past was therefore not simply an act of

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew Fig. 107. Jan van Hemessen, Calling of St. Matth~w. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

humility; it was also an exhortation -himself being it was the newly converted disciple's first Christian act. the example - to those who had converted to remain Matthew's immediate renunciation of his wealth­ firm in their faith. This was the very same motivation an emphatic counterpoint to his previous greed as which, according to St. Jerome, inspired Matthew's Levi - had been alluded to by van Hemessen, whose equally extraordinary act of writing his gospel in Matthew doffs his elaborate red hat with his right his native Hebrew, the inspiration that Caravaggio hand and rejects with his open left hand the money explicitly illustrated in the first version of the altar­ bags on the table before him.20 Caravaggio's Matthew piece for the chapel. It is indicative of the depth of demonstrates his generosity specifically by the ges­ Caravaggio's response to and transformation of the ture of his right hand, which is clearly not taking in Netherlandish tradition that his own ruddy Levi­ the money but counting it out. This motif also Matthew, centrally placed and self-incriminating, was · occurs frequently in the Northern works, as in van soon understood and adopted by Hendrick Terbrug­ Hemessen's, where accounts are being settled, but ghen ( 1621; Fig. 109; Plate VII). 19 never in the hand of the apostle himsel£ It is as Matthew was also especially noteworthy for the though Matthew, having put down his last coin, virtue of generosity, because after his conversion he were meting out in saving grace the thirty pieces of offered a great feast in his own house for the Lord silver gained by the other often red-headed apostle, and his followers. This event is recorded in the Gos­ whose faith was infirm. In fact, Matthew's gesture is pels (and the breviary) directly after the Calling; hence pointedly juxtaposed and contrasted to the closed,

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew . l

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew coin-hoarding hand of the youth at the left, who Fig. 108 (opposite, top). Attributed to Giuseppe Cesari, Calling of also conceals the money bag, as does Judas in scenes St. Matthew, drawing. Graphische Sammlung Albertina, Vienna. of the Last Supper. Fig. 109 (opposite, below). Hendrick Terbrugghen, Calling of St. This interpretation of Matthew's action in turn Matthew. Centraal Museum, Utrecht. helps to clarify what is perhaps the most obvious Fig. IIO (above). Michelangelo, Creation of Adam, detail. Sistine visual citation in Caravaggio's picture. Christ's right Chapel, Vatican Palace, Rome (photo: Anderson 3789). hand conspicuously reverses the left hand of Adam in Michelangelo's Creation scene in the Sistine ceil­ ing, where Adam receives the gift of life from God the Father (Fig. no ).21 It is clear, therefore, that Caravaggio's Christ, the New Adam, not only beckons to Levi, signaling his new life as Matthew, but also receives the penance that Matthew pays for his sins with symbolic coins. In this sense, the reciprocal relationship seems explicitly to illustrate the lesson in the breviary on the feast in the house of Levi. The former publican is again taken as a model of conversion, now also of penance, and Christ repeats his call, now to all sinners and for mercy: the assem­ bled publicans and sinners "saw that the publican converted from his sins to better things had found

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew <; ~id prodefi homini, fi vniuerfi1m Mun­ d um lucretur, an11n~ autem fure detri­ mentum patiacur? MATT .. X V I.

Che gioua al' huom, che tutto•I mondo ac­ guifti, Se l' alma fua poi ne riceue danno? Ondc ne i luoghi tenebrofi, & trifii p ianga dannata afempiterno affanno.

Fig. III. Hans Holbein, The Gambler (from Simolacri, 1549).

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew an opportunity for penance; and so they themselves established in the preceding, even more familiar, did not despair of salvation. Nor did they come passage of the Gospel, where Matthew, in effect, to Jes us as remaining in their former vices, as the recounts his own metamorphosis. Addressing His Pharisees and Scribes complained, but as doing pen­ disciples, Christ exhorts a total transformation of ance. The Lord's words which follow indicate this: the self (16:24-5): "Then Jesus said unto his disci­ 'I desire mercy, and not sacrifice. For I have come to ples, If any man will come after me, let him deny call sinners, not the just."'22 himsel£ and take up his cross, and follow me. For With the two gestures of Levi-Matthew, Caravag­ whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and whoso­ gio gave unprecedented expression to that process of ever shall lose his life for my sake shall find it." In enlightenment whereby the selfish, money-grubbing the Gospel, therefore, worldly renunciation and self­ Jew, the most execrable of the damned, becomes the sacrifice follow directly from personal mutation; this charitable, poverty-loving Christian, the most exalted was the basic spiritual idea that the physical permu­ among the saved. This understanding of the picture tations through which Levi-Matthew passes in the as calling the iniquitous to faith makes particular Contarelli chapel paintings made visible. sense of the one visual reference to an earlier work It might be said that in the Calling Caravaggio's of art that has always been recognized as a factor characterization of the protagonist illuminated and in the genesis of the composition. Already in the transformed by Christ's appeal gave metaphysical seventeenth century Joachim von Sandrart observed form to two opposite states of moral existence: the that Caravaggio based his young man with the avaricious Jewish publican Levi and the generous money bag at the left on the figure seated at the Christian apostle Matthew. Both personas have lead­ right of the gaming table in Holbein's woodcut ing and heretofore unappreciated roles in the con­ portraying gamblers in the Dance of Death series text of the commission for this great narrative cycle (Fig. m).23 It is clear from what has been said here, in which Caravaggio's art was itself transformed into however, that there is much more to the relation­ maturity. Among the critical issues of the early church ship than a simple borrowing of a motif; Caravag­ that were revived in the period of the Counter­ gio's whole conception of his subject is indebted Reformation was the conversion of the Jews. Al­ to, and is in turn illuminated by, Holbein's portrayal though the number of people involved was small, of the "calling" by Death and the Devil of a greedy the matter acquired new symbolic importance dur­ sinner who, in his lust for money, "gambles" with ing the church's struggle to combat heresy, and the his life. The figure at the left in Holbein's compo­ effort was greatly intensified in the course of the sition sees, understands, and is alarmed by what sixteenth century. Adrienne von Lares has noted in is happening while the huddled and benighted connection with Caravaggio's work that the parish man at the right, intent upon raking in the pot, priest of San Luigi dei Francesi was a zealous par­ remains oblivious. The relevance to Caravaggio's ticipant in this effort.25 I need not emphasize the interpretation of the story of St. Matthew is evident relevance of this fact, which I had overlooked, to also from the caption to the illustration that appears my argument some years ago in a paper on the in many editions of the work, including one of 1549 Hebrew text Matthew the Evangelist composes in with the Italian translation below. The caption quotes Caravaggio's first altarpiece for the chapel.26 Apart the familiar passage in the Gospel of Matthew ( 16:26) from reaffirming the tradition of the church con­ in which Christ denounces worldliness ironically in cerning the divine inspiration "in the pen'' of the terms of an exchange of values: "For what is a man first Gospel, the text echoes the report of St. Jerome profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose that Matthew had composed his Gospel in the lan­ his own soul?" (Quid prodest homini . .. ) Caravaggio guage of his fellow £emites so that those of them grasped Holbein's meaning as well as his design, and who had converted might remain firm in their faith. this relationship also makes dear who is Caravaggio's The metaphorical relevance of the message in the protagonist. Holbein's protagonist, the bearded figure much more formidable struggle with the Protestants at the center of the composition, shows what hap­ also needs no emphasis. Gregory XIII, Matthieu pens when the avaricious moneygrubber does not Cointrel's patron, was particularly solicitous of con­ heed the call; 24 Caravaggio's shows what happens verts, founding the Collegio dei Neofiti for former when he does. No less significant is the context Jews and Muslims who wished to further their

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew Christian education.27 Precisely in this context, it trust-a sacred trust in Cointrel's case-of his becomes significant that the idea of conversion may public office for personal gain. already have been uppermost in Matthieu Cointrel's Pope Sixtus appointed a commission; after dili­ mind in 1565 when he made his original, testamen­ gent investigation it found so many simonies that tary, prescription for the chapel: he provided that one of the datary's assistants, called to testify, fled Matthew baptizing the Egyptians, a scene empha­ and thereby incriminated himself as well as his for­ sized in the Golden Legend, be the subject repre­ mer patron. The inquest continued and uncovered sented in the center of the vault (subsequently "very aromatic material" ( materia molto aromatica) in changed to a miracle scene). These facts, in turn, which many officials of the datary were implicated, reinforce the suggestion that the seminude figures even Pope Gregory himself, who, it was suspected, shown at the edge of a sunken basin in the lower had known of the malfeasance of this foreigner and part of Caravaggio's depiction of the martyrdom of his ministers. There was a threat to confiscate the St. Matthew are neophytes. The reference to bap­ entire legacy. 31 The heirs evidently offered, in vain, tism makes the Martyrdom a testimony to the trans­ a settlement of 30,000 scudi. It was discovered that 28 forming power of faith comparable to the Calling. a certain Domenico Atton had usurped the income . l Caravaggio's interpretation of the Calling of St. from seventy French monasteries; the pope had des­ Matthew also reflects what must have been a much tined the money for the construction of the church more personal concern of Matthieu Cointrel's exec­ of San Luigi dei Francesi, which received, instead, utors, who actually commissioned the work from only 3,000 scudi. It also emerged that Cointrel had Caravaggio in fullfillment of the cardinal's legacy. In assigned pensions from Spanish benefices to nonex­ their view Matthieu Cointrel must have had far istent persons, which he then canceled, retaining the more in common with the apostle than a name. income for himself The investigation discovered so Cointrel, who died in 1585, had been one of the much aromatic material, in fact, that it risked jeop­ most powerful figures in the church hierarchy. The ardizing the Holy See's relations with France. Pope son of a blacksmith, he met as a young man Ugo Sixtus finally thought best to suppress the whole Buoncompagni, later Pope Gregory XIII, who be­ issue, though not without a stern warning of prose­ came a close lifelong friend. Pope Gregory made cution to the officials of the datary, whom he ex­ Cointrel, his protege, a cardinal and appointed him pected to provide a model for others.32 to the key post of papal datary, which gave him Matthieu Cointrel's numerous charities were leg­ control over all church benefices - the often richly endary. He built the Jesuit church at Tivoli, and at endowed offices whose revenues it was his responsi­ San Luigi dei Francesi, besides commissioning his bility to confer, in good faith and gratis, upon worthy own chapel, he contributed to the construction of recipients. The position, which lent itself easily to the facade, as well as paying for the decoration of corruption, was extremely sensitive, and when the high altar. His munificence, which must have helped great fortune Cointrel had amassed came to light at to arouse suspicion in the first place, was the main his death, he was accused by Gregory's reforming theme of the eulogy delivered at his funeral, and no successor, Sixtus V, of simony, the selling of church doubt it figured largely in the efforts of his heirs to benefices.29 This was the most execrable of eccle­ defend him and their patrimony.33 Caravaggio's rein­ siastical crimes, in direct contravention of Christ's terpretation of the Calling of St. Matthew can be charge to his disciples - recorded in a key passage in understood in this context. Focusing on Matthew's the Gospel of St. Matthew itself-that they give humility in confessing his evil past and his charity freely the spiritual benefits they had received freely in expending his earthly wealth, Caravaggio portrays (gratis accepistis, gratis date; 10:8).30 The papal datary the model for redemption for the patron of the was, in effect, the ecclesiastical equivalent of the chapel.34 The model is also universal, however, and ancient publican; he had the moral obligation, the same call is made to the spectator, toward whom sometimes honored in the breach, to collect and Christ gestures from the darkness with his left hand. transmit revenues fairly and honestly. The simoniac The full import of Caravaggio's meaning, and datary was thus the equivalent of the double-sinning perhaps his most important innovation, would have Levi, who embodied both the avarice of his race been grasped only in the context of the chapel as and the guilt of the administrator who breaches the a whole, where the three different personas of this

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew divine drama would have been patently juxtaposed. Recalling the metaphor of St. Paul ___'.'For now we The spectator would have been dumbfounded by see through a glass, darkly, but then face to face"; the physiognomical manifestations of the spiritual "with open face beholding as in a glass the glory of progression he beheld taking place in the chapel, the Lord, [we J are changed into the same image''._ from the arrogant Jew-becoming-Christian at the we can see clearly that a key to understanding the left, through the humble philosopher-becoming­ Contarelli chapel lies in another text in the liturgy evangelist at the altar, to the venerable priest­ for St. Matthew, a passage from Gregory the Great becoming-martyr on the right.35 Caravaggio had quoted in conjunction with that from St. Jerome made a comparable break with tradition in the Sup­ mentioned earlier. Gregory comments on Ezekiel's per at Emmaus, where he portrayed the altered-that momentous vision of four creatures with faces, one is, rejuvenated and beardless-face of the resur­ with the face of a man, on which the tradition of rected Christ, whom the astonished apostles recog­ the symbols of the evangelists was based. Matthew nize "in another form," in alia effigie, according to the enjoys the pride of place among the evangelists not Gospel, at the sacramental blessing and breaking of only because he was the first called and the first to bread (see Fig. 105).36 The paintings of the Con­ write his Gospel but also because he recounts the tarelli chapel offer, in an almost cinematographic genealogy and birth of Christ, that is, the incarna­ sequence (see Figs. 99, 103, IOI), the same opportu­ tion in human form of God's only Son. Jerome nity: to behold and recognize the mysterious power therefore assigned to Matthew the man-creature, of faith to illuminate and transform those able to which ultimately became the evangelist's angel. see. The lateral scenes, with the conversion of the What Gregory says, reflecting the conundrum of St. Jew by Christ and the conversion of the pagans by Paul's image, is this: "Now surely the face is the Matthew, complement each other as visual expres­ symbol of recognition ... You recognize a man by sions of the salvific action of God's word. They his face ... and by the same token the face is con­ embrace in narrative terms the same portentous cerned with faith ... and it is by our faith that we message embodied in the emblematic icon of Levi­ are recognized by almighty God. As he said of his Socrates-Matthew that Caravaggio originally intended sheep, 'I am the good shepherd, as I know my as the chapel's altarpiece: the great promise of the early sheep, and mine know me.' And again he said, 'I church to triumph ex circumcisione and ex gentibus.37 know whom I have chosen.'"38

Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew istic studies: "Cum dispersa primum ac passim in Philostratus that the golden lures of the vagans hominum multitudo eloquentiae ac Sirens were hung up in the temple of Apollo. sapientiae viribus intra urbes ad civilern cultum Moreove1; since our Sirens express their breasts coacta ferinos illos mores exuerit, ac deinde they seem to indicate that they excel not only by paulatim mansuefactis doctrina animis ad floren­ the delight of the voice, but also offer something tissimum vitae statum sit perducta, facile more solid from within themselves. Therefore intellectum est literarum studijs nihil ad tuan­ the artful construction and ornament of the dam aut ornandam mortaliurn societatem anti­ leaping water speaks thus: the highest leisure and quius, nihil aptius, nihil denique praestabilius pursuit of peace thrive most if the ruler himself inveniri posse, beatasque respublicas illas esse, in assumes the task of administering the realm." quibus literarum cultus non postremus habeatur" 50. Emphasis on Giambologna's absorption of the (Tuttle, "Bononia," 1987, 238); "When fast the classical tradition has tended to obscure this dispersed multitude of wandering men gathered fundamental debt to his Northern background. into cities by the powers of eloquence and wis­ Holderbaum found evidence of a medieval revival dom had cast off those savage ways and then, in Giambologna's late religious works, which he their spirits tamed by education, gradually been also sees as Counter-Reformatory in spirit led to a flourishing state of life, it was readily (1983, 207, 213£, 274£, 290). understood that to safeguard and adorn human There is some evidence that Giambologna society nothing could be found more ancient, himself may have had Protestant leanings during more apt or preferable than the study of letters, the 156o's (Holderbaum, 1983, 196-98); if so, and that those nations are blessed in which let­ he must later have returned to the Catholic fold, ters are not held in least regard." as his funerary chapel in SS. Annunziata in 47. "Delphinos autem esse ingenus hominum natura Florence testifies. propensiores, ut verosimile sit cum illis pueros 5r. The relationship between Giambologna's art and iocari, fidem faciunt ubique historiae, dum contemporary political development was another eorum beneficio Arionem, Palemonem, Phalan­ enduring contribution of Holderbaum, 1983, tum, Tarantem, Telemachum et plaerosque alios 149ff. servtos commemorant" (Tuttle, "Bo11011ia," 1987, 52. Emiliani, 1989. 243); "Many stories attest that dolphins have an innate propensity toward human beings, whence it is natural that young boys play with them, and record that Arion, Palemon, Phalantus, Tarantis, 4. Caravaggio's Calling of Saint Matthew: Telemachus and many others were saved by the The Identity ef the Protagonist benevolence of dolphins." 48. On the dolphin see Tervarent, 1959, II, 143£ First presented in a session on Irony and Paradox in 49. "Sirenes quamquam apud aliquos illecebrarum Northern Art at a meeting of the College Art Associ­ loco habentm; non inepte tamen ab aliis ad sig­ ation in February 1990.

nificandam orationis dulcedinem flectuntm; unde I. For the early history of Paul's metapho1; see illud Martialis Cato grammaticus latina Siren, ut Hugede, 1957. For the exaltation of the lowly, praeteream aureas sirenum illecebras in Apollonis see the pioneering and still fundamental studies templo apud Philostratum suspensas legi" of the paradoxical encomium by Colie (1966) (Tuttle, "Bononia," 1987, 243); '/\!though accord­ and of the senno hurnilis by Auerbach ( 1965). This ing to some Sirens are considered beguiling, they essay is a sequel to an earlier study in which I are aptly construed by others to signify the discussed the Socratic irony embodied in Cara­ sweetness of speech, whence Martial calls Cato vaggio's first altarpiece for the Contarelli chapel the Grammarian the Latin Siren, and I also read (Lavin, "Divine Inspiration," 197 4 ).

Notes to Pages 83-85 279 consternation of rabbinical disputations. The malefactions in the Avvisi di Roma, which I quote last two verses of the Italian subscription seem here in extenso. strikingly to anticipate the meaning of Caravag­ "Dopa una diligente inquisitione fatta da gids "tenebrosd' lighting: "whence in dark and certi deputati da Palazzo sopra l'amministrazione melancholy places the damned soul wails in eter­ de! Car.le San Stefano nel Datario di Gregorio, nal affliction." si sono trovate tante simonie, che chiamato da 25. Lates, 1989, 33-38. According to Armailhacq, loro al sindicato un certo Pietr'Antonio delli so­ 1894, 30, the parish registers of San Luigi record stituti di detto Datario, et a presentare alcune many conversions. On October 4, 1604, amid scritture, sen'e fuggito di qua avvisando se stesso, great solemnities; ten Jews who had been in­ et il gia suo P.rone con tal fuga, et il Papa per structed by the parish priest were baptized by haverlo ha per pit1 vie spediti Corr.ri, proceden­ the bishop of Sidon, and the same ceremony was dosi in q.ta causa con esquisita curiosita' ... "II repeated the following year. Frizolio sec.rio della congreg.ne del concilio, et 26. Lavin, "Divine Inspiration," 1974; also idem, gia delli sustituti del Car.le Santo Stefano sta ''.Addenda," 1974, and 1980. For a perceptive sequestrato in casa d'ordine delli superiori" (July discussion of a painting by Guercino similarly r6, 1586, Biblioteca Vaticana, MS Urb. Lat. intent upon the conversion of the Jews, see 1054, fol. 321v.ff.). Perlove, 1989. "E cosi chiara, che 'l fisco pretende il giusto 27. Pastot~ 1923-53, XIX, 249. possesso di tutti i beni del Card.le S. Stefano per 28. On the vault scene see Acqua and Cinotti, 1971, simonia, et per altre cose scoverte nelli suoi libri 186 n. 249. The suggestion that the lower secreti, et nelle scritture delli suoi sustituti, per figures in the Martyrdom are neophytes (Marini, le qua! cose, i diputati sono intorno con le male 1974, 29, and 1989, 42) was confirmed in an parole a mons.re Rubustiero aderiva a quel- article on the painting by Trinchieri Camiz, 1' anima negra in dispense, et risegne molte 1990, that appeared after the present essay was brutte" (August 13, 1586, ibid., fol. 380 ). completed. The author argues convincingly that "Si va innanzi tuttavia nella causa del gia the figures allude to baptism and adduces some Car.le San Stefano, con un travaglio di nuova of the same evidence cited here concerning the persone, ch'erano interessate seco, et perche si conversion of the Jews. The "crucified" pose of scopre materia molto aromatica, in un libro Matthew in the Martyrdom, which recalls the intitolato Nemini ostendatut; per il q.ale P.ro evangelist's report, cited in the text above, of Ant.o e stato presentato alla corda, si vede che le Christ's call to his disciples to take up the cross, cose andaranno in lungo, et per q.to gli heredi si follow him, and give up their lives, may also be lasciano intender' di composit.ne offerendo 30 m related to the theme of Baptism; the tradition scudi. Altri sono d'opinione che per esser'stato linking the blood of Christ to the waters of scritto in lspagna che venghino di la scritture, et baptism was illustrated in a print by H. Wierix, testimonij per c.a di tanti pensioni ritrovate labeled "Fons Vitae," showing Christ seated on estinte, et riservate, N. S.re stia in pensiero di the edge of a baptismal basin into which his deputare una congreg.ne per decidere utro Ponti­ blood flows (Mauquoy-Hendrickx, 1978-83, fex potuerit esse simoniacus, dubitandosi in I, 102, fig. 581). Calvesi, 1990, 279-84, linked qualche parte Gregorio possi havere havuto indi­ Caravaggio's Calling to Henry IV's conversion to tio delle ribaldarie di q.to Oltramontano, et de Catholicism in 1595· suoi ministri" (August 20, 1586, ibid., fol. 393). 29. For a biographical sketch of Cointrel, see Fra­ "Hanno i deputati sopra la causa del Car.le gnito (in Diz:jonario, 1960-, XXVIII, 68ff.), who, San Stefano assegnate la Casa per carcere a D.nco following a clue in Pastot; 1923-53, XXI, 129, Atton Agente del Duca di loreno interrogato recovered and described the reports of Cointrel's sopra le sepditioni di 70 Monasteri in Francia

282 Notes to Pages 97-98 per via segreta passate per man sua con dare ad spicuous that they must be deliberate and cannot intendere aGregorio, che servivano per la fabrica be explained simply by the sequence in which di San Luigi, secondo che S. B.ne haveva de­ the pictures were executed. The second version stinato, et poi si trova, ch'egli a detta fabrica non of the altarpiece established a compromise with ha dati piu di 3 m scudi di tanti, che ha riscossi Caravaggio's original, radical, differentiation: the per dette speditioni. Et Pietro Antonio e inter­ evangelist and the martyr were now recogniz­ rogato sopra le pensioni, che si mettevano su le ably the same person, and what remained was Chiese di Spagna, per hu.oi [?], de quali mai sen' the visible transformation of the Jew into the ha possuto havere cognitione, et poi si facevano Christian. estinguere in utile (per q.nto si trova) di detto 36. See the essay on this painting by a former stu­ Datario, il qual veniva ad esser lui q.el solo delli dent of mine, Scribner (1977). Caravaggio's tanti, c'havevano havute le pensioni" (August 30, preoccupation with this idea in the Contarelli 1586, ibid., fol. 424 ). chapel is attested by newly discovered docu­ ments indicating that the London picture must "Dicono alcuni, che per altro non si procede be virtually contemporary with the first St. Mat­ adesso nella causa del Car.le San Stefano, the thew; see Correale, ed., 1990, 41, 77. per dubio, che l'Amb.re di Francia non faccia 37. See Lavin, "Divine Inspiration," 1974, 78. To my officio caldo co'l Papa in suo favore. et che poi mind it cannot be coincidental that the bald and non sia in potere di S. B.ne di negargli ogni gra­ bearded head of Matthew in the Martyrdom dis­ tia per l'amore eccessivo, che mostra portare a tinctly recalls the standard image of St. Paul. g.ti ss.ri Galli" (September 17, 1586, fol. 454 ). The reference would be appropriate not only "Se il Papa trovad cosa alcuna di ma! fatto because of Paul's general importance for the nelli sustituti del Datario, come ha presentito imagery of the chapel but also because of the possono essere sicuri di non andare senza acgua specific traits he had in common with Matthew: calda, perche vuole S. S.ta che siano, i suoi Paul was also converted suddenly by Christ's call; sempre i primi a dar nonna agli altri" (January his name was also changed along with his char­ 24, 1587, MS Urb. Lat. 1055, fol. 28; c£ Pastot~ acter (Caravaggio had given the Jews' red hair 1923-53, XXI, 129 ). and beard to Saul-becoining-Paul in the first 30. This text is also cited by Treffers, 1989, 255, in a version of the Conversion for the Cerasi chapel; different context. see n. 18 above); and he also died by the sword. 3r. This claim on the part of the apostolic camera is Moreovet~ Paul invokes the same paradoxical alluded to in one of the documents concerning notion of Socratic ignorance that Caravaggio the executors' delay in completing the work applied to Levi-Matthew in the first version of (Mahon, 1952, 20£). the Contarelli altarpiece (''.And if any man think 32. It may be relevant that the Jesuit Jacobo Laynez, that he knoweth any thing, he knoweth nothing who had been a close associate of Cointrel yet as he ought to know" [ l Cor. 8:2 ]; see Lavin, (Dizionario, 1960-, XXVIII, 68), was the author "Divine Inspiration," 197 4, 66f£). And whereas of an important treatise on simony (published in Matthew by his Gospel was the apostle of the Lainez, 1886, II, 322-82). Jews, Paul by his mission was the apostle of the 33. The eulogy, by the Jesuit Frarn;:ois Remon, is Gentiles. (In the apse mosaic of Santa Puden­ published in Chacon, 1677, IV, cols. 96f£ ziana, Paul and Matthew had evidently been 34. Although she identifies the man as a taxpayer, related in this same context: Paul holds a book Hass ( 1988, 250) perceives that his gesture may inscribed with the opening words of the first allude to Cointrel's charities and suggests that he Gospel; ibid., 78 n. 66.) may actually represent the cardinal. 38. Quid per faciem, nisi notitia ... Per faciem 35. These physiognomical differences are so con- quippe unusguisgue conoscitur ... Facies itaque

Notes to Pages 98-99 283 ad fidem pertinet ... Per fidem namgue ab omni­ modest supplements to those in the excellent potenti Deo cognoscimm~ sicut ipse de suis article by Malke, 1976. ovibus dicit: Ego sum pastor bonus, et cognosco 5. See Franza, 1958; Turrini, 1982. The illustrated oves meas, et cognoscunt me meae. Qui rursus catechisms have been studied by Prosperi, 1985. ait: Ego scio guos elegerim" (The Hours 1964, III, 6. On the engravings by Theodor Galle after 1568). Maarten van Heemskerck and a painting of the same theme by Heemskerck, see Grosshans, 1980, 214-43. Other important suites are by J. B. Wierix after Martin de Vos (Mauguoy­ 5. Bernini's Portraits ef No-Body Hendrickx, 1979, II, 271£), Hendrik Goltzius after Johannes Stradanus (Strauss, ed., 1980, First presented in March 1987 in a colloquium at the 309£), Jan Sadder after Dirck Barendsz (Judson, University of Maryland honoring my friend George 1970, 64£, 7 4, 140-42). Levitine, to whom it is now sadly dedicated in 7. In these instances, it seems the purpose was to memoriam. establish a deliberate link between the universal r. See Wittkower, 1981, 177, no. 7. character of the Quattuor novissima and the indi­ 2. See Lavin, "Five Youthful Sculptures," 1968, vidual focus of the Ars moriendi. 239£, and Appendix A, pp. 125-29. New docu­ 8. Although the moral component of Bernini's mentary evidence presented here supports the interest in expression was diluted, his position in 1619 date proposed by Wittkower for the Anime this development is clear. So far as we know, busts on stylistic grounds. Leonardo's drawings do not portray any particu­ 3. On the coins, see Head, 19n, 805; G. F. Hill, lar emotions or pattern or system of emotions. 1914, lxxxviii£, 182£, pl. XX, 1-3. The few Della Porta's physiognomies are consistent, but instances of coins with facing heads on both they are not really devoted to expression; they sides (Baldwin, 1908-9, 130) nearly all involve attempt, instead, to link various physiognomi­ male-female confrontations. For the mosaic, cal types with corresponding character types, found on the Aventine in Rome, see Bieber, based on counterparts in the animal kingdom. 1920, 162, no. 137· Theater masks were some­ Descartes was the first to study human emotions times actually associated with portrait busts, as systematically, and it was Le Brun's contribution on a Roman sarcophagus in the Camposanto at to relate that effort to the visual tradition repre­ Pisa that shows three masks, a youth, a female, sented by Leonardo, Della Porta, and Bernini, and a grizzled Pan, beneath a medallion contain­ producing the first systematic exploration of the ing busts of a man and his wife (Aries et al, facial effects of emotion. 1977, n4ff.). Among the classical precedents The most recent interpretation of Bernini's revived and much illustrated, often as bust por­ sculptures in this vein, which entails charac­ traits, from the Renaissance on were the philoso­ teristically a focus on the Anima Dannata as a phers Democritus and Heraclitus, who, respec­ "self-representation," will be found in a fine essay tively, laughed and wept at the foibles of the by Preimesberge1~ 1989, with further references. world (see p. 268, n. 58). On Messerschmidt's character studies, see 4. I have discussed the revived Ars moriendi tradition Behr et al, 1983. and Bernini's profound relationship to it in life 9. Mair's engravings are reproduced in Hollstein, and death (1972). On the Ars moriendi, see 1954-, XXIII, 146ff., with further bibliography. Delumeau, 1983, 389ff. Johann Conrad (1561-1612), who had lived for On the Quattuor novissima, see Lane, 1985. My several years in Italy, was a great patron of the own remarks on the visual tradition of the Four arts and maintained close ties with the Jesuits; Last Things, including Bernini's busts, offer only Sax, 1884-85, II, 478-93; H. A. Braun, 1983,

284 Notes to Pages lOl-lll BIBLIOGRAPHY

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