History of Visual Representations as used in Science
Largely following Robert Horn’s book
Visual Languages
Sheelagh Carpendale
The Beginnings
30,000 years before written language Extensive lists and tables for keeping track of inventory and thought to be lunar calendar trade
earliest data recording prior to pictographic writing
Dordogne, France c. 38,000 BC Mesopotamia, c. 6,000 BC
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 1 The Beginnings
Representational capabilities
Lascaux, France, c.20,000 BC
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The Beginnings
First pictographic writing
Early coordinate system Sumerians
usedbd by surveyors to loca te ~2, 000 signs specific points in space contained phonograms and Egypt, c. 3200 BC determinative Mesopotamia c. 3200 BC
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 2 Ancient Egypt (c. 3000 BC)
Hieroglyphs 5 major components; 3 communication functions explain pictures, identify people in pictures, record speeches pictographs little picture that means what it resembles
ideograp hs action represented by some characteristic element
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Ancient Egypt (c. 3000 BC)
phonograms graphic symbols, some iconic, that stand for sounds Young & Champollion 1819, discovered that this spelt Ptolemy
the writing of a sound by a picture of something that contains that sound is called a rebus
80 signs that indicate double sounds
the 24 single consonant signs
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 3 Egyptian Numerals
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Ancient Egypt (c. 3000 BC)
Determinatives handle homonyms and ambiguities examples this sign would be added to indicate the domain of books
this ‘cartouche’ surrounds all royal names
seated man or woman indicate male or female domains
the inclusion of a single stroke indicated that a sign was an icon, standing for what it represented, without the stroke was a phonogram, standing for a sound.
cobra sound ‘d’
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 4 Ancient Egypt (c. 3000 BC)
Information mural
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Oldest known map
Shows spatial relationships
one-to-one correspondence between symbols and features
shows all of northern Mesopotamia Nuzi, c. 2300 BC
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 5 From pictograms to symbolic forms
This image shows the transformation from pictograms to symbolic forms Mesopotamia
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Earliest phonetic alphabet Earliest completely phonetic alphabet north Semitic, 22 letters, basis for Greek and subsequent phonetic alphabets Palestine and Syria, c 1700 BC
earliest Chinese script integrated pictograms & phonograms China, c. 1500 BC
first geometry manual practical manual, rectangles, trapezoids, triangles, circles Egypt, c. 1500 BC
First written record of music Mesopotamia, c. 750 BC
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 6 Oldest city plan
archaeologists claim it is to scale features labeled with words (Mesopotamia, c. 1300 BC)
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300 BC to 800 AD Euclid’s formal statements about geometric axioms and reasoning Greece, c 300 BC
invention of paper Ts’ai Lun, China, c. 105
earliest codex (precursor of the book) c. 100-300
leaving spaces between words Charlemagne’ s reform of writing said to have enabled silent reading France, c. 800
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 7 Mayan Numerals one to nineteen
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Early use of Tables
Tabulating astronomical information to aid navigation
Ptolmey, Egypt, c. 200 BC
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 8 Time grid
First curves plotted on a time grid chart shows planetary orbits, plots motion through time in Somnium Scipionis, c. 1000-1100
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Grid Map Carved in stone in China
1137 – probably created 1100
Precision of coast and rivers remarkable
About 3 feet square
Nothing like it in Europe until the 1500s
E. Chavannes, “Les Deux Plus Anciens Specimens de la Cartographic Chinoise,” Bulletin de l’Ecole Française se l’Extreme Orient, 3 (1903), 1-13, Carte B. Sheelagh Carpendale
Beyond Simple Screen Design 9 Extensive Tabular Information
Widely used in Medieval period
in Henry II’s gospels, c. 1020
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First Graphic to use Branching
Genealogical tree
led to large class of diagrams
initial form was the ‘cranes foot’ as seen in this example
genealogy of Edward I, c. 1296
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 10 Branching Structures
Use became common
representing lists of virtues and vices, and structure of knowledge as well as genealogy
throughout Middle Ages
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Schematic Diagrams
In medieval manuscripts
various diagrams and labeled illustrations
throughout Middle Ages
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 11 First known bar graph
Proto-bar graph
no quantities present
illustrates theoretical function
shows that spatial analogs of quantities had begun to to conceptualized
Nicole Oreseme, French mathematician, c.1350
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Perspective Drawings
Creation of ‘space’ or the third dimension on a two- dimensional surface
Leon Battista Alberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian architects, 1435
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 12 Books in print
Gutenburg Bible
regarded as a turning point in western culture
began widespread changes in the dissemination of knowledge
Johannes Gutenburg, German printer, c. 1455
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Technical Illustrations
First technical book with illustrations
woodcuts of engines of war
In De re militari, Roberto Vaturio, author, Joannes Nicodai de Verona, printer, Italy, 1472
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 13 Visualization in Science
Extensive use if visualization in science and engineering
plans for fortification, bridges, vehicles
elaborations of theories
idea of sketch became hallmark for creative thinking
Leonardo da Vinci, Florence, c. 1500
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C 1500 Routine use of page numbers Manutius, Venice, 1499
Extensive use of wood block illustrations 16th century
Tables of empirical data led to tabular display of numbers Germany, early 17th century
First Bivariate Scatterplot, 1546 edition of Cosmographia, Petrus Apianus
Coordinate system relates graphed line and equation Rene Descartes, French mathematician, La Geometrie, 1637
.
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 14 Rectilinear Tree Structure
First introduced c. 1500
The structure of the now so common modern organization chart
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Automatic Recording Devices Automatic collection of data
Weather clock used a recording needle on a moving drum to graph changes in temperature.
Chr is top her Wren, Eng lis h arc hitec t 1664
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 15 Data Maps
1st data maps
Edmond Halleyyp’s 1686 map shows trade winds and monsoons
Norman J. W. Thrower, “Edmond Halley as a thematic Geo- Cartographer,” Annals of the association of American Geographers, 59 (Dec. 1969), p 652-676 (Tufte, 1883, p.23)
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Data Maps 1686
Detail of trade winds map shows encoding – “the sharp end of each little stroke pointing out … from whence the wind continually comes
Edmond Halley, “An Historical Account of the Trade Winds, and Monsoons, Observable in the Seas Between and Near the Tropicks; With an Attempt to Assign the Phisical Cause of Said Winds,” Philosophical Transactions, 183 (1686), p. 153-168 (Tufte, 1883, p.23)
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 16 Data Maps
Shows lines of magnetic declination
started field of thematic maps Edmond Halley, English scientist,1656-1742
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Biographical Timeline
Started now widely used technique of plotting data on timelines Joseph Priestly, English chemist, 1765
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 17 Time Series Chart of National Debt of England in Commercial and Political Atlas, William Playfair, British scientist, 1786
Johann Lambert 1779
Shows periodic variation in soil temperature in relation to the depth under the surface
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First modern bar chart Some earlier examples exist in second edition Commercial and Political Atlas, William Playfair, British scientist, 1787
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 18 First Circle Graph Circles represent area of country, line on left population in millions, line on the right taxes in millions (both measured on vertical scale). Slope direction positive or negative is significant but not slope magnitude due to the size of country affecting it. in Commercial and Political Atlas, William Playfair, British scientist, 1786
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First Pie Chart
Show relative sizes of the different states and territories after the United States purchased Louisiana
William Playfair, British scientist, 1786
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 19 Descriptive Geometry Foundation for the development of engineering drawing
Gaspard Monge, French mathematician, 1795
printed coordinate paper not until, England, 1794
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Statistical Graphics – early 1800s
1812 - Sub-divided bar graph – ldtdtildled to detailed comparative analysis of data
Alexander von Humbolt, German Scientist, 1812
1833 – Cumulative frequency graph –compare rate of growth of a variable
J. B. J. Fourier, French mathematician, 1821
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 20 Statistical Graphics – early 1800s
1832 – curve fitting to a scatterplot – this started a whole new branch of statistics – difficult to do without visualization
J. F. W. Herschel, English mathematician, 1832
1833 - Histogram – extends ability to compare data. This one compare number of suicides of French men by different methods
A. M. Guerry, French Statistician , 1833
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Visual Story Telling (early comics)
Combining illustration and words to tell a story. Use of frames to create actions and change of scenes. Use of multiple panels of a single page, shows movement from one panel to next, use of multiple figures to show motion.
R. Topffer, Swiss professor and artist, 1845
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 21 Data Maps
C. J. Minard, French engineer, 1851
Combined statistical diagrams and maps Sheelagh Carpendale
Data Maps John Snow 1854
Discovered cause of cholera epidemic through data mapping
Map 1. Published by C.F. Cheffins, Lith, Southhampton Buildings, London, England, 1854 in Snow, John. On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, 2nd Ed, John Churchill, New Burlington Street, London, England, 1855 Sheelagh Carpendale
Beyond Simple Screen Design 22 Diagrams for management of hospitals
Florence Nightingale, English nurse, 1858
Florence Nightingale . Notes on Matters Affecting the Health, Efficiency and Hospital Administration of the British ArmySheelagh (1858) Carpendale
E.J. Marey, “La Methode Graphique,” (Paris 1885), p.20. This method is attributed to the french engineer, Irby Comparative Scheduling (Tufte, 1883, p.31) E. J. Marey. 1885. Train schedules from Paris to Lyon Stations spaced according to distances, time from left to right
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 23 E.J. Marey, “La Methode Graphique,” (Paris 1885), p.20. This method is attributed to the french engineer, Irby Comparative Scheduling (Tufte, 1883, p.31) E. J. Marey. 1885. Train schedules from Paris to Lyon Stations spaced according to distances, time from left to right
1981 – new express train – trip now 3 hours instead of 9
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Pictoral Statistics
M. G. Mulhall (1836-1900) invented use of pictographs in statistics.
The Dictionary of Statistics (1892) and History of Prices Since the Year 1850 (1885)
Mulhall’s illustration of yearly meat production
Note that while inventive – areas of these shapes are hard to compare
Mulhall’s illustration of ocean going trade volume
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 24 Diagrams of motion
Marey developed diagrams and photographical methods to study motion. Studied motion of humans and several animals such as horses during different paces. The undulations of the dorsal fin of a descending seahorse. E. J. Marey, (1830 – 1904)
E.J. Marey, “Movement,” (London 1895), p .222 and 224. ( Tufte , 1883, p.35)
The forward motion of a gecko.
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Diagrams of motion
E. J. Marey, (1830 – 1904)
Tracks of a horse with different strides
A starfish turning over – read from bottom to top
E.J. Marey, “Movement,” (London 1895), p.191 and 265. (Tufte, 1883, p.35-36) Sheelagh Carpendale
Beyond Simple Screen Design 25 Diagrams of motion
Using white tape and black velvet, Marey created time series images. E. J. Marey, ( 1830 – 1904)
E.J. Marey, “Movement,” (London 1895), p.60 and 61. (Tufte, 1883, p.35-36)
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Gantt and Progress Charts
Systematic industrial planning makes use of precise measurable standards. These charts relate process and products . H. L. Gantt, American engineer (1861 – 1919)
Easy to read: relatives thickness of lines lets readers see proportions and make comparisons
Visualizes passage of time: shows where production is in relationship to time
Fixes responsibility: combining output of machines and men in one chart identifies problem areas
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 26 Gantt and Progress Charts
Systematic industrial planning makes use of precise measurable standards. These charts relate process and products.
H. L. Gantt, American engineer (1861 – 1919)
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Work Flow Charts
Began the use of diagrams to solve business efficiency problems
F. Gilberth, American engineer (1919)
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 27 Studying Visual Language
First college course in graphical statistics. Began dissemination of visual language.
M. F. P. Costelloe, professor at Iowa State College, 1913
First comparative study of visual representations. Compared pie and subdivided bar charts. Started investigation of communication effectiveness of visual language techniques.
W. C. Ellis, United States, 1926
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ISOTYPE (International System Of TYPographic Picture Education)
Pictographic Charts
Engineered an approach that used pictures for quantitative information representation
O. Neurath, Austrian socialogist, 1924
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 28 Computer Flow Charts
John von Neumann, Hungarian-American mathematician, 1945
Inventor of modern computer
Flow charts enabled computer programmers to develop and analyze complex programs.
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Decision Logic Tables
animal legs Nose Neck name T. F. Kavanagh, American length length engineer, 1958-60 yes 4 > 3’ < 3’ elephant yes 4 <3’< 3’ >3’> 3’ giffiraffe yes - > 3’ > 3’ freak
Clarity and conciseness. Easy to create, read, and teach others. Less writing than flow charts and often reduce programming time. Completeness. Incompleteness is easy to spot – leads to fewer errors Display meaningful relationships. Sharpen cause effect understanding.
How to approve or disapprove an order IF credit limit And IF pay And IF special clearance THEN … is … experience is … has been obtained … o.k. Approve order questionable favourable Approve order Not favourable Not favourable yes Approve order Not favourable Not favourable no Return order to sales
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 29 PERT and CPM diagrams
PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique CPM (Critical Path Management) Proliferation of diagrams 1950-1980 in response to growing comppylexity of industrial processes du Pont, Rand, Booze, Allen, Hamilton, and Martin
Key Ideas: Time estimates. 3 time estimates are normally assigned to each activity to allow for uncertainty in planning. Critical path. This path is often represented by a heavier line. Its connections, time estimates etc. give management guidance on whether to invest in som e aspects th at i s h ol din g i t back. Types of activities. Real activities describe tasks that must be accomplished to move from one event ot another. These take money, time, expenditures and equipment.
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PERT and CPM diagrams
1950-1980 du Pont, Rand, Booze, Allen, Hamilton, and Martin
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 30 PERT and CPM diagrams
1950-1980 du Pont, Rand, Booze, Allen, Hamilton, and Martin
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PERT and CPM diagrams 1950-1980 du Pont, Rand, Booze, Allen, Hamilton, and Martin
Critical path marked with darker line
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 31 1960s on …
Computer graphics. I. Sutherland. 1963. invented much of graphics/drawing capabilities on computer.
Theory of visual/verbal rhetoric. G. Bonsiepe. 1966. first attempt to analyze the integration of words and images.
Surface rendering. Warnock, Romney, Watkins.
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1960s on …
Virtual reality. I. Sutherland. 1968
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 32 1970s on …
Graphical User Interface. Alan Kay. 1970- 83. Xerox Star.
Theory of linear and non-linear reading. M. Twyman. c.1978. calls attention to the types of reading required in visual languages
Systems for making group processes visible. D. Sibbet. 1979. Visual recording and presentation.
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1980s on …
Theory of semiotics of graphics.
Bertin 1983 (()1967)
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 33 1980s on …
Theory of externalization. R. McKim 1980. externalization of ideas supports innovation creative thinking and often uses visual means.
Volume rendering. Carpenter, Hanrahan, Drebin. 1980 (Pixar)
Theory of semiotics of graphics . Bertin 1983 (1967)
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1980s on …
Excellence in quantitative information presentation. Tufte. 1983.
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 34 1990s on …
World wide web. Berners-Lee. 1991.
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Beyond Simple Screen Design 35 Sheelagh Carpendale
Beyond Simple Screen Design 36