PATHWAYS INTO : INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, YOUTH, & SENIORS

BY KATE DAVIS, JENNA HILDEBRAND & EMILIA OSCILOWICZ

April, 2019 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1 Defining Homelessness 2 Pathways into Homelessness 4 Identified Groups 7 Indigenous Homelessness 8 Indigenous Pathways 9 15 Youth Pathways 16 Senior Homelessness 21 Senior Pathways 23 Identified Gaps in the Literature 26 Limitations & Looking Forward 27 Bibliography 28

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z INETXREOCDUUTCIVTION SUMMARY

This report was prepared for our client, BC Housing, as part of a final class project for UBC's School of Community and Regional Planning (SCARP) course PLAN 530: Policy and Planning. The research, while supported by BC Housing, does not necessarily reflect the views of BC Housing. BC Housing requested a literature review of pathways into homelessness which utilized an intersectional lens. This report provides a literature review on the major pathways into homelessness relevant to three major groups: Indigenous peoples, seniors, and youth. These three groups were identified as being disproportionately represented, growing, and in critical need, respectively. As much as possible, this report uses data from a Canadian and British Columbia context. The objective of this report is to have a succinct and easily digestible document that can be a resource for those without extensive knowledge on the major pathways into homelessness.

We are grateful to have had the opportunity to work with Deborah Kraus and Leigh Greenius from BC Housing. Thank you for your guidance and feedback throughout this project. We hope this is a resource that will help community partners and stakeholders to better understand and support vulnerable populations who are experiencing homelessness.

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 0 1 DEFINING HOMELESSNESS

Homelessness is the situation of an individual, family, or community without stable, safe, permanent, appropriate housing, or the immediate prospect, means and ability of acquiring it. It is the result of systemic or societal barriers, a lack of affordable and appropriate housing, the individual/household’s financial, mental, cognitive, behavioural or physical challenges, and/or racism and discrimination. (Canadian Observatory on Homelessness, 2012)

EMERGENCY SHELTERED staying in overnight emergency shelters design ed for people whom are homeless

PROVISIONALLY UNSHELTERED ACCOMMODATED lacks security of tenure, including Living on the streets or in places not intended for human AT RISK OF interim housing, living temporarily with others, or in institutional habitation HOMELESSNESS contexts current economic and/or housing situation is precarious or does not meet public health and safety standards

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 0 2 DEFINING HOMELESSNESS

THE HIDDEN HOMELESS Hidden homeless persons are people staying temporarily with another household and who do not have a regular address of their own where they have security of tenure (Eberle et. al., 2009)

N U M B E R O F C A N A D I A N S E X P E R I E N C I N G H I D D E N 50,000 H O M E L E S S N E S S E A C H N I G H T (Gaetz, 2013)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 0 3 PATHWAYS INTO HOMELESSNESS

“ T O O O F T E N B E I N G H O M E L E S S I S C O N S I D E R E D A P E R S O N A L A N D M O R A L F A I L I N G , W H E N I T ’S A C T U A L L Y A S T R U C T U R A L A N D P O L I T I C A L P R O B L E M . ” Leilani Farha, United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Housing (Youth Rights! Ri ght Now!, 2016)

There is no single cause that explains an individual’ s experience of homelessness and their pathway(s) into homelessness. Homelessness is the result of a complex intersection of factors. A social-ecological model positions homelessness as the outcome of the interplay and intersection between three categories: structural factors, system failures, and individual/relational circumstances (Gaetz et al., 2013; Gaetz, 2014; Gaetz & Dej, 2017).

Individual & Relational Factors

Structural System Factors Failures

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Broad systemic societal and economic factors that affect opportunities, social environments, and outcomes for STRUCTURAL individuals (Gaetz and Dej, 2017). Structural and systemic FACTORS factors can create the conditions under which personal or relational crisis result in homelessness (Schwan et al., 2018). Structural factors can include: poverty, discrimination, lack of affordable housing, and the impact of colonialism on Indigenous peoples.

Situations in which inadequate policy and service delivery within and between systems contribute to the likelihood SYSTEM that individuals will experience homelessness (Schwan et FAILURES al., 2018a; Schwan et al., 2018b; Gaetz & Dej, 2017). Systems failures can include: barriers to accessing public systems, failed transitions from publicly funded institutions and systems, and silos and gaps both within and between government funded departments and systems, and also within non-profit sectors (Gaetz & Dej, 2017).

Personal circumstances that place people at risk of INDIVIDUAL & homelessness. Some of these factors include personal crises, housing insecurity, interpersonal and relational RELATIONAL problems, interpersonal violence, ongoing and disabling FACTORS conditions, and trauma (Gaetz & Dej, 2017).

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 0 5 PATHWAYS INTO HOMELESSNESS

In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of research on the pathways into homelessness. Academic research, provincial and federal policy research, and a number of point-in-time counts have contributed to a growing amount of information that can be used to better understand the complexity of different pathways into homelessness and the people that are experiencing homelessness.

AGING OUT OF FOSTER CARE RECOGNIZED MENTAL ILLNESS PATHWAYS CRIMINAL JUSTICE DISCHARGE ADDICTIONS INTO LOW INCOME MILITARY SERVICE HOMELESSNESS TRAUMA

ADULTS INDIVIDUALS YOUTH WOMEN THAT INDIGENOUS PEOPLES FAMILIES EXPERIENCE VETERANS SENIORS HOMELESSNESS LGBTQ+ PEOPLE WITH MENTAL HEALTH CHALLENGES PEOPLE WITH ADDICTIONS

(METRO , 2017)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 0 6 IDENTIFIED GROUPS

For the purposes of this INDIGENOUS PEOPLES report, we will focus on the SENIORS following three populations YOUTH experiencing homelessness

We have chosen to review the pathways into homelessness for these three groups because they are unique and complex, and will require distinct solutions that require a detailed understanding of the populations, key intersections, common issues, and concerns. The majority of data in this report is focused on as a whole as well as the province of British Columbia. INDIGENOUS "Indigenous peoples in Canada are significantly overrepresented among homeless populations, disproportionately at risk of becoming homeless, and face significant barriers to housing affordability” (Gaetz et al., 2016).

28-34% of the shelter population is Indigenous versus 4 . 3 % of Canadians who identify as being Indigenous (Gaetz et al., 2016).

YOUTHhomelessness refers to young people between the ages of 13 and 24 who are living independently of parents and/or caregivers but do not have the means or ability to acquire a stable, safe, or consistent residence” (Gaetz et al., 2016).

In the 2018 B.C. homeless count 5 1 % of all respondents reported experiencing homelessness for the first time when they were under 25 years of age (HSABC, 2018).

SENIORS While seniors over 65 years old make up a very small percentage of users, they are the only age group for whom shelter use has increased over the last 10 years (Gaetz et al., 2016). This is true even when we take into account, and correct for, our aging population. The number of older adults ( 5 0 - 6 4 ) and seniors ( 6 5 + ) experiencing homelessness is growing (Gaetz et al., 2016).

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 0 7 I N D I G E N O U S H O M E L E S S N E S S

For the purpose of this report, the term "Indigenous" will be used in reference to people who identify as First Nations (status or non- status), Inuit, or Metis.

"Unlike the common colonialist definition of homelessness, Indigenous homelessness is not defined as lacking a structure of habitation; rather, it is more fully described and understood through a composite lens of Indigenous worldviews. These include: individuals, families and communities isolated from their relationships to land, water, place, family, kin, each other, animals, cultures, languages and identities. Importantly, Indigenous people experiencing these kinds of homelessness cannot culturally, spiritually, emotionally or physically reconnect with their Indigeneity or lost relationships" (Thistle, 2017)

Urban Indigenous people are 8 x more likely to experience homelessness than non-Indigenous people. (Thistle, 2017)

In the 2018 Metro Vancouver Aboriginal Homeless Count, 38% of respondents identified as being Indigenous, while accounting for only 6% of the total population of B.C. In addition, Indigenous respondents made up a higher proportion of unsheltered respondents, at 42%. (HSABC. 2018)

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The effects of colonialism on Canada’s Indigenous population cannot be understated.

Anderson and Collins (2014) define colonization to be the complex sets of discriminatory actions, disciplinary strategies and unequal power relations that originated with formal colonial regimes, and set in place the governmental framework of the modern state, within which colonialism proceeds. This has been experienced, and continues to be experienced, by Indigenous populations throughout the world. In Canada, the impacts of the Indian Act, Residential Schools, the Sixties Scoop, displacement from traditional lands and other efforts by the state to colonize, assimilate, and eradicate the Indigenous peoples of this land have been devastating and are ongoing. This has, and continues to cause marginalization within Canadian society and devastation to families and cultural traditions, leading to intergenerational trauma that can manifest though symptoms of anxiety disorders, alcohol and substance abuse, depression, suicide and low self-esteem, resulting in increased rates of homelessness (Leach, 2010; Menzies, 2009).

This thorough, complex, and intentional unravelling of tradiational social and cultural systems has created, and continues to perpetuate Indigenous homelessness in Canada" (Thistle, 2017)

L A C K O F H O U S I N G A V A I L A B I L I T Y , A P P R O P R I A T E N E S S , A N D A F F O R D A B I L I T Y

Higher rate of poverty and unemployment lead to a reliance on the rental housing sector in which people are subject to high rental costs, and low suitability of appropriate rental stock. In addition, there are lengthy waiting lists for the limited supply of subsidized, affordable, and cultural appropriate housing units (Anderson & Collins, 2014; Lu'ma Native Housing Society).

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While trauma is usually categorized as being an individual factor that can lead to homelessness, for Indigenous peoples, it is often the result of broader, macro traumas that have been systematically inflicted upon the population. Trauma of separation from family and community, through displacement, residential schools and child welfare systems, has contributed to survivors demonstrating symptoms of anxiety disorders, alcohol and substance abuse, depression, suicide and low self-esteem that are significantly higher than those of the general population (Menzies, 2009).

In Peter Menzies (2009) research with homelessness Indigenous men in , it was found that those who had experienced intergenerational trauma are more likely to: - Lack sense of belonging within a family, community, culture, or nation - Be unable to sustain personal or intimate relationships - Have low self-esteem, depression, or tendencies toward self-harm or suicidality - Develop dysfunctional coping mechanisms such as substance abuse, hyper-sexuality, hyperactivity, aggression, sensation seeking or isolation - Be involved with the mental health or criminal justice system - Have a limited education and employment history - Experience an absence of meaning and hope

M E N T A L H E A L T H & A D D I C T I O N S

For a large portion of the Indigenous population, mental health struggles and addictions often are interrelated. Intergenerational trauma has created negative social conditions for Indigenous populations, leading to increased vulnerability and a reliance on alcohol and substance use as a means to cope with stress (Menzies, 2009; Stewart et. al).

Issues with mental health and addictions as a pathway to homelessness becomes further compounded when it is understood that the collective trauma suffered by the Indigenous population has impacted the effectiveness of family and community support, and the traditional social regulating mechanisms that could assist individuals in coping with these “individual ruptures” (Belanger, 2013).

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 0 R A C I S M & D I S C R I M I N A T I O N

Racism and discrimination toward Indigenous peoples are deeply entrenched in Canadian society. This produces both systemic and societal barriers to affordable and appropriate housing (Thistle, 2017; Patrick, 2014; Brandon and Peters, 2014).

As a result of racism, Indigenous peoples are subject to discrimination by: - Landlords - Subletting tenants - Property managers - Real-estate agents - Community housing workers - Government workers - Mortgage agency personnel (Patrick, 2014)

"There's no way [to describe] that hopelessness and that helplessness, when you're ready to work, you're ready to pay bills, you have everything except for the wrong skin colour" (Richard Peters in "Navigating the Toronto Housing Crisis as an Indigenous Person")

P O V E R T Y

Indigenous peoples in Canada face significantly higher levels of poverty and un- employment than the non-Indigenous population; directly correlating with difficulties accessing safe and affordable housing. In the Metro Vancouver region, the average annual household income for Indigenous residents is $69,223, compared to the total average of $83,666 (MVAEC, 2015). More than 2 x the number of Indigenous individuals have incomes below the poverty line and the unemployment rate among urban Indigenous people is almost double that of the non-Indigenous population in most Canadian cities. (Brandon and Peters, 2014)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 1 C H I L D - W E L F A R E S Y S T E M

As will be explained in more detail in the Youth section of this report, negative experiences within the child welfare system, and a lack of support once youth age out is a major pathway into homelessness. This is especially significant when looking at Indigenous youth homelessness as these youth are 15 times more likely to be placed in child welfare care than non-Indigenous children (Blackstock, 2009). For Indigenous children, frequent moves within the child welfare system is the norm, and leads to increased rates of behavioural and mental health issues (Baskin, 2007; Blackstock, 2009; and Ruttan, 2010), that contribute to instability and higher risk of homelessness. 4 8 % o f3 0 , 0 0 0 children and youth in foster care across Canada are Aboriginal children, even though Aboriginal people account for only 4 . 3 % of the Canadian population. (Aboriginal Children in Care Working Group, 2015)

In B.C. 1 i n 5 Indigenous children will be involved with the child welfare system at some point during their childhood. (Aboriginal Children in Care Working Group, 2015)

P R I S O N S Y S T E M

Individuals who are homeless are at increased risk for incarceration, and individuals recently released from prison are particularly vulnerable to homelessness, resulting in a “revolving door” cycle (Patrick, 2014; Gaetz & O'Grady, 2009). Those without access to housing and employment and without support for addictions and mental health are more likely to be homeless at their discharge from prison (Gaetz & O'Grady, 2009) In 2018, Indigenous inmates represented 2 8 % of the total federal in-custody population. (Zinger, 2018) 4 0 % o f incarcerated women in Canada in 2018 are Indigenous. (Zinger, 2018)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 2 Especially vulnerable groups: I N D I G E N O U S W O M E N Indigenous women face gendered impacts of colonization (Gunn, 2014). With the introduction of sexism to Indigenous communities by way of colonization, Indigenous women have experienced the law differently than other people in Canada and consequently have become one of the country's most vulnerable populations (Gunn, 2014; COEMRP “Toolkit”, 2015).

Under the Indian Act, until 2013, there was a lack of legislation to protect the matrimonial property rights of Indigenous women living on-reserve at the breakdown of a marriage, a common-law relationship, or the death of a spouse. This lack of legislation governing the division of matrimonial real property on reserves led to the dispossession of many Indigenous women and their children (Alcantara, 2008) often leading to tenuous accommodation in nearby towns or cities.

In addition, prior to 1985, Indigenous women who married a non-Indigenous partner lost status, and as a result, over 25,000 Indigenous women were forced to leave their communities between 1897 and 1985 (Patrick, 2014).

Finally, the increased rates of violence and abuse perpetrated against Indigenous women in Canada is a pathway into homelessness as it leads to vulnerability through displacement, mental health struggles, and substance abuse as a coping mechanism (Anderson & Collins, 2014)

Homeless women are more likely to be Aboriginal, and of all

homeless women, 5 3 % identify as Indigenous. (Metro Vancouver Aboriginal Homeless Count, 2018)

Indigenous women face the highest rates of poverty compared to other women across Canada. (Patrick, 2014)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 3 I N D I G E N O U S Y O U T H

Indigenous youth experience higher risk of becoming homeless compared to non- Indigenous youth in Canada. They are overrepresented in homeless youth populations and are more likely to experience hidden homelessness (Baskin, 2007; Ruttan, 2010; Kidd et al, 2018).

Indigenous youth homelessness is overwhelmingly the result of growing up in families facing extreme poverty and negative experiences growing up in the child welfare system (Baskin, 2007; Patrick, 2014; and Ruttan, 2010).

In British Columbia, Indigenous youth reported first becoming homeless at a younger age than non-Indigenous youth, with 7 5 % of Indigenous youth becoming homeless for the first time under the age of 19 compared to 6 7 % of non-Indigenous youth. (B.C. Youth Homeless Count, 2018)

A higher proportion of Indigenous youth had been homeless for more than 1 year ( 5 1 % ) c ompared to non-Indigenous youth ( 3 9 % ) (B.C. Youth Homeless Count, 2018)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 4 Y O U T H H O M E L E S S N E S S

Given the developmental life stage that youth are in, they face barriers and challenges that are unique to their age group (13-24). Youth experience homelessness differently than adults, both in terms of its causes and consequences (Gaetz, 2014). Some of the important differences include physical, mental, social, and emotional development. Unlike adults who experience homelessness, youth are dependent on caregivers before they leave their homes. When youth become homeless, they do not simply lose stable housing, but rather, they leave a home in which “they are embedded in relations of dependence, thus experiencing an interruption and potential rupture in social relations with parents and caregivers, family members, friends, neighbours and community” (Gaetz, 2014, p.7).

In 2018, Metro Vancouver completed a youth specific homeless count that took place over nine days from April 4th to April 12th 2018. The purpose of the Youth Count was to employ a youth-specific methodology to determine (a) the number of youth experiencing homelessness in Metro Vancouver; and (b) to create a demographic profile of those youth (BC Non-Profit Housing Association, 2018). Some of the findings are highlighted below.

681 35% 64%1 Home less Shelte red Unshelt ered Youth 42% SELF 26% MOST COMMONLY IDENTIFIED AS IDENTIFIED AS REPORTED AGES: INDIGENOUS LGBTQ2S* 15 & 16

*The acronym "LGBTQ2S" refers to individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, transgender, queer, and 2-Spirit. The term "2-Spirit" refers to Indigenous people who identity with both a masculine and feminine spirit (Abramovich, 2016). 1. 1% of respondents selected the "other" category for the question asking youth where they stayed on the night of April 4, 2018. The youth who selected "other" did not provide a write-in-answer explaining where they stayed.

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 5 Y O U T H P A T H W A Y S :

Top 3 reasons for first-time F A M I L Y C O N F L I C T youth homelessness in Metro Vancouver:

One of the main causes of youth homelessness is 52% difficult family situations and conflict between youth Family Conflict and their families (Winland, 2013). This conflict often stems from parental abuse and neglect (Collins, 2013) and can lead to further challenges such as substance 40% abuse, mental health issues, and disengagement from Drugs & substance social circles and education (Gaetz, 2014). In the report use/addiction "What Would it Take? Youth Across Canada Speak Out on Youth Homelessness Prevention?", youth throughout 33% Canada explained how experiences of conflict, abuse, Mental Health Challenges and neglect, in addition to personal health and ( BC Non-Profit Housing Association, 2018) addictions crisis, contributed to them losing their stable housing arrangements (Schwan et al., 2018b).

D R U G S & M E N T A L H E A L T H S U B S T A N C E U S E C H A L L E N G E S

Youth experiencing homelessness report high "Without a Home: The National Youth Homelessness rates of alcohol and drug use in comparison to Survey" (2016) found that: youth in the general population (Kirst & Erickson, 2013). 85% of homeless youth experienced a 53% mental health crisis of homeless youth in Metro Vancouver are managing some sort of an addiction 42% (BC Non-Profit Housing Association, 2018) reported at least one suicide attempt

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 6 U N D E R E M P L O Y M E N T

Youth experiencing homelessness have great difficulty finding and maintaining employment. Many homeless youth leave school at an earlier age compared to youth who have stable housing. Additionally, homeless youth do not have access to key resources like income, housing, and food, that allow most individuals to work. Mental health problems and addictions further disadvantage youth when they are trying to find employment (Gaetz & O’Grady, 2013). 28% o f homeless youth in Metro Vancouver have no source of income. (BC Non-Profit Housing Association, 2018)

L A C K O F A F F O R D A B L E H O U S I N G

A general trend in Canada over the past twenty years has seen youth living at home longer or moving out, only to move back shortly after to save money. Rising costs in accommodation have contributed to to this trend (Gaetz, 2014). A study by the Vancouver Foundation (2016) found that 80% of parents with youth aged 19-28 who live away from home continue to support them financially. Youth who do not have families that can support them financially or continue to house them are at risk of experiencing homelessness as rent levels continue to rise across Canada, most drastically in cities such as Vancouver and Toronto.

50% o f surveyed youth in Metro Vancouver indicated that what was keeping them from finding their own place was high rent prices. (BC Non-Profit Housing Association, 2018)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 7 H O M O P H O B I A & T R A N S P H O B I A

The overrepresentation of LGBTQ2S youth among the homeless population is a result of family conflict related to gender identity as youth who come out to their parents may no longer be accepted or welcomed in their family homes (Abramovich, 2012; Abramovich, 2016). LGBTQ2S identifying youth experience further discrimination when accessing service organizations, emergency shelters, and housing programs (Abramovich, 2016). The intake and measurement tools that shelters use often do not include a category for non-binary identities (identities other than man or woman). Overall, the inability of shelters to meet the needs of LGBTQ2S identifying youth results in youth feeling safer on the streets, making it even more difficult for them to transition out of homelessness (Abramovich, 2016).

"The fact that there are only men's and women's shelters, the fact that youth shelters have boys' and girls’ dorms, and they have boys' and girls’ bathrooms. Then any time a trans person shows up it's an anomaly, it's like ‘whoa, what do we do with you?’'"

- Manager of a youth program describing trans-erasure in shelters (Abramovich, 2016)

Approximately 25-40% of homeless youth in Canada identify as LGBTQ2S, while approximately only 5-10% of the general population identifies as LGBTQ2S. (Abramovich, 2013)

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C H I L D W E L F A R E I N V O L V E M E N T

“We must take a critical look at the state systems charged with caring for the welfare of youth in Canada before they experience homelessness, as well as the systems of care we offer for young people experiencing homelessness. The child welfare system is only one of these systems. Youth justice, education, child and youth mental health, immigration and settlement, housing and , and the labour market each have a role to play in a systems-approach to the prevention of youth homelessness in Canada.” (Nichols et a l., 2017)

Multiple research studies and reports have shown that involvement in the child welfare system and homelessness are closely linked, and that involvement in child protection increases an individual's risk of becoming homeless (Bender, Yang, Ferguson, & Thompson, 2015; Dworsky & Courtney, 2009; Gypen et al., 2017; Karabanow & Naylor, 2013; Nichols, 2013; Nichols et al. 2017; Shaffer & Anderson, 2016; Villegas et al., 2014). In the report, "Without a Home: The National Youth C RHIoMmeIleNssAneLss SJurUveSy,"T reIsCeaErc heSrsY fSouTndE thMat 58% of the 1,103 surveyed youth with lived experience of homelessness had some kind of involvement with child protection services in the past (Gaetz, O'Grady, Kidd, & Schwan, 2016). When compared to national data, “youth experiencing homelessness are 193 times more likely to report interactions with the child welfare system than the general public” (Gaetz, O'Grady, Kidd, & Schwan, 2016).

of surveyed youth in Metro Vancouver indicated they were currently or had 50% p r eviously been in foster care, a group home, or under an independent living arrangement. (BC Non-Profit Housing Association, 2018)

of survey respondents indicated that aging out of care was one of the main 11% re asons they experienced homelessness for the first time. ( BC Non-Profit Housing Association, 2018)

of survey respondents reported they had been in foster care, a youth group 29% ho me, or under a youth agreement. In the regions of Fraser Valley, Prince George, Williams Lake and Campbell River, more than 40% of respondents reported that they had been in care. (Homelessness Services Association of BC, Urban Matters and BC Non-Profit Housing Association, 2018)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 1 9 C R I M I N A L J U S T I C E S Y S T E M

For youth homelessness, the criminal justice system can function in two ways: it can be a pathway into homelessness and homelessness can act as a pathway into the criminal justice system (Nichols, 2016; O'Grady, Gaetz, & Buccieri, 2011). Without the appropriate support for youth and their families, many justice-involved youth end up being kicked out of their family homes when they are released from custody (Nichols, 2016). Once a youth is on the street and/or accessing shelters, they are more likely to have an interaction with the police as homeless youth are subject to increased police attention (O'Grady, Gaetz, & Buccieri, 2011). As a result, there is an increased likelihood that a youth may incur another offence, end up detained on remand, and again, transitioned out of the justice system and into a shelter or on the streets (Nichols, 2016). of homeless youth have been in jail, a youth detention 50%+ c e ntre, or prison. (Gaetz, 2014)

I N P A T I E N T M E N T A L H E A L T H D I S C H A R G E

Given the high amount of youth experiencing mental health challenges, youth often seek out or are placed in inpatient mental health facilities. Before they are discharged, however, there is little discussion on their housing situations. As a result, many youth who are discharged end up in homeless shelters (Nichols, 2016). Mental illness is often seen as an individual pathway into homelessness, yet the inpatient mental health discharge is a system failure. This example highlights how individual factors and system failures intersect to further disadvantage youth experiencing homelessness.

In d es iv r id lu u ai a f l F a ct em o t rs ys S

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 2 0 S E N I O R S E X P E R I E N C I N G H O M E L E S S N E S S

Seniors are often divided into the following subgroups:

55+ DO NOT yet qualify for social services, but are considered seniors

65+ DO qualify for social services and benefits

85+ very elderly, often experience frailty and health challenges

T H E S E N I O R S P O P U L A T I O N I S I N C R E A S I N G .

Population will Seniors will make up DOUBLE & 25% of by 2036 INDIGpEoNOpUuS lPaEtOiPoLEnS (StatCan 2017) by 2 036 SE(NStaIOtCaRn S2017) YOUTH

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 2 1 M A N Y H O M E L E S S S E N I O R S L I V E INIVNIVSIISBILBYLY

The invisibility of many homeless seniors creates challenges to understanding how many seniors are being affected by homelessness. They are often missed in Point-in-Time counts such as the annual Vancouver Homeless Count. Seniors are likely to be staying with friends or family who can house them on a temporary/conditional basis. Seniors may also be living in dangerous home situations but their health, frailty, or lack of financial independence prevents them from seeking other housing options. (Homeless Count in Metro Vancouver, Final Report, 2017)

Seniors (55+) made up Seniors (55+) made up Seniors (55+) made up 19% 21% 20% of unsheltered of sheltered homeless of sheltered homeless homeless respondents in 2018 respondents in all of respondents in 2018 Vancouver 2018 British Columbia Vancouver (Vancouver Homeless Count, (Vancouver Homeless Count, (2018 Report on Homeless Counts 2018) 2018) in BC, 2018) INDIGENOUS PEOPLES "Seniors may be some of the most SuEnNdeIOrcRoSunted demographic groups in homeless counts aYsO UmTaHny stay with family or friends in their older age." (Hightower et al. 2003)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 2 2 S E N I O R P A T H W A Y S : H E A L T H

CHRONIC HEALTH CONDITIONS & DISABILITIES Seniors are more likely to suffer from conditions like diabetes, arthritis, and vision problems which may affect their independence. Homeless seniors are generally in worse physical and overall health than the general population (Kellogg & Horn, 2013).

FRAILTY Frailty usually occurs earlier for seniors experiencing homelessness as they age faster and are in worse physical condition than seniors that are housed. Frailty may impair the independence needed to care for oneself (Cimino et al., 2015).

DEMENTIA Dementia causes significant mental disability. It is also difficult to diagnose and treat when a person is transient. Women are more likely to experience dementia than men (Homeless Older Adults Research Project: Executive S ummary, 2004).

“The elderly homeless are much more likely than their younger counterparts to have chronic medical conditions, to have two or more medical conditions (including hypertension and arthritis), and to suffer from mental health disorders.” (Ng, et al. 2014)

The year seniors will be the group that experiences 2041: the highest rate of mental illness (Mental Health Commission, 2014)

(Ng et al 2013)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 2 3 P O V E R T Y

EMPLOYMENT Seniors are having to work past conventional retirement age in order to support themselves. Seniors may struggle to find employment or keep employment due to ageism, thus forcing them into a state of poverty and homelessness. LACK OF AFFORDABLE AND SECURE HOUSING Housing may be too expensive for seniors with limited benefits or savings and seniors are subject to a higher risk of eviction. Finally, there is often a lack of housing that meets the specific needs of the senior population, given that they are more likely to require additional supports such as mobility devices, and in-home care (Hightower et. al., 2003). INADEQUATE PENSION/SOCIAL SUPPORT Once seniors in Canada reach 65 years old, many will qualify to receive one or more of the following benefits: Canada Pension Plan (CPP), Old Age Security (OAS), and Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS). Seniors that did not work in the formal workforce (i.e. women in domestic work) will not have a pension to rely on for income. Additionally, current pensions often do not cover the housing and costs of living for most seniors (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2009).

"Some homeless persons are unaware of theirI NowDnI GelEigNibOilitUy Sfo Pr pEuOblPicLES assistance programs and face difficulties applying for and receiving benefits. Elderly homeless persons in particular often need help naviSgEatNinIgO tRheS complex application process." YOUTH (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2009)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 2 4 ESPECIALLY VULNERABLE GROUPS: SENIOR WOMEN

Women make up "Senior women are among the poorest in Canada, and 1 0 % more likely to be 63% poorer than their male counterparts." of sheltered homeless (Poverty and Inequality Among British Columbia's Seniors, 2017) seniors over age 80 (StatCan, 2015)

Senior women are vulnerable to the breakdown of relationships, divorce, and the death of partners. This (SmtaatCya nle 2a0v15e) them financially isolated, and without pensions and/or access to social services as they are less likely to have participated in the formal workforce and would therefore be reliant on partners (Jones, 2003; Petersen, 2015).

Senior women are 2 x more likely to experience dementia or other memory problems than the average population. (Homeless Older Adults Research Project: Executive Summary, 2004)

VETERANS

Veteran seniors are disproportionately represented in the senior homelessness population.

Veterans experience homelessness for the following reasons: Drug and alcohol addiction PTSD and other mental illness Difficulies transitioning back to civilian life (Gaetz et al. 2016) (Gaetz et al., 2016)

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 2 5 IDENTIFIED GAPS IN THE CURRENT LITERATURE

Lack of veteran-focused research SENIORS Lack of research on senior homelessness in non- urban settings

H O Lack of Canadian-focused social services/pension Y M U E T L H S S fund research

Lack of research on the “hidden homeless” population

Lack of longitudinal studies YOUTH Lack of data specifically related to LGBTQ2S youth population Research on LGBTQ2S youth tends to focus on this group as homogenous Most demographic data is collected through Point-in-Time counts (underestimate)

Lack of research on how exclusion and INDIGENOUS discrimination lead Indigenous youth into PEOPLES homelessness Lack of research on high levels of incarceration and its link to homelessness Lack of re search on Indigenous family homePlEesRsCnEeNssT Lack of research on how gendered Indian Act laws contribute to homelessness for Indigenous women

P A T H W A Y S I N T O H O M E L E S S N E S S | D A V I S , H I L D E B R A N D , & O S C I L O W I C Z 2 6 LOOKING FORWARD Although this report entails extensive research into the pathways for Indigenous peoples, youth, and seniors experiencing homelessness, there are many other vulnerable groups who also experience homelessness or are at risk of becoming homeless. In Metro Vancouver, a stagnant supply of affordable housing options and low vacancy rates has put low income families (specifically single-parent families) at risk of experiencing homelessness (Housing Research Collaborative, SCARP & Union Gospel Mission, 2018). This situation is mirrored in other cities across Canada and we therefore suggest that research on the pathways into homelessness for families be made a priority area of research going forward.

Researching and understanding the pathways into homelessness is necessary to inform the pathways out. The more that governments, policy makers, and service providers understand about the prominent pathways into homelessness across a diversity of groups, the greater the op portunity for collaborative and preventative responses that address the root causes of homelessness. PERCENT

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