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CHAPTER 2 Establishing and Maintaining Orientation for Mobility Richard G. Long and Nicholas A. Giudice

Learning Questions Most people give little thought to spatial • What are the three challenges in orientation, including the information they establishing and maintaining use when planning and executing routes or orientation without vision? reestablishing their orientation when they become disoriented. Generally, people with How do travelers who are blind or • unimpaired vision indicate a reliance on visually impaired determine where visual cues, although they may have they are? difficulty identifying the specific • What strategies do travelers with information and strategies they use. For visual impairments use to determine these people, the prospect of walking from the correct route to their destination? home to a nearby destination without vision is daunting from the perspective of both • What factors affect one’s ability to orientation and mobility tasks. However, establish and maintain orientation and many people who are blind or have low mobility? vision accomplish these tasks routinely, traveling independently and efficiently in • What strategies do people who are both familiar and unfamiliar places. The blind or visually impaired use to information, the strategies, and the research explore a new environment or recover that address these topics are the focus of this from unexpected problems, such as chapter. disorientation or a detour? In the field of orientation and mobility • What is a cognitive map, and how (O&M) for persons who are blind or have does it aid in orientation and mobility? low vision, the term orientation has been defined as “knowledge of one’s distance and • What strategies are most effective in teaching young children who are blind direction relative to things observed or or visually impaired the perceptual remembered in the surroundings and and cognitive skills they need to travel keeping track of these spatial relationships independently in familiar and new as they change during locomotion” (Blasch, environments? Wiener, & Welsh, 1997, p. 750). Pick (1980) defined orientation as “knowing

2 V1C2 where objects are in relation to each other keeping track of the changing distances and and in relation to ourselves” (Pick, 1980, p. directions to objects or places that result 80). While having specific definitions in the from self-movement. Consider two profession of orientation and mobility, examples. An object that is directly in front orientation is a common term that is used in of you is no longer directly in front after you various ways. In the field of , turn in place. An object that is directly to one definition of orientation is “the process your left and a few steps away before you of familiarizing oneself with a new setting, begin walking is behind you and to your left so that movement and use do not depend on after you walk forward several yards. These cues, such as maps, and eventually are simple examples. The task of keeping become habitual” (VandenBos, 2007, p. track of where various locations are in the 656). A related term used in the field of neighborhood or community while you are psychology is wayfinding, which is defined walking is a more challenging version of as the planning and strategic components these relatively simple tasks. How people that guide action, deliberate movement, and relate self-movement to the locations of the ability to reach a goal (Darken & objects or places they cannot see, hear, feel, Peterson, 2002). Navigation, another term or smell, and the way they use this commonly used in psychology, geography, information to plan and execute routes, are and other fields, is defined as “the fundamental aspects of orientation and mechanisms used by an organism to find its mobility. Spatial updating is of theoretical way through the environment” (VandenBos, and practical interest in psychology and in 2007, p. 612). A substantial body of basic the field of orientation and mobility and has and applied research has evolved during the been studied by psychologists, geographers, past century regarding various aspects of and others (Kitchen, Blades, & Golledge, spatial orientation, wayfinding, and 1997; Klatzky, Golledge, Loomis, Cicinelli, navigation in humans and animals (for & Pellegrino, 1995; Loomis, Lippa, general reviews, see Golledge, 1999; Golledge, & Klatzky, 2002; Rieser, Hill, Redish, 1999). A small subset of this Talor, Bradfield, & Rosen, 1992; see also research focuses on studies of people who Chapter 1, this volume). For orientation and are blind or have low vision and the way mobility specialists, assessing the ability of these individuals perceive, learn, and individuals who are blind or have low vision remember spatial information, and how they to keep track of changing self-to-object use this information to guide their travel in relationships that result from movement is a everyday life. key aspect of the instructional process. Helping learners become better at spatial updating is fundamental to good O&M instruction. This instruction may be Fundamental Concepts of particularly critical in helping young children who are blind or visually impaired Orientation understand the effect of their movement on Updating spatial relationships. Two fundamental concepts are important in understanding spatial orientation related to orientation and mobility. The first is Frames of Reference spatial updating. This refers to the process of Egocentric Frame of Reference

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The second fundamental concept is that wants to walk directly from the bakery to the of frames of reference. There are two drugstore. She has a mental map of the general frames of reference involved in neighborhood and can locate the two spatial thinking and acting. In an egocentric destinations on that map. How would she frame of reference, information is perceived, plan her route? She must imagine herself at remembered, and acted on solely from the the bakery and then the straight-line perspective of the individual’s current distance and direction to the drugstore. She location. Egocentric frames of reference are also may imagine the route she must walk used by people every day as they travel given the straight-line distance and direction familiar routes to and from school, work, between the objectives and her knowledge and other locations in the community. Using of walkable paths in the area. an egocentric frame of reference, an individual may describe the location of the According to Thinus-Blanc and Gaunet bank relative to where he is standing by (1997), when using mental maps (often saying “It’s straight ahead and to the right.” called cognitive maps), individuals encode Both the terms ahead and right are the “direction and distance relationships egocentric; they indicate orientation in space between places, whatever the path that links relative to the individual’s body and facing them and regardless of the person's position direction. or direction of approach” (p. 23). Being able to think in allocentric terms about space is conceptually more challenging than using an egocentric conceptual framework but is Allocentric Frame of Reference potentially more useful when detours are required or when routes among various When using an allocentric frame of places must be planned and traveled. reference, an individual relates the locations of objects or places to one another Because of the importance of an allocentric spatial perspective to orientation and independent of his or her current location in space and uses an external rather than self- mobility, O&M specialists work with their students to help them conceptualize space in based frame of reference. In the psychological literature, an allocentric frame terms of object-to-object relationships and to use maps, cardinal directions, and other of reference is sometimes referred to as “survey-level” spatial knowledge (Noordzii, externally referenced geographic systems, such as street grids. It is particularly Zuidhoek, & Postma, 2006; Siegel & White, 1975). Inherent in this frame of reference is important to challenge students who are blind or have low vision to think about space the understanding that the spatial relationships among places are invariant and from an allocentric viewpoint. For example, O&M specialists may ask students to are unaffected by self-movement. For imagine themselves in front of the bank, example, the relation of one landmark to facing the street, and then ask them to turn another is fixed and is independent of a so they are facing the post office or other person’s perspective or viewpoint. destinations, or facing the direction they Allocentric frames of reference are would walk to move toward these important in practical O&M terms because destinations. travelers often must recall the locations of various places relative to one another in Blasch, Welsh, and Davidson (1973) order to plan and execute efficient, flexible described three types of information used in routes. Consider a traveler at her home who thinking about allocentric spatial

4 V1C2 relationships: (1) topocentric information, for efficient travel in both familiar and which refers to information about the unfamiliar places. locations of landmarks or unique features in a place; (2) polarcentric information, which refers to the use of compass directions to Establishing and Maintaining describe the directions among places in Orientation relation to magnetic north; and (3) cartographic information, which specifies Perception: The Impact of Information the location of places in relation to a pattern, Access on Spatial Orientation such as a grid pattern, a building shape, or a Visual cues are the most efficient and systematic numbering or labeling system. reliable sources of information for From a practical point of view, each of these accomplishing spatial tasks. Golledge, three sources of information can be useful in Klatzky, and Loomis (1996) noted that the establishing and maintaining orientation and absence of vision results in challenges in in describing spatial relations. For example, processing spatial data in an integrative consider a traveler who keeps track of her manner. A traveler with unimpaired vision location using a combination of topocentric, can readily perceive the distances and polarcentric, and cartographic information. directions of many nearby and distant She walks north (polarcentric information) features, simultaneously grasp spatial along a street, and as she walks she relates relationships, focus on and recognize objects her movement to her position on the street over a large field of view, and gather precise grid (cartographic information). She knows information about changes in self-to-object that her destination is located to the east of relations that occur with movement. the street she is walking along and that there Pedestrians with unimpaired vision simply is a distinctive landmark at that location see a destination in the distance and (topocentric information). Knowing she is maintain visual contact with it and with facing north (polarcentric information), she intermediate landmarks as they move toward realizes that at some point along the route the destination. Imagine a sighted person she must turn right, or east, to continue to walking from his house to the end of the her destination. As she walks, she updates driveway to retrieve his trash bin. From his her position relative to places around her, front door, he can simultaneously perceive and she also may recall the allocentric the distant trash bin and the path from the relationships of off-route locations. She may house to the destination and determine the use spatial descriptors such as compass relationship of these features to one another. directions, clock-face directions, the terms Avoiding the flowerpot on the front steps, left and right, and prepositions such as the car in the driveway, and other features before, beside, or beyond. Polarcentric between the two locations is easy because information, cartographic information, and these features can be perceived more or less topocentric information are useful to simultaneously. travelers because they provide a framework, or “language,” for thinking about and acting In the same scenario, individuals who on their spatial representations (for example, are blind use auditory and tactile their cognitive map). When they can relate information to avoid the flowerpot, the car their spatial representations to their in the driveway, and other features, and perceptions of features in near (proximal) those with low vision may use visual and far (distal) space, they are well prepared information in addition to auditory and

5 V1C2 tactile cues. They also use their memory of accurately estimate degree of turning and the approximate distance and direction from distance walked is important when travel is the door to the trash bin to turn and move in guided only by internal cues. the desired direction and to estimate when they are getting close to their destination. As they near the bin, they may directly perceive Cognitive Strategies and Cognitive Maps it using reflected sounds. They may probe in Spatial Orientation with the long cane for particular features they know should be present along the route, Perceiving information relevant to and they may trail or follow surfaces with establishing and maintaining orientation is the cane, such as the boundary between the important, but it also is important to be able driveway and the yard. Hearing and touch, to recall and use information about routes while effective for guiding travel, convey far and about the spatial arrangement of places. less information than vision about self- The term cognitive map is used to describe motion, the relationship of objects to one the way that people create and recall mental another, and the self-to-object distances and images of the distances and directions to directions to features in the environment. places out of range of their perceptual For example, compared to vision, tactile systems. The term is widely used, although perception affords access only to proximal with varying meanings. In general, it has (that is, nearby) objects, and it has rather been defined as an abstract, viewpoint- low resolution over a relatively small field independent (that is, allocentric) mental of view. Auditory perception is more distal representation of space that preserves spatial and is omnidirectional, which makes it properties such as landmarks, paths, and useful as an “alerting” sense, but it often is directions, as well as the general relations transient, and, compared to vision, it among these elements (Golledge, 1999; provides less precision in localizing objects. O'Keefe & Nadel, 1978). The use of the Despite these limitations, many individuals word map in this context is more metaphoric who are blind or have low vision travel than literal (Golledge, 1987). Internal mental safely and efficiently in both familiar and representations are not analogous to a unfamiliar areas, using nonvisual precise "map in the head" (Kuipers, 1982) information to effectively maintain their but should more appropriately be thought of orientation relative to a desired travel goal. as a mental representation of space characterized by many "distortions, holes In cases where visual, auditory, or tactile and exaggerations of the real world" information is unavailable to guide travel, (Golledge, 1987). Despite their limitations individuals sometimes use a strategy called as “true maps,” cognitive maps are dead reckoning, in which internal functionally important because they provide proprioceptive and kinesthetic cues (that is, a means for quickly and flexibly accessing a feedback from the movement of joints and representation of space as a traveler moves muscles) permits them to keep track of about. As noted earlier, this representation distances walked and turns made (Loomis, can guide route planning and complex Klatzky, Golledge, & Philbeck, 1999). For spatial problem solving, such as determining example, when walking a path in a large detours, and can facilitate the task of room where external cues are unavailable or communicating spatial information to others unreliable, such as a hotel lobby, a traveler (Golledge, 1991; Peruch, Gaunet, Thinus- who is visually impaired likely is using a Blanc, & Loomis, 2000). An individual’s dead-reckoning strategy. The ability to

6 V1C2 ability to flexibly access his or her cognitive and use of an allocentric frame of reference, map during navigation allows the map to and the related ability to make higher-order serve as a memory aid while the individual spatial inferences, are facilitated by prior is traveling. This is considered a higher, perceptual experience with distal more flexible level of spatial ability than information from visual access to the simply remembering a sequence of environment. Because the absence of vision landmarks and associated actions. dramatically reduces the amount of available distal information, and because the absence of vision from birth means that individuals have never experienced spatial information Cognitive Mapping and Age at Onset of visually, researchers such as Millar (1994) Visual Impairment have suggested that people who are blind One factor that has been considered from birth would tend to base their spatial extensively in research about cognitive maps knowledge more on proximal, body- of persons who are blind is the impact of a centered information (such as proprioceptive critical period of visual experience early in and kinesthetic information) rather than life. This age-at-onset variable has been distal information, and on nonvisual and hypothesized to account for variations therefore less precise sources of spatial observed among the individuals who are information (for example, auditory cues). blind in the performance of spatial tasks, and (For a review of this terminology, see particularly complex spatial tasks (Millar, Chapter 5, this volume.) Thinus-Blanc and 1994; Rieser, Hill, Talor, Bradfield, & Gaunet (1997) reflected this idea when they Rosen, 1992). As summarized by Thinus- suggested that some people who are blind Blanc and Gaunet (1997), this research from birth may predominantly use spatial reveals that the age at onset of visual information organized as routes, and these impairment has little or no effect on spatial individuals may be limited in performing tasks that are fundamentally egocentric in spatial tasks requiring more map-like nature, but when tasks require a more representations, such as planning detours or allocentric frame of reference, differences alternate routes. In contrast, people who sometimes are found between groups of became blind late in life and thus had some individuals who lost vision early in life and visual experiences that affected their those who lost vision late in life. development of spatial concepts would, as a group, be likely to mentally imagine spaces These differences in performance may using a more map-like framework. reflect an underlying fundamental difference in the “neurological organization” of spatial The investigation of the effect of visual information between individuals who experience on ways that individuals experienced an early onset of blindness and conceptualize space is complicated by the those who experienced a late onset of fact that there tend to be relatively large blindness (Millar, 1994). Alternatively, the individual differences in spatial abilities, differences may reflect the fact that both within groups of individuals who individuals who experienced an early onset experienced an early onset of blindness and of blindness simply have not learned the within groups of individuals who strategies needed to perform higher-order experienced a late onset of blindness. This is spatial tasks at the level of individuals who evidenced by the fact that in one study of experienced a late onset of blindness. The spatial after exploring new places, logic of this research is that the construction 14 of the 15 worst performers had

7 V1C2 experienced an early onset of visual etiology of impairment, degree of impairment. However, some of the best impairment, or age at onset. Other variables performers (6 of 15) also had experienced an that have not been well controlled are the early onset of visual impairment (Hill, amount and type of O&M instruction Rieser, Hill, Halpin, & Halpin, 1993). participants received. More research is Because of these large individual differences needed to explore these issues in order to in performance of complex spatial tasks, better understand how the onset of visual researchers cannot yet draw definitive impairment, in conjunction with a host of conclusions about the relation of age at other variables, influences the ability of onset of visual impairment to the strategies individuals to think about space and to for spatial thinking and the ability of perform spatial tasks. Information about the individuals who experienced an early onset teaching of orientation skills to children who of blindness and those who experienced a are visually impaired is presented in greater late onset of blindness to perform complex detail in Volume 2, Chapters 2 and 7. spatial tasks. Also, as the research findings regarding individual differences reflect, many O&M specialists report that they have worked with individuals who experienced an The Spatial Aspects of Traveling early onset of blindness who possess excellent spatial abilities, including Routes performance on tasks requiring higher-order Landmarks spatial thinking. It appears that the age at onset of visual impairment is not the only Most of the travel of both individuals factor influencing these abilities, a who are sighted and blind occurs along conclusion reflected in much of the literature familiar routes that lead to familiar on this topic (Klatzky, Golledge, Loomis, destinations. Routes comprise sequences of Cicinelli, & Pellegrino, 1995; Loomis et al., instructions that specify distances and 1993; Loomis, Lippa, Golledge, & Klatzky, changes of direction while navigating. 2002). Identifying landmarks and recalling one’s location relative to a destination is a Given the complexity of the age-at-onset fundamental aspect of traveling routes. Hill issue in relation to spatial abilities, and the and Ponder (1976) defined landmarks for variability in the performance on spatial travelers who are blind or visually impaired tasks among participants who are blind, it is as familiar objects, sounds, odors, difficult to identify a single factor (or even a temperatures, or tactile or visual clues that set of factors) that helps or hinders are easily recognized, are constant, and have orientation while traveling. The use of small discrete, permanent locations in the research samples, laboratory tests that often environment that are known to the traveler. have little real-world validity, and the lack of interdisciplinary discussion between behavioral scientists and O&M specialists have further hampered the interpretation and Primary Landmarks generalization of results (Kitchen, Blades, & Although not mentioned in the Hill and Golledge, 1997). A coherent understanding Ponder definition of landmarks, there is a of the spatial abilities of individuals who are difference between primary and secondary blind has been complicated by the fact that landmarks. A primary landmark is always most research does not control for the

8 V1C2 present in the environment and would be to provide information about one’s location. difficult to miss as one travels along a path. A parking meter adjacent to a fire hydrant For a traveler who is blind or visually may be an information point. Both objects impaired, a change in surface texture are found in several places along a route, but underfoot that spans the width of a sidewalk they are located adjacent to each other in is an example of a primary landmark. Unlike only one location. Confirming that both a a sound, a surface change is unlikely to be parking meter and a fire hydrant are nearby transient, and unlikely to be missed, thus can aid in confirming one’s location provided it is distinguishable from the and facing direction. surrounding sidewalk and of adequate size. Also, the particular change in texture must Landmarks and information points also be unique, that is, it must not occur aid in identifying locations along a walk frequently in a specific environment. where a change in the direction of travel is needed in order to continue toward a destination. Pedestrians who are blind or visually impaired, like pedestrians with Secondary Landmarks vision, listen, touch, feel, and, to a lesser extent, smell, as they move about, and many Secondary landmarks are similar to individuals who have low vision also use primary landmarks. A box for depositing books after hours at a library in a particular vision to locate features along a route. The value of any particular environmental neighborhood, for example, might serve as a secondary landmark. It is easily feature for establishing or confirming orientation depends on whether or not distinguished from other features in a place, is unique in a given environment, and is travelers can perceive it, and whether they can associate it spatially with other features permanent. It is the only box of its type along a route. It is considered a secondary and with the desired direction of travel. For effective travel, individuals must keep track landmark only because it is possible to miss the box since it is to the side of the travel of their position relative to the sequence of landmarks and information points they have path rather than on it. Individuals who use a long cane must explore to the side where the passed, and they must also anticipate the upcoming landmarks and information feature is located to find it, and they can walk past it if probing with the cane on the points. other side, or not exploring to the side at all. Individuals who use dog guides must confirm that they are beside the box by reaching out to touch it or by using reflected Problem Solving sound to locate it. Reestablishing Orientation

In general, establishing and maintaining Information Points orientation as one travels familiar routes involves a cycle of perception and action, Like landmarks, information points also with action guided by one’s expectations are useful for establishing orientation. They regarding what perceptual information one are features that, while not unique along a should be encountering at a given point path and thus not considered landmarks, can along a route. What one expects could be be used in combination with other features recalled from a cognitive map of this

9 V1C2 specific place or could be based on one’s when reorienting themselves. These general familiarity with environments strategies can be effective on both familiar similar to the one being negotiated. When and unfamiliar routes. First, they evaluate perceptions do not match expectations, the available information and form a information gathering and strategic action hypothesis about where they are, where the usually are necessary to reestablish travel path is, and which way they are orientation. facing. They determine the direction they need to move in, in order to get back to the Reestablishing orientation is a problem- travel path and to resume walking toward solving or hypothesis-testing activity. It can their destination. To accomplish these tasks, be described in four stages: (1) identifying travelers may attend to information such as that a problem exists; (2) identifying the slope of ground, the sound of traffic, or alternative strategies for solving problems; an available line or border, such as a wall or (3) selecting a strategy from the available a grass line. They also may explore alternatives and implementing it; and (4) systematically to locate a landmark with the evaluating the effectiveness of the selected cane or hand or may use distant sounds for strategy. Psychologists and educators have reorientation. They also may solicit used this four-stage to study information from others about their location, problem solving for a variety of everyday the direction they need to walk to reach their tasks, and it is applicable to orientation destination, and the landmarks they will problem solving as well (Bransford & Stein, encounter as they travel. During O&M 1984; Dewey, 1916; Hayes, 1988). These instruction, individuals are given guidance four stages are applicable to activities as on various strategies for soliciting help diverse as finding a room in a building, effectively, including techniques such as correcting a veer after a street crossing, and pointing the direction indicated by a helpful reestablishing orientation after getting off a pedestrian in order to confirm a location or bus at the wrong stop. direction of travel. If travelers and information providers are able to use For visually impaired travelers and cardinal directions along with their sighted travelers alike, the realization that an knowledge of the street grid instead of orientation problem exists usually occurs relying only on egocentric directions (for when their perceptions of the surroundings example, left or right turns), this may lessen do not fit with their expectations based on the likelihood of left-right confusion that experience. A landmark on the left should sometimes occurs when getting directions have been on the right, for example, or is not from others. The ability to use cardinal detected at all. Instead, a traveler directions also may facilitate an individual’s unexpectedly contacts an obstacle that is ability to follow a route and become unfamiliar. Each of these events may trigger reoriented when disoriented. If a person is the traveler’s desire to evaluate where she is relying only on an egocentric frame of along a route and which way she is facing. If reference, it may be more difficult to the traveler perceives that she is not on route become reoriented when one’s frame of and moving in the correct direction, she reference is lost. must decide what problem-solving strategies to use to become reoriented. Sometimes travelers must follow routes that they have not traveled before. They may Individuals who are visually impaired obtain route directions from a map or from have a number of strategies at their disposal another person, or they may create a best-

10 V1C2 guess route based on their cartographic to the north and then to the west toward the knowledge of the street grid and the intersection where he originally intended to locations of various places relative to one turn. Upon arriving there, he veers into his another and their current location. When parallel street as he crosses, realizes it traveling an unfamiliar route, one’s general because of changes in traffic sounds, and knowledge of the environmental regularities turns toward the desired curb. Once on the that occur in most travel environments also curb, he continues in the direction he can be useful for orientation. For example, intended to travel initially. He has solved his curb ramps usually indicate that one has disorientation problem by first identifying arrived at an intersecting street. The end of a that he is disoriented, determining what building line often indicates that a driveway perceptual and cognitive information he has or intersection is just ahead. Also, streets at his disposal, and selecting, implementing, often are either parallel or perpendicular to and evaluating a strategy successfully. neighboring streets. These and other regularities in “built” environments may be useful in establishing and maintaining Drop-Off Lessons orientation in places where landmarks and information points are unknown. To give students practice in solving disorientation problems, O&M specialists Consider an example of an orientation- sometimes set up situations in which their related problem and the application of the students are dropped off in a familiar area four-stage problem-solving schema. A but given no information about where they pedestrian who is visually impaired realizes are in the area. The students typically are he is disoriented; he no longer knows where given a destination at the beginning of these he is relative to any landmark in the lessons, and they must use various strategies environment. In addition, he realizes that the to establish orientation and travel perceptual information he is "receiving" successfully to the destination. Students in does not "fit" with what he expected to find drop-off lessons presumably have learned on this particular five-block route. He must the location of several landmarks and reestablish his orientation and determine information points in the environment which direction to walk to continue traveling during previous travel, and often they can toward his destination. He thinks the travel efficiently once they have determined problem has occurred because he walked their initial location and their facing several blocks past a choice point along his direction. Determining one’s location and route where he usually turns, although he is facing direction are the primary challenges not certain of this. He evaluates the available of a drop-off lesson. Drop-off lessons are information, focusing on what he feels under sometimes used near the end of O&M his feet, what he can locate with the cane, instruction because students who can solve and what he hears. Although initially there is drop-off problems presumably can identify little information available to help him and solve other less demanding travel problem solve, he soon locates a row of problems, such as maintaining orientation parking meters with his cane. He recalls that while traveling to a destination in a familiar the only parking meters in the area are along place from a known starting point (for a street one block south and one block east example, from home to work). Drop-off of the information point that he missed lessons also can be very useful in teaching along the initial route. Using the sun in late students to gather information and test afternoon as a crude compass, he walks back

11 V1C2 hypotheses about where they are and how to However, accomplishing this task in new get to a destination efficiently. When places with or without vision can be designed properly, drop-off lessons can be challenging, particularly when those places great confidence builders for students are large or complex (Ungar, 2000). This developing their orientation strategies. section focuses on how individuals who are blind learn about and travel efficiently in Like the disoriented traveler in the new places. previous example, an individual solving a drop-off problem uses a hypothesis-testing Like traveling along familiar routes, strategy. The traveler gathers information to learning about and successfully moving establish and then test her hypothesis about through unfamiliar indoor and outdoor her location. The position of the sun, the environments is a critical component of sounds of traffic and its direction of daily life for most people. As noted earlier, movement, and nearby landmarks all may be travelers in familiar places have the benefit useful in establishing orientation and facing of matching the flow of perceptual direction. As she moves, the student also information to their memory of what they must keep track of her location relative to should encounter as they move about. They the destination so she can travel to it can compare the perceptions at a given efficiently. To accomplish this, she may location to what they expect to perceive and remember the number of blocks she has then implement problem-solving strategies if walked in one direction and recall that she their perceptions and expectations are must turn in a certain direction at a certain incongruent. When exploring new places, point along the walk in order to continue travelers usually do not have prior walking toward the destination. She likely knowledge of landmarks and information uses landmarks or information points as she points and thus must locate and remember moves along to check her progress and them. Travelers may sometimes solicit determine where changes in direction are landmark information from others before required (for example, "I feel the gravel traveling in new places and thus may have under my feet and know my turn is coming some knowledge of landmarks prior to soon"). She also may simply recall the walking. Once acquired, landmarks and approximate length of time she needs to information points can aid an individual in walk prior to turning (for example, "I've traveling efficiently on subsequent walks, walked about as far as I usually walk to and they may become features of the reach the next turn"). The absence of an traveler’s cognitive map. The ability of expected landmark or information point can students to explore in ways that aid them in further prompt hypothesis testing about remembering the features in a place and whether she is moving toward the goal or in their spatial relationships, and the some other direction. implementation of orientation-related strategies while traveling are two important skills often taught in O&M instruction. Although it has not been studied in Learning New Places depth, investigating the strategies people use Most people, with or without sight or to explore and learn new environments is with low vision, have little difficulty important for both theoretical and practical maintaining their orientation and traveling reasons. As noted earlier in the discussion of efficiently in their house or neighborhood. traveling routes, the lack of access to distal

12 V1C2 environmental information in unfamiliar individuals who were blind and those with environments means that individuals who sight. In studies by Rieser, Guth, and Hill are visually impaired often face challenges (1982, 1986), participants were guided from in accessing information during self- a starting point to multiple targets in a room exploration to form a well-defined cognitive and were then asked to walk or point map of a new place. Lack of such directly from the starting position to each knowledge does not preclude efficient travel target or along novel (not previously along routes once landmarks and traveled) routes between the targets. information points are learned, because Although both blind and blindfolded sighted individuals can travel routes by executing a participants were accurate at walking to prescribed sequence of actions. However, target locations from the starting position without access to an accurate global spatial after a guided walk, blind participants were representation in the form of a cognitive significantly worse at pointing to or walking map, it is much harder to perform tasks such along routes between locations not directly as making a detour, determining shortcuts, experienced. These findings were and reorienting if lost. interpreted as indicating that blind people can learn routes efficiently but may have One way to learn about both egocentric difficulty integrating sequentially and allocentric spatial relations of unfamiliar encountered locations into a common, places is through the use of a tactile map allocentric frame of reference. Although (Golledge, 1991; Jansson, 2000). While these experiments did not test this using a map, individuals sometimes walk, hypothesis, it may be that changing the identify features on the map and in the learning strategy used by individuals to place, and remember both routes and accomplish spatial tasks would have a straight-line distances and directions positive effect on performance. For between environmental features, such as example, it may be useful to encourage would be imagined in a bird’s-eye view. In individuals who are blind to explore the recent years, the use of global positioning environment and then imagine how the system (GPS) satellite technology has target positions are related to each other. become commonplace for aiding travel. This could be accomplished by having them With GPS, a user’s location information is create a tactile map of the environment or by determined as they move by tracking the imagining themselves at various locations radio signals from the position of three or and pointing to other locations. With access more satellites using a hand-held GPS to a spatial display, such as a tactile map, receiver. The advent of this technology has that accurately depicts the object-to-object been a great step forward in orientation and relations, individuals may significantly wayfinding for all travelers, sighted, blind, improve their understanding of the space and visually impaired alike, and has made and their spatial inference making. the exploration of and efficient movement in new places easier (see Chapter 10, this Although most studies and training volume and Chapters 11 and 14, volume 2). programs in spatial orientation do not examine spatial learning of unfamiliar Evidence for the advantages of teaching places, a few studies have been conducted to an exploration strategy that emphasizes the investigate the role of exploratory strategies acquisition of an allocentric frame of in learning. Three primary exploration reference is found in several studies strategies have been identified as being used comparing spatial performance of by travelers who are blind or visually

13 V1C2 impaired for self-familiarization: perimeter, strategies. The top 25 percent of performers gridline, and reference point (Hill & Ponder, and the bottom 25 percent of performers on 1976). With a perimeter strategy, the spatial-layout knowledge as measured by a traveler walks the outside border of a space distance-estimation task between target and remembers the various features along locations (an allocentric spatial task) were the border (for example, the wall) in order, evaluated for frequency of use of each starting from a home-base location (often strategy. The results demonstrated that the door to a room). With a gridline strategy, participants with the best distance- a traveler systematically crosses back and estimation performance used more types of forth in the interior of a space in order to strategies than other participants. In general, locate landmarks. With a reference-point they also located the five objects more strategy, a traveler explores a place by quickly and tended to use the linking walking from a known location (that is, strategies of gridline and reference point home base) to various landmarks, returning rather than perimeter search strategies. to home base before walking to another landmark. A final study investigating the use of exploration strategies in unfamiliar Tellevik (1992) conducted a study to environments by individuals who investigate whether different exploration experienced an early onset of blindness, strategies yield different levels of those who experienced a late onset of knowledge, and whether specific strategies blindness, and blindfolded sighted subjects are preferable to others in facilitating the found similar patterns of movement learning of object-to-object relationships. To behavior to those observed in the previous evaluate perimeter, gridline, and reference- two studies. Gaunet and Thinus-Blanc point strategies, Tellevik asked the 10 (1996) found that participants adopted two sighted participants, who were blindfolded general patterns of exploratory behavior. As O&M specialists, to find four objects in a they began exploring, participants used a room. Videotapes of the study were perimeter search strategy similar to that analyzed to learn about self-exploration described in Tellevik (1992) and Hill et al. strategies and their relationship to spatial- (1993). The subjects tended initially to layout knowledge. The results indicated that travel between a sequence of landmarks, people initially used perimeter and gridline ending up at the same place they started. As strategies, but with additional exploration they gained more experience exploring the they tended to adopt a reference-point space, they adopted a second search strategy to gain knowledge about object-to- strategy, characterized by a back-and-forth object locations (Tellevik, 1992). Hill et al. pattern of movement between objects. The (1993) extended Tellevik's work on self- finding that route traversals between object familiarization strategies during exploration locations increased with greater experience of novel places by participants who were with the space is in agreement with the blind. The authors videotaped 65 adults, findings of the Tellevik and Hill studies some who experienced an early onset of showing the use of strategies linking objects blindness and some who experienced a late to objects. Also, supporting the earlier onset of blindness, as they explored a 15- findings of Hill et al., performance by foot-by-15-foot space and learned the participants who experienced an early onset location of five objects. Perimeter, gridline, of blindness tended to be more error prone and reference-point strategies were used, than that of participants who experienced although not all participants used all of the late onset blindness and blindfolded sighted

14 V1C2 subjects. Researchers attributed this has been obtained from a series of studies behavior to reliance on a perimeter search investigating free exploration of buildings strategy and less use of back-and-forth by individuals without vision (Giudice, movement patterns by the subjects who 2004, 2006; Giudice, Bakdash, & Legge, experienced an early onset of blindness. 2007). In these studies, subjects who were Corroborating the previous findings, the best blind or visually impaired and blindfolded performers in the Gaunet and Thinus-Blanc sighted subjects were started at a random study, independent of age at onset of visual position in a complex large-scale building loss, were those who adopted multiple, and asked to learn the space and find hidden systematic patterns of exploratory behavior. target locations by freely exploring the environment. No information about routes The studies cited earlier are important was provided. Verbal messages given by an because O&M specialists and their clients experimenter described the explorer’s need to know more about how various heading and the layout geometry (that is, exploration strategies during self- intersections and corridor structures) at their familiarization with novel environments location. A sample message was “You are support spatial learning. This knowledge facing south, at a three-way intersection. will have practical application because the There are hallways ahead, to the left, and exploration strategies that help people behind.” An important aspect of these develop accurate cognitive maps will in turn messages is that the information provided facilitate efficient travel in new places. The was context sensitive and dynamically studies highlight the need for greater focus updated, meaning that each verbal message on investigating how people interact with changed depending on the traveler’s position their environment and what movement and orientation in the environment as the strategies they adopt for learning unfamiliar traveler moved. Thus, if the traveler made a places. Further research is needed to learn 90-degree left rotation at the T junction just more about sources of individual differences described, the verbal message would update in other subpopulations of individuals who the description and tell the traveler that he or are blind or visually impaired. For example, she was now facing east, with hallways research in this area with children may be extending ahead, to the left, and to the right. particularly important. The previous studies The premise of these studies was that since also were limited in that they addressed the verbal descriptions provided real-time exploration only of room-sized layouts. information about the person’s position and More research is needed to investigate orientation in the environment and conveyed strategy selection for orientation in larger- all necessary information to support efficient scale and outdoor environments. travel, performance should not differ between groups as a function of visual It seems likely that free exploration status. The results of these experiments would be particularly beneficial to people confirmed this prediction and revealed other who are blind or visually impaired when important findings. First, dynamically building a cognitive map of large-scale updated verbal descriptions were found to be environments. The sensorimotor experiences an effective mode of conveying of moving from place to place without environmental information. Access to these following predetermined routes is thought to descriptions promoted efficient search help integrate multiple discrete locations behavior of both real layouts (Giudice et al., into an allocentric spatial framework 2007) and virtual, computer-based (Giudice, 2004). Support for this hypothesis

15 V1C2 environments (Giudice, 2006). These studies places, and to help them create, recall, and also demonstrated that free exploration led use cognitive maps (see Volume 2, Chapter to the development of a cognitive map by 2). The use of tactile maps is an important people who are blind that supported part of the instructional tool kit for many subsequent wayfinding tasks at an O&M specialists (see Chapter 10, this equivalent level to sighted participants volume and Chapter 11, volume 2). learning with vision. Taken together, these Professionals and clients have developed experiments demonstrated that (1) when an materials and strategies for using maps appropriate source of nonvisual information while traveling, and for using maps to probe is provided, the spatial performance of how well individuals have encoded the individuals who are blind and that of distances and directions among features in a individuals with vision does not differ, and place. The use of tactile maps by individuals (2) orientation is facilitated when people are who are blind, both before and during travel, allowed to learn new environments by free has been shown to facilitate spatial learning, exploration, a finding that speaks to the orientation, and decision-making behavior importance of teaching search strategies. and has received considerable attention from researchers (Andrews, 1983; Blades, Ungar, & Spencer, 1999; Espinosa, Ungar, Ochaita, Blades, & Spencer, 1998; Golledge, 1991; Research and Practice Needs in Holmes, Jansson, & Jansson, 1996; see also Chapter 10, this volume). Spatial Orientation

Some of the issues addressed by this chapter have been studied relatively The Use of Maps and Map Instruction extensively (for example, the issue of age at onset of visual loss in relation to spatial Despite these benefits, map use and map abilities); some issues have begun to be instruction are probably not as widespread explored by researchers (for example, the as they should be. One reason is that issue of exploration strategies in relation to accessible maps are not readily available. learning about spatial layout); and some However, new technologies for making issues have been virtually unexplored (for accessible maps should help to remediate example, the frequency and characteristics this problem. One example is the of orientation problems that individuals who development of dynamically updated tactile are blind or visually impaired encounter displays. Also, new graphic embossers are when traveling in familiar and unfamiliar making it easier to create a tactile map from places and the effectiveness of the strategies a print map. Likewise, the “tmap” project, used to solve them). In addition to research which allows a person to download a file to about orientation, much has been learned Braille on his or her own embosser about a from the experiences of O&M specialists specified environmental space, is very and their students as they developed promising (Miele, Landau, & Gilden, creative, practical approaches to addressing 2006a). Instruction in map use and the use orientation-related problems. O&M of orientation-related technologies among specialists have developed strategies to young children needs to be expanded, teach young children the basic concepts because their systematic and creative use underlying successful travel along familiar likely will aid children in developing higher- routes, to help them learn to explore new order spatial knowledge and skill. For

16 V1C2 example, Blades, Lippa, Golledge, of both indoor and outdoor environmental Jacobson, and Kitchin (2002) found features. It is expected that these advances, improvements in route and map-like spatial in conjunction with other technologies performance as individuals gained currently being developed, will eventually experience, and found that building models, support seamless access to environmental pointing to places while walking a route, and information for indoor and outdoor travel. giving verbal descriptions of a route were effective tools for both assessing and improving spatial orientation. The Value of Teaching Strategies

How often and in what ways do O&M The Use of New Orientation Technology specialists ask questions of their learners that tap into or encourage higher-level The creative use of compasses, global spatial skills and flexibility in spatial satellite-based positioning systems, and thinking and action? For example, to what other technologies will likely aid in degree do O&M specialists encourage their ameliorating the limitations in higher-order learners to do such things as pointing to spatial-orientation abilities that sometimes places they cannot directly perceive, are seen in people who are blind or visually pointing to places while imagining they are impaired. GPS and other information-rich standing at various vantage points, devices have demonstrated their usefulness describing spatial relationships using various as orientation aids, and these technologies types of spatial language, constructing maps will improve in part because there are many and models of places, and in other ways mainstream applications for which evaluating the ability of their learners to orientation information is beneficial. The think and act using allocentric frames of technologies for use by individuals who are reference? What set of tabletop, room, and blind or visually impaired will, to some larger-space experiences will support the degree, follow this growing information development of spatial skills that are demand. The advantage of GPS-based generalizable to new environments and can navigation technology is that it conveys be used spontaneously by individuals who information about the environment, such as are visually impaired when solving street names and descriptions of intersection orientation problems? There has been little geometry, and provides dynamically research about the sequencing of instruction updated orientation cues in the form of in orientation and mobility, so the interplay distances and directions. GPS-based of lower-level and higher-order spatial navigation systems are currently limited to thinking during instruction is not well- outdoor use, but in these environments they known. have the potential to improve mobility in new places and reduce the anxiety With regard to traveling routes, it would sometimes associated with travel in be useful to know more about approaches to unfamiliar areas and with becoming the process of landmark selection and disoriented. Remote infrared audible signage identification. What kinds of features do such as Talking Signs also can provide travelers seek when identifying potential directional information by homing in on an landmarks along a route? Examining route- infrared signal being transmitted from a learning behavior in light of the features landmark that offers an audible description available along a route should help to answer this question (Ochaita & Huertas,

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1993). How many landmarks can travelers the kinds of information that enhance spatial recall, and when do memory tools need to be abilities in these two situations. brought into play? How does learning a route vary according to a traveler’s overall The second fundamental concept travel experience, visual status, familiarity described in this chapter concerns the ability with the environment, or ability to make of individuals who are visually impaired to higher-order spatial inferences? Research acquire information from their mental maps about questions like these should aid in of places and to make strategic use of this developing instructional approaches to information to guide their travel. The efficient guided learning and self-learning of concept of a cognitive map was introduced routes. as a metaphor for recalling, thinking about, and using spatial knowledge. The important distinction between thinking egocentrically and thinking allocentrically was highlighted, and the need to encourage allocentric spatial Summary thinking was noted. Research regarding how This chapter describes three fundamental the age at onset of vision loss impacts spatial aspects of the challenge of establishing and abilities was briefly described, as well as the maintaining orientation. The first is access importance of considering a range of factors to perceptual information that guides spatial that may operate in concert with age at onset decision making. Sometimes information is to affect spatial abilities. readily available, easily perceived, and The third fundamental aspect of spatial unambiguous. In familiar situations, orientation discussed in the chapter was that travelers also have the advantage of of selecting strategies for gathering comparing what they perceive with their information and for orientation-related recollection of what “ought to be.” In decision making. The examples of relocating situations where information is unavailable, the travel path and establishing orientation difficult to perceive, or ambiguous, travelers in a familiar area were used to highlight must make orientation decisions using the strategy selection. In selecting and information set at hand, or they must seek implementing strategies for orientation, ways to gather additional information. Using travelers who are visually impaired bring a GPS, asking for assistance, or exploring their information-gathering and cognitive- systematically are examples of skills to bear on the particular gathering that may be useful. In unfamiliar orientation challenge at hand. situations, travelers must shift their focus from acquiring route-specific information to O&M instruction is one key aspect of a reliance on more general information. In learning what strategies might be useful in a other words, in areas where a pairing of particular situation, in evaluating alternative percepts and specific expectations is not strategies, and in assessing the effectiveness possible, travelers rely on more general of these strategies. As with the concepts of cognitive strategies for establishing and information gathering and the use of maintaining orientation. Approaches to cognitive maps, more research is needed on information gathering in familiar and strategy selection. How, for example, do unfamiliar areas have not been novice and expert travelers differ in their systematically explored. Research in this ability to select the optimal strategy? The area may lead to a clearer understanding of studies cited in this chapter regarding

18 V1C2 exploration of new places suggest that thinking about the locations of objects strategy selection is important for efficient relative to one another. This frame of (oriented) travel, but much more research is reference is the basis of what is referred to needed to catalogue the various strategies as a cognitive map. and their situational effectiveness. O&M specialists can play an important role in 6. In familiar areas, travelers can rely on working with researchers as they investigate their anticipation of specific types of the complex issues surrounding information information in specific places. In unfamiliar gathering, the use of cognitive maps, and the areas, travelers must rely on their more selection of strategies for establishing and general knowledge of the way places are maintaining orientation in familiar and usually arranged, rather than relying on unfamiliar places. Researchers and O&M specific information. These differences may specialists alike have a role to play in yield the selection of different strategies for helping to advance our understanding in this solving orientation problems. important and practical area of orientation 7. Exploring new places is an important and mobility. task for a traveler who is blind or who has low vision, and the approaches travelers use for exploring new places can be studied to determine whether some strategies are more Implications for O&M Practice useful than others. 1. There are four fundamental aspects of 8. There is a great need for additional spatial orientation: information gathering, research about the spatial orientation of the use of strategies for following familiar individuals with visual impairment. The routes, the use of cognitive maps, and the need is particularly great for research about application of strategies to solve problems. the kinds of experiences that enable children to become independent travelers and to 2. People who are blind or visually develop high-level spatial skills that support impaired use both auditory and tactile independent travel in both familiar and information to establish and maintain unfamiliar places. orientation.

3. Spatial orientation has been studied extensively, and much is known about the spatial orientation of individuals with typical Learning Activities vision. For students with low vision, it may be 4. In recent years, researchers have useful to occlude their vision as they focused on the spatial-orientation abilities of complete the activities below. people who are blind, with emphasis on the impact of age at onset of visual loss on 1. Practice the skill of updating your spatial abilities. position in space by walking without vision along two legs of a triangle and then trying 5. Egocentric and allocentric are the two to return to the starting point. Point to fundamental frames of reference for several landmarks you encountered along a thinking about spatial relations. An walk while standing at the end of a route or allocentric frame of reference allows at one of the landmarks. What terms can you individuals to be more flexible in their use to describe the relationship among

19 V1C2 landmarks, using both egocentric and 6. Explore a BrailleNote GPS or allocentric frames of reference? Trekker, or other accessible GPS-based wayfinding technology. How might the 2. Explore rooms and neighborhoods information it provides be useful to travelers while blindfolded. Use different strategies who are blind? for exploring and remembering the features of a place, and think about how these 7. Experiment with mental exercises that differences relate to your knowledge of a tap higher-order spatial knowledge. Ask place as measured by your ability to make a yourself, “If I am at point A, how would I map, determine a detour, or create novel plan a route to point B, and what would I do routes. if I found myself at Point C?” Mental exercises like this may be useful to aid 3. Think about the information available learners in thinking about space and can in a typical office building, a residential facilitate the development of spatial area, and a small-business environment. problem-solving skills. What strategies would you use in each environment to establish and maintain your orientation? Walk around in a large room, such as a gym, that has three to five objects in it. Walk to each object and describe the References relationships of objects to one another. Andrews, S. K. (1983). Spatial cognition Estimate how far it is from the various through tactual maps. Paper presented objects to other objects. Build a map or at the First International Symposium on model of the objects, preserving the spatial Maps and Graphics for the Visually relationships among them. Develop a Handicapped, Washington, D. C. strategy for teaching these skills to young children. Travel a familiar route, but stop Blades, M., Ungar, S., & Spencer, C. halfway to the destination to identify an (1999). Map using by adults with visual alternate route that leads to the destination, impairments. Professional Geographer, and then follow it. 51(4), 539-553. 4. Using an array of objects similar to Blasch, B.B., Welsh, R.L., & Davidson, those in the previous activity, learn the T. (1973). Auditory maps: An orientation relationships among the objects and then aid for visually handicapped persons. imagine yourself standing at one of them New Outlook for the Blind, 67, 145-148. and pointing to the others. Is this a harder task than simply pointing to objects while Blasch, B. B., Welsh, R. L., & Wiener, standing at one object? W. R. (1997). Foundations of orientation and mobility (second ed.). New York: 5. Use a set of note cards, recorded AFB Press. notes, or other means to reconstruct a sequence of landmarks and turns that are too Bransford, J.D., & Stein, B.F. (1984). long to remember. How many landmarks The ideal problem solver. San can you remember? Do memory aids help Francisco: Freeman. you to remember them? What spatial Darken, R. P., & Peterson, B. (2002). language do you use to describe the spaces Spatial orientation, wayfinding, and in the previous activities? representation. In K. M. Stanney (Ed.),

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Espinosa, M. A., Ungar, S., Ochaita, E., Blades, M., & Spencer, C. (1998). Golledge, R. G., Klatzky, R. L., & Comparing methods for introducing Loomis, J. M. (1996). Cognitive mapping blind and visually impaired people to and wayfinding by adults without vision. unfamiliar urban environments. Journal In J. Portugali (Ed.), The construction of of Environmental Psychology, 18, 277- cognitive maps (pp. 215-246). 287. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Gaunet, F., & Thinus-Blanc, C. (1996). Early-blind subjects' spatial abilities in Golledge, R. G. (1999). Human the in the locomotor space: Exploratory wayfinding and cognitive maps. In R. G. strategies and reaction-to-change Golledge (Ed.), Wayfinding behavior: performance" Perception 25(8), 967 – Cognitive mapping and other spatial 981 processes (pp. 5-45). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Giudice, N. A. (2004). Navigating novel Hayes, J.R. (1988). The complete environments: A comparison of verbal nd and visual learning. Unpublished problem solver, 2 Ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Dissertation, University of Minnesota, Lawrence Erlbaum. Twin Cities, MN. Hill, E. W., Rieser, J. J., Hill, M., Halpin, Giudice, N. A. (2006). Wayfinding J., & Halpin, R. (1993). How persons without vision: Learning real and virtual with visual impairments explore novel environments using dynamically- spaces? A study of strategies used by updated verbal descriptions. Conference exceptionally good and exceptionally on Assistive Technologies for Vision and poor performers. Journal of visual Hearing Impairment. Kufstein, Austria. impairment and Blindness, 87, 295-301. Giudice, N. A., Bakdash, J. Z., & Legge, Hill, E.W., & Ponder, P. (1976). G. E. (2007). Wayfinding with words: Orientation and mobility techniques: A Spatial learning and navigation using guide to the practitioner. New York: dynamically-updated verbal American Foundation for the Blind. descriptions. Psychological Research, Holmes, E., Jansson, G., & Jansson, A. 71(3), 347-358. (1996). Exploring auditorily enhanced Golledge, R. G. (1987). Environmental tactile maps for travel in new cognition. In D. Stols & I. Altman (Eds.), environments. New Technologies in the Handbook of environmental psychology Education of the Visually Handicapped, 237, 191-196.

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