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Volume 2 Nov. 2018 Issue 11 Price : ` 100

IMF Appoints Gita Gopinath as Chief Economist

Stories

Akbar-Birbal Tales Panchatantra Tales Hitopadesha Tales

Environment Science and Technology Mapping

HumanHistory Health Food Health Tips

of of French HISTORY of Music The Universe Culture of India Sports – International

2018 ITTF Men's World Cup

In total, 20 players qualified for the World Cup: l 18 players from the five Continental Cups held during 2018 l A host association representative l A wild card, selected by the ITTF A maximum of two players from each association The 2018 ITTF Men's World Cup was a table tennis could qualify. As reigning World Champion, China's competition held in Paris, , from 19 to 21 Ma Long was invited to take part, but withdrew prior to October 2018. It was the 39th edition of the ITTF- the event. His place was taken by Lin Gaoyuan. sanctioned event, and the third time that it was staged Final: in Paris. Fan Zhendong, China defeated Timo Boll, Germany 11-9, 11-5, 11-6, 9-11, 11-8

Australia and tour of United Arab Emirates 05

Australia and Pakistan are currently touring the United Arab Emirates between 29 September 2018 and 28 October 2018. The teams engaged in 2 Test Matches and 3 Internationals. Pakistan won the Test matches 1-0, with the first Test drawn. The Scores: Second Test: Pakistan won by 373 runs. First Test: Match Drawn Pakistan: First Innings: 282 all out, Sarfraz Ahmed 94 Pakistan: First Innings: 482 all out, Mohammad (129), Fakhar Zaman 94 (198), Nathan Lyon Hafeez 126 (208), Haris Sohail 110 (240), Peter Siddle 27-5-78-4. 29-11-58-3. Australia: First Innings: 145 all out, Aaron Finch 39 Australia: First Innings: 202 all out, Usman Khawaja (83), Mitchell Starc 34 (45), Mohammad Abbas 12.4- 85 (175), Aaron Finch 62 (161), Bilal Asif 21.3-7-36-6. 4-33-5. Pakistan: Second Innings: 181/6 declared, Imam-ul- Pakistan: Second Innings: 400/9 declared, Babar Haq 48 (104), Asad Shafiq 41 (56), Jon Holland 20-3- Azam 99 (171), Sarfraz Ahmed 81 (123), Nathan Lyon 83-3. 43-8-134-4. Australia: Second Innings: 362/8, Usman Khawaja Australia: Second Innings: 164 all out, Marnus 141 (302), Travis Head 72 (175), Yasir Shah 43.5-9- Labuschagne 43 (78), Travis Head 36 (53), 114-4. Mohammad Abbas 17-2-62-5. Sports – International

2018 Summer Youth Olympics Medal Table: Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total 1 Russia 292 18 12 59 2 China 18 9 9 36

3 Japan 15 12 12 39 - Mixed NOCs 13 13 13 39

4 Hungary 12 7 5 24 5 Italy 11 10 13 34 6 Iran 7 3 4 14 7 UAE 6 5 7 18 The 2018 Summer Youth , officially 8 France 5 15 7 27 known as the III Summer Youth Olympic Games, and 9 Ukraine 5 7 6 18 commonly known as Beunos Aires 2018, were an

international sports, cultural, and educational event 11-93 Remaining 108 136 166 410 held in Beunos Aires, Argentina between 6 and 18 Total 240 241 263 744 October 2018. They were the first Summer Youth Olympic Games held outside of Asia, also first in the Eurasia. It was the second Olympic Games held in Southern and Western Hemispheres, and the first South America after the 2016 Summer Olympics in Youth Games for either summer or winter held outside Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 06

2018 World Taekwondo Grand Prix

The 2018 World Taekwondo Grand Prix is the 6th edition of the World Taekwondo Grand Prix series. This is the first year where it will be five Grand Prix events. The results of the Manchester Grand Prix:

Men GOLD SILVER BRONZE Men 58Kg: Armin Hadipour, Iran Kim Tae-hun, South Korea Adrian Vicente, Jesus Tortosa, Spain

Men 68Kg: Lee Dae-hoon, South Korea Mirhashem Hosseini, Iran Si Mohamed Ketbi, Belgium Bradly Sinden, Great Britain Men 80Kg: Raul Martinez, Spain Damon Sansum, Great Britain Seif Eissa, Egypt Nikita Rafalovich, Uzbekistan Men +80Kg: Vladislav Larin, Russia In Kyo-don, South Korea Sajjad Mardani, Iran Sun Hongyi, China Sports – International

Women

GOLD SILVER BRONZE

Women 49Kg: Panipak Wongpattanakit, Thailand Sim Jae-young, South Korea Hung Yu-Ting, Chinese Taipei Miyu Hamada, Japan Women 57Kg: Jade Jones, Great Britain Zhou Lijun, China Skylar Park, Canada Raheleh Asemani, Belgium Women 67Kg: Williams, Great Britain Matea Jelic, Croatia Tamez, Mexico Nur Tatar, Turkey Women +67Kg: Zheng Shuyin, China Bianca Walkden, Great Britain Maria Espinoza, Mexico Gao Pan, China

England Tour of Sri Lanka 2018 07

Second : Jason Roy 41 (26), Amila Aponso won by 31 runs by 3.3-0-27-2. Duckworth-Lewis Method Fourth One Day International: England: 278/9, Eoin Morgan 92 England won by 18 runs by (91), Joe Root 71 (83), Lasith Duckworth-Lewis Method England is touring Sri Lanka Malinga 10-1-44-5. Sri Lanka: 273/7, between 5 October 2018 and 27 Sri Lanka: 140/5 in 29 overs, 66 (66), Niroshan Dickwell 52 (70), November 2018. Both the teams Thisara Perera 44 (49) , Moeen Ali 10-0-55-2. will engage in 5 One Day Dhananjaya de Silva 36 (50) not Internationals, 3 Test Matches, England: 132/2 in 27 overs, Jason out, Chris Woakes 5-0-26-3. and 1 . Roy 45 (49), Joe Root 32 (57) not England is leading the One Day Third One Day International: out, Akila Dananjaya 7-0-27-2. International series 3-0 with the England won by 7 (match first match concluding with No reduced to 21 overs per side due Result. to rain).

The Score: Sri Lanka: 150/9, Niroshan First One Day International: The Dickwella 36 (20), Sadeera match was abandoned after 15 Samarawickrama 35 (34), Adil overs were bowled to England Rashid 5-0-36-4. due to rain. Hence, the match England: 153/3 in 18.3 overs, concluded with No Result. Eoin Morgan 58 (49) not out, Sri Lanka vs England 2018, 1st ODI, Dambulla Sports – International

Pakistan Women Tour of 2018

Third Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 7 wickets. Bangladesh: 81/8, Nigar Sultana 19 (29), 12 (9), Nashra Sandhu 4-0-16-2.

Pakistan won the Twenty20 Internationals 3-0 Pakistan: 85/3 in 18.1 overs, 33 (40), 31 (37) not out, Rumana Ahmed The Pakistan Women team toured Bangladesh 4-0-10-1. between 2 October 2018 and 8 October 2018. The two teams engaged in 1 One Day International and 4 Fourth Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 7 Twenty20 Internationals. The One Day International wickets. was won by Bangladesh, whereas Pakistan won the Bangladesh: 77 all out, Rumana Ahmed 24 (31), Twenty20 Internationals 3-0, with the first match 14 (15), Natalia Pervaiz 4-0-20-3. abandoned due to rain. The scores: Pakistan: 78/3 in 14.5 overs, Javeria Khan 36 (29), First Twenty20 International: Abandoned due to Muneeba Ali 18 (23) not out, rain, without toss. 2.5-0-13-1. 08 Second Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 58 Only One Day International: Bangladesh won by 6 runs, the match was reduced to 14 overs per side due wickets. to wet outfield. Pakistan: 94 all out in 34.5 overs, Javeria Khan 29 Pakistan: 88/5, Javeria Khan 25 (18), Nahida Khan 18 (46), 18 (36), 9.5-1- (18), 3-0-19-2. 20-6. Bangladesh: 30 all out in 12.5 overs, Rumana Ahmed Bangladesh: 95/4 in 29 overs, 48 9 (12), Anam Amin 3-3-0-3. (81), Rumana Ahmed 34 (70), 8-1-20-2.

Verstappen of Red Bull Racing – TAG Heuer, followed Circuit of the Americas 2018 by Lewis Hamilton, Mercedes.

The Grand Prix is a motor race that has Kimi Raikkonen of Ferrari won the race been held in the United States on and off since 1908, when it was known as the American Grand Prize. The race later became part of the Formula One World Championship. As of 2017, the race has been held 47 times, and it has taken place at 10 different locations in total. Since 2012, it has been held every year at the Circuit of the Americas in Elroy, Texas, 12 miles south of Austin. Lewis Hamilton held the pole position. Kimi Raikkonen of Ferrari won the race, followed by Max Sports – International

West Indies Tour of India 2018

West Indies: Second Innings: 196 all out, Kieran Powell 83 (93), Roston Chase 20 (24), Kuldeep Yadav 14-2-57-5. Second Test: India won by 10 wickets. West Indies: First Innings: 311 all out, Roston Chase 106 (189), Jason Holder 52 (92), Umesh Yadav 26.4- India won the Test series 2-0 3-88-6. West Indies team is currently touring India India: First Innings: 367 all out, Rishabh Pant 92 between 29 September 2018 and 11 November 2018. (134), Ajinkya Rahane 80 (183), Jason Holder 23-5- The two teams will engage in 5 One Day 56-5. Internationals, 2 Test Matches, and 3 Twenty20 West Indies: Second Innings: 127 all out, Sunil Internationals. Of these, India won the Test series 2-0. Ambris 38 (95), Shai Hope 28 (42), Umesh Yadav India is leading the One Day Internationals 1-0. 12.1-3-45-4. The scores: India: Second Innings: 75 for no loss, Prithvi Shah 33 First Test: India won by an innings and 272 runs. (45), Lokesh Rahul 33 (53), Roston Chase 4-0-14-0. 09 India: First Innings: 649/9 declared, Virat Kohli 139 First One Day International: India won by 8 wickets. (230), Prithvi Shah 134 (154), Ravindra Jadeja 100 West Indies: 322/8, Shimron Hetmyer 106 (78), (132) not out, Devendra Bishoo 54-3-217-4. Kieran Powell 51 (39), Yuzvendra Chahal 10-0-41-3. West Indies: First Innings: 181 all out, Roston Chase India: 326/2 in 42.1 overs, Rohit Sharma 152 (117) 53 (79), Keemo Paul 47 (49), Ravichandran Ashwin not out, Virat Kohli 140 (107), Devendra Bishoo 11-2-37-4. 10-0-72-1.

New Zealand Women Tour of Australia 2018 women team toured Australia between Australia: 149/4 in 18.5 overs, Alyssa Healy 57 (41), 29 September 2018 and 5 October 2018. The two Elyse Villani 50 (39) not out, Sophie Devine 4-1-26-1. teams engaged in 3 Twenty20 Internationals. Third Twenty20 International: Australia won by 9 Australia won the series 3-0. The scores: wickets. First Twenty20 International: Australia won by 6 New Zealand: 103 all out in 19 overs, Katey Martin 35 wickets. (34) not out, Amy Satterthwaite 14 (17), Ellyse Perry New Zealand: 162/5, Katey Martin 56 (34) not out, 4-0-21-4. Sophie Devine 43 (33) Ashleigh Gardner 3-0-22-2. Australia: 105/1 in 12.3 overs, Alyssa Healy 67 (44), Australia: 164/4 in 17.4 overs, Rachael Haynes 69 Beth Mooney 29 (28) not out, Sophie Devine 3-0-14-1. (40) not out, Meg Lanning 56 (44), not out, Sophie Devine 4-0-31-2. Second Twenty20 International: Australia won by 6 wickets. New Zealand: 145/8, Suzie Bates 77 (52), Amy Satterthwaite 27 (19), Megan Schutt 4-0-15-3. Sports – International

Zimbabwe Tour of 2018 Zimbabwe toured South Africa between 30 September 2018 and 14 October 2018. Both countries engaged in 3 One Day Internationals and 3 Twenty20 Internationals. South Africa won the One Day Internationals 3-0 and the Twenty20 Internationals 2-0. The last Twenty20 International was abandoned without a ball being bowled. The scores from the second One Day International onwards that were played in October are: South Africa won the ODI 3-0 and the Twenty20 Internationals 2-0. Second One Day International: South Africa won by 120 runs. South Africa: 198 all out in 47.3 overs, Dale Steyn 60 First Twenty20 International: South Africa won by (85), Aiden Markram 35 (49), Tendai Chatara 34 runs. 9-1-42-3. South Africa: 160/6, Rassie van der Dussen 56 (44), Zimbabwe: 78 all out in 24 overs, Hamilton David Miller 39 (34), Kyle Jarvis 4-0-37-3. Masakadza 27 (40), Donald Tripano 12 (16) not out, Zimbabwe: 126 all out in 17.2 overs, Peter Moor 44 Imran Tahir 6-1-24-6. (21), Brandon Mavuta 28 (14), Imran Tahir 4-0-23-5. Third One Day International: South Africa won by Second Twenty20 International: South Africa won 4 wickets. by 6 wickets. 10 Zimbabwe: 228 all out in 49.3 overs, Sean Williams Zimbabwe: 132/7, Sean Williams 41 (28), Brendan 69 (79), Brendan Taylor 40 (44), Dale Steyn Taylor 29 (35), Robbie Frylinck 4-0-20-2. 9.3-1-29-3. South Africa: 135/4 in 15.4 overs, Jean-Paul Duminy South Africa: Reeza Hendricks 66 (82), Heinrich 33 (26) not out, Quinton de Kock 26 (23), Sean Klaasen 59 (67), Donald Tiripano 9-0-35-2. Williams 3-0-25-2.

South Africa Women Tour of West Indies 2018

The South African Women team toured West Indies The scores: between 16 September 2018 and 6 October 2018. Fourth Twenty20 International: South Africa women The two teams engaged in 3 One Day Internationals, won by 8 wickets. and 5 Twenty20 Internationals. The One Day International series was a draw resulting in 1-1, with West Indies: 135/3, Natasha McLean 57 (61) not out, the second match abandoned due to rain and Deandra Dottin 28 (15), Tumi Sekhukhune 4-0-27-2. concluding in No Result. The Twenty20 International South Africa: 136/2 in 18.4 overs, Lizelle Lee 54 (38), series was a draw resulting in 2-2, with the third match Laura Wolvaardt 54 (57) not out, Afy Fletcher 4-0-12-1. being abandoned without even a Fifth Twenty20 International: South Africa women toss due to rain. won by 3 wickets. T h e l a s t t w o West Indies: 155/5, Hayley Matthews 70 (52), T w e n t y 2 0 Shemaine Campbelle 28 (17), Saarah Smith 2-0-24-2. I n t e r n a t i o n a l s South Africa: 156/7, Lizelle Lee 42 (24), Chloe Tryon were played in 31 (22), Shamilia Connell 3.5-0-20-2. October 2018. Sports – International

Australia Women and Pakistan Women Tour of Malaysia 2018

reduced to 41 overs per side due to rain and the target set at 92. Pakistan: 95 all out in 37.2 overs, Javeria Khan 21 (27), Sana Mir 21 (60) not out, Megan Schutt 7.2-4-17-3. Australia: 95/5 in 22.2 overs, Alyssa Healy 26 (26), Rachael Haynes 24 (34), Sana Mir 7-0-26-3. Second One Day International: Australia won by 150 runs. Australia: 273/7, Meg Lanning 124 (106), Rachael Australia won the One Day International series 3-0 Haynes 79 (82), Nashra Sandhu 10-1-54-3. Australia women and Pakistan women are touring Pakistan: 123 all out in 40.1 overs, Nahida Khan 66 Malaysia between 18 October 2018 and 29 October (114), Sophie Molineux 9-2-14-4. 2018. The two teams will engage in 3 One Day Third One Day International: Australia won by Internationals and 3 Twenty20 Internationals. 89 runs. Australia won the One Day International series 3-0. Australia: 324/7, Alyssa Healy 97 (75), Ashleigh The scores: Gardner 62 (37) not out, Sana Mir 10-2-53-3. First One Day International: Australia won by 5 Pakistan: 235/7, Aliya Riaz 51 (69), 41 11 wickets by Duckworth-Lewis Method. The match was (74), Ashleigh Gardner 10-1-44-3. Japanese Grand Prix 2018

for 20 years and gained a reputation as one of the most challenging F1 circuits. In 1994 and 1995, Japan also hosted the Pacific Grand Prix at the T1 Circuit, making Japan one of only seven countries to host more than one Grand Prix in the same season, the others being Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, and the United States of America. In The Japanese Grand Prix 2018 is a race in the 2007, the Grand Prix moved back to the newly calendar of the FIA Formula One World redesigned Fuji Speedway. After a second race at Fuji Championship. Historically, Japan has been one of in 2008, the race returned to Suzuka in 2009, as part the last races of the season, and as such, the of an alternating agreement between the owners of Japanese Grand Prix has been the venue for many Fuji Speedway and Suzuka Circuit, perennial rivals title-deciding races, with 13 World Champions being Toyota and Honda. However, in July 2009, Toyota crowned over the 30 World Championship Japanese announced it would not host the race at Fuji Grands Prix that have been hosted. Japan was the Speedway in 2010 and beyond due to a downturn in only Asian nation to host a Formula One race until the global economy, and so the Japanese Grand Prix Malaysia joined the calendar in 1999. was held at Suzuka instead. Suzuka has hosted the The first two Formula One Japanese Grands Prix in Japanese Grand Prix every year since 2009. 1976 and 1977 were held at the Fuji Speedway before Lewis Hamilton of Mercedes held the pole position Japan was taken off the calendar. It returned in 1987 and won the race. He was followed by Valtteri Bottas at Suzuka, which hosted the Grand Prix exclusively of Mercedes, followed by Max Verstappen. Current Affairs - National AICTE to Establish Country’s First Training and Learning Academy

All India Council for training will be mandatory for new teachers from 2019 Technical Education onwards, and it will be necessary for existing teachers (AICTE) will establish and assistant teachers to apply for promotions. The I n d i a ’ s f i r s t A I C T E respective State Governments have provided Training and Learning infrastructure and land for the setting-up of these Academy (ATAL) in Jaipur, academies. Rajasthan. This academy will AICTE is a statutory body established in November provide upgraded teaching methods and 1945. It comes under the aegis of the Department of modules to make technical education more effective Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resources and accountable. Development. It is a national-level council for Three more ATAL academies will come up at technical education and is responsible for planning Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala), Guwahati (Assam), and coordination of technical education, and and Baroda (Gujarat) by 2019. Faculties of technical management of the education system in India. It education will be trained on an eight-module course accredits graduate and post-graduate programmes in these academies over a period of five months. The at Indian institutions. It is headquartered in New Delhi.

Sikkim world's First Organic State 17 Sikkim was awarded the UN Food and Agriculture farmlands in the state are certified organic. Sikkim’s Organisation’s (FAO) Future Policy Gold Award (Gold policy approach reaches beyond organic production Prize) for its achievement in becoming the world’s and has proven transformational for its citizens. It first totally organic agriculture state. Sikkim was one primarily focusses on socio-economic aspects such among 51 nominees from around the world. Policies as consumption and market expansion, cultural from Brazil, Denmark, and Quito (Ecuador) were aspects as well as health, education, rural jointly awarded Silver Prize. development, and sustainable tourism. The prize honours exceptional policies adopted by The policy implemented by the state has phased out political leaders who have decided to act, no longer chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and achieved total accepting widespread hunger, poverty, or ban on sale and use of chemical pesticides within the environmental degradation. This award is nicknamed state. The transition has benefitted more than 66,000 the “Oscar for best policies”. Previously, it was farming families in the state. awarded for policies combating desertification, Transition to 100 percent organic state also greatly violence against women and girls, nuclear weapons, benefits the tourism sector and the of tourists and pollution of the oceans. This year’s award was have increased by based on the central theme of agro-ecology policies over 50 percent and was co-organised by FAO, World Future Council between 2014 and (WFC), and IFOAM – Organics International. Agro- 2 0 1 7 . W i t h t h i s ecology has potential to increase farmers’ earnings Sikkim has set an and make farms more resilient to climate change as excellent example for erratic rainfall and extended dry periods hamper food other Indian states to production. successfully upscale Sikkim is the first organic State in the world and all agro-ecology. Cambodia

Cambodia is a Southeast Asia nation whose landscape spans low-lying plains, the Mekong Delta, mountains and Gulf of Thailand coastline. Phnom 18 Penh, its capital, is home to the art deco Central Market, glittering Royal Palace, and the National Museum's historical and archaeological exhibits. In the country's northwest are the ruins of Angkor Wat, a massive stone temple complex built during the Khmer Empire. Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indo- China peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is 1,81,035

Central Market in Phnom Penh

Norodom Sihamoni, King of Cambodia square kilometres in area, bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the northeast, Vietnam to the east, and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. The sovereign state of Cambodia has a population of over 15 million. The official religion is Theravada Buddhism, practised by approximately 95 percent of the population. The country's minority groups include Vietnamese, Chinese, Chams, and 30 hill tribes. The capital and largest city is Phnom Penh, the political, economic, and cultural centre of Cambodia. The kingdom is an elective constitutional monarchy with a monarch, currently Norodom Sihamoni, chosen by the Royal Throne Council as head of state. The head of government is the Prime Minister, currently Hun Sen, the longest serving non-royal leader in Southeast Asia, ruling Cambodia since 1985. In 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name “Kambuja”. This marked the beginning of the Khmer Empire, which flourished for over 600 years, allowing successive kings to control and exert influence over much of Southeast Asia and accumulate immense power and wealth. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism, and then, Buddhism to much of Southeast Asia and undertook many religious infrastructural projects throughout the region, including the construction of more than 1,000 temples and monuments in Angkor alone. Angkor Wat is the most famous of these structures and is designated as a World Heritage Site. After the fall of Angkor to Ayutthaya in the 15th century, a reduced and weakened Cambodia was then ruled as a vassal state by its neighbours. In 1863, Cambodia became a protectorate of France, which doubled the size of the country by reclaiming the north and west from 19 Thailand. Cambodia gained independence in 1953. The Vietnam War extended into the country with the US bombing of Cambodia from 1969 until 1973. Following the Cambodian coup of 1970, which installed the right-wing pro-US Khmer Republic, the deposed king gave his support to his former enemies, the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge emerged as a major power, taking Phnom Penh in 1975 and later, carrying out the Cambodian genocide from 1975 until 1979, when they were ousted by Vietnam and the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of Kampuchea, supported by the Soviet Cambodia Sculptures Royal Palace as seen from acros Tonle Sap River Cardamom Mountains rain forests Union in the Cambodian-Vietnamese War (1979 – 91). to increased foreign investment and international Following the 1991 Paris Peace Accords, Cambodia trade. The American World Justice Project's 2015 was governed briefly by a United Nations Mission Rule of Law Index ranked Cambodia 76 out of 102 20 (1992 – 93). The UN withdrew after holding elections countries, similar to other countries in the region. in which around 90 percent of the registered voters Country: Kingdom of Cambodia cast ballots. The 1997 factional fighting resulted in the Capital and largest city: Phnom Penh ousting of the government by Prime Minister Hun Sen, and the Cambodian People's Party, who remain Motto: Nation, Religion, King in power as of 2018. Anthem: Majestic King Cambodia is a member of the United Nations since Official Language: Khmer 1955, ASEAN, the East Asia Summit, the WTO, the Government: Unitary dominant-party Non-Aligned Movement, and La Francophonie. parliamentary elective According to several foreign organisations, the constitutional monarchy country has widespread poverty, pervasive King: Norodom Sihamoni corruption, lack of political freedom, low human Prime Minister: Hun Sen development, and a high rate of hunger. Cambodia President of the Senate: Say Chhum has been described by Human Rights Watch's Legislature: Parliament Southeast Asian Director, David Roberts, as a Population 2008 Census: 1,33,95,682 “vaguely communist free-market state with a Currency: Riel (KHR) relatively authoritarian coalition ruling over a superficial democracy”. While per capita income Cambodia has an area of 1,81,035 square kilometres remains low compared to most neighbouring and lies entirely within the tropics, between latitudes countries, Cambodia has one of the fastest growing 10 degrees and 15 degrees North, and longitutes 102 economies in Asia, with growth averaging 7.6 percent degrees and 108 degrees East. It borders Thailand to over the last decade. Agriculture remains the the north and west, Laos to the northeast, and dominant economic sector, with strong growth in Vietnam to the east and the southeast. It has a 443- textiles, construction, garments, and tourism leading kilometre coastline along the Gulf of Thailand. Cambodia's landscape is characterised by a low- lying central plain that is surrounded by uplands and low mountains and includes the Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and the upper reaches of the Mekong River delta. Extending outward from this central region are transitional plains, thinly forested and rising to elevations of about 650 feet above sea level.

To the north, the Cambodian plain abuts a sandstone escarpment, which forms a southward-facing cliff stretching more than 200 miles from west to east and rising abruptly above the plain to heights of 600 to 1,800 feet. This cliff marks the southern limit of the Dangrek Mountains.

Flowing south through the country's eastern regions is the Mekong River. East of the Mekong, the transitional plains gradually merge with the eastern highlands, a region of forested mountains and high plateaus that extend into Laos and Vietnam. In southwestern Cambodia, two distinct upland blocks, the Kravanh Mountains and the Damrei Mountains, form another highland region that covers much of the land area between the Tonle Sap and the Gulf of 21 Mekong Delta river Thailand. of this biodiversity is contained around the Tonle Sap In this remote and largely uninhabited area, Phnom Lake and the surrounding biosphere. Aural, Cambodia's highest peak rises to an elevation of 5,949 feet. The southern coastal region adjoining The Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve is a reserve the Gulf of Thailand is a narrow lowland strip, heavily surrounding the Tonle Sap Lake. It encompasses the wooded and sparsely populated, which is isolated lake and nine provinces: Kampong Thom, Siem from the central plain by the southwestern highlands. Reap, Battambang, Pursat, Kampong Chhnang, Banteay Meanchey, Pailin, Oddar Meanchey, and The most distinctive geographical feature is the Preah Vihear. In 1997, it was successfully nominated inundations of the Tonle Sap, measuring about 2,590 as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Other key habitats square kilometres during the dry season and include the dry forest of Mondolkiri and Ratanakiri expanding to about 24,605 square kilometres during provinces and the Cardamom Mountains ecosystem, the rainy season. This densely populated plain, which including Bokor National Park, Botum-Sakor National is devoted to wet rice cultivation, is the heartland of Park, and the Phnom Aural and Phnom Samkos Cambodia. Much of this area has been designated as wildlife sanctuaries. a biosphere reserve. The Worldwide Fund for Nature recognises six Cambodia's biodiversity is largely founded on its distinct terrestrial ecoregions in Cambodia – the seasonal tropical forests, containing some 180 Cardamom Mountains rain forests, Central Indochina recorded tree species, and riparian ecosystems. dry forest, Southeast Indochina dry evergreen forest, There are 212 mammal species, 536 bird species, Southern Annamite Range tropical forest, Tonle Sap 240 reptile species, 850 freshwater fish species, and freshwater swamp forest, and Tonle Sap-Mekong 435 marine fish species recorded by science. Much peat swamp forest. Special Coverage

Nobel Prizes

The Nobel Foundation, a private institution groundbreaking inventions in the field established in 1900, has of laser physics" with one half to Arthur responsibility for fulfilling the intentions in Ashkin "for the optical tweezers and Alfred Nobel's will. The main mission of their application to biological the Nobel Foundation is to manage systems" and the other half jointly Alfred Nobel's fortune in a manner that to Gerard Mourou and Donna ensures a secure financial standing for Strickland "for their method of the Nobel Prize over the long term and generating high-intensity, ultra-soft that the prize-awarding institutions are optical pulses". guaranteed independence in their Their inventions have revolutionised laser work of selecting recipients. physics. Extremely small objects and The Foundation is also incredibly rapid processes are tasked with strengthening now being seen in a new light. the Nobel Prize's position by A d v a n c e d p r e c i s i o n administering and developing instruments are opening up the brands and intangible assets unexplored areas of research and a that have been built up during the multitude of industrial and medical Nobel Prize's history, which spans more Alfred Nobel's applications. 22 than 100 years. Nobel Prize in Chemistry The Nobel Foundation also strives to safeguard the The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2018 was awarded with prize-awarding institutions' common interests and to one half to Frances H. Arnold "for the directed represent the Nobel organisation as a whole. In the evolution of enzymes" and the other half jointly to past two decades, a number of outreach activities George P. Smith and Sir Gregory P. Winter "for the have been developed with the aim of inspiring and phage display of peptides and antibodies". disseminating knowledge about the Nobel Prize. This year's Nobel Laureates have been inspired by In the year 2018, 12 new laureates have been the power of evolution and used the same principles – awarded for achievements that have conferred the genetic change and selection – to develop proteins greatest benefit to humankind. that solve humankind's chemical problems. Nobel Prize in Physics Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018 was awarded "for The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2018 was

Arthur Ashkin Gerard Mourou Frances H. Arnold George P. Smith James P. Allison Nadia Murad and Denis Mukwege focusing attention on, and The Nobel Prize in Economic combating, war crimes. Denis Sciences 2018 has been awarded Mukwege is the helper who has to William D. Nordhaus "for devoted his life to defending these integrating climate change into victims. Nadia Murad is the l o n g - r u n m a c r o e c o n o m i c witness who tells of the abuses analysis" and Paul M. Romer "for perpetrated against herself and i n t e g r a t i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l others. Each of them, in their own innovations into long-run 23 way, has helped to give greater macroeconomic analysis". Their visibility to war-time sexual findings have significantly Tasuku Honjo violence, so that the perpetrators b r o a d e n e d t h e s c o p e o f can be held accountable for their e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s b y awarded to James P. Allison and actions. constructing models that explain Tasuku Honjo "for their discovery how the market economy of cancer therapy by inhibition of Nobel Prize in Economic interacts with nature and negative immune regulation". The Sciences knowledge. Laureates have shown how different strategies for inhibiting This year's Laureates have the brakes on the immune system designed methods for addressing can be used in the treatment of some of our time's most basic and cancer. Their discoveries are a pressing questions about how we landmark in our fight against create long-term sustained and cancer. sustainable economic growth. Their contributions provide us with Nobel Peace Prize fundamental insights into the The Nobel Peace Prize 2018 has causes and consequences of been awarded jointly to Denis technological innovation and Mukwege and Nadia Murad for climate change. courageously combating war crimes and seeking justice for The 2018 Nobel Prize in Literature victims. Both Laureates have has been postponed, and not made a crucial contribution to announced yet. William D. Nordhaus 24

Rugby Union, commonly known in most parts of the Rugby, previously called the International Rugby world as rugby, is a contact team which Board and the International Rugby Board originated in England in the first half of the 19th has been the governing body for since century. One of the two codes of , it is 1886, and currently has 101 countries as full based on running with the ball in hand. In its most members and 18 associate members. common form, a game is between two teams of 15 In 1845, the first football laws were written by Rugby players using an oval-shaped ball on a rectangular school pupils; other significant events in the early field with H-shaped goalposts on each line. development of rugby include the Blackheath Club's Rugby union is a popular sport around the world, decision to leave the in 1863 and played by male and female players of all ages. World the split between rugby union and in 1895. Historically, an amateur sport, in 1995 restrictions on payments to players were removed, making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time. Rugby union spread from the of Great Britain and Ireland, and was absorbed by many of the countries associated with . Early exponents of the sport included Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and France. Countries that have adopted rugby union as their de facto include Fiji, Georgia, Madagascar, New Zealand, Samoa, and Tonga. International matches have taken place since 1871, when the first game took place between and England at in . The , first held in 1987, takes place every four years. The Six resulted in the formation of the have been played throughout Nations Championship in Europe separate code of rugby league, Europe and beyond. Many of and in that the name “rugby union” was these involved handling of the the southern hemisphere are used to differentiate the original ball, and scrimmaging formations. o t h e r m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l rugby code. For most of its history, For example, New Zealand had Ki- competitions, held annually. rugby was a strictly amateur o-rahi, Australia , football code, and the sport's Japan , Georgia lelo burti, The follows a d m i n i s t r a t o r s f r e q u e n t l y the Jeddart Ba' from various football games imposed bans and restrictions on and Cornwall Cornish , played long before the 19th players who they viewed as Central Italy Calcio Florentino, century, but it was not until the professional. It was not until 1995 South Wales , East Anglia middle of that century that the that rugby union was declared an Campball and Ireland had , an rules were formulated and “ o p e n ” g a m e , a n d t h u s , ancestor of . codified. The code of football, later professionalism was sanctioned known as rugby union, can be The first detailed description of by the code's governing body, traced to three events: the first set what was almost certainly football – then known as the of written rules in 1845; the in England was given by William International Rugby Football 25 Blackheath Club's decision to FitzStephen in about 1174 – 1183. Board. leave in He described the activities of 1863; and the formation of the Although rugby football was youths during the annual in 1871. The codified at Rugby School, many festival of : code was originally known simply rugby playing countries had pre- “After lunch, all the youth of the city as “rugby football”. It was not until existing football games not go out into the fields to take part in a schism in 1895, over the dissimilar to rugby. Forms of a ball game. The students of each payment of players, which traditional football similar to rugby school have their own ball; the workers from each city craft are also carrying their balls. Older citizens, fathers, and wealthy citizens come on horseback to watch their junior competing, and to relive their own youth vicariously: you can see their inner passions aroused as they watch the action and get caught up in the fun being had by the carefree adolescents.” Numerous attempts were made to ban football games, particularly the most disruptive forms. This was especially the case in to be used in the city in the future.” In 1531, Sir Thomas Elyot wrote that English “Footeballe is nothinge but beastlie furie and extreme violence.” Football games that included ball carrying continued to be played over the century, right up to the time of ' alleged invention. One form, recorded as early as 1440 and which persisted until the 19th century, was an East Anglican game called variously Camping, Campan, Camp-ball, and Campyon which was explicitly based on carrying the ball and Sir Thomas Elyot tossing it from player to player in England, and in other parts of order to continue the advance. Europe, during the Middle Ages According to an observer writing and early modern period. in 1823 (ironically the year of Between 1324 and 1667, in rugby's “invention”). William Webb Ellis 26 England alone, football was “Each party has two goals, ten or banned by more than 30 royal and fifteen yards apart. The parties, ten if caught with the ball in local laws. The need to repeatedly or fifteen on a side, stand in line, possession he loses a snotch, he proclaim such laws demonstrated facing each other at about ten throws the ball (he must in no case the difficulty in enforcing bans on yards' distance midway between give it) to some less beleaguered popular games. King Edward II their goals and that of their friend more free and more in was so troubled by the unruliness adversaries. An indifferent breath than himself, who if it be not of that, on 13 spectator throws up a ball the size arrested in its course or be jostled A p r i l 1 3 1 4 , h e i s s u e d a of a cricket ball midway between away by the eager and watchful proclamation banning it. the confronted players and makes adversaries, catches it; and he in “Forasmuch as there is great his escape. The rush is to catch like manner hastens homeward, in noise in the city caused by the falling ball. He who first can like manner pursued, annoyed hustling over large balls from catch or seize it speeds home, and aided, winning the notch or which many evils may arise which making his way through his snotch if he contrive to carry or God forbid; we command and opponents and aided by his own throw it within the goals. At a loss forbid, on behalf of the King, on sidesmen. If caught and held or a n d g a i n o f a s n o t c h a pain of imprisonment, such game rather in danger of being held, for recommencement takes place.”

Dogs are capable of An estimated one understanding up to million dogs in the 250 words and United States have gestures. The average been named primary dog is as intelligent Goats have beneficiaries in their as a two-year-old child. rectangular owner’s wills. pupils. French is a Romance Language of the Indo- Fribourg, Geneva, Jura, Neuchatel, Vaud, Valais), European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin Monaco, parts of the United States (Louisiana, Maine, of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages. New Hampshire, and Vermont), and by various French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken communities elsewhere. French is the fourth most Latin in Gaul, and more specifically, in Northern Gaul. widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union. Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, Its closest relatives are the other languages approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as a historically spoken in northern France and in second language. French is the second most taught southern Belgium, which French has largely foreign language in the European Union. French is also the 18th most natively spoken language in the world, and is the second most studied language 27 worldwide. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Most second-language speakers reside in Francophone supplanted. French was also influenced by native Africa, in particular, Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Senegal, and Ivory Coast. Belgica and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of Northern Gaul the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to France's past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, most notably Haitian Creole. A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is an official language in 29 countries across five different continents, most of which are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 84 countries which share the official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first language in France, Canadian provinces of , Ontario and New Brunswick as well as other Francophone regions, Belgium (Wallonia and Brussels), western Switzerland (cantons of Bern, French has a long history as an international oui “yes”, aveugle language of literature and scientific standards, and is “blind”, and so on. a primary or secondary language of many I n F r e n c h a n d international organisations including the United a d j o i n i n g f o l k Nations, the European Union, the North Atlantic dialects and closely Treaty Organisation, the World Trade Organisation, related languages, the International Olympic Committee, and the some 200 words of International Committee of the Red Cross. Gaulish origin have The discussion of the history of a language is typically been retained, most divided into “external history” that describes the of which pertain to ethnic, political, social, technological, and other folk life. Other Celtic changes that affected the language, and “internal words were not Julius Caesar history” that describes the phonological and borrowed directly, grammatical changes undergone by the language but brought in through Latin, some of which had itself. become commonplace in Latin, as for instance braies “knee-length pants”, chainse “tunic”, char “dray or Before the Roman conquest of, what is now, France wagon”, daim “roe deer”, etain “tin”, glaive “broad by Julius Caesar (58 – 52 BC), much of present sword”, manteaux “coat”, vassal “serf or knave”. France was inhabited by Celtic-speaking people Latin quickly took hold among the urban aristocracy referred to by the Romans as Gauls and Belgae. for mercantile, official, and educational reasons, but Southern France was also home to a number of other did not prevail in the countryside until some four or remnant linguistic and ethnic groups including five centuries later, since Latin was of little or no social 28 Iberians along the eastern part of the Pyrenees and value to the landed gentry and peasantry. The western Mediterranean coast, remnant Ligures on the eventual spread of Latin can be attributed to social eastern Mediterranean coast and in the alpine areas, factors in the Late Empire such as the movement from Greek colonials in places such as Marseille and urban-focused power to village-centered economies Antibes, and Vascones and Aquitani (proto-Basques) and legal serfdom. in much of the southwest. The Gaulish speaking population is held to have continued speaking From the 3rd century on, Western European was Gaulish even as considerable Romanisation of the invaded by Germanic tribes from the north and east, local material culture occurred, with Gaulish and Latin and some of these groups settled in Gaul. In the co-existing for centuries under Roman rule, and the history of the French language, the most important of last attestation of Gaulish deemed credible having these groups are the Franks in northern France, the been written in the second half of the 6th century Alemanni in the modern German / French border about the destruction of a pagan shrine in Auvergne. area, the Burgundians in the Rhone Valley, and the The Celtic population of Gaul had spoken Gaulish, Visigoths in the Aquitaine region and Spain. The which is moderately well attested, with what appears Frankish language had a profound influence on the to be wide dialectal variation including one distinctive Latin spoken in their respective regions, altering both variety, Lepontic. While the French language evolved the pronunciation, and the syntax. They also from Vulgar Latin, it was nonetheless influenced by introduced a number of new words. Sources Gaulish. Chief among these are sandhi phenomena, disagree on how much of the vocabulary of modern the loss of unstressed syllables, and the vowel French (excluding French dialects), comes from system. Syntactic oddities attributable to Gaulish Germanic words, ranging from just 500 words to 15% include the intensive prefix ro-, re-, emphatic of modern vocabulary to even higher if Germanic structures, prepositional periphrastic phrases to words coming from Latin and other Romance render verbal aspect, the semantic development of languages are taken into account. ANCIENTANCIENT EGEGYPTYPT CIVILISACIVILISATIONTION

The pharaohs of the Middle expressions of personal piety. Human HISTORY Kingdom restored the country's Middle Kingdom literature stability and prosperity, thereby featured sophisticated themes stimulating a resurgence of art, and characters written in a literature, and monumental confident, eloquent style. The building projects. Mentuhotep II relief and portrait sculpture of the and his Eleventh Dynasty period captured subtle, individual successors ruled from Thebes, details that reached new heights but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon of technical sophistication. assuming the kingship at the The last great ruler of the Middle beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty Kingdom, Amenemhet III, allowed around 1985 BC, shifted the Semitic-speaking Canaanite 29 nation's capital to the city of settlers from the Near East into the Itjtawy, located in Faiyum. From Delta region to provide a sufficient Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth labour force for his especially Dynasty undertook a far-sighted active mining and building land reclamation and irrigation campaigns. These ambitious scheme to increase agricultural building and mining activities, output in the region. Moreover, the however, combined with severe military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and Amenemhet III gold mines, while labourers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the “Walls-of-the- Ruler”, to defend against foreign attack. With the kings having secured the country, militarily and politically, and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes Mentuhotep II towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty, circa 1650 BC. In later texts, this dynasty is usually described as an era of chaos and disorder. However, the period may have been more peaceful than was once thought since the central government in Itjtawy near the Faiyum was sustained during most of the dynasty and the country remained relatively stable. The period was undoubtedly characterised by decline, with a large number of kings with short reigns and only a Kim Ryholt, a professor of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen few attestations. It is clear that they were not from a single family line, Nile floods later in his reign, of the Second Intermediate and some of them were born strained the economy and Period. Dynasty XIII lasted from commoners. Unfortunately, the precipitated the slow decline into approximately 1803 BC until true chronology of this dynasty is the Second Intermediate Period approximately 1649 BC, for 154 difficult to determine as there are during the later Thirteenth and years. few monuments dating from the 30 Fourteenth dynasties. During this The 13th dynasty was a direct period. Many of the kings' names decline, the Canaanite settlers continuation of the preceding 12th are only known from odd began to assume greater control dynasty, with its first ruler believed fragmentary inscriptions or from of the Delta region, eventually to be a son of Amenemhat IV. Kim scarabs. coming to power in Egypt as the Ryholt, a professor of Egyptology Thebes, Egypt Hyksos. at the University of Copenhagen The Second Intermediate Period and a specialist on Egyptian marks a period when Ancient history and literature, proposes Egypt fell into disarray for a that the demarcation between the second time, between the end of two dynasties reflects the rise of the Middle Kingdom and the start the independent 14th dynasty in of the New Kingdom. the Eastern Delta, an event which, he proposes, occurred during It is best known as the period Sobekneferu's reign. As direct when the Hyksos made their heirs to the kings of the 12th appearance in Egypt and whose dynasty, pharaohs of the 13th reign comprised the 15th dynasty. dynasty reigned from Memphis The Thirteenth Dynasty of ancient over Middle and Upper Egypt, all Egypt is often described with the way to the second cataract to Dynasties XI, XII, and XIV under the south. The power of the 13th the group title Middle Kingdom. dynasty waned progressively over Some writers separate it from its 150 years of existence and it these dyansties and join it to finally came to an end with the Dynasties XIV through XVII as part conquest of Memphis by the Towards the later half of the 13th came invaders from the east power, and that there was a dynasty, the old capital of Itjtawy called the Hyksos who seized significant overlap between the was abandoned in favour of Egypt “without striking a blow, and 13th and 15th dynasties since Thebes. This event was triggered having overpowered the rulers of Sobekhotep IV was only a mid- by the invasion of the Eastern the land, they then burned our 13th dynasty ruler; although one Delta and the Memphite region by cities ruthlessly, razed to the of its most powerful kings. Canaanite rulers. This marks the ground the temples of gods….” Therefore, Manetho's statement end of the Middle Kingdom and Their dynasty, called Dynasty XV, that the Hyksos 15th dynasty the beginning of the Second was claimed to have replaced violently replaced the 13th Intermediate Period. This analysis Dynasties XIII and XIV in most of dynasty could be a piece of later is rejected by Ryholt, however, the country. Egyptian propaganda. Rather, the who notes that the stele of 13th dynasty's authority must However, recent archaeological Seheqenre Sankhptahi, reigning have been collapsing throughout finds at Edfu could indicate that towards the end of the dynasty, Egypt in its final decades and the the Hyksos 15th dynasty was strongly suggests that he reigned Hyksos state in the Delta region already in existence at least by the over Memphis. Unfortunately, the simply took over Memphis and mid-13th dynasty reign of king stele is of unknown provenance. ended the 13th dynasty's Sobekhotep IV. In a recently The chronological position of a kingdom. However, this analysis published paper in Egypt and the number of attested rulers could and the conclusions drawn from it Levant, Nadine Moeller, Gregory not be conclusively determined are rejected by Egyptologist Marouard, and N. Ayers discuss due to a lack of evidence. Robert Porter, who argues that the discovery of an important early Khyan ruled much later than Ryholt posits a ruler named 12th dynasty Middle Kingdom Sobekhotep IV and that the seals 31 “ S o b e k h o t e p I S e k h e m r e administrative building in the of a pharaoh were used long after Khutawy” as the first king of this eastern Tell Edfu area of Upper his death. Thus, the seals of dynasty. This is now the dominant Egypt which was in continual use Sobekhotep IV might not indicate hypothesis in Egyptology and into the early Second Intermediate that he was a contemporary of Sobekhotep Sekhemre Khutawy Period until the 17th dynasty, Khyan. is referred to as Sobekhotep I. when its remains were sealed up Ryholt, thus, credits Sobekhotep I by a large silo court. Fieldwork by Merneferre Ay was the last with a reign of 3 to 4 years circa Egyptologists in 2010 and 2011 Egyptian ruler of the 13th Dynasty 1800 BC and proposes that into the remains of the former 12th who is attested by objects in both Khaankhre Sobekhotep II reigned dynasty building which was also L o w e r a n d U p p e r E g y p t . circa 20 years later in 1780 BC. used in the 13th dynasty led to the Henceforth, his successors, from After allowing discipline at the discovery of a large adjoining hall Merhotepre Ini on, are only southern forts to deteriorate, the which proved to contain 41 attested in Upper Egypt. government, eventually, withdrew sealings showing the cartouche of its garrisons and, not long the Hyksos ruler Khyan together afterward, the forts were with 9 sealings naming the 13th reoccupied by the rising Nubian dynasty king Sobekhotep IV. The In Great Britain and preserved contexts of these seals state of Kush. In the north, Lower Japan, Egypt was overrun by the Hyksos, shows that Sobekhotep IV and black cats are a Semitic people from across the K h y a n w e r e m o s t l i k e l y perceived as auspicious. Sinai. An independent line of kings contemporaries of one another. created Dynasty XIV that arose in This could mean that the 13th the western Delta during later dynasty did not control all of Egypt Dynasty XIII. Into this unstable mix when Sobekhotep IV acceded to THETHE UNIVERSEUNIVERSE

Black Hole High Energy Gamma

High-energy gamma-ray photons production of the Sun, to reach the the number of neutrinos produced 32 initially released with fusion s u r f a c e . B e c a u s e e n e r g y in the Sun were lower than reactions in the core are almost transport in the Sun is a process theories predicted by a factor of 3. immediately absorbed by the t h a t i n v o l v e s p h o t o n s i n This discrepancy was resolved in solar plasma of the radiative zone, thermodynamic equilibrium with 2001 through the discovery of the usually after travelling only a few matter, the time scale of energy effects of neutrino oscillation: the millimetres. Re-emission happens transport in the Sun is longer, on Sun emits the number of neutrinos in a random direction and usually the order of 3,00,00,000 years. predicted by the theory, but at a slightly lower energy. With this This is the time it would take the neutrino detectors were missing sequence of emissions and Sun to return to a stable state, if two-thirds of them because the absorptions, it takes a long time the rate of energy generation in its neutrinos had changed flavour by for radiation to reach the Sun's core were suddenly changed. the time they were detected. surface. Estimates of the photon Neutrinos are also released by the The Sun has a magnetic field that travel time range between 10,000 fusion reactions in the core, but, varies across the surface of the and 170,000 years. In contrast, it unlike photons, they rarely interact Sun. The magnetic field varies in takes only 2.3 seconds for the with matter, so almost all are able time and location. The quasi- neutrinos, which account for to escape the Sun immediately. periodic 11-year solar cycle is the about 2% of the total energy For many years, measurements of most prominent variation in which

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