The Encyclopedia of Nootropics

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Encyclopedia of Nootropics THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NOOTROPICS DISCLAIMER Information provided in this ebook is meant to assist you in understanding nootropics and how they work. The purpose of this publication is to help you choose the best solutions for enhancing your cognitive capacity, memory, concentration, without putting your health at risk. The Content is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. All the information is this ebook is based on our research and have done our best to provide accurate information however please note that unintentional errors are a possibility. Before starting a supplementation routine, it is highly recommended to speak to your healthcare professional. COPYRIGHT NOTICE You may share this book with others for free however you do not have the permission to sell it for financial gain nor to edit its contents. Visit our website: https://www.braintropic.com TABLE OF CONTENTS ACETYL-L-CARNITINE ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 ADRAFINIL ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9 ALPHA GPC ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 ANIRACETAM .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19 ASHWAGANDHA ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 25 BACOPA MONNIERI ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 CDP CHOLINE ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 40 CENTROPHENOXINE ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 46 COLURACETAM ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 51 FASORACETAM ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 GINKGO BILOBA ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 60 HUPERZINE A ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 66 L-THEANINE ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 71 L-TYROSINE ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 75 LION’S MANE MUSHROOM ....................................................................................................................................................................... 80 MODAFINIL ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 88 NOOPEPT .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 96 OXIRACETAM ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 102 PHENIBUT ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 109 PHENYLPIRACETAM ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 114 PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE ............................................................................................................................................................................... 118 PICAMILON ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 125 PIRACETAM .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 130 PRAMIRACETAM ............................................................................................................................................................................................137 PRL-8-53 ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 143 RHODIOLA ROSEA ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 148 SULBUTIAMINE .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 154 SUNIFIRAM ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 159 URIDINE ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 164 VINPOCETINE .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 171 ACETYL-L-CARNITINE Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR) is a true multi-purpose supplement that benefits both brain and body. A potent antioxidant and neuroprotectant known for its powerful nootropic properties, ALCAR also enhances energy and alleviates the effects of aging. It works best in combination with other cognitive enhancing supplements, and many consider it a key element in nootropic stacks. SUMMARY Acetyl-L-Carnitine, or ALCAR, is a form of the micronutrient L-carnitine, which is a derivative of the amino acid lysine. The body naturally produces L-carnitine, which can also be synthesized from animal proteins in the diet. While studies suggest that actual carnitine deficiency is relatively rare in healthy people with no metabolic disorders, supplementation has nonetheless proven to be of substantial benefit in many ways, from promoting heart health to enhancing brain function. ALCAR is one of several forms of L-carnitine supplements, all of which have been extensively studied and shown to offer major physical and mental benefits. ALCAR, which is L-carnitine to which an acetyl group (-COCH3) has been added, is thought to be the most bioavailable form of L-carnitine. Unlike other forms of L-carnitine, which help convert fat to energy in the body proper, ALCAR readily crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts within the brain itself. Its primary actions are related to brain function. ALCAR is effective in many respects when taken alone, but its nootropic properties are most pronounced when it is taken in combination with other nootropics. In many cases the combination of ALCAR with other nootropics is mutually potentiating, making all the compounds in the combination or stack work better and more efficiently than they would separately. Other forms of L-carnitine supplements include L-carnitine L-tartrate (LCLT), typically used to enhance physical performance, and glycine propionyl L-carnitine (GPLC), which is primarily used to alleviate blood flow issues. The only L-carnitine variant that has nootropic capabilities, ALCAR provides both L-carnitine and acetyl groups, which are molecule clusters that may be used in the formation of the “learning neurotransmitter,” acetylcholine. ALCAR is safe, extremely well-tolerated, affordable, and readily available without a prescription as a nutritional supplement. BENEFITS AND EFFECTS Research has proven that that ALCAR benefits both the brain and
Recommended publications
  • (12) Patent Application Publication (10) Pub. No.: US 2004/0224012 A1 Suvanprakorn Et Al
    US 2004O224012A1 (19) United States (12) Patent Application Publication (10) Pub. No.: US 2004/0224012 A1 Suvanprakorn et al. (43) Pub. Date: Nov. 11, 2004 (54) TOPICAL APPLICATION AND METHODS Related U.S. Application Data FOR ADMINISTRATION OF ACTIVE AGENTS USING LIPOSOME MACRO-BEADS (63) Continuation-in-part of application No. 10/264,205, filed on Oct. 3, 2002. (76) Inventors: Pichit Suvanprakorn, Bangkok (TH); (60) Provisional application No. 60/327,643, filed on Oct. Tanusin Ploysangam, Bangkok (TH); 5, 2001. Lerson Tanasugarn, Bangkok (TH); Suwalee Chandrkrachang, Bangkok Publication Classification (TH); Nardo Zaias, Miami Beach, FL (US) (51) Int. CI.7. A61K 9/127; A61K 9/14 (52) U.S. Cl. ............................................ 424/450; 424/489 Correspondence Address: (57) ABSTRACT Eric G. Masamori 6520 Ridgewood Drive A topical application and methods for administration of Castro Valley, CA 94.552 (US) active agents encapsulated within non-permeable macro beads to enable a wider range of delivery vehicles, to provide longer product shelf-life, to allow multiple active (21) Appl. No.: 10/864,149 agents within the composition, to allow the controlled use of the active agents, to provide protected and designable release features and to provide visual inspection for damage (22) Filed: Jun. 9, 2004 and inconsistency. US 2004/0224012 A1 Nov. 11, 2004 TOPCAL APPLICATION AND METHODS FOR 0006 Various limitations on the shelf-life and use of ADMINISTRATION OF ACTIVE AGENTS USING liposome compounds exist due to the relatively fragile LPOSOME MACRO-BEADS nature of liposomes. Major problems encountered during liposome drug Storage in vesicular Suspension are the chemi CROSS REFERENCE TO OTHER cal alterations of the lipoSome compounds, Such as phos APPLICATIONS pholipids, cholesterols, ceramides, leading to potentially toxic degradation of the products, leakage of the drug from 0001) This application claims the benefit of U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Neuroprotection in Alzheimer's Disease
    Chapter 8 Neuroprotection in Alzheimer’s Disease Introduction Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive degenerative disorder of the brain that begins with memory impairment and eventually progresses to dementia, physical impairment, and death. Patients develop various psychiatric and neurological signs during the course of the disease. The prevalence rates of dementia vary significantly in different countries, but range from 2.1 to 10.5%. AD is the most common type of dementia, accounting for 50–60% of all cases, and is described in detail in a special report on AD (Jain 2010). Several other types of dementias are considered in the differential diagnosis of AD and sometimes all the dementias are lumped together if the type is not known. Other well-known types of dementias are vascular dementia, dementia of aging, and dementia associated with HIV infection. The focus of this section is on AD and some other dementias will be described in Chap. 11. Pathomechanism of Alzheimer’s Disease Several factors that play a role in the etiology and pathogenesis of AD include the following: • Aging • Genetic risk factors • Amyloid precursor protein (APP) and beta-amyloid (Ab) accumulation with neural and vascular sequelae • Tau hyperphosphorylation • Membrane disturbances, phospholipid metabolism, and disruption of signal transduction • Inflammatory reactions and immunological disturbances • Environmental toxins: trace metals • Neurotransmitter defects and imbalances K.K. Jain, The Handbook of Neuroprotection, DOI 10.1007/978-1-61779-049-2_8, 337 © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 338 8 Neuroprotection in Alzheimer’s Disease • Neuroendocrine disturbances • Oxidative injury and free radicals • Disturbances in regulation and receptors of neurotrophic factors (NTFs) Such a large number of factors in the etiology of AD are responsible for the plethora of theories of cause of AD.
    [Show full text]
  • Chronic Exposure of Rats to Cognition Enhancing Drugs Produces a Neuroplastic Response Identical to That Obtained by Complex Environment Rearing
    Neuropsychopharmacology (2006) 31, 90–100 & 2006 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved 0893-133X/06 $30.00 www.neuropsychopharmacology.org Chronic Exposure of Rats to Cognition Enhancing Drugs Produces a Neuroplastic Response Identical to that Obtained by Complex Environment Rearing ,1 1 1 1 Keith J Murphy* , Andrew G Foley , Alan W O’Connell and Ciaran M Regan 1 Department of Pharmacology, Applied Neurotherapeutics Research Group, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland Recent data suggest that Alzheimer’s patients who discontinue treatment with cholinesterase inhibitors have a significantly delayed cognitive decline as compared to patients receiving placebo. Such observations suggest cholinesterase inhibitors to provide a disease- modifying effect as well as symptomatic relief and, moreover, that this benefit remains after drug withdrawal. Consistent with this suggestion, we now demonstrate that chronic administration of tacrine, nefiracetam, and deprenyl, drugs that augment cholinergic function, increases the basal frequency of dentate polysialylated neurons in a manner similar to the enhanced neuroplasticity achieved through complex environment rearing. While both drug-treated and complex environment reared animals continue to exhibit memory- associated activation of hippocampal polysialylated neurons, the magnitude is significantly reduced suggesting that such interventions induce a more robust memory pathway that can acquire and consolidate new information more efficiently. This hypothesis is
    [Show full text]
  • Can PDE Inhibition Improve Cognition? : Translational Insights
    Can PDE inhibition improve cognition? : Translational insights Citation for published version (APA): Reneerkens, O. A. H. (2013). Can PDE inhibition improve cognition? : Translational insights. Maastricht University. https://doi.org/10.26481/dis.20130418or Document status and date: Published: 01/01/2013 DOI: 10.26481/dis.20130418or Document Version: Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Please check the document version of this publication: • A submitted manuscript is the version of the article upon submission and before peer-review. There can be important differences between the submitted version and the official published version of record. People interested in the research are advised to contact the author for the final version of the publication, or visit the DOI to the publisher's website. • The final author version and the galley proof are versions of the publication after peer review. • The final published version features the final layout of the paper including the volume, issue and page numbers. Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal. If the publication is distributed under the terms of Article 25fa of the Dutch Copyright Act, indicated by the “Taverne” license above, please follow below link for the End User Agreement: www.umlib.nl/taverne-license Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us at: [email protected] providing details and we will investigate your claim.
    [Show full text]
  • A Systematic Review of Performance-Enhancing Pharmacologicals and Biotechnologies in the Army
    Bond University Research Repository A systematic review of performance-enhancing pharmacologicals and biotechnologies in the Army Ko, Henry ; Hunter, K E; Scott, A M; Ayson, Mark; Willson, M L Published in: Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps DOI: 10.1136/jramc-2016-000752 Licence: CC BY-NC Link to output in Bond University research repository. Recommended citation(APA): Ko, H., Hunter, K. E., Scott, A. M., Ayson, M., & Willson, M. L. (2018). A systematic review of performance- enhancing pharmacologicals and biotechnologies in the Army. Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 164(3). https://doi.org/10.1136/jramc-2016-000752 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. For more information, or if you believe that this document breaches copyright, please contact the Bond University research repository coordinator. Download date: 06 Oct 2021 ABSTRACT Introduction: In 2015, the Australian Army commissioned a systematic review to assess the evidence on effectiveness and safety of pharmacological and biotechnological products for cognitive enhancement specifically in Army personnel. Methods: Searches for studies examining biotechnological and pharmacological products in Army populations were conducted in December 2015. Cochrane CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and PsycINFO were searched; no date or language restrictions were applied. WHO’s International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and ClinicalTrials.gov were searched to identify ongoing trials. Studies meeting inclusion criteria were evaluated for risk of bias using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool.
    [Show full text]
  • Recent Molecular Enhancement Influenced by Natural Nootropic
    Hindawi Publishing Corporation Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2016, Article ID 4391375, 12 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/4391375 Review Article Establishing Natural Nootropics: Recent Molecular Enhancement Influenced by Natural Nootropic Noor Azuin Suliman,1 Che Norma Mat Taib,1 Mohamad Aris Mohd Moklas,1 Mohd Ilham Adenan,2 Mohamad Taufik Hidayat Baharuldin,1 and Rusliza Basir1 1 DepartmentofHumanAnatomy,FacultyofMedicineandHealthSciences,UniversitiPutraMalaysia,43400Serdang,Malaysia 2Atta-ur-Rahman Institute for Natural Product Discovery, Aras 9 Bangunan FF3, UiTM Puncak Alam, Bandar Baru Puncak Alam, 42300 Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Correspondence should be addressed to Che Norma Mat Taib; [email protected] Received 31 May 2016; Accepted 18 July 2016 Academic Editor: Manel Santafe Copyright © 2016 Noor Azuin Suliman et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Nootropics or smart drugs are well-known compounds or supplements that enhance the cognitive performance. They work by increasing the mental function such as memory, creativity, motivation, and attention. Recent researches were focused on establishing a new potential nootropic derived from synthetic and natural products. The influence of nootropic in the brain has been studied widely. The nootropic affects the brain performances through number of mechanisms or pathways, for example, dopaminergic pathway. Previous researches have reported the influence of nootropics on treating memory disorders, such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s diseases. Those disorders are observed to impair the same pathways of the nootropics.
    [Show full text]
  • Multidrug Treatment with Nelfinavir and Cepharanthine Against COVID-19
    Supplemental Information Multidrug treatment with nelfinavir and cepharanthine against COVID-19 Hirofumi Ohashi1,2,¶, Koichi Watashi1,2,3,4*, Wakana Saso1,5.6,¶, Kaho Shionoya1,2, Shoya Iwanami7, Takatsugu Hirokawa8,9,10, Tsuyoshi Shirai11, Shigehiko Kanaya12, Yusuke Ito7, Kwang Su Kim7, Kazane Nishioka1,2, Shuji Ando13, Keisuke Ejima14, Yoshiki Koizumi15, Tomohiro Tanaka16, Shin Aoki16,17, Kouji Kuramochi2, Tadaki Suzuki18, Katsumi Maenaka19, Tetsuro Matano5,6, Masamichi Muramatsu1, Masayuki Saijo13, Kazuyuki Aihara20, Shingo Iwami4,7,21,22,23, Makoto Takeda24, Jane A. McKeating25, Takaji Wakita1 1Department of Virology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan, 2Department of Applied Biological Science, Tokyo University of Science, Noda 278-8510, Japan, 3Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan, 4MIRAI, JST, Saitama 332-0012, Japan, 5The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan, 6AIDS Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan, 7Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan, 8Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tokyo 135-0064, Japan, 9Division of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8575, Japan, 10Transborder Medical Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8575, Japan, 11Faculty of Bioscience, Nagahama Institute
    [Show full text]
  • Pharmaceutical Appendix to the Tariff Schedule 2
    Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (2007) (Rev. 2) Annotated for Statistical Reporting Purposes PHARMACEUTICAL APPENDIX TO THE HARMONIZED TARIFF SCHEDULE Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (2007) (Rev. 2) Annotated for Statistical Reporting Purposes PHARMACEUTICAL APPENDIX TO THE TARIFF SCHEDULE 2 Table 1. This table enumerates products described by International Non-proprietary Names (INN) which shall be entered free of duty under general note 13 to the tariff schedule. The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) registry numbers also set forth in this table are included to assist in the identification of the products concerned. For purposes of the tariff schedule, any references to a product enumerated in this table includes such product by whatever name known. ABACAVIR 136470-78-5 ACIDUM LIDADRONICUM 63132-38-7 ABAFUNGIN 129639-79-8 ACIDUM SALCAPROZICUM 183990-46-7 ABAMECTIN 65195-55-3 ACIDUM SALCLOBUZICUM 387825-03-8 ABANOQUIL 90402-40-7 ACIFRAN 72420-38-3 ABAPERIDONUM 183849-43-6 ACIPIMOX 51037-30-0 ABARELIX 183552-38-7 ACITAZANOLAST 114607-46-4 ABATACEPTUM 332348-12-6 ACITEMATE 101197-99-3 ABCIXIMAB 143653-53-6 ACITRETIN 55079-83-9 ABECARNIL 111841-85-1 ACIVICIN 42228-92-2 ABETIMUSUM 167362-48-3 ACLANTATE 39633-62-0 ABIRATERONE 154229-19-3 ACLARUBICIN 57576-44-0 ABITESARTAN 137882-98-5 ACLATONIUM NAPADISILATE 55077-30-0 ABLUKAST 96566-25-5 ACODAZOLE 79152-85-5 ABRINEURINUM 178535-93-8 ACOLBIFENUM 182167-02-8 ABUNIDAZOLE 91017-58-2 ACONIAZIDE 13410-86-1 ACADESINE 2627-69-2 ACOTIAMIDUM 185106-16-5 ACAMPROSATE 77337-76-9
    [Show full text]
  • 2012 Harmonized Tariff Schedule Pharmaceuticals Appendix
    Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (2014) (Rev. 1) Annotated for Statistical Reporting Purposes PHARMACEUTICAL APPENDIX TO THE HARMONIZED TARIFF SCHEDULE Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States (2014) (Rev. 1) Annotated for Statistical Reporting Purposes PHARMACEUTICAL APPENDIX TO THE TARIFF SCHEDULE 2 Table 1. This table enumerates products described by International Non-proprietary Names (INN) which shall be entered free of duty under general note 13 to the tariff schedule. The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) registry numbers also set forth in this table are included to assist in the identification of the products concerned. For purposes of the tariff schedule, any references to a product enumerated in this table includes such product by whatever name known. ABACAVIR 136470-78-5 ACEVALTRATE 25161-41-5 ABAFUNGIN 129639-79-8 ACEXAMIC ACID 57-08-9 ABAGOVOMAB 792921-10-9 ACICLOVIR 59277-89-3 ABAMECTIN 65195-55-3 ACIFRAN 72420-38-3 ABANOQUIL 90402-40-7 ACIPIMOX 51037-30-0 ABAPERIDONE 183849-43-6 ACITAZANOLAST 114607-46-4 ABARELIX 183552-38-7 ACITEMATE 101197-99-3 ABATACEPT 332348-12-6 ACITRETIN 55079-83-9 ABCIXIMAB 143653-53-6 ACIVICIN 42228-92-2 ABECARNIL 111841-85-1 ACLANTATE 39633-62-0 ABETIMUS 167362-48-3 ACLARUBICIN 57576-44-0 ABIRATERONE 154229-19-3 ACLATONIUM NAPADISILATE 55077-30-0 ABITESARTAN 137882-98-5 ACLIDINIUM BROMIDE 320345-99-1 ABLUKAST 96566-25-5 ACODAZOLE 79152-85-5 ABRINEURIN 178535-93-8 ACOLBIFENE 182167-02-8 ABUNIDAZOLE 91017-58-2 ACONIAZIDE 13410-86-1 ACADESINE 2627-69-2 ACOTIAMIDE 185106-16-5
    [Show full text]
  • Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization
    No. 31874 Multilateral Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World Trade Organ ization (with final act, annexes and protocol). Concluded at Marrakesh on 15 April 1994 Authentic texts: English, French and Spanish. Registered by the Director-General of the World Trade Organization, acting on behalf of the Parties, on 1 June 1995. Multilat ral Accord de Marrakech instituant l©Organisation mondiale du commerce (avec acte final, annexes et protocole). Conclu Marrakech le 15 avril 1994 Textes authentiques : anglais, français et espagnol. Enregistré par le Directeur général de l'Organisation mondiale du com merce, agissant au nom des Parties, le 1er juin 1995. Vol. 1867, 1-31874 4_________United Nations — Treaty Series • Nations Unies — Recueil des Traités 1995 Table of contents Table des matières Indice [Volume 1867] FINAL ACT EMBODYING THE RESULTS OF THE URUGUAY ROUND OF MULTILATERAL TRADE NEGOTIATIONS ACTE FINAL REPRENANT LES RESULTATS DES NEGOCIATIONS COMMERCIALES MULTILATERALES DU CYCLE D©URUGUAY ACTA FINAL EN QUE SE INCORPOR N LOS RESULTADOS DE LA RONDA URUGUAY DE NEGOCIACIONES COMERCIALES MULTILATERALES SIGNATURES - SIGNATURES - FIRMAS MINISTERIAL DECISIONS, DECLARATIONS AND UNDERSTANDING DECISIONS, DECLARATIONS ET MEMORANDUM D©ACCORD MINISTERIELS DECISIONES, DECLARACIONES Y ENTEND MIENTO MINISTERIALES MARRAKESH AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION ACCORD DE MARRAKECH INSTITUANT L©ORGANISATION MONDIALE DU COMMERCE ACUERDO DE MARRAKECH POR EL QUE SE ESTABLECE LA ORGANIZACI N MUND1AL DEL COMERCIO ANNEX 1 ANNEXE 1 ANEXO 1 ANNEX
    [Show full text]
  • Design and Study of Piracetam-Like Nootropics, Controversial Members of the Problematic Class of Cognition-Enhancing Drugs
    Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2002, 8, 125-138 125 Design and Study of Piracetam-like Nootropics, Controversial Members of the Problematic Class of Cognition-Enhancing Drugs Fulvio Gualtieri°*, Dina Manetti°, Maria Novella Romanelli° and Carla Ghelardini^ °Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Universita' di Firenze, Via G. Capponi 9, I-50121 Firenze, Italy ^Dipartimento di Farmacologia Preclinica e Clinica, Universita' di Firenze, Viale Pieraccini 6, I-50139 Firenze, Italy Abstract- Cognition enhancers are drugs able to facilitate attentional abilities and acquisition, storage and retrieval of information, and to attenuate the impairment of cognitive functions associated with head traumas, stroke, age and age-related pathologies. Development of cognition enhancers is still a difficult task because of complexity of the brain functions, poor predictivity of animal tests and lengthy and expensive clinical trials. After the early serendipitous discovery of first generation cognition enhancers, current research is based on a variety of working hypotheses, derived from the progress of knowledge in the neurobiopathology of cognitive processes. Among other classes of drugs, piracetam-like cognition enhancers (nootropics) have never reached general acceptance, in spite of their excellent tolerability and safety. In the present review, after a general discussion of the problems connected with the design and development of cognition enhancers, the class is examined in more detail. Reasons for the problems encountered by nootropics, compounds therapeutically available and those in development, their structure activity relationships and mechanisms of action are discussed. Recent developments which hopefully will lead to a revival of the class are reviewed. INTRODUCTION [3]. An extremely complicated neuronal network in the brain regulates the complex mechanism of learning and memory.
    [Show full text]
  • Cognitive Enhancers
    Cognitive enhancers Memory enhancers are often referred to as "smart drugs", "study drugs",[1] "smart nutrients", "cognitive enhancers", "brain enhancers" or in the scientific literature as nootropics.[2] They are drugs that are purported to improve human cognitive abilities.[3][4] The term covers a broad range of substances including drugs, nutrients and herbs with purported cognitive enhancing effects. The word nootropic was coined in 1964 by Dr. Corneliu E. Giurgea, derived from the Greek words noos, or "mind," and tropein meaning "to bend/turn". Typically, nootropics are thought to work by altering the availability of the brain's supply of neurochemicals (neurotransmitters, enzymes, and hormones), by improving the brain's oxygen supply, or by stimulating nerve growth. However the efficacy of nootropic substances in most cases has not been conclusively determined. This is complicated by the difficulty of defining and quantifying cognition and intelligence. Contents 1 Availability 2 Examples 2.1 Stimulants 2.2 Replenishing and increasing neurotransmitters 2.2.1 Cholinergics 2.2.1.1 Piracetam 2.2.1.2 Aniracetam 2.2.1.3 Other cholinergics 2.2.1.4 Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors 2.2.2 Dopaminergics 2.2.3 Serotonergics 2.3 Anti-depression, adaptogenic (antistress), and mood stabilization 2.4 Brain function and improved oxygen supply 2.5 Purported memory enhancement and learning improvement 2.6 Nerve growth stimulation and brain cell protection 2.7 Recreational drugs with purported nootropic effects 2.8 Dietary nootropics 2.9 Other nootropics 2.9.1 Contentious or possibly unsafe nootropics 3 See also 3.1 Brain and neurology 3.2 Thought and thinking (what nootropics are used for) 3.3 Health 4 References 5 External links Availability Currently there are several drugs on the market that improve memory, concentration, planning and reduce impulsive behavior.
    [Show full text]